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An important analog building block, especially in data acquisition systems, is a voltage reference. Ideally, this
block will supply a fixed dc voltage of known amplitude that does not change with temperature. This can be
combined with an accurate resistance to provide a stable dc current, if needed. There have been a number of
approaches that have been taken to realize voltage references in integrated circuits. These include,
 Making use of a zener diode that breaks down at a known voltage when reverse biased.
 Making use of the difference in the threshold voltage between an enhancement transistor and a depletion transistor.
 Cancelling the negative temperature dependence of a pn junction with a positive temperature dependence
from a PTAT (proportional-to-absolute-temperature) circuit.
The first approach is no longer popular because the breakdown voltage of a zener diode is typically larger
than the power supplies of modern integrated circuits. The second approach cannot be used when depletion tran-
sistors are not available, as is often the case. In addition, although it can be used to make quite stable references,
the actual value of the reference is difficult to determine accurately because of the process sensitivity of the differ-
ence between the threshold voltage of an enhancement device and a depletion device. For these reasons, the first
two approaches are not covered here. Rather, the last approach, which is currently the most popular for both bipo-
lar and CMOS technologies, will be discussed. Voltage references based on the last approach are commonly called
“bandgap” voltage references for reasons that will become apparent shortly.

 %DQGJDS9ROWDJH5HIHUHQFH%DVLFV

As just mentioned, a bandgap voltage reference is based on subtracting the voltage of a forward-biased diode (or
base-emitter junction) having a negative temperature coefficient from a voltage proportional to absolute temperature
  (VWDEOLVKLQJ&RQVWDQW9ROWDJHVDQG&XUUHQWV 

IB

V ref # 1.26 V

PTAT Generator K

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(PTAT). As we shall see, this PTAT voltage is realized by amplifying the voltage difference of two forward-biased
base-emitter (or diode) junctions. A bandgap voltage reference system is shown symbolically in Fig. 7.9.
A forward-biased base-emitter junction of a bipolar transistor3 has an I-V relationship given by
qV BE e kT
IC = IS e (7.13)
where I S is the transistor scale current and, although not shown, has a strong dependence on temperature.
Writing the base-emitter voltage as a function of collector current and temperature, it can be shown that
[Brugler, 1967; Tsividis, 1980]

T mkT § T 0· kT- § ------ JC ·

V BE = V G0 § 1 – ----
T · + V ----
- BE0 - + ------------ ln ----- + ------ ln ¨ -¸ (7.14)
© T0 ¹ T0 q © T ¹ q © J C0¹
Here, V G0 is the bandgap voltage of silicon extrapolated to 0 K (approximately 1.206 V), k is Boltzmann’s
constant, and m is a temperature constant approximately equal to 2.3. Also, J C and T are the collector current
density and temperature, respectively, while the subscript 0 designates an appropriate quantity at a reference tem-
perature, T 0. Specifically, J C0 is the collector current density at the reference temperature, T 0, whereas J C is the
collector current density at the true temperature, T . Also, V BE0 is the junction voltage at the reference tempera-
ture, T 0 , whereas V BE is the base-emitter junction voltage at the true temperature, T. Note that the junction current
is related to the junction current density according to the relationship
IC = AE JC (7.15)
where A E is the effective area of the base-emitter junction.
For I C constant, V BE will have approximately a – 2 mV e qK
temperature dependence around room temperature. This nega- .H\3RLQW$QLQWHJUDWHGYROWDJHUHIHUHQFHLV
tive temperature dependence is cancelled by a PTAT tempera- PDGHE\DGGLQJWKHIRUZDUGELDVYROWDJHRID
SQMXQFWLRQWRWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHIRUZDUG
ture dependence of the amplified difference of two base-emitter
YROWDJHVRIWZRSQMXQFWLRQVELDVHGDWGLIIHUHQW
junctions biased at fixed but different current densities. Using FXUUHQWGHQVLWLHV%HIRUHDGGLQJWKHPWKHVH
(7.14), it is seen that if there are two base-emitter junctions YROWDJHVDUHVFDOHGVRWKDWWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHSRV
biased at currents J 2 and J 1, then the difference in their junction LWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHWHPSHUDWXUHFRHIILFLHQWVFDQ
voltages is given by FHOSUHFLVHO\
J
'V BE = V 2 – V 1 = ------- ln § ----2·
kT
(7.16)
q © J 1¹
Thus, the difference in the junction voltages is proportional to absolute temperature. This proportionality is quite
accurate and holds even when the collector currents are temperature dependent, as long as their ratio remains fixed.

