Chapter – 5

Stress Strain Temperature Relations

Tensile Test (Mechanical Properties)
Representative Tensile Test Setup
(Load Vs Elongation)
Tensile Test Specimen as per ASTM/IS/SAE

Circular
Cross Section

Rectangular
Cross Section
 Elongation/Deformation Measuring Techniques

Extensometer Strain Gauge 2D/3D Digital Image Correlation (DIC)

Ductile Tensile Specimen undergone Tensile Test
Original Specimen
A0
Gauge Length L0 & C/s Area A0
L0

Specimen at failure
Gauge Length L
L

Specimen at failure
A C/s Area A
Conventional Stress – Strain Curve
Engineering (Conventional) Stress– Strain Curve
𝑃
𝜎
Engg Stress

𝐴0
𝑃 ∆𝐿
𝜎= 𝜀= 𝐿0
𝐴0 𝐿0

𝜀
Engg Strain
Engineering (Conventional) Stress– Strain Curve
 Elastic Region
 Proportional Limit:
Stress is proportional to
strain. Curve is straight line.
Beyond this limit, curve
tends to bend and flatten.
 Elastic Limit:
Within this limit, specimen
will return back to original
shape if the load is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐸) removed.
 Y
Yielding (Y)
 Slight increase in stress
above the elastic limit
will cause it to deform
permanently, called
yielding (Limit of elastic behavior)
 Plastic Deformation:
The specimen will continue
to elongate (strain) without
increase in load (perfectly
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (Y) plastic).
 Strain Hardening
 Load required for further
deformation/elongation
(strain) is called strain
hardening
 While the specimen is
elongating the cross sectional
area will decrease uniformly
throughout the gauge length
till strain corresponding to
ultimate strain.
 Strain hardening is a process
to promote the metal harder
𝑆𝑢 = 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (U) and stronger due to plastic
deformation.
 Necking
 At the ultimate stress, the
c/s area begins to
decrease in a localized
region of the specimen
instead of over its entire
length.
 Neck gradually tends to
form in this region.
 The reduced c/s area can
sustain only decreasing
load and hence the curve
goes downward.
Failed Specimen
𝜎𝑡𝑟
True Stress – Strain Curve
∆𝐿
𝜀𝐸 =
𝐿0
𝑃
𝜎𝐸 =
𝐴0
𝜀𝑡r
 Ductility of Material
Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it ruptures is called as ductile material
Original Specimen
A0
L0
Gauge Length L0 & C/s Area A0
Specimen at Failure
Gauge Length L & C/s Area A
𝐿 − 𝐿0
%𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (100%)
𝐿0
L
𝐴 − 𝐴0
%𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (100%)
𝐴0
A In general, Mild steel (low carbon steel has
approximately 40% elongation and 60% area
reduction
Modulus of Elasticity or Elastic Modulus E GPa
Idealization of Stress – Strain Curves
 Idealization of Stress – Strain Curve
𝜎
Rigid Material

𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐸 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝜀
0
is one which has no strain regardless of the applied stress
 Idealization of Stress – Strain Curve
𝜎
Soft Material

𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐸 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝜀
0
is one which has no stress regardless of the applied strain
 Idealization of Stress – Strain Curve
𝜎
Perfectly Plastic Material

𝑁𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦

𝜀
0
is one in which strength is not function of strain
(Non-strain hardening)
 Idealization of Stress – Strain Curve
𝜎
Linearly Elastic Material 100% 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦

𝜀
0
is one in which stress is proportional to strain
 Idealization of Stress – Strain Curve
𝜎 Non-Linear Elastic Material

100% 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦

𝜀
0
is one in which stress is not proportional to strain
 Idealization of Stress – Strain Curve
𝜎 Elastic-Plastic Material

𝜀
0
is one in which linear elastic and bilinear/non-linear plastic
behavior is observed
Typical stress- strain diagram for an aluminum alloy
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Material Vs Brittle Material

Ductile Material

Brittle Material

 Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled before breaking.
 In brittle materials the ultimate tensile strength is close to the yield point,
whereas in ductile materials the ultimate tensile strength can be higher.
 Stress Strain Curves for various Carbon Steel

Low Carbon Steel (0.008% to 0.3% C) | Low Carbon Steel (0.3% to 0.6% C) | Low Carbon Steel (0.6% to 2.0% C)
 Stress Strain Curve
Loading & Unloading within Elastic Limit (E)

Elastic behaviour
 Stress Strain Curve
Loading & Unloading beyond Elastic Limit (E)

Partially elastic behaviour

 Stress Strain Curve
Loading, Unloading and Reloading beyond Elastic Limit (E)

Reloading of a
material and raising
of the yield stress
Model Example-1:
Two Coaxial tubes, the inner one of 1020 CR steel and cross sectional area As,
and the outer one of 2024-T4 aluminum alloy and of area Aa are compressed
between heavy , flat end plates as shown in figure.
We wish to determine the load-deflection curve of the assembly as it is
compressed into the plastic region by an axial force P. The idealized stress strain
curves are shown for both the tube materials in the second figure.
P

Steel, As
Aluminum, Aa
Model Example-1:

As
Aa
Model Example-1:
𝛿𝑠 = 𝛿𝑎 = 𝛿
P

Steel, As
Al, Aa

Equilibrium
𝛿
𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑎 =
𝐿 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑎. 𝐴𝑎 − 𝑃 = 0
Model Example-1:
(I)𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 0 ≤ 𝜀 ≤ 0.0032
𝜎𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠. 𝜀𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠. 𝜀
590
𝐸𝑠 = = 184 𝐺𝑃𝑎
0.0032

