Flight Dynamics : Systems of

Axes and Notation

Note that all the content of this lecture is taken from: Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second
Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 2 Outline
1. Earth axes
2. Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Generalised body axes
3. Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Aerodynamic,wind or stability axes
4. Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Perturbation variables
5. Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Angular relationships in symmetric flight
6. Euler angle and aircraft attitude
7. Axes transformation
8. Linear quantities transformation
9. Aircraft velocities transformation
10.Aircraft reference geometry
11.Controls notation –Aerodynamics controls
12.Controls notation –Engine control
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
 3 Earth Axes
• Earth axes (𝑂0 𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑧0):
• 𝑂0 𝑥0 points toward the north,
• 𝑂0 𝑦0 points to the east,
• 𝑂0 𝑧0 points vertically « down » along the gravity vector,
• The plane (𝑂0 𝑥0 𝑦0) is the local horizontal plane, that is tangential to the surface
of the earth.
• The most common consideration is that of motion about straight and level
flight. Straight and level flight assumes flight in a horizontal plane at a constant
altitude and, whatever the subsequent motion of the aircraft might be, the attitude
is determined with respect to the horizontal.
• The horizontal plane is defined by (𝑂𝐸 𝑥𝐸 𝑦𝐸) and is parallel to the plane
(𝑂0 𝑥0 𝑦0) at the surface of the earth.
• Differences pointed out:
• The 𝑂𝐸 𝑥𝐸 axis points in the arbitrary direction of flight of the aircraft rather than
to the north.
• The 𝑂𝐸 𝑧𝐸 axis points vertically down as before. Conventional Earth Axes
• The origin 𝑂𝐸 in the atmosphere is frequently coincident with the origin of the
aircraft body fixed axes.

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
 4 Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Generalised body axes

• The body axis system (𝑂𝑏 𝑥𝑏 𝑦𝑏 𝑧𝑏) is fixed in

the aircraft .
• The (𝑂𝑏 𝑥𝑏 𝑧𝑏 ) plane is the symmetry plane
of the aircraft and it is convenient to arrange
the 𝑂𝑏 𝑥𝑏 axis such that it is parallel to the
geometrical horizontal fuselage datum
• In normal flight attitudes the 𝑂𝑏 𝑦𝑏 axis is
directed to starboard and the 𝑂𝑏 𝑧𝑏 axis is
directed “downwards’’.
• The origin “O” of the axes is fixed at a
convenient reference point in the airframe
which is usually, but not necessarily,
coincident with the center of gravity (cg).

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
5 Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Aerodynamic,wind or
stability axes • The aerodynamic (wind or stability) axis is the ox axis
is parallel to the total velocity vector 𝑉0 .
• In steady symmetric flight wind axes (𝑂𝑊 𝑥𝑊 𝑦𝑊 𝑧𝑊 ) are
simply body axes which are rotated about the 𝑂𝑏 𝑥𝑏 axis
through the steady body incidence angle αe until the
𝑂𝑊 𝑥𝑊 axis aligns with the velocity vector.
• The plane (𝑂𝑊 𝑥𝑊 𝑧𝑊) is the plane of symmetry of the
aircraft and the 𝑂𝑊 𝑦𝑊 and the 𝑂𝑏 𝑦𝑏 axes are
coincident.
• For any given flight condition the wind axes
orientation is defined and fixed in the aircraft at the
outset and is constrained to move with it in subsequent
disturbed flight.
• The body incidence might vary in the range−10◦ ≤ αe ≤
20◦ over a normal flight envelope.
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
6 Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Perturbation variables
• Assumption: the aircraft is in steady rectilinear, but
not necessarily level, flight when the body
incidence is αe and the steady velocity 𝑉0 resolves
into components 𝑈𝑒 , 𝑉𝑒 and 𝑊𝑒
• In steady non-accelerating flight the aircraft is in
equilibrium and the forces and moments acting on
the airframe are in balance and sum to zero.
Trimming condition.
• The positive sense of the variables is determined by
the choice of a right-handed axis system. The
positive sense of the components of rotary
quantities, moment, velocity, attitude, etc. is a
right-handed rotation and may be determined as
follows.
• Positive roll about the ox axis is such that the oy
axis moves towards the oz axis
• Positive pitch about the oy axis is such that the oz
axis moves towards the ox axis and positive yaw
about the oz axis is such that the ox axis moves
towards the oy axis.
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
7 Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Perturbation variables
• Positive pitch about the oy axis is such that the oz axis
moves towards the ox axis and positive yaw about the
oz axis is such that the ox axis moves towards the oy
axis.
• Positive roll is right wing down, positive pitch is nose
up and positive yaw is nose to the right as seen by the
pilot.
• The intention is to provide some insight into the
physical meaning of the many variables used in the
model. Note that the components of the total linear
velocity perturbations (U, V, W) are given by the sum
of the steady equilibrium components and the
transient perturbation components (u, v, w) thus,
• U = 𝑈𝑒 +u
• V = 𝑉𝑒 +v
• W = 𝑊𝑒 +w

