International Journal of Rail Transportation

ISSN: 2324-8378 (Print) 2324-8386 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjrt20

Vibration-based damage identification on the

suspension of a railway waggon – Findings from
snap-back experiments with transient excitation

Peter Kraemer, H. Friedmann & M. Richter

To cite this article: Peter Kraemer, H. Friedmann & M. Richter (2019): Vibration-based
damage identification on the suspension of a railway waggon – Findings from snap-back
experiments with transient excitation, International Journal of Rail Transportation, DOI:
10.1080/23248378.2019.1675190

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23248378.2019.1675190

Published online: 09 Oct 2019.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/23248378.2019.1675190

Vibration-based damage identification on the suspension of a

railway waggon – Findings from snap-back experiments with
transient excitation
Peter Kraemera, H. Friedmannb and M. Richterb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany; bWölfel Engineering GmbH +
Co. KG, Höchberg, Germany

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This article deals with the damage detection at the suspension of a Received 12 March 2019
railway freight waggon and reveals that the measured accelerations Revised 25 September 2019
change with the damage in a characteristic way. The authors show Accepted 29 September 2019
that the damage of the suspension is accompanied by a reduction KEYWORDS
in spring energy which causes a shift of the higher vibration modes Structural health monitoring;
in the measured signals. In this context, the paper did not intend to railways vehicles; frequency
present new methodologies for damage identification. However, shift; loss of stiffness; signal
the simple findings from the experimental tests can be useful for energy in a frequency band
the design of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) systems for rail-
way vehicles. At the end, a simple SHM approach for a low number
of sensors with practice-oriented positions at the waggon is
proposed.

1. Introduction
SHM systems for structural parts of freight waggons are subject to special conditions. An
important task of those systems is to detect damage to the leaf springs of the waggons. In
such a case, the damaged waggons must be removed from the train and repaired at the
next opportunity. In contrast to other SHM applications, it is not necessary to detect the
first indications of developing damage as early as possible! However, the framework
conditions for such SHM systems for waggon suspensions are a challenge in some other
respects: on the one hand, the commercial framework is very tight, a system may only
cost a few hundred Euros. This prohibits the use of expensive computer technology. The
hardware required for each wheelset must not only guarantee the operation of the SHM
algorithms, but also the following functions: data storage, communication with the other
wheelsets and a control centre somewhere on the rail network, data management, system
control and power supply. All tasks have to be performed under extreme environmental
conditions like rain, snow, ice, heat, shock loads, dust, etc. Because of these requirements
a slim and robust SHM algorithm has to be developed.
Previously developed vibration-based damage identification methods for railways
vehicles use the changing in dynamic behaviour as symptoms for structural changes,

CONTACT Peter Kraemer peter.kraemer@uni-siegen.de Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of

Siegen, Paul-Bonatz-Str. 9-11, Siegen 57076, Germany
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 P. KRAEMER ET AL.