𝜎𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎. 𝜀𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎. 𝜀
380
𝐸𝑎 = = 76 𝐺𝑃𝑎
0.005
Model Example-1:
II 𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 0.0032 ≤ 𝜀 < 0.005
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑌𝑠 = 590 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎. 𝜀𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎. 𝜀

(III) 𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 0.005 ≤

𝜎𝑠 = 𝑌𝑠 = 590 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑌𝑎 = 380 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Model Example-1: Ideal Load-deformation Curve for Assembly
𝑎𝑡 0.0032𝐿 𝑃 = 𝑌𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 0.0032𝐸𝑎. 𝐴𝑎
𝑎𝑡 0.005𝐿 𝑃 = 𝑌𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑌𝑎. 𝐴𝑎
𝑃
𝑌𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑌𝑎. 𝐴𝑎

𝑌𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 0.0032𝐸𝑎. 𝐴𝑎

𝛿
0 0.0032𝐿 0.005𝐿
Model Example-1: Ideal Load-deformation Curve for Assembly
 𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾
Shear Stress Vs Shear Strain | Modulus of Rigidity

𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺

𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥
Similarly, we can say: 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = & 𝛾𝑧𝑥 =
𝐺 𝐺
Elastic Stress – Strain Relations
 Deform
Force Strain Stress
ation
(F) (𝛿) (𝜀 ) (𝜎 )
 Hooke’s Law for Uniaxial Loading

E = Modulus of elasticity
Only axial normal component of stress and axial normal component of
strain are considered in the uniaxial loading
 Deformation along three axes

Elongation (+ strain) along one axis causes contraction (– strain) on other 2 axes
&
Contraction (– strain) along one axis causes elongation (+ strain) on other 2 axes
 Poisson’s Ratio 𝝑
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑦 = −? 𝜀𝑦 = −𝜗𝜀𝑥 = −𝜗
𝐸
𝜀𝑧 = −? 𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑧 = −𝜗𝜀𝑥 = −𝜗
𝜀𝑥 = + 𝐸
𝐸

 Consider an element on which there is only one component of normal stress acting, as
shown in figure.
 For linear elastic solid, stress is directly proportional to strain.
 Uniaxial tension (compression) test shows that lateral compressive (extensional) strain is
a fixed fraction of longitudinal extensional (compressive) strain.
 This fixed fraction is known as Poisson’s ratio and given by symbol .
Hooke’s Law in Triaxial Loading
Consider a linear elastic isotropic
material with stress six stress and six
strain components

 x  xy  xz 𝜖𝑥 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑧

 yx  y  yz 𝛾𝑦𝑥 𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧
 zx  zy  z 𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝛾𝑧𝑦 𝜖𝑧
Hooke’s Law in Uniaxial (x-direction) State of Stress
Pulling (or pushing) materials in one
direction actually causes deformation in all
three orthogonal directions.

We will have to account for the fact that pulling

on an object axially causes it to
compress laterally in the transverse directions

 For isotropic material normal stress does not produce shear strain.
Hooke’s Law in Uniaxial (y-direction) State of Stress
Pulling (or pushing) materials in one
direction actually causes deformation in all
three orthogonal directions.

We will have to account for the fact that pulling

on an object axially causes it to
compress laterally in the transverse directions

 For isotropic material normal stress does not produce shear strain.
Hooke’s Law in Uniaxial (z-direction) State of Stress
Pulling (or pushing) materials in one
direction actually causes deformation in all
three orthogonal directions.

We will have to account for the fact that pulling

on an object axially causes it to
compress laterally in the transverse directions

 For isotropic material normal stress does not produce shear strain.
Hooke’s Law in Triaxial Normal State of Stress
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧

x 
1
E

 x   y   z 
 
x 
1
E

 x   y   z  

1
 y   y   x   z  
E

   
1
 y   y   x   z  
1 1
x   x   y   z  z 
E
 z   x   y 

E  E
 xy  yz z
1
 y   y   x   z   z 
1
E

 z   x   y  

 xy 
G
 yz 
G
 zx 
G
E
 Hooke’s Law: Shear Stress Vs Shear Strain
 For isotropic materials, shear stress is directly proportional to the
shear strain. The proportionality constant is G (shear modulus).
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 𝛾𝑧𝑥 =
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
 For isotropic material shear stress does not produce normal
strain.
 Each shear stress component produces only its corresponding
shear-strain component.
Generalized Hooke’s Law for Triaxial Loading

Elastic Stress – Strain Relations

x 
1 
E

 x   y   z 
 
x 
1
E

 x   y   z 
  1
 y   y   x   z  
E

   
1
 y   y   x   z  
1 1 
x   x   y   z  z 
E
 z   x   y 

E  E
 xy  yz 
1
 y   y   x   z   z 
1
E

 z   x   y 
   xy 
G
 yz 
G
 zx 
G
E
 xy  yz  zx
z 
1
E

 z   x   y  

 xy 
G
 yz 
G
 zx 
G
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
Principal Stresses & Strains

