LEARNING

A LECTURE PRESENTED
BY
DR. U.J. NWOGU

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

INTRODUCTION

All living organisms especially animals including man respond and interact with other
beings and their environment. This interaction result into changes due to the new
experience. This experience gives rise to learning.

What is Learning?

Learning is a process that spans through the life time of every individual. In fact, there is no
end to learning because new experiences arising from age, circumstance, time etc. present
every learner with new knowledge and hence alter the learner’s behaviour. These alterations
in behaviour pattern can be negative or positive.

However, within the organized classroom, learning is a motivated action which is

actualized when the learner directs his attention along defined and planned channels. This
involves the engagement of the faculties which requires active engagement, being
emotionally receptive, retentive and cognitive awakening through structured and planned
learning process which is thought provoking, clear and compelling. From the psychological
perceptive, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from
experience. This experience excludes changes due to fatigue, injury or disease. Here,
experience plays the role of a great teacher by altering the individual’s nervous system to
enable him adapts to changing circumstances.

Unfortunately, not all behaviours are learnt. Some behaviours occur as a result of
maturity, natural growth or development (e.g. child development, in born reflexes and
automatic reflexes) for example, if you touch a baby’s face he will respond by turning
towards your hand but if you touch his mouth he will turn for sucking. In view of the
forgoing, the following definitions need to be presented and discussed.

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1. “A relatively permanent process that is inferred from performance changes due to
practice” (Ellis 1972). The above definition suggests that learning takes place when a
learner’s performance changes as a result of practice.

2. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a result of past

experience, (Lawson, Goldstein and Musty 1975). Here experience plays a role in the
learning process.

3. Gagne (1977) provided a more elaborate definition which saw learning as a process that
takes place “when the stimulus situation together with the content of memory affect the
learner in such a way that his performance changes from a time before being in that
situation to a time after being in it. The change in performance is what leads to the
conclusion that learning has occurred”. The elements in this definition are the learner, the
events that stimulate learner’s senses (stimulus) contents of the memory, and the response
which approximates performance. This is represented thus:

Practice
Organism
Interact with the environment through or
Experience

Learning That brings about

Change in
performance of
the program

Source: Nwankwo, O.C (2007) Psychology of learning: The Human perspective. Port
Harcourt, Pam Unique pub.co.

Theories of Learning:

Generally, theories are seen as sets of propositions, assumptions, generalizations and

constructs which help in the prediction of phenomena. Its functions include the explanation
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of functions, provision of framework for classification (Taxonomic) so that data can be
used, heuristic function which provides a base for further generalization of knowledge,
predictive function which establishes relationship among observed variables, storage
function, guide to action, identification of relevant phenomena, a framework for
understanding organizational behaviour among others. From the foregoing therefore, we
can see learning theories as guides for the practice and actualization of learning. There are
several theories of learning; however, a few will be examined within this series.

1. Behavioural Learning Thories

The earliest proponents of these theories include Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Great Russian
physiologist, E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner. Their theory believes that learning occurs
through the process of conditioning while reinforcement motivates the learning process.

(a) Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov).

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian Physiologist. His theory on learning is a product of the
research he was carrying out on digestion especially on salivation in dogs.

Procedure: Pavlov made a surgical opening in a dog’s cheek to measure the rate of
salivation, in order to do this; he placed the dog in a particular position and inserted a tube
that conducted saliva away from the dogs salivary gland to a measuring device.

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He placed a tray filled with food in front of the dog in such a way that the dog could pick
food when made available. Pavlov moved out of sight from the dog but kept watch on the
dog’s response. He then sounded a bell on a neutral stimulus but there was no salivation for
several times. Pavlov decided to drop some food in the tray, a few seconds after sounding
the bell, salivation occurred.

After some times Pavlov sounded the bell without dropping any food yet salivation
occurred. Pavlov further observed that when the bell sounded too often without food
salivation stopped. He further observed that if similar sounds are made salivation would
occur when food is presented. Therefore, to ensure that behaviour is sustained food was
presented with the sound of bell.