see [1–3]. For example, Li et al. use fault detection and isolation (FDI) systems [4] or
Rao–Blackwellized particle filter [5,6], Hayashi et al. propose in [7] a combination of
multiple models with Kalman-Filters and Mori et al. [8] use Kalman-Bucy filters. Goda et
al. [9] use multiple models too and Jesussek et al. combine multiple Kalman-Filters for
monitoring of suspension faults in [10]. In order to take the nonlinearity of railway
vehicles suspension into account Jesussek and Ellermann [11] applied an Extended-
Kalman Filter for fault detection purposes. Further methods are based on data-driven
models and methods. E.g. the stochastic approach in Sakelariu et Al. [12]. based on
autoregressive models with exogenous inputs. Liu et al. use in [13] recursive least square-
based algorithms. Jung et al. use in [14] modal models identified by an output only modal
analysis in time domain. In this context, the damage detection consists in the identifica-
tion of eigenmode changes. Comparative studies on damage detection methods for
suspensions of rail vehicles can be found in [15] and [16]. An overview of existing
approaches applied for low-cost on-board health monitoring systems are presented
in [17] and [18]. Most of the algorithms and methods developed in recent years have
been verified using multi-body simulation models of railway vehicles. Simulated time
series were used for this purpose. Due to the applied low model complexity (with only a
few degrees of freedom), the data were simulated only from the superposition of a few
numbers of global modes. The following conditions can only be simulated to a very
limited extent: higher modes (claimed a very detailed, ‘perfect’ model), nonlinearities due
to the friction of structural components or nonlinear suspension, train speed dependent
effects, wheel-rail contact conditions, non-linear interaction between the rail vehicle
components, dependencies on the connection between the waggons or different mass
distributions of the waggon loading, etc. Besides that, time-depending effects on the
vibration mode excitation due to acceleration, deceleration or switch point crossing can
be considered only in a limited way. In reality, it will be expected, that measured signals
from the running waggons (and locomotives too) are highly nonstationary [19]. The
excited modes appear only for a short time depending on the complex operational
conditions as speed, crossing of switch points, rolling frequencies of wheelsets, etc. For
this reason, in the future measurement data from real field application are necessary for
the validation of the applied models and a further development of SHM methods. First
tests on a running waggon with a missing coaxial spring at one of eight wheels were
carried out in [20]. Due to reasons of transport safety, it is only possible to a very limited
extent to damage the suspension of railway vehicles for research purposes and then
examine them in a train in use. Instead of experiments in moving trains simple replace-
ment tests must be carried out as proposed in [21].
This paper presents some acknowledgements from experimental tests on a parked
waggon in the rail maintenance station of ITL (Import, Transport, Logistik), Germany.
The experiments do not fulfil the requirements for the vibration analysis in a real field
application since the waggon excitation is pure transient. Nevertheless, the tests reveal the
changes in higher modes and the loss of signal energy through the damage (loss of stiffness)
of the spring assembly. Since a model of the waggon is not available, the modal changes
cannot be related to the global modes of the waggon or local modes of the spring assembly.
The finding in this paper is limited to the case of the tested waggon and the specific
damage type. Based on the spectra changes the authors propose a simple approach to
detect damages of leaf spring assemblies. The approach can be integrated in an SHM
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION 3

system for railway vehicles. The proposed sensor positions and types are practicable for
the real implementation in an SHM-system.

2. Measurement set-up
The tested waggon is shown in Figure 1(a). During all measurements the waggon was
empty and the same excitation was used. The excitation is induced by a snap-back device
installed on the first axle with respect to the driving direction 1, see Figure 1(b). The
hydraulic snap-back-device first pulled down the waggon by approximate 10 cm, than
after a tensional force of 37 KN was reached, the waggon was released and vibrates for
approximate 1–2 s. For this reason, the chosen length of the acceleration signals to be
analysed is 2.34 s. All channels of the installed accelerometers were synchronized at a
sampling rate of fS = 12.800 Hz. This leads to N = 30.000 data points per channel and
measurement. Thus, the best possible frequency resolution is Δf = fS/N= 0.43 Hz. This
poor frequency resolution makes the change detection in the lower frequency domain
very difficult. Depending on the sensor type (PCB 356A16, see Figure 2(d)) and the
antialiasing filter the frequency range of the unfiltered signals is 0.5 to 5.000 Hz.
The positions of the sensors are displayed in Figure 2. Totally six 3-D accelerometers
and one 1-D accelerometer were applied to the waggon. The positions and measurement
directions of the sensor channels are summarized in Table 1.
The channels 1, 4, 7, 10, 13 and 16 measures in x-direction, which coincides with the
driving direction 1. With respect to right-hand rules, the channels 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17
measured in y-direction and the channels 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19 measured the acceleration
of the waggon in the height (z-direction). The sensors no. 1 and 2 (channels 1 to 3
respective 4 to 6) are placed on the supporting structural part of the waggon close to the
leaf spring assemblies for the axle in driving direction 1. These sensor positions are suitable
for permanent installation and can be used for SHM purposes in real field applications.
The other sensors are placed on the first axle or directly on the spring assemblies. These
sensors (3 to 7) are used only for validation of the results and further investigations.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Waggon in the maintenance station of ITL in Kamenz, Germany, (b) Snap-back-device for
transient excitation on the first axle.
4 P. KRAEMER ET AL.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2. Sensor positions and sensor channels (a) left to driving and (b) right to driving direction 1,
(c) Channels of the sensor on the first axle, (d) Accelerometer of type PCB 356A16.