1 1 1
𝜀1 = [𝜎1 − 𝜗(𝜎2 + 𝜎3) 𝜀2 = [𝜎2 − 𝜗(𝜎1 + 𝜎3) 𝜀3 = [𝜎3 − 𝜗(𝜎1 + 𝜎2)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐺
Generalized Hooke’s Law

x 
x 
1

1  x    yy   zz 
E  x   y   z 

E
11
 yy  
  yy    xx zz 
y   z 
EE  
y x

 z 
z 
11 
E
E
 zzz  
   xx 
 x

  
 yy 
y 

E
 xy
  yz

  xy
 xyxy    yzyz
 yzyz  zxzx 

xy
G G
xy G
G
yz G
G
zx
Generalized Hooke’s Law

x 
x 
1

1  x    yy   zz 
E  x   y   z 

E
11
 yy  
  yy    xx zz 
y   z 
EE  
y x

 z 
z 
11 
E
E
 zzz  
   xx 
 x

  
 yy 
y 

E
 xy
  yz

  xy
 xyxy    yzyz
 yzyz  zxzx 

xy
G G
xy G
G
yz G
G
zx
Generalized Hooke’s Law: Plane Stress

1
𝜀𝑥 = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝜗𝜎𝑦]
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑦 = [𝜎𝑦 − 𝜗𝜎𝑥]
𝐸
 Generalized Hooke’s Law: Plane Stress

1 1
𝜀1 = [𝜎1 − 𝜗𝜎2] 𝜀2 = [𝜎2 − 𝜗𝜎3]
𝐸 𝐸
 Relation between E, G and 

From the Mohr’s circle for the above two elemental stress picture,
𝜎1 = τ & 𝜎2 = −τ
 Relation between E, G and 

From the Mohr’s circle for the above two elemental stress picture,

𝜎1 = τ & 𝜎2 = −τ
 Relation between E, G and 
𝜀1 − 𝜀2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
= ∴ 𝜺𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 = 𝜸𝒙𝒚
2 2
1 1
𝜀1 = [𝜎1 − 𝜗𝜎2] 𝜀2 = [𝜎2 − 𝜗𝜎3]
𝐸 𝐸
1
with 𝜎1 = τ & 𝜎2 = −τ 𝜀1 = [τ − 𝜗(−τ)]
𝐸
(1 + 𝜗) (1 + 𝜗)
𝜀1 = 𝜏 𝜀2 = −𝜏
𝐸 𝐸
(1 + 𝜗)
𝜀1 − 𝜀2 = 2𝜏
𝐸
 Relation between E, G and 
𝜺𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 = 𝜸𝒙𝒚
1+𝜗 𝜏
𝜀1 − 𝜀2 = 2𝜏 & 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐸 𝐺
1+𝜗 𝜏
∴ 2𝜏 =
𝐸 𝐺
𝐸
𝐺=
2 1+𝜗
Ex.: A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions as shown in the
Fig. If an axial force P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the
change in it’s length and change in the dimensions of it’s cross
section after the applying load. The bar is loaded within the elastic
limit. [Est = 200 GPa, 𝜗𝑠𝑡 = 0.32]
What do you need to find out change in dimensions 1.5 m, 100 mm and 50 mm?
(𝜀𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1.5 | 𝜀𝑥(𝑓𝑜𝑟 100) | 𝜀𝑦(𝑓𝑜𝑟 50)
 𝑃 80(103)
𝜎𝑧 = = = 16 × 106 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 (0.1𝑚) × (0.05𝑚)
𝜎𝑧 16 106 𝑃𝑎 −6
𝜀𝑧 = = 9
= 80 × 10 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚
𝐸 200(10 ) 𝑃𝑎
 Axial elo𝑛gation of the bar =
𝛿𝑧 = 𝜀𝑧𝐿𝑧 = 80 10−6 1.5𝑚 = 120 10−6 𝑚
 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
−6 −6
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = −𝜗𝑠𝑡. 𝜀𝑧 = −0.32 80 10 = −25.6 10 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝜹𝒙 = 𝜀𝑥𝐿𝑥 = −25.6(10−6 ) × (0.1𝑚) = −𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎
−6 −𝟔
𝜹𝒚 = 𝜀𝑥𝐿𝑦 = −25.6(10 ) × (0.05𝑚) = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
Ex. 5.9: In a flat steel plate which is loaded in the xy plane,
𝜎𝑥 = 145 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 42 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀𝑧 = −3.6 × 10−4 .
What is the value of the stress y? 𝐸 = 205 GPa, 𝜗 = 0.3
 𝜎𝑥 = 145 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 42 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀𝑧 = −3.6 × 10−4
𝐸 = 205 GPa, 𝜗 = 0.3
1
𝜀𝑧 = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ]
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧 = 3
0 − 0.3 145 + 𝜎𝑦
205 × 10
Flat loaded plate in xy plane
Assume: 𝜎𝑧 = 0 𝜎𝑦 = 95 𝑀𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body

1
𝑈
𝑈 = 𝐹. (𝛿)
2
𝛿
0
 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body
1
𝑑𝑈 = (∆𝐹). (𝛿)
2

∆𝐹 = 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧 𝛿 = 𝜀𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
Strain Energy in an Elastic Body
1
𝑑𝑈 = (∆𝐹). (𝛿)
2
1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜎𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧 . 𝜀𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= 𝜎𝑥. 𝜀𝑥. (𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧)
2
1
= 𝜎𝑥 . 𝜀𝑥. 𝑑𝑣
2
1
𝑈= 𝜎𝑥. 𝜀𝑥. 𝑑𝑣
2 𝑣
 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body
1
𝑑𝑈 = (∆𝐹). (𝛿)
2