In this experiment the following can be deduced:

1. Constant provision of food at the sound of bell enabled discrimination

2. Food which automatically or reflexively elicited the salivation is referred to as

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

3. Salivation is unconditioned response (UCR)

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4. The bell which originally elicited no response but now elicits salivation is called
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

5. The response is called conditioned response (CR)

This can be represented as shown below:

2. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

Operant condition is defined as a process through which a response becomes more or less
likely to occur depending on its consequences. It is also called instrumental conditioning.
The major proponents of this theory are E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner (1949)

E.L. Thorndike set up an experiment called the puzzle box; it was a cage with a built
mechanism or lever in which the gate opens when operated correctly. Inside the box he
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placed a hungry rat; outside the box he placed a dish of food. In that cage, the rat was
frightened and hence scampered for the food round the box until it suddenly pulled the lever
which suddenly opens to allow the rat access to the food. Eventually, the rat learns how to
open the door through trial and error since each successful attempt at the right place gives
access to the food. Based on this, Thorndike formulated some laws which guide learning.

(a) Law of Effect: Responses that occur before the satisfaction of a state of affair will be
repeated while those that fail to satisfy will be avoided.

(b) Law of Exercise: This law bothers on practice of what has been learned. Here repetition
strengthens learning while practice helps to retain what has been learned.

(c) The Law of Readiness: This emphasizes that certain behaviours or responses are more
likely to be retained depending on the learner’s maturity, experience and willingness.

(d) The Law of Multiple Response: The law contends that when individuals are exposed
to difficult tasks that do not have already made solutions they make different attempts to
solve them.

During these attempts responses are discriminated. In view of this, Thorndike’s theory is
sometimes referred to as Trial and Error learning theory.

B.F. Skinner: Skinner was the most foremost to develop the bases or fundamentals for
operant conditioning. According to him human behaviour can easily be influenced by the
principle of reinforcement. According to him, when a particular learner’s behaviour
(response) is immediately accompanied by a pleasurable consequence, a repetition of the
behaviour is more likely until it becomes more permanent than when it is accompanied by
negative or unpleasurable consequence.

Therefore like Thorndike, Skinner constructed a box called Skinner box with an inbuilt
lever mechanism. He placed a rat inside the box. In the box the inbuilt mechanism when
pressed will release food into an attached tray. The rat which was inside the environment
accidently presses the lever and food is released into the tray. The rat gradually learns to
press the lever each time it needed food.

To Skinner a link is usually formed between response and reinforcement rather than
stimulus and response.

Pre-Requisites for Efficient Learning

Efficient and effective learning is not easy to achieve. Learning naturally depends on a
number of factors:
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 1. Readiness – This refers to the physical and mental maturation and accumulation of
experiences on which the new experiences will be built.
2. Motivation – This is the spring board for learning, it could be intrinsic or extrinsic.
3. Activity – Learning is activity based
4. Attendance: Organized learning takes place under the guidance of the teacher.
Participation is important as it affords learners the opportunity to learn from hidden
curriculum.
5. Interest – The learner’s interest in what is to be learned is important.
6. Revision – This improves mastery.
7. Concentration - Concentration influences listening and communication
8. Training And Practice – Whatever is learned is further developed through practice.

Types of Learning

There are different types of learning

1. Conditioning: This type of learning deals with the association of what exists such as
habits, attitudes, beliefs etc. that are related to such experiences. This learning
process is easier because it is more or less a habit which the learner has already
acquired or learned.
2. Trial And Error: This is acquired through experience from repeated actions or
trials.
3. Insight Learning: This leads to a deeper understanding or assimilation of what the
learner already knows. It includes new techniques of doing the same work which in
most cases brings exclamation and relief as it makes learning process shorter and
simpler, e.g. a student who finds it difficult to remember the factors responsible for
growth of nations may discover later that it is easier when he formulates mnemonic
for the points.
4. Imitation: This is achieved through admiration of what we see e.g. Imitation of
English pronunciation from a teacher.
5. Memorization: A special kind of learning such as recitations, such materials is
arranged in special order.
6. Verbal Learning: This method utilizes recitations, note writing, highlighting key
points. Others include having passion for words, rhymes tongue twisters etc. an
individual learner who has passion for these belong to the group of verbal learners.
7. Visual Learning: Here the learners perform well when they use symbols, boxes,
charts and colours in their notes.