Table 1. Sensor channels and sensor positions.

Rel. position to the Suitable for a permanent
Sensor Channel driving direction 1 Sensor placement SHM system
1 1, 2, 3 left on the structure yes
2 4, 5, 6 right on the structure yes
3 7, 8, 9 middle on the axle no
4 10, 11, 12 left on the spring no
5 13, 14, 15 left over the spring no
6 16, 17, 18 right over the spring no
7 19 left over the spring no

For the purpose of damage identification, 30 measurements were taken. The first 15
measurements were made under healthy conditions of the leaf spring assemblies. After 15
measurements, the left leaf spring assembly was replaced by a damaged one and further
15 measurements were made. The undamaged and damaged spring assembly are shown
in Figure 3.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION 5

Figure 3. Undamaged and damaged spring assembly on the left side rel. to the driving direction 1.

3. Simple data analysis

The data from the channels 1, 2, and 3 of the onest measurement is exemplary shown in
Figure 4. Here it is visible that the useful acceleration signals occur only during 1–2 s, which
make the observation of the mode changes difficult in the low-frequency domain.
Figure 5 shows exemplary the power spectral densities (PSD) of the signals from
channel 1 for all 30 measurements. The black lines represent the PSD of the first 15

Figure 4. Accelerations measured by the channels of sensor 1 (1st measurement).

6 P. KRAEMER ET AL.

Figure 5. PSD of channel 1 for 30 measurements (black lines: PSD for 15 measurements of the
undamaged state; red lines: PSD for 15 measurements of damaged state).

measurements (undamaged state), the red lines show the PSD of the last 15 measure-
ments (damaged state).
The Figure 5 clearly expresses that the PSD of the first 15 measurements are very
similar. The same similarities can be observed between the PSD of the last 15 measure-
ments. This is available for all measurement channels. For this reason, for further
investigations the median PSD value of the first 15 measurements are compared to the
median PSD value of the last 15 measurements, see, for example, the results for channel 1
in Figure 6. The differences between the spectras before and after the damage in Figure 6,
show that the damage induce a general shift down and a shift to the left into the spectra.
The reason for this behaviour is the loss of stiffness at the leaf spring assembly, which
influences the eigenmodes of the waggon components and the energy in the signals of
different channels. As expected, due to the damage extend and the poor frequency
resolution, the damage cannot be well-identified in the changes of global modes. Only
changes in the higher modes are clearly visible.
One possibility to interpret the spectra S in an automatically way is to compare the
spectral density in different frequency bands by means of the root-mean-square (RMS)
value in the considered band [fL fU], where fL is the lower spectral line and fU is the upper
spectral line of the band
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u U
uX
RMSð ½fL fU Þ ¼ t Sðfk Þ  Δf (1)
k¼L

S can be calculated be means of the Fast Fourier Transform X(f) of the measured signal x(t):

1X N
Xðfk Þ ¼ xn e2π j n k=N ; k ¼ 1; :::; N (2)
N n¼1
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION 7

median PSD (dB)

Figure 6. PSD of channel 1 for 30 measurements (black line: median value of 15 PSD for the
undamaged state; red lines: median value of 15 PSD for the damaged state).

Xðfk Þ  Xðfk ÞΔf

Sðfk Þ ¼ (3)
fS2 =2
where Xðfk Þ  is the complex conjugate of Xðfk Þ.
Figure 7(a) shows exemplary the changes within 64 frequency bands for the 30 signals
from channel 1. The width of a frequency band is 100 Hz. After 15 measurements, the
signal energy is changing significantly. In this case, it is possible to recognize which
frequency band is more or less responsible for changes of the signal energy.
If the changes are as evident as in our case, the RMS of the whole signal x can be used
as a good indicator:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u fS =2 u N
uX u1 X pffiffiffiffiffi
RMSðxÞ ¼ t Sðfk Þ  Δf ¼ t xn2 ¼ x2 (4)
k¼1
N n¼1

Channel 1
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Measurement no.
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) RMS values of 64 frequency bands (band width: 100 Hz) of channel 1 for 30 measure-
ments, (b) RMS values from channel 1 for 30 measurements.
8 P. KRAEMER ET AL.