∆𝐹 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧 𝛿 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦. 𝑑𝑦

Strain Energy in an Elastic Body
1
𝑑𝑈 = (∆𝐹). (𝛿)
2
1
𝑑𝑈 = (𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑧). (𝛾𝑥𝑦. 𝑑𝑦)
2
1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝛾𝑥𝑦. (𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧)
2
1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝛾𝑥𝑦. 𝑑𝑣
2
1
𝑈= 𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝛾𝑥𝑦. 𝑑𝑣 )
2 𝑣
Strain Energy in an Elastic Body
with Triaxial Loading
For a triaxial loading with six stress
and six strain components
1
𝑑𝑈 = (𝜎𝑥. 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦. 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧. 𝜀𝑧 +
2
𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧. 𝛾𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥. 𝛾𝑧𝑥)𝑑𝑣

1 (𝜎𝑥. 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦. 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧. 𝜀𝑧 +

𝑈=
2 𝑣
𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧. 𝛾𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥. 𝛾𝑧𝑥)𝑑𝑣
 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body
For a plane stress condition

1 (𝜎𝑥. 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦. 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦. 𝛾𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑣

𝑈=
2 𝑣
 Strain Energy
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of Resilience represents the ability of
the material to absorb energy without any
permanent damage to the material (Yield Point)
1
𝑈𝑅 = 𝜀𝑦. 𝜎𝑦
2
1 𝜎𝑦
= 𝜎𝑦
2𝐸
1 𝜎𝑦2
𝑈𝑅 =
2 𝐸
 Strain Energy
Modulus of Toughness
 Modulus of Toughness represents the the ability
of the material to absorb energy before it
fractures (𝜀𝑓 ).
 This property is important in design for the
material which are accidentally overloaded.
Material with high value of toughness will
distort to a large extent before failure.

𝜀𝑓
The modulus of toughness is the area under the stress – strain
curve, which can be calculated by integrating the stress-strain
𝑈𝑓 = 𝜎 𝑑𝜀
curve from zero up to the fracture point. 0
 Strain Energy
Strength Versus Toughness

 Strength is not the same as toughness. A material can be strong but not tough. For
example, brittle materials, like ceramics, have high strength but low toughness.
Strength is a measure of how much stress a material can withstand, while
toughness is the amount of strain energy a material can absorb before failure.
Ex. 5.10: The principal strains in the plane of a aluminum plate
which is loaded in its plane are:
𝜀1 = 3.2 × 10−4 & 𝜀2 = −5.4 × 10−4
Find the stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and τ𝑥𝑦, where the x, y axes are located
as shown in the sketch. 𝐸 = 205 GPa, 𝜗 = 0.3
 −4
From 𝜀1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀2 we can find 𝜎1 and 𝜎2
𝜀1 = 3.2 × 10
𝜀2 = −5.4 × 10−4 1
𝜀1 = [𝜎1 − 𝜗𝜎2]
𝐸
1
𝜀2 = [𝜎2 − 𝜗𝜎1]
𝐸
Solving above 2 equations for 𝜎1 and 𝜎2
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎1 = 2
[𝜀1 + 𝜗𝜀2] 𝜎2 = 2
[𝜀2 + 𝜗𝜀1]
(1 − 𝜗 ) (1 − 𝜗 )
𝐸 205(109)
𝐸 = 205 GPa, 𝜗 = 0.3 = = 225274.72 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
(1 − 𝜗2) (1 − 0.32)
 𝜀1 = 3.2 × 10−4 𝐸
𝜎1 = [𝜀 1 + 𝜗𝜀 2 ]
𝜀2 = −5.4 × 10−4 (1 − 𝜗2)
−4
𝜎1 = 225274.72[3.2 + 0.3 −5.4 ](10 )
𝜎1 = 35.59 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
𝐸 2
= 225274.72 𝑀𝑁/𝑚
(1 − 𝜗2) 𝐸
𝜎2 = [𝜀 2 + 𝜗𝜀 1 ]
(1 − 𝜗2)
−4
𝜎2 = 225274.72[ −5.4 + 0.3(3.2)](10 )
𝜎2 = −100.02 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
 𝟏
𝜎𝑦

𝟐 𝜏𝑥𝑦

𝜃𝑝1 = 60𝑜
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥

𝜏𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 = 35.59 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝜎2 = −100.02 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
𝜃𝑝1 = 60𝑜

Find: 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑥𝑦

 𝜎1 = 35.59 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 𝜎2 = −100.02 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝑅= 𝐶=
2 2

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 35.59 − (−100.02)
𝑅= = = 62.81
2 2
𝜎1 + 𝜎2 35.59 + (−100.02)
𝐶= = = −32.2
2 2
 𝑅 = 62.81 𝐶 = −32.2


𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎2 𝜎1
R 
2 60𝑜 C O 1
𝜏𝑥𝑦
2𝜃𝑝1 = 120𝑜

𝜎1 = 35.59 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 𝜎2 = −100.02 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