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8. Aural Learning: This has to do with sound and music. The auditory learners exhibit
high understanding and memory through hearing and listening. They find it easier to
understand spoken instructions rather than reading.
9. Logical Learning: This group of learners asks a lot of questions to enable them
understand the whole content. They are natural thinkers who learn through
classification, categorization and abstract thinking about patterns, relationships and
other aspects of the topic.
10.Solitary Learning: This group of learners appears to be more independent and
introspective. They spend a lot of time on their own and feel more comfortable being
alone, reading and keeping journals, books, making analysis of these to gain further
knowledge.
11.Social Learning: Social learners prefer to learn in groups and brainstorming with
others.
12.Physical Learning: This involves the use of your body and sense of touch. They
move, touch, do and build and are described as “hands-on”. They find it difficult to
sit in one place.

Characteristics of Learning
The major characteristics of learning include:

1. It involves the acquisition of knowledge

2. It involves listening
3. It involves information and its delivery
4. It involves observation, cogitation and reflection
5. It involves association of learning experiences
6. It is unconscious and progressive
7. It involves imitation and attachment of relationship to experiences
8. It involves choice (decision making) and exploration
9. It involves guidance and counseling
10. It is formal and informal
11. It is a practical activity
12. It spans through an individual’s life span.
13. It is goal directed
14. It involves skills, explanation and demonstration.
15. It involves accountability (evaluation)

How to Tackle Assignments, Projects and Writing of Reports

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 Tackling assignments, projects and writing of academic papers is an onerous task that
needs obstinate perseverance to succeed.

However, writing is a fairly thankless endeavor. Most often neophyte writers make
frantic efforts to impress their readers and to earn better marks. Unfortunately, majority
of the learners gradually become involved in new writer’s errors.

These errors, according to Murray (2008) include:

(a) Writing too much about the problem

(b) Over stating the problem and claiming too much for their solution.
(c) Over stating the critique of others’ work
(d) Not saying what they mean, losing focus through indirect writing.
(e) Putting too many ideas in one paper.

In order to overcome the above Hartley and Branthwaite (1989) and Williams (2013)
submit that learners would tackle assignments, projects and report writing by:

1. Making a rough plan of the work

2. Completing section one at a time
3. Using a word processor if possible
4. Revising and redrafting at least twice
5. Planning to spend about 2 to 5 hours writing per week in term twine
6. Finding quiet conditions and always writing in the same place
7. Setting goals and targets for yourself
8. Inviting colleagues and friends to comment on early drafts
9. Collaborating with long standing colleagues and trusted friends
10. Being conscious of your audience
11. Arranging work sequentially and orderly
12. Providing a folder for all works
13. Citing and referencing simultaneously
14. Proofreading work properly

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References

Ellis, C.H. (1972). Fundamentals of human learning and cognition. Iowa: Brown Co. pub

Gagne, R.M. (1977). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Hartley, J. & Branthwaite, A (1989). The psychologist as wordsmith: a questionnaire study

of the writing strategies of productive British psychologists, Higher Education,
18:423-52

Lawson, R.B., Goldstein, S.G. & Musty, R.E. (1975). Principles and methods of
psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Murray, R. (2008). Writing for academic journals. London: Bell & Bain Ltd.

Nwankwo, O.C (2007). Psychology of Learning: The Human Perspective, Port Harcourt
Pam Unique pub.co.

Nwafor, N.H.A. & Nwogu, U.J. (2014). Dynamics of Classroom Communication. Port
Harcourt: Sambiz Pub.co.

Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (1990). Psychology. New York: Harper & Row Pub.

Williams, C. (2013). Fundamentals of Seminar in education. Omoku: Jef Printing and

Publishing co.

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