This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles
for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: D8185 − 18
Standard Guide for
In-Service Lubricant Viscosity Measurement1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D8185; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope
1.1 Significance and Determination of Viscosity—The pur-
pose of this guide is to provide sufficient knowledge for a
person with some technical background in lubrication or
condition monitoring from which they can determine the best
choice for measuring viscosity of an in-service oil. Such
information from this guide should enable the user to engage in
productive discussions with colleagues, service providers,
managers, and service personnel about obtaining and using
information on and from viscosity. There are a number of
different approaches to viscometric measurement, and this
guide is intended to be a helpful resource in selecting the most
appropriate viscometric approach to gain information for the
in-service fluid.
1.2 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units
are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in
each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each
system shall be used independently of the other. Combining
values from the two systems may result in non-conformance
with the standard.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.4 This international standard was developed in accor-
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:2
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D02 on Petroleum
Products, Liquid Fuels, and Lubricants and is the direct responsibility of Subcom-
mittee D02.96 on In-Service Lubricant Testing and Condition Monitoring Services.
Current edition approved April 1, 2018. Published June 2018. DOI: 10.1520/
D8185-18.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
1
D445 Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent
and Opaque Liquids (and Calculation of Dynamic Viscos-
ity)
D446 Specifications and Operating Instructions for Glass
Capillary Kinematic Viscometers
D2983 Test Method for Low-Temperature Viscosity of Au-
tomatic Transmission Fluids, Hydraulic Fluids, and Lubri-
cants using a Rotational Viscometer
D4057 Practice for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and
Petroleum Products
D4378 Practice for In-Service Monitoring of Mineral Tur-
bine Oils for Steam, Gas, and Combined Cycle Turbines
D4683 Test Method for Measuring Viscosity of New and
Used Engine Oils at High Shear Rate and High Tempera-
ture by Tapered Bearing Simulator Viscometer at 150 °C
D5133 Test Method for Low Temperature, Low Shear Rate,
Viscosity/Temperature Dependence of Lubricating Oils
Using a Temperature-Scanning Technique
D5293 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of Engine Oils
and Base Stocks Between –10 °C and –35 °C Using
Cold-Cranking Simulator
D5478 Test Methods for Viscosity of Materials by a Falling
Needle Viscometer
D6224 Practice for In-Service Monitoring of Lubricating Oil
for Auxiliary Power Plant Equipment
D6299 Practice for Applying Statistical Quality Assurance
and Control Charting Techniques to Evaluate Analytical
Measurement System Performance
D6304 Test Method for Determination of Water in Petro-
leum Products, Lubricating Oils, and Additives by Cou-
lometric Karl Fischer Titration
D6616 Test Method for Measuring Viscosity at High Shear
Rate by Tapered Bearing Simulator Viscometer at 100 °C
D6896 Test Method for Determination of Yield Stress and
Apparent Viscosity of Used Engine Oils at Low Tempera-
ture
D7042 Test Method for Dynamic Viscosity and Density of
Liquids by Stabinger Viscometer (and the Calculation of
Kinematic Viscosity)
D7110 Test Method for Determining the Viscosity-
Temperature Relationship of Used and Soot-Containing
Engine Oils at Low Temperatures
D7279 Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent
and Opaque Liquids by Automated Houillon Viscometer

D7483 Test Method for Determination of Dynamic Viscosity
and Derived Kinematic Viscosity of Liquids by Oscillat-
ing Piston Viscometer
D8092 Test Method for Field Determination of Kinematic
Viscosity Using a Microchannel Viscometer
2.2 SAE AIR Standard:3
SAE AIR 5704 Field Viscosity Test for Thickened Aircraft
Anti-icing Fluids
3. Definitions and Terms
3.1 What is Viscosity?
3.1.1 Viscosity is commonly recognized as the ease or
difficulty with which a fluid flows—that is, its fluidity. Often it
is very evident that temperature has a strong effect on
fluidity—viscosity always increases with decreasing tempera-
ture and vice versa.
3.1.2 A fluid’s viscosity arises from the degree of its internal
molecular resistance to motion and a fluid flows only under
sufficient force whether that force is gravity or some other
source. Stirring, pumping, causing fluid to flow in a pipe or
lubricating a machine are all examples of shear—applying a
force to cause a fluid to move. For a simple example, consider
filling a glass of water and a separate glass full of thick used
oil, and stir each glassful at the same velocity (shear rate) with
an identical spoon held in the same manner. The thicker used
oil will require more force to move the spoon than the water,
which is consistent with the used oil having a higher viscosity
than the water.