 𝑅 = 62.81 𝐶 = −32.2
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐶 + 𝑅. 𝐶𝑜𝑠(60) 
𝜎𝑥 = −32.2 − 62.81. 𝐶𝑜𝑠(60)
y
𝜎𝑥 = −24.72 MN/m2
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑦 = 𝐶 − 𝑅. 𝐶𝑜𝑠(60) 𝜎2 𝜎1
R 
2 60𝑜 C O 1
𝜎𝑦 = −32.2 − 62.81. 𝐶𝑜𝑠(60) 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2𝜃𝑝1 = 120𝑜
𝜎𝑦 = +0.17 MN/m2
x
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑅. 𝑆𝑖𝑛(60)
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 62.81. 𝑆𝑖𝑛(60)
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 21.17 MN/m2
The stress in a flat steel plate in a condition of plane stress
are:
𝜎𝑥 = 130 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 𝜎𝑦 = −70𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 and τ𝑥𝑦 =
80 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
Find the magnitude and orientation of the principal
strains in the plane of the plate. Find also the magnitudes
of the third principal strain (perpendicular to the plane of
the plate).
𝐸 = 205GPa, 𝜗 = 0.3
 𝜎𝑥 = 130 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 𝜎𝑦 = −70𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 and τ𝑥𝑦 = 80 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
𝐸 = 205GPa, 𝜗 = 0.3
Find 𝜀1, 𝜀2 and their directions and 𝜀3

Flat steel plate in plane stress

𝜎𝑧 = 0

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 1/2
𝜀1,2 =𝐶±𝑅 = ± +
2 2 2
 1
𝜀𝑥 = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 ]
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑥 = 130 − 0.3 −70 + 0
205 × 103
𝜀𝑥 = 205 × 10 −6
 1
𝜀𝑦 = [𝜎𝑦 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑦 = −70 − 0.3 130 + 0
205 × 103

𝜀𝑦 = −531 × 10 −6
 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺
2(1 + 𝜗)
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝐸
2(1 + 0.3)
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = × 80
200 × 103

−6
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 1015 × 10
 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 1/2
𝜀1,2 =𝐶±𝑅 = ± +
2 2 2
2 2 1/2
736 + (−531) 1015 736 − (−531)
𝜀1,2 =𝐶±𝑅 = ± +
2 2 2

(102.5 ± 811.71) × 10−6

𝜀1 = 914.21 × 10 −6 𝜀2 = −709.21 × 10−6

𝛾𝑥𝑦 2𝜃1 = 38.69𝑜
2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 1015
𝑡𝑎 𝑛 2𝜃1 = 𝜀 −𝜀 = = = 0.8011
𝑥 𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 736 − (−531) 𝜃1 = 19.34𝑜
2
 1
𝜀𝑧 = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧 = 0 − 0.3 130 + (−70
205 × 103

−6
𝜀𝑧 = −87 × 10
 Elastic Stress – Strain Relations
x 
x 
1

1  x    yy   zz 
E  x   y   z 

E
 yy 
y 
11

  yy 
  xx zz 
z 
𝐸
EE 
y x  𝐺=
 zz 

11 
 zz  
   xx 
 
  
 yy  2 1+𝜗
E z y 
E
E
x

 xy
  yz
  zx
  xy   yz  zx  zxzx
 xyxy  xy  yz 

 yzyz  G
yz

 zxzx  G
xy  1G
G G G
G G G 1 1
𝜀1 = [𝜎1 − 𝜗(𝜎2 + 𝜎3) 𝜀2 = [𝜎2 − 𝜗(𝜎1 + 𝜎3) 𝜀3 = [𝜎3 − 𝜗(𝜎1 + 𝜎2)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐺
Criteria for Initial Yielding
 Tensile Test: Uniaxial Loading

Yield Point Y
 Tensile Test: Uniaxial Loading
y

𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
z
x

𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝑌 𝑃↑ 𝜎𝑥 ↑ 𝜎1 ↑
𝜎2 y x 𝜎1
𝜎𝑦 2 1 𝜎 𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜎1 = 𝑌,
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
(max limit of elastic failure)
Triaxial Loading Uniaxial Loading
Find Equivalent 𝜎 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 𝑌
and compare with Y

Let ′ s consider 3D state of stress and find out an equivalent stress 𝝈 𝑜𝑟 𝝉

to correlate with yielding point 𝒀 in a uniaxial loading of tensie test
𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Maximum Shear Stress | Tresca Yield Criterion

𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝜎2 y x 𝜎1 
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 2 1 𝜎 𝑥
𝑌

Uniaxial Stress in Tensile Test

Mohr’s Circle Diagram

Yielding in triaxial or biaxial (plane) state of stress occurs when maximum

shear stress in triaxial or biaxial (plane) state of stress reaches the maximum
shear stress value in tensile test at which yielding starts.

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

Maximum Shear Stress | Tresca Yield Criterion

𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎2 y x 𝜎1 
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 2 1 𝜎 𝑥 𝑌
𝑌

Uniaxial Stress in Tensile Test

Mohr’s Circle Diagram
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎1 − 0
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
= 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
2 2 2
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑌
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
2 2 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑌 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
Maximum Shear Stress | Tresca Yield Criterion
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑌 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
Triaxial State of Stress
If 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3

𝜎1 − 𝜎3 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑌 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝑌
Plane State of Stress

If 𝜎1 > 𝜎2

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑌 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡

 Failure Envelope | Tresca Yield Criterion
For Tensile Stresses For Compressive Stresses
𝜎2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = +𝑌 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = −𝑌
𝜎2 − 𝜎3 = +𝑌 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 = −𝑌 +𝑌 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = +𝑌
𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = +𝑌 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = −𝑌
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ±𝑌
𝜎2 − 𝜎3 = ±𝑌 𝜎1
𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = ±𝑌 -𝑌 +𝑌
For Bi-axial Stresses, 𝜎3 = 0
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ±𝑌
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = −𝑌 -𝑌
𝜎2 = ±𝑌
𝜎1 = ±𝑌
Failure Envelope | Tresca Yield Criterion

+𝑌

-𝑌 +𝑌
−𝑌 +𝑌

−𝑌
Maximum Distortion Energy | Von Mises
Strain energy is the elastic potential energy that a wire
can gain during elongation with a stretching.
Distortion energy is a type of energy that is responsible
for the change in the shape of a body.