3. It is here assumed the reader is familiar with the basics of bipolar transistors. If needed, the reader may refer to Section 8.1.1 for this
background.
 &KDSWHU ‡ %LDVLQJ5HIHUHQFHVDQG5HJXODWRUV

(;$03/(

Assume two transistors are biased at a current-density ratio of 10:1 at T = 300 K. What is the difference in their
base-emitter voltages and what is its temperature dependence?

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Using (7.16), we have
1.38 u 10  300 
– 23
J
'V BE = ------ ln § ----2· = ------------------------------------------ ln  10  = 59.5 mV
kT
©J ¹ (7.17)
q 1.602 u 10
– 19
1

Since this voltage is proportional to absolute temperature, after a 1 K temperature increase, the voltage difference
will be
301
'V BE = 59.5 mV ---------- = 59.7 mV (7.18)
300
Thus, the voltage dependence is 59.5 mV e 300 K or 0.198 mV e K . Since the temperature dependence of a single
V BE is – 2 mV e K, if it is desired to cancel the temperature dependence of a single V BE, then 'V BE should be
amplified by about a factor of 10, as explained next.

It will be seen shortly that when realizing a bandgap voltage reference, although the output voltage is temper-
ature independent, the junction currents turn out to be proportional to absolute temperature (assuming the resistors
used are temperature independent). Thus, to simplify derivations, we will first assume the junction currents are
proportional to absolute temperature. Later, it will be verified that this proportionality relationship is true when
circuit realizations are described. We therefore first assume

J T
------i = ----- (7.19)
J i0 T0
where J i is the current density of the collector current of the ith transistor, whereas J i0 is the same current density
at the reference temperature.
Now, assume that the difference between two base-emitter voltages is multiplied by a factor of K and added
to the base-emitter voltage of the junction with the larger current density. Using (7.16) and (7.19) along with
(7.14), we have

V ref = V BE2 + K 'V BE

T J (7.20)
= V G0 + -----  V BE0-2 – V G0  +  m – 1  ------- ln § -----0· + K ------- ln § ----2·
T kT kT
T0 q © T ¹ q © J 1¹

Equation (7.20) is the fundamental equation giving the relationship between the output voltage of a bandgap
voltage reference and temperature. Here, V BE0-2 is the base-emitter junction voltage of the second transistor at
temperature T 0. If we want zero temperature dependence at a particular temperature, we can differentiate (7.20)
with respect to temperature and set the derivative to zero at the desired reference temperature. From (7.20), we
have

wV ref J §T ·
- = -----  V BE0-2 – V G0  + K --- ln § ----2· +  m – 1  --- ln ¨ -----0¸ – 1
1 k k
---------- (7.21)
wT T0 q © J1 ¹ q © T¹
  (VWDEOLVKLQJ&RQVWDQW9ROWDJHVDQG&XUUHQWV 

Setting (7.21) equal to zero at T = T 0, we see that for zero temperature dependence at the reference temperature,
we need
kT J kT
V BE0-2 + K --------0 ln § ----2· = V G0 +  m – 1  --------0 (7.22)
q © J1 ¹ q