This RMS value for the whole signal can be obtained in frequency domain through the
consideration of the frequency range fk from 0 to fs/2 Hz or in time domain, see Eq. (1).
Figure 7(b) shows exemplary the RMS change during the measurements referred to the
RMS of the signal from measurement i= 1 for the channel 1: RMS/RMSi=1. The figure
shows a clear decrease of the RMS level due to the damage occurrence in the last 15
measurements.
In the following, the signals from the channels 1–6 are interpreted first. Accordantly to
the Table 1 these sensor positions (sensor 1 and 2) can be used within an SHM system for
real field applications. The results of the Figures 6 and 8(a,b) show that the spectra and
the RMS (Figure 9) from channels of the sensor 1 positioned left to the driving direction
are sensitive to the damage.
In contrast to these results, the spectras (Figure 10) and the RMS (Figure 11) based on
channels 4–6 (sensor 2 positioned right to the driving direction 1) show no significant
changes.
According to the Figure 12(a) further channels of sensors placed directly on the left
spring assembly show – as expected – the highest sensitivity to the damage. Channels of
sensors over the left spring assembly are sensitive to the damage too (Figure 12(b)). In

Channel 3
undamaged
damaged
median PSD (dB)

median PSD (dB)

-20

-40

-60

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequenc (Hz)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. PSD from (a) channel 2 and (b) channel 3 (sensor position: on the left side rel. to the driving
direction 1).

Figure 9. RMS values from the three channels of sensor 1 (sensor position: on the left side rel. to the
driving direction 1).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION 9

median PSD (dB)

Figure 10. PSD from the three channels of sensor 2 (sensor position: on the right side rel. to the
driving direction 1).

Figure 11. RMS values from the three channels of sensor 2 (sensor position: on the right side rel. to
the driving direction 1).

contrast, the channels of the sensor placed over the right spring assembly are not sensitive
to the damage, as shown in Figure 12(c).
As mentioned before, the poor frequency resolution makes the change detection in the
lower frequency domain very difficult. For example, the accelerations of the third channel
show a certain decrease of the frequencies around 13 and 22 Hz. The biggest change can
be observed at approx. 10 Hz (undamaged state). In the case of damage, the same spectral
10 P. KRAEMER ET AL.

1.2 1.2
Channel 10
1 Channel 11 1
RMS / RMSi=1

RMS / RMSi=1
0.8 Channel 12
0.8
0.6 0.6 Channel 13
0.4 Channel 14
0.4
Channel 15
0.2 0.2 Channel 19
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Measurement no. Measurement no.
(a) (b)

1.2
1
RMS / RMSi=1

0.8
0.6 Channel 16
Channel 17
0.4
Channel 18
0.2
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Measurement no.
(c)
Figure 12. (a) RMS values from channel 10, 11 and 12 (sensor position: on the left spring assembly);
(b) RMS values from channel 13, 14, 15 and 19 (sensor position: over the left spring assembly); (c) RMS
values from channel 16, 17 and 18 (sensor position: over the right spring assembly).

Figure 13. PSD of signals from channel 3 before (black lines) and after damage (red lines).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION 11

Figure 14. CWT of signal from channel 3 before damage (left) and after damage (right).

density occurs at 6.83 Hz (see Figure 13). Similar behaviour can be observed in the signals
of channel 12, 15 and 19, all these channels represent measurement in z-direction and
belong to sensors placed close to or directly on the left spring assembly. Without a model,
it cannot be clearly affirmed that the change comes from one dominant vibration mode of
the spring assembly.
Similar results are also obtained from techniques for interpretation of nonstationary
signals. In Figure 14 the Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) of signals from channel
3 (left: measurement 1 before damage; right: measurement 16 after damage) shows the
decrease of the one frequency from 10.24 to 6.83 Hz.