The key difference between strain energy and distortion

energy is that strain energy is related to the volumetric
change in a system, whereas distortion energy is related to
the change in the shape of a system.

2 2 2 .
1 + 𝜗 (𝜎1 − 𝜎2) +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3) +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1)
𝑈𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
3𝐸 2
Distortion Energy Theory | Mises Yield Criterion
Yielding occurs when Root Mean Square (RMS) value of the differences
between principal normal stresses in triaxial state of stress reaches RMS value
of the principal normal stresses in a uniaxial tensile test at yield point.
.
1 + 𝜗 (𝜎1 − 𝜎2)2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3)2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1)2
𝑈𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
3𝐸 2
.
1 + 𝜗 (𝜎1 − 0)2 +(0 − 0)2 +(0 − 𝜎1 ) 2
1+𝜗
𝑈𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = = (𝝈𝟏)2
3𝐸 2 3𝐸
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2)2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3)2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1)2
𝑈𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 2
= (𝝈𝟏)2

1
𝜎𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜎𝑉𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 = (𝜎1 − 𝜎2)2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3)2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1)2 = (𝝈𝟏)
2
Von Mises Criteria | Distortion Energy Theory
Yielding occurs when Root Mean Square (RMS) value of the differences between
principal normal stresses in triaxial state of stress reaches RMS value of the
principal normal stresses when yielding starts in a uniaxial tensile test
Triaxial State of Stress

1
𝜎𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜎𝑉𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 = (𝜎1 − 𝜎2)2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3)2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1)2 = (𝝈𝟏 = 𝒀)
2

Plane State of Stress

In the cases of plane stress, 𝜎3 = 0. The Von Mises criterion
reduces to: 2 2
𝜎𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜎𝑉𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝜎1 − 2𝜎1𝜎2 + 𝜎2 = (𝝈𝟏 = 𝒀)
Failure Envelope | Tresca & Mises Yield Criterion
𝜎2
+𝑌 Ellipse
𝜎12 − 2𝜎1𝜎2 + 𝜎22

−𝑌 𝜎1
+𝑌

−𝑌
Failure Envelope | Tresca & Mises Yield Criterion
Geometrical representation in principal stress space of the Mises and Tresca
yield criteria
Maximum Shear Stress (Tresca Yield Criteria)
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑌
=
2 2
|𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 | = 𝑌

Distortion Energy Theory (Mises Yield Criteria)

𝜎12 − 2𝜎1𝜎1 + 𝜎22 = 𝑌

𝜎12 − 2𝜎1𝜎1 + 𝜎22 = 𝑌2

Failure envelope as per the maximum shear stress and distortion energ
Model Example
A batch of 2024-T4 aluminum alloy yields in uniaxial tension at
stress o = 330MPa. If this material is subjected to the following
state of stress, will it yield according to
a. The Mises criterion
b. Tresca criterion
x = 138MPa xy = 138MPa
y = -69MPa yz = 0
z = 0 xz = 0
 x = 138MPa xy = 138MPa
y = -69MPa yz = 0
Y = 330MPa
z = 0 xz = 0

2 2 1/2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎1,2 =𝐶±𝑅 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
2 1/2
138 − 69 138 − (−69) 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 138
2 2

𝜎1,2 = 207 𝑀𝑃𝑎, −138 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎1,2 = 207 𝑀𝑃𝑎, −138 𝑀𝑃𝑎 Y = 330MPa
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca Yield Criteria)
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑌
=
2 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝑌

207 − (−138) MPa = 345 MPa Y = 330MPa

Will yield
𝜎1,2 = 207 𝑀𝑃𝑎, −138 𝑀𝑃𝑎 Y = 330MPa
Distortion Energy Theory (Mises Yield Criteria)

1
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2)2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3)2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1)2 = (𝒀)
2

1
(207 − (−138))2 +(−138 − 0)2 +(0 − 207)2 = 301 MPa
2

301 MPa < (Y = 330 MPa)

Will not yield
Thermal Strain
Effect of Temperature on Strain

𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑂 + ∆𝑇
𝑇𝑂

𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑂
Thermal (free) expansion
Expansion in absence of structural load
 Effect of Temperature on Strain
In the elastic region, the effect of
𝑇𝑂
temperature:
(a) Change in the value of elastic constants
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑂 + ∆𝑇 (b) Produces a thermal strain in absence of
structural load
𝑇

The effect of temperature on elastic constants for many materials is small for
temperature change of a hundred degree centigrade and we will not consider
for our study
 Thermal Strain
𝑡
 Thermal strain: 𝜀
𝑇𝑂  For isotropic material, thermal strain
is pure expansion or contraction with
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑂 + ∆𝑇 no shear components
 Thermal strain due to a change in
𝑇
temperature from To to T is
𝜀 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝜀 𝑡 𝑦 = 𝜀 𝑡 𝑧 = 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 𝛼(∆𝑇)
 𝛾 𝑡 𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 𝑡 𝑦𝑦𝑧 = 𝛾 𝑡 𝑧𝑥 = 0
 is coefficient of linear expansion
 Thermal Stress
𝑇𝑂