The left side of (7.22) is the output voltage V ref at T = T 0 from (7.20). Thus for zero temperature dependence at
T = T 0, we need
kT
V ref-0 = V G0 +  m – 1  --------0 (7.23)
q
For the special case of T 0 = 300 qK and m = 2.3, (7.23) implies that
V ref-0 = 1.24 V (7.24)
for zero temperature dependence. Notice that this value is independent of the current densities chosen. Thus, if a
larger current density is chosen, then K must be taken appropriately smaller to achieve the correct reference out-
put voltage. In precision integrated voltage references, this correct output voltage is achieved by trimming at the
time the wafer is being tested. From (7.22), the required value for K is
kT
V G0 +  m – 1  --------0 – V BE0-2
q 1.24 – V BE0-2
K = --------------------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------
- (7.25)
kT 0 § J 2· J
-------- ln ---- 0.0258 ln § ----2·
q ©J ¹ ©J ¹
1 1

at 300 qK .
The reason for the name of the bandgap voltage should now be apparent. Specifically, for zero temperature
dependence, the output of a bandgap voltage reference is given by the bandgap voltage plus a small correction
term to account for second-order effects.
The output voltage of the reference for temperatures different from the reference is found after back-
substituting (7.22) and (7.23) into (7.20). After some manipulations, the result is
T
V ref = V G0 +  m – 1  ------- 1 + ln § -----0·
kT
(7.26)
q © T¹
and
wV ref T
- =  m – 1  --- ln § -----0·
k
---------- (7.27)
wT q © T¹
These equations can be used to estimate the temperature dependence at temperatures different from the reference
temperature. In the next section, a practical bipolar realization of a bandgap reference will be described.

(;$03/(

Estimate the temperature dependence at 0 qC for a bandgap voltage reference that was designed to have zero tem-
perature dependence at 20 qC . Present the result as ppm e K .

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Recalling that 0 qK corresponds to – 273 qC , we can write T 0 = 293 K and T = 273 K. Substituting these val-
ues into (7.27), we have
 &KDSWHU ‡ %LDVLQJ5HIHUHQFHVDQG5HJXODWRUV

wV ref 1.38 u 10
– 23
- =  2.3 – 1  ---------------------------- ln § ---------· = 8 PV e K
293
---------- (7.28)
wT © 273¹
1.6 u 10
– 19

For a reference voltage of 1.24 V, a dependency of 8 PV e K results in

8 PV e qK
----------------------- = 6.5 u 10 parts e qK = 6.5 ppm e K
–6
(7.29)
1.24 V
where ppm represents parts per million. It should be mentioned here that practical effects result in voltage refer-
ences with typically 4 to 10 times larger values than this small amount of temperature dependency. It should also
be noted that the ideal first-order temperature dependence of this bandgap voltage circuit is 0 ppm e K at the ref-
erence temperature of 20 qC.

 &LUFXLWVIRU%DQGJDS5HIHUHQFHV

%LSRODU%DQGJDS5HIHUHQFHV
A voltage reference originally proposed in [Brokaw, 1974] has been the basis for many bipolar bandgap refer-
ences. A simplified schematic of the circuit is shown in Fig. 7.10. The amplifier in the feedback loop keeps the
collector voltages of Q 1 and Q 2 equal. Since R 3 = R 4, this guarantees that both transistors have the same collec-
tor currents and collector-emitter voltages. Also, notice that the emitter area of Q 1 has been taken eight times
larger than the emitter area of Q 2 . Therefore, Q 2 has eight times the current density of Q 1, resulting in
J2
---- = 8 (7.30)
J1
We have for the circuit
V ref = V BE2 + V R1 (7.31)
Also
V R1 = I R1 R 1
(7.32)
= 2 I R2 R 1