3.1.3 Isaac Newton defined viscosity originally as the ratio
of the force moving the fluid over the rate at which the fluid
moves in response to that force. Fig. 1 helps to visualize this
relationship. The edges of the two plates are shown with fluid
between. As predicted from Newton’s law regarding viscous
flow, when the upper plate is moved under a steady force over
the stationary bottom plate, this produces a linear shear
gradient through the fluid as shown. Depending on the viscos-
ity of the fluid between the plates, the ratio of the force per area
(technically named ‘shear-stress’ and indicated in Eq 1 by τ)
causing motion of the upper plate at the shear gradient (termed
shear rate and indicated by δu/δy) is given by Newton’s law as:
η 5 τ⁄δu/δy
3.1.4 Fig. 1 is, of course, a very simple example of fluid
flow to clearly show the relationship in Eq 1. However, fluid
flow can and does take many much more complex patterns of
3
Available from SAE International (SAE), 400 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale,
PA 15096, http://www.sae.org.
FIG. 1 Depiction of Velocity Gradient in a Flowing Fluid
D8185 − 18
flow in the process of lubrication and hydraulic service. All of
these patterns are expressed by Eq 1 if the fluid is Newtonian
in behavior. However, many fluids and lubricants have flow
patterns called “non-Newtonian” and these important lubri-
cants will be discussed further on in this guide.
3.2 Two Frequently Used Forms of Viscosity Measurement
that Produce Different Values:
3.2.1 In the early years of measuring the viscosity of
lubricants, most viscometric measurements of fluids were done
using glass capillary viscometers, and these are still used
widely today. However, in the mid-1930s, rotational viscom-
etry was commercially introduced and has since become
widely used, particularly in high shear rate viscometry, which
was introduced particularly for viscometric information on
non-Newtonian oils.
3.2.2 However, regarding information on Newtonian oils
(which are non-shear rate susceptible), capillary and rotational
viscometers—at the same temperature, produce different vis-
cometric values for a very simple reason. The reason is that
gravimetric viscometry is also a function of the density of the
fluid that causes the fluid to flow through the capillary. Thus,
the rate at which the fluid flows through the capillary is not
only dependent on a fluid’s viscosity but also on its density.
This form of viscometry has been termed “kinematic viscos-
ity.” It was formerly measured and reported in units of
centiStokes, cSt. This unit became obsolete in 1976 when
worldwide System International, SI, unit of mm2/s was
introduced, (for information = 1.0 cSt = 1.0 mm2/s).
3.2.3 True viscosity is called “dynamic viscosity” and was
formerly measured in the units of centipoise, cP. This unit
became obsolete in 1976 when the worldwide System
International, SI, the unit of mPa·s was introduced, (for
information 1.0 cP = 1.0 mPa·s).
3.2.4 With Newtonian fluids, the two viscosity values dif-
fered from one another as shown by Eq 2 in which ν is the
kinematic viscosity, η is the true, dynamic viscosity and ρ is the
fluid’s density at the temperature of measurement.
ν 5 η⁄ρ (2)
Both gravimetric capillary and rotational approaches to
(1) measuring viscosity have remained popular and, over time,
other viscometric instruments have become available.
3.2.5 However, when selecting a viscosity-measuring tech-
nique for an in-service fluid or lubricant, it is critically
important to clearly understand which unit of measurement has
previously been used to characterize its viscosity—that is,
whether it is dynamic or kinematic viscosity. Conversion by
density according to Eq 2 above may be required to achieve the
desired unit of measurement. To repeat, viscosity data must be
in identical units before comparison, otherwise incorrect con-
clusions and false expectations of responses to conditions may
result in poor choice of lubricants with a waste of time, effort,
and resources or may even result in choices harmful to the
device using the fluid or those depending on it.
3.2.6 However, there is another very important factor in the
measurement of viscosity, and that is whether the fluid is
Newtonian or non-Newtonian and that subject is opened in the
following section.
2
 D8185 − 18
3.3 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Viscosity and Its Mea-
surement:
3.3.1 As noted earlier, Newton’s definition of viscosity was
given in Eq 1, in which the ratio of shear stress to shear rate is
constant for a fluid. Many simple fluids such as mineral oils are
Newtonian. However, with some more complex fluids or when
certain additives are dissolved in some Newtonian fluids, the
ratio of shear stress to shear rate is not constant and these fluids
are called non-Newtonian. Today, many lubricating oils are
non-Newtonian in behavior, and this fact also can affect their
ability to lubricate or the energy required to overcome viscous
resistance to flow.
3.3.2 Non-Newtonian flow may take many forms in com-
parison to Newtonian flow, two of which are shown in Fig. 2
compared to Newtonian flow. Shear-thickening by lubricants is
rarely shown, however, shear-thinning is very commonly
encountered especially in lubricants. This shear-thinning is
often called “temporary viscosity loss” or TVL, since on
lowering shear rate, the viscosity “lost” returns. The shear rates
producing TVL are in the millions of units (called “reciprocal
seconds,” denoted frequently by 1/s or s–1). Such high values
of shear rate are the normal operating level for most lubrication
of automotive engines and other machinery. Temporary viscos-
ity loss may reach levels of 30 % or more depending on the
lubricant formulation.