𝑡
𝜀=𝜀 No thermal stress
𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑇0 + ∆𝑇
𝜀 = 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 𝛼 ∆𝑇
𝑇
Thermal expansion is restricted.
There is a thermal stress 𝜎𝑡
𝑡
𝜎𝑡 = 𝜀 𝐸 = 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 𝐸

𝜎𝑡 = 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝐸
Ex.: A steel link, with no internal stresses, is pinned between two solid
structures at a reference temperature of 0oC (273 K). One of the solid
structures is heated to a temperature of 75 oC (348 K).
Determine: (a) Thermal Strain (b) Thermal Stress (c) Thrust Load

The link is steel with a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa, a thermal conductivity of 60.5
W/m*K and a thermal expansion coefficient of 12e-6 /K.
Ex.: A steel link:
𝑊
A = 10mm × 10mm , 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐾= 60.5 𝑜 ,𝛼 =
𝑚𝐾
12 × 10−6 , ∆𝑇 = 348 − 273 = 75oK
Determine: (a) Thermal Strain (b) Thermal Stress (c) Thrust Load

(a) Thermal Strain: 𝜀𝑡 = 𝛼∆𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 348 − 273 = 9 × 10−4

−4 9
(b) Thermal Stress: 𝜎𝑡 = 𝛼∆𝑇 𝐸 = 9 × 10 200 × 10 = 180 MPa
(c) Thrust Load: 𝑃 = 𝛼∆𝑇 𝐸 𝐴 = [180 × 106 ]1 × 10−4 = 18000𝑁
Theory of Elasticity Equations
Theory of Elasticity
Equilibrium Conditions
𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
+ + +𝑋 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

+ + +Y=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧

+ + +𝑍 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

X, Y and Z are body forces

 Theory of Elasticity
Geometric Compatibility (Stress-Displacement Relations)
 Theory of Elasticity
Stress – Strain – Temperature Relations

1 𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝜀𝑥 = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0) 𝛾𝑧𝑥 =
𝐸 𝐺
1 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜀𝑦 = [𝜎𝑦 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0) 𝛾𝑦𝑧 =
𝐸 𝐺
1 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑧 = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝜗 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0) 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐸 𝐺
 Ex.: A material is subjected to plane stress. Express the maximum shear stress
theory of failure in terms of 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑦, τ𝑥𝑦 . Assume the principal stresses are of
different algebraic signs.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory: |𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 | = 𝑌
Plane Stress: |𝜎1 − 𝜎2 | = 𝑌 … (𝑎)
2 2 1/2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
In-Plane Principal Stresses: 𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
2 2 1/2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
∴ |𝜎1 −𝜎2 | = 2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
2 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
Put in Eqn (a) and square both the sides: 4 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑌2
2
2
Simplifying: 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 4𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑌 2
 Ex.: A material is subjected to plane stress. Express the maximum distortion
energy theory of failure in terms of 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑦, τ𝑥𝑦.

Plane Stress:
Maximum Shear Stress Theory: 𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 = 𝑌 2 ……………(a)

2 2 1/2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
In-Plane Principal Stresses: 𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
2 2 1/2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
Let: 𝑎=
2
𝑏=
2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦

∴ 𝜎1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 & 𝜎2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏

𝜎1 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 𝜎2 2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 𝜎1𝜎2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2

 Ex.: A material is subjected to plane stress. Express the maximum distortion
energy theory of failure in terms of 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑦, τ𝑥𝑦.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory: 𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 = 𝑌 2 ……………(a)

𝜎1 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 𝜎2 2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 𝜎1𝜎2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2

Put in Eqn (a) : 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 = 𝑌 2

Simplifying: 𝑎2 + 3𝑏 2 = 𝑌 2
2 2 1/2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝑎= 𝑏= + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
+3 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑌2
2 2
Ex: Steel rod of 32 mm diameter is fixed concentrically in a brass tube. Brass
tube has OD & ID as 48 mm & 34 mm. both the rod and tube are 100 mm
long and their ends are level. The compound round is held between two
stops which are exactly 400 mm apart and the temperature of the rod is
raised by 60o C.
Find the stress in the rod and tube if the distance between stops
(a) Remains constant (b) increases by 0.25 mm

Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝛼𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶

𝐸𝑏 = 0.9 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝛼𝑏 = 21 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶
 Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

(a) When the distance remains constant (Total expansion is prevented)

Stress in the steel rod:
𝜎𝑠 = 𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 . 𝐸𝑠
𝜎𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 60 . 2 × 105
𝜎𝑠 = 144 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Stress in the Brass Tube:
𝜎𝑏 = 𝛼𝑏 ∆𝑇 . 𝐸𝑏
𝜎𝑏 = 21 × 10−6 60 . 0.9 × 105
𝜎𝑏 = 113.4 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
 Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

(b) When the distance between stops is increased by 0.25 mm (Out of

total expansion 𝜀𝑡, (𝛿) 0.25 mm is allowed)
Strain in the steel rod:
𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 𝛿 12 × 10−6 60 400 − 0.25
𝜀𝑠 = =
𝐿 400
𝜀𝑠 = 0.95 × 10−4

𝜎𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠. 𝜀𝑠 = 2 × 105 × 0.9510−4 = 19 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝜎𝑠 = 19 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
 Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