R3 = R4

AE1 = 8AE2
Q1 Vref
Q2

R2

R1

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But
'V BE
IR2 = V R2
-------
V BE2 – V BE1
- = ---------------------------
- = -----------
- (7.33)
R2 R2 R2
Substituting (7.32) and (7.33) into (7.31) gives
2R
V ref = V BE2 + ---------1 'V BE (7.34)
R2
which is of the form desired to realize a bandgap reference. It is immediately recognizable that
2R
K = ---------1 (7.35)
R2
Assuming V BE2-0 = 0.65 V, from (7.25)
R 1 1.24 – 0.65
------1 = --- u ----------------------------------- = 5.5 (7.36)
R2 2 0.0258 u ln  8 
In an integrated implementation, R 1 or R 2 would be trimmed while monitoring V ref to force it equal to the desired
reference voltage. Furthermore, the optimum value for this voltage might be determined empirically during the
prototype phase of the design cycle.
Notice also, from (7.16) and (7.33), we have
kT § J----2·
------- ln
'V BE q ©J ¹
IE1 = IE2 = I R2 1
= ------------ = ------------------------
- (7.37)
R2 R2
implying that all currents are proportional to absolute temperature (assuming that resistor R 2 is temperature inde-
pendent). Thus, as assumed earlier, all currents are indeed PTAT.It is worth mentioning here that PTAT currents
are often used to bias many bipolar circuits, as they result in transistor transconductances being independent of
temperature.This constant transconductance has the desirable feature that circuit speed is relatively independent
of temperature, but, unfortunately, has the undesirable feature that the circuit power dissipation goes up consider-
ably at high temperatures, which makes it more difficult to dissipate the heat.
In applications where it is desirable to have reference voltages larger than 1.24 V, a modified bandgap refer-
ence as shown in Fig. 7.11 can be used. It is not difficult to show that the output voltage is now given by

kT
V ref-0 = §© 1 + ------4·¹ V G0 +  m – 1  --------0 # §© 1 + ------4·¹ 1.24 V
R R
(7.38)
R 5 q R 5

Resistor R 3 has been added to cancel the effects of the finite base currents going through R 4 and should be cho-
sen according to the formula in the figure. The interested reader is referred to [Brokaw, 1974] for additional details
concerning this realization.
&026%DQGJDS5HIHUHQFHV
The most popular method for realizing CMOS voltage references also makes
.H\3RLQW7KHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
use of a bandgap voltage reference despite the fact that LQGHSHQGHQW bipolar RIEDQGJDSUHIHUHQFHVLQD
transistors are not available. These CMOS circuits rely on using what are &026SURFHVVPDNHVXVHRI
commonly called ZHOOWUDQVLVWRUV These devices are vertical bipolar transis- ELSRODUWUDQVLVWRUVIRUPHGXVLQJ
tors that use wells as their bases and the substrate as their collectors. In an n- GRSHGZHOOUHJLRQVLQWKHVLOLFRQ
well process (a common modern process), these vertical bipolar transistors are VXEVWUDWH
pnp types with their collectors connected to ground, as shown in Fig. 7.12(D).
In a p-well process, they would be npn transistors with their collectors connected to the positive power supply, as
 &KDSWHU ‡ %LDVLQJ5HIHUHQFHVDQG5HJXODWRUV

R
R 3 = ------2  R 4 | | R 5 
R1 Vref
1
R3 R4
AE1 = 8AE2
Q1
Q2
R5
R2

R1

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shown in Fig. 7.12(E). These transistors have reasonable current gains, but their main limitation is the series base
resistance, which can be high due to the large lateral dimensions between the base contact and the effective emitter
region. To minimize errors due to this base resistance, the maximum collector currents through the transistors are
usually constrained to be less than 0.1 mA. It is possible to use these transistors to implement bandgap voltage ref-
erences using configurations similar to those shown in Fig. 7.13(D) for n-well processes [Kujik, 1973] or
Fig. 7.13(E) for p-well processes [Ye, 1982].
With respect to the n-well implementation of Fig. 7.13(D), we have
V ref = V EB1 + V R1 (7.39)
Also, assuming the opamp has large gain and that its input terminals are at the same voltage, then
V R2 = V EB1 – V EB2 = 'V EB (7.40)
Now, since the current through R 3 is the same as the current through R 2, we have
R R
V R3 = ------3 V R2 = ------3 'V EB (7.41)
R2 R2
using (7.40). The opamp feedback also makes the voltage across R 1 equal to the voltage across R 3 . Using this
fact and substituting (7.41) into (7.39) results in
R
V ref = V EB1 + ------3 'V EB (7.42)
R2