3.3.3 The base mineral oils used to manufacture lubricants
are essentially Newtonian. For many years, one of the impor-
tant additives used to formulate lubricants have been so-called
“viscosity index (VI) modifiers.” These additives are com-
posed of polymeric molecules which are dissolved in relatively
small amounts in the mineral oil base stock to impart desirable
viscometric properties at both low and operating temperatures
at low shear rates.
3.3.4 Conventional wisdom has held that on dissolution, the
volume of these VI modifiers increases greatly and thus impart
an accompanying large viscosity increase to the base oil. The
polymer volume increases when it is dissolved and is at higher
temperature, thus giving a greater increase in viscosity than at
lower temperature, but more recent investigations suggest that
this phenomenon may occur only with certain polymeric
structures, and that for different structures, there is a different
mechanism. Using much lower viscosity base oils, this results
in formulations that at low shear rates have viscosities similar
to those of non-polymer containing lubricants at operating
FIG. 2 Newtonian and Two Forms of Non-Newtonian Behavior
3
temperatures. However, as noted above, much of this viscosity
increase is subject to TVL.
3.3.5 Unfortunately, there is another factor to be considered.
At the shear rates and other, non-viscous forces applied in
lubrication, the larger of these polymeric additives are vulner-
able to mechanical rupture. This causes a significant and
unrecoverable loss of lubricant viscosity, a so-called “perma-
nent viscosity loss” or PVL, depending on how vulnerable the
dissolved macromolecules are to the forces and conditions to
which they are exposed during use. PVL may reach 20 % or
more during use of the lubricant.
4. Measuring Viscosity
4.1 Some viscosity measurement techniques are performed
at specific shear rates and temperature conditions and are
designed to simulate the conditions of the device being
lubricated, for example, the operating conditions of the lubri-
cant serving an automotive engine. For the automotive engine,
Test Method D5293, Test Method D4683, and Test Method
D6616 are examples of viscosity measurement techniques that
fix shear rates, shear-stresses and temperatures to obtain the
resultant viscosity.
4.2 Measurement Consistency:
4.2.1 The precision of the measurement method should be
well within that required for the changes that can occur with
use of the lubricant, otherwise inadequate information may
generate needless or erroneous time, effort, and expensive
actions because of inadequate information from the viscomet-
ric test method chosen. Thus, before choosing a viscometric
test, it is wise to review the repeatability, r, and the
reproducibility, R, of viscosity measurement the particular
viscometric method can provide.
4.2.2 As well, programs such as the ASTM Proficiency
Testing Programs (PTP) for Petroleum Products and Lubricants
can provide valuable insights into a particular viscometric
method, such as how well the variability in reported values by
the number of laboratories participating in the program for a
given method, compares to the reported repeatability (r) and
reproducibility (R) for the viscosity measurement method.
Analysis of PTP data can be especially insightful for viscosity
measurement methods included in the In-Service Oil Monitor-
ing of Hydraulic Fluids/Oils PTP or the In-service Diesel
Lubricating Oil Monitoring PTP. The test oils are actually
in-service oils and can provide insights on measurement
variability applied to such in-service oils, rather than fresh oil
samples. If variability information is not available, periodic
redundant sampling may also provide insight into measurement
method repeatability.
4.3 Specifications and Warranty Testing—Lubricants are
often specified by their viscosity level at a given temperature.
For example, in the case for engine oils, the Society of
Engineers (SAE) viscosity grade of the fresh, unused oil
defines the criteria by which they are identified—as SAE 20,
SAE 10W-40, and others. The methods used to determine an
SAE grade or lubrication specification can be applied to a used
oil to determine if the oil is still within reasonable proximity to
the recommended viscosity specification specified by the
manufacturer of the equipment. Warranties may require the
 D8185 − 18
lubricant meet the requirements of a given specification or the
warranty is subject to voiding.
4.4 Establishing a Monitoring Plan for Viscosity Measure-
ment:
4.4.1 Often, a series of in-service viscosity measurements
are helpful and informative when taken in a systematic way.
Such data can be of interest, for example in comparison to the
initial fresh oil value. Or, depending on the equipment, if there
is a minimum value below which the viscosity of the fluid
should not fall or a maximum above which viscosity should not
rise. Documenting a plan for an in-service series of viscosity
measurements will likely also improve one’s skill in good
decision making regarding the information generated by the
series.