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
8 Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Angular relationships in
symmetric flight • Assumption: the aircraft is in steady rectilinear; the axes fixed in the
aircraft are body axes. Therefore, the steady and the perturbed angles
can be related. The steady velocity vector V0 defines the flight path and
γe is the steady flight path angle.
• The steady flight path angle is given by γe = θe −αe
• Where : αe is the steady body incidence and θe is the steady pitch
attitude of the aircraft.
• In the case when the aircraft fixed axes are wind axes rather than body
axes then,
ae = 0
• In the special case when the axes are wind axes and when the initial
condition is level flight,
αe = θe =0
• It is also useful to note that the perturbation in pitch attitude θ and the
perturbation in body incidence α are the same thus, it is convenient to
write,
tan(αe +θ)≡tan(αe +α)=W/U ≡ 𝑊𝑒 +w/ 𝑈𝑒 +u
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
9 Aircraft Body Fixed Axes- Choices of axis
 Question: when is it appropriate to use wind axes
and when is it appropriate to use body axes?
 The best choice of axes simply facilitates the
analysis of the equations of motion.
 In experimental procedures the measuring
equipment is installed in the aircraft, thus its
location is expressed in terms of body axis
coordinates which determines the best choice of
axis system.
 For example, in wind tunnel work the obvious
reference is the tunnel axis which is coincident
with the velocity vector.
 For aerodynamic applications dealing with the
equations of motion a wind axis reference is to
be preferred. Traditionally all aerodynamic data
for use in the equations of motion are referenced
Euler Angles Schematic to wind axes.

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
10
Euler angle and aircraft attitude
 The angles defined by the right-handed rotation about the three axes
of a right-handed system of axes are called Euler angles.
 The sense of the rotations and the order in which the rotations are
considered about the three axes in turn are very important since
angles do not obey the commutative law. The attitude of an aircraft is
defined as the angular orientation of the airframe fixed axes with
respect to earth axes.
 The attitude of the aircraft, with respect to the datum axes, may be
established by considering the rotation about each axis in turn
required to bring (𝑂3 𝑥3𝑦3𝑧3) into coincidence with
(𝑂𝑂 𝑥0𝑦0𝑧0 ).Thus, first rotate about 𝑂3𝑥3 through the roll angle φ to
(𝑂2𝑥2𝑦2 𝑧2). Second, rotate about 𝑂2𝑦2 through the pitch angle θ to
(𝑂𝑂 𝑥0𝑦0𝑧0 ) and third, rotate about 𝑂1𝑧1 through the yaw angle ψ to
Euler Angles Schematic (𝑂1 𝑥1𝑦1 𝑧1 ). Clearly, when the attitude of the aircraft is considered
with respect to earth axes then (𝑂𝑂 𝑥0𝑦0 𝑧0) and (𝑂𝐸 𝑥𝐸 𝑦𝐸 𝑧𝐸 ) are
coincident.
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
11
Aircraft reference geometry

Wing area Mean aerodynamic chord

𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑏 𝑐ҧ ‫׬‬−𝑠 𝑐𝑦2𝑑𝑦
𝑐Ӗ = 𝑠
‫׬‬−𝑠 𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Standard mean chord Aspect ratio

𝑠
‫׬‬−𝑠 𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑐ҧ = 𝑠 𝑏
‫׬‬−𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝐴=
𝑆 𝑐ҧ
𝑐ҧ =
𝑏
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
12
Aircraft reference geometry- Cont

Fin moment arm and fin volume ratio

Tail moment arm and tall

volume ratio

𝑆𝑇 𝑙𝑇
ത𝑇 =
𝑉
𝑆 𝑐Ӗ
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
 13 Controls notation –Aerodynamics controls

• During roll: positive right push force on the stick ⇒ positive stick
displacement ⇒ right aileron up and left aileron down (negative
mean) ⇒ right wing down roll response (positive).
• During pitch: positive pull force on the stick ⇒ positive aft stick
displacement ⇒ elevator trailing edge up (negative) ⇒ nose up pitch
response (positive).
• During yaw: positive push force on the right rudder pedal ⇒positive
rudder bar displacement ⇒ rudder trailing edged is placed to the right
(negative) ⇒ nose to the right yaw response (positive).
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
 14 Controls notation –Engine control
• Engine thrust τ is controlled by throttle
lever displacement ε. Positive throttle
lever displacement is usually in the
forward push sense and results in a
positive increase in thrust. For a turbojet
engine the relationship between thrust
and throttle lever angle is approximated
by a simple first order lag transfer
function:
τ(s) 𝑘𝜏
=
ε(s) (1 + 𝑠𝑇𝜏 )
where 𝑘𝜏 is a suitable gain constant and 𝑇𝜏
is the lag time constant which is typically
of the order of 2–3s.
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 200 7
15

THE END
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