4. Purpose for a simple possible approach within a health monitoring

system
As mentioned in the introduction, the experiments presented here cannot consider the
signal changes during the real field operation and the authors are aware, that only the
availability of more data taken under real condition allows the extraction of further
damage sensitive features in order to perform multivariate statistics and to develop and
validate an CM-System for real field operation. In our case further features of the
available signals, e.g. kurtosis or crest values as well as coefficients from discrete wavelet
transforms were extracted. These are less sensitive to the structural changes and give no
additional information about the damage state. For this reason, the main purpose of the
authors here is to draw the attention on the fact, that damages of spring assemblies are
connected to a loss of vibration energy (especially in the higher frequency domain) and
shifts of the higher modes. Since the RMS values are strongly connected to the unknown
excitation and to the mass distribution of the waggon, here a statistical consideration of
different RMS ratios is proposed. The proportionality between the RMS for similar
channels (measurement direction) from the left (lower index l) and right (lower index
12 P. KRAEMER ET AL.

r) side to the drive direction can be monitored as a feature to find out the differences
between the left and right spring assembly on an axle:
qffiffiffiffiffi
xl2
Ilr ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi (5)
xr2

In this context the feature monitoring consists in the statistical interpretation of the feature
change during i measurements. In order to exclude feature offsets due to different mass
distribution of the loaded waggons, the features have to be normalized by reference features
calculated from a certain number of measurements. Due to the low number of measure-
ments and the same mass distribution of the waggon, this paper cannot propose further
approaches regarding questions of pattern recognition and data normalization. Since this
very important part for the development of a practicable SHM approach bases on the
statistical distribution of the RMS ratios, further measurements with running waggons are
needed in order to tune and to validate the method for the real field application.
Depending on the application, it will be possible to use the RMS of interesting
frequency bands instead of the RMS of the whole signals.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uU
uP
u Sl ðfk Þ
u k¼L
Ilr ð½fL fU Þ ¼ u
uP (6)
tU
Sr ðfk Þ
k¼L

This is especially meaningful, if the frequency shifts in the spectra due to specific damages
are known.
For our case the proportionality of the full RMS between the following channel-pairs
close to the left, respectively, right spring assemblies was used: channel 1 and 4 (x-
direction), 2 and 5 (y-direction) and 3 and 6 (z-direction). Equation (5) was used for each
channel-pair separately. The mean values from the three measurement directions are
shown in Figure 15, left. Here a decrease of the RMS value due to the stiffness decrease in
the left spring assembly close to the first axle can be observed. In the first 15 measure-
ments, the spring stiffness is more or less the same, the proportionality is changing in the
last 15 measurements.

Figure 15. RMS-proportionality values.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION 13

The same acknowledgements can be obtain if proportionalities between channels from

the right to the left side are calculated, see Figure 15, right. Also, here the proportionality
of the ratios of 15 measurements are more or less the same. The change occurs after the
16th measurement and can be also interpreted as a loss of stiffness in the left spring.

5. Conclusions
The results of the experiments within this publication show that a real damage of a
waggon spring assembly induces a loss of vibration energy in the measured signals and
shifts of the higher vibration modes. These acknowledgements were gained on an
experimental way, since a simulation model of the waggon is not available. In the future,
it will be necessary to check whether existing multibody or finite element models can
reproduce the vibration changes in the higher frequency domain. This would be of great
advantage for the general development of SHM systems for rail vehicle technology based
on simulated data. Due to the relative low number of measurements taken under the
same transient excitation and the same mass distribution, in our case these cannot be
used for the development of technically mature SHM methodologies. Nevertheless, the
simple findings from the experimental tests and the proposed feature (RMS proportion-
ality) can be useful for vibration-based damage identification within a more complex
approach for SHM of railway vehicles under real operational conditions.
In the future, further developments will concentrate on the data analysis of running
railway vehicles. For this purpose experimental test rigs as proposed in [21] and data
from sensors installed on running trains will be used. The long-time objective of the
authors is the development of technically mature SHM methodologies for monitoring of
relevant components of railway vehicles.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
The investigations took place within the framework of the R&D project AkuSens and were kindly
funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research under the number
[16SV3841].

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