(b) When the distance between stops is increased by 0.25 mm (Out of

total expansion 𝜀𝑡, (𝛿) 0.25 mm is allowed)
Strain in the Brass Tube:
𝛼𝑏 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 𝛿 21 × 10−6 60 400 − 0.25
𝜀𝑏 = =
𝐿 400
𝜀𝑏 = 6.35 × 10−4
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐸𝑏. 𝜀𝑏 = (0.9 × 105) × (0.95 × 10−4 ) = 57.15 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝜎𝑏 = 57.15 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Ex: Steel rod of 32 mm diameter is fixed concentrically in a brass tube. Brass
tube has OD & ID as 48 mm & 34 mm. both the rod and tube are 100 mm
long and their ends are level. The compound round is held between two
stops which are exactly 400 mm apart and the temperature of the rod is
raised by 60o C.
Find the (a) Force exerted (b) The increase in distance if the force exerted
between them is 80 kN

Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝛼𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶

𝐸𝑏 = 0.9 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝛼𝑏 = 21 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶
 Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

(a) Total force exerted

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑏. 𝐴𝑏
Stress in the steel rod: Stress in the Brass Tube:
𝜎𝑠 = 𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 . 𝐸𝑠 𝜎𝑏 = 𝛼𝑏 ∆𝑇 . 𝐸𝑏
𝜎𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 60 . 2 × 105 𝜎𝑏 = 21 × 10−6 60 . 0.9 × 105
𝜎𝑠 = 144 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝜎𝑏 = 113.4 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑏. 𝐴𝑏
𝐹 = 144. + 113.4.
𝐹 = 𝑋𝑋 × 103 𝑁
 Brass
Steel ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
Brass

(a) Increase in the distance (𝛿) between stops if force exerted = 80 kN

3
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑏. 𝐴𝑏 = 80 × 10 𝑁
𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 𝛿 𝛼𝑏 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 𝛿
𝜎𝑠 = × 𝐸𝑠 𝜎𝑏 = × 𝐸𝑏
𝐿 𝐿
𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 𝛿 𝛼𝑏 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 𝛿
𝐹 = (𝐸𝑠) + (𝐸𝑏) = 80 × 103
𝐿 𝐿
12 × 10−6 60 400 − 𝛿 5
21 × 10−6
60 400 − 𝛿
2 × 10 + 0.9 × 105 = 80 × 103
400 400
𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝒎𝒎
Ex: Steel rod of 20 mm diameter and 6 m long is connected to two grips at
each end at a temperature of 120oC.
Find the pull exerted when the temperature falls to 40oC
(a) If the ends do not yield
(b) If the end yields by 1.1 mm

Steel | D = 20 mm ∆𝑇 = 60𝑂𝐶
𝐿 =6𝑚

𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝛼𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶

Find the pull exerted when the temperature falls to 40oC
(a)If the ends do not yield
(b)If the end yields by 1.1 mm

Steel | D = 20 mm
𝐿 =6𝑚
𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝛼𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶

∆𝑇 = 120 − 40 = 80𝑂𝐶
Find the pull exerted when the temperature falls to 40oC
(a)If the ends do not yield (Complete contraction is
prevented)
𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Steel | D = 20 mm 𝛼𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶
∆𝑇 = 120 − 40 = 80𝑂𝐶
𝐿 =6𝑚

𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠
𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 𝐿 12 × 10−6 80 6000
𝜎𝑠 = × 𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 = 192 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐿 6000
𝜋 2
𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 = 192 20 = 60.32 × 103 𝑁
4
 Find the pull exerted when the temperature falls to 40oC
(a)If the ends do not yield (Complete contraction is
prevented)
𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Steel | D = 20 mm 𝛼𝑠 = 12 × 10−6 /𝑂𝐶
∆𝑇 = 120 − 40 = 80𝑂𝐶
𝐿 =6𝑚

𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠
𝛼𝑠 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − 1.1 12 × 10−6 60 6000 − 1.1
𝜎𝑠 = × 𝐸𝑠 = 2 × 105 = 155.33 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝐿 6000
𝜋 2
𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠. 𝐴𝑠 = 155.33 20 = 48.79 × 103 𝑁
4
Ex.: It is desired to produce a tight fit of a steel shaft in a steel pulley. The
internal diameter of the hole in the pulley is 24.950mm, while the outside
diameter of the shaft is 25.000mm. The pulley will be assembled on the shaft
by either heating the pulley or cooling the shaft and then putting the shaft in
the pulley hole and allowing the assembly to reach uniform temperature.
(a) Is it more effective to heat the pulley or to cool the shaft?
(b) What temperature change would be required in each case to produce a
clearance of 0.0025 mm for easy assembly?
 Pulley diameter (24.95 mm) is 0.050 mm
24.95 25.00
less than the shaft diameter (25 mm)

Radial clearance of 0.025 mm for easy assembly

Therefore, 0.050 mm + 0.025 mm = 0.075 mm
thermal expansion is required in Pulley.
0.075
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = = 𝛼∆𝑇
25
0.075 𝑜𝐶
∆𝑇 = = 272
𝛼 = 11 × 10−6
Ex.: A circular bar (E = 200GPa,  = 0.32, and  = 11.710-6 /oC)
has a diameter of 100mm. The bar is built into a rigid wall on the
left, and a gap of 0.5 mm exists between the right wall and the
bar prior to an increase in temperature as shown in Fig.
Temperature of the bar is increased uniformly by 80oC.
Determine the average axial stress and the change in the
diameter of the bar.
Additional Information and not for the course