n+ p+ p+ n+

n-well p-well

p– substrate n– substrate VDD

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Q1 Q2
R1 R3

Vref R2
I1 I2
R2 Vref
I1 I2
Q1 Q2
R1 R3

(a) (b)
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which is in the required form to realize a bandgap reference. In integrated realizations of this reference, the bipolar
transistors are often taken the same size, and the different current-densities are realized by taking R 3 greater than
R 1, which causes I 1 to be larger than I 2. In this case, we would have
J1 R
---- = ------3 (7.43)
J2 R1
since R 1 and R 3 have the same voltage across them. Also, recalling from (7.16) that
J
'V EB = V EB1 – V EB2 = ------- ln § ----1·
kT
(7.44)
q © J 2¹
and using (7.43) in (7.42) gives
R kT R
V ref = V EB1 + ------3 ------- ln § ------3· (7.45)
R2 q © R 1¹
It is immediately recognizable that
R
K = ------3 (7.46)
R2

(;$03/(

Find the resistances of a bandgap voltage reference based on Fig. 7.13(D), where I 1 = 80 PA, I 2 = 8 PA, and
V EB1-0 = 0.65 V at T = 300 K.

6ROXWLRQ
Recalling from (7.24) that
V ref-0 = 1.24 V (7.47)
therefore, from (7.39), we require
V R1 = V ref-0 – V EB1-0 = 0.59 V (7.48)
 &KDSWHU ‡ %LDVLQJ5HIHUHQFHVDQG5HJXODWRUV

Also, since V R3 = V R1, we have

V R3
- = 0.59
R 3 = -------
V- = 73.8 k:
---------------- (7.49)
I2 8 PA
and
I
R 1 = R 3 ----2 = 7.38 k: (7.50)
I1
Now, recalling from (7.26) that
1.24 – 0.65 V = 9.93
K = -------------------------------------
- (7.51)
0.0258 u ln  10 
therefore
R
R 2 = ------3 = 7.43 k: (7.52)
K
It is of interest to note here that using (7.44) and noting that J 1 e J 2 = I 1 e I2 (since the sizes of Q 1 and Q 2 are
assumed to be the same), we find that

kT § I ·
'V EB = --------0 ln ¨ ----1¸ = 59 mV (7.53)
q © I 2¹

gives the temperature dependence value of 0.198 mV e K , as found in Example 7.3, which requires approximately
a gain of 10 to cancel temperature dependency (actually 9.93 in this case).

The design equations for a voltage reference that is suitable for p-well processes and shown in Fig. 7.13(E)
are essentially identical to those just given for the n-well reference.
In CMOS realizations of the references just described, the large value resistors are often realized by well
resistors. Unfortunately, these resistors have a temperature dependence approximately given by [Michejda, 1984]
K
T
R  T  = R 0 ----- (7.54)
K
T0
where K = 2.2 . The errors caused by this temperature dependence can be eliminated by offsetting V ref-0 slightly
positive from the value given by (7.23) to
kT
V ref-0 = V G0 +  m + K – 1  --------0 (7.55)
q
Assuming the effects of the temperature coefficient of the resistors have been minimized, the next major
source of error is often due to the input-offset voltage of the opamp [Michejda, 1984]. This results in an error term
in the equation for 'V BE that is roughly equal to K times the input-offset voltage of the opamp. For example, a
1mV offset error that is temperature independent causes a temperature coefficient (TC), error approximately
given by [Song, 1983]
TC error # 26 ppm e qC (7.56)
One means of eliminating this source of error is to use switched-capacitor (SC) amplifiers that have input-offset
compensation circuits [Song, 1983]. One possible SC-based voltage reference is shown in Fig. 7.14, where it
makes use of an amplifier described in [Martin, 1987]. The amplifier shown results in a circuit having its output