4.4.2 Information on specific measurement plans advice can
also be found in the following ASTM methods:
4.4.2.1 Practice D6224 for monitoring of turbine oils,
4.4.2.2 Practice D4378 for mineral turbine oils, and
4.4.2.3 Guide to ASTM Test Methods for the Analysis of
Petroleum Products and Lubricants.4
4.4.3 Measurement plans should be designed to ensure
reasonably trouble-free operation of machines and equipment.
An effective plan will often include several different pieces of
information, starting with the technique to ensure a represen-
tative sample. The amount of sample should be sufficient for
the planned slate of tests. If the fluid to be analyzed is well
circulated in the mechanism, the sample can be taken at any
site containing the circulating fluid—for example, the sump of
an engine.
4.4.4 In some cases, lubricant viscosity may be best ana-
lyzed under temperatures and shear rates similar to in-service
conditions. Frequently, measurements are also made under
conditions specified for new oils (for example, 40 °C or 100 °C
at atmospheric pressure).
4.4.5 Regardless of where the samples are obtained and
under what conditions they are analyzed, consistent sampling
location(s) are important for meaningful interpretation of the
results. If multiple sample ports are desired, the location at
which the sample is taken should be recorded with analysis
values, together with any machine identification, and date and
time. In some cases, it is helpful to have the identification of
the person collecting the sample as well.
4.4.6 For samples likely to contain volatile components/
contaminants, sample-containing vessels should be chosen
which are readily and completely closable and thus suitable to
consistently preserve the sample from changes that may occur
between the time the sample is taken and the measurement
performed. They should also be sized to hold adequate sample
for the measurement method or methods being applied. The
measurement plan should define the range of time allowed
between sampling and the time a measurement should be made
to minimize sample degradation and to provide actionable data
as quickly as possible. Ideally this time should be as short as
possible.
4
Nadkarni, K., Guide to ASTM Test Methods for the Analysis of Petroleum
Products and Lubricants, 2007.
4
4.4.7 The level of analysis at which action should be taken
should also be clearly identified as part of the measurement
plan, along with what actions should be taken, who should
perform them, and the timeliness expected in completing them.
In some cases, actions may require additional measurements of
other properties. This should be taken into consideration when
sizing the sample vessels. The most subjective factor of the
sampling plan is the frequency of sampling. This will depend
highly on the application, the particular oil type, and take into
account the following:
4.4.7.1 Cost of analyses,
4.4.7.2 Expected sample degradation rate under normal
conditions,
4.4.7.3 The likelihood of equipment failure, and
4.4.7.4 Potential cost of a failure if serious degradation is
not detected fast enough.
4.5 Obtaining a Representative Sample:
4.5.1 There are inherent limitations when performing any
type of sampling, any one of which may affect the information
obtained on the sample. For example, a small sample for
determining the viscosity of the oil in a pipeline provides a
sample from only one particular location. Therefore, when a
representative sample cannot be obtained from a single port, a
better approach is to collect samples from multiple locations.
4.5.2 It is important to clearly understand that the objectives
of sampling an oil or lubricant are to:
4.5.2.1 Maintain data integrity,
4.5.2.2 Maintain proper frequency of sampling,
4.5.2.3 Set proper targets and alarms for each type of
equipment, and
4.5.2.4 Minimize data obstructions.
4.5.3 Moreover, another area of planning involves strategic
sampling conditions that include such matters as:
4.5.3.1 Safety considerations,
4.5.3.2 Sampling location, and
4.5.3.3 Sampling tools.
(1) Hardware.
(2) Bottles.
(3) Sampling and procedure practices (Practice D4057).
4.5.4 Under all circumstances, it is necessary to follow safe
and well-planned sampling procedures for each type of equip-
ment whether they be:
4.5.4.1 From pressurized or non-pressurized systems.
4.5.4.2 From small reservoirs (such as bearing housings).
4.5.4.3 From a drum or reservoir without a test port.
4.5.4.4 From otherwise difficult or dangerous environments.
4.5.5 All sophisticated oil analysis tools, techniques, and
diagnostic processes are meaningless if the oil sample fails to
effectively represent the actual condition of the oil in service in
the machine. Proper sampling procedures build the foundation
of an effective oil analysis program. Without good sampling
procedures that obtain a representative quantity of the fluid or
lubricant in service, both time and money are wasted, and
incorrect conclusions are likely if the data are faulty.
4.5.6 Another caution with sampling is the importance of
consistency of the method and the analytical technique. It is not
a good idea to trend sample results taken using different
sampling methods or different test methods.
 D8185 − 18
4.6 Temperature of the Viscometric Test and Measurement:
4.6.1 Viscosity of an in-service oil will change significantly
with temperature. Proper viscosity measurement requires the
instrument or technique to control the temperature of the
sample appropriately during measurement. Some ASTM meth-
ods are written for elevated temperature measurement, and
others have been specifically developed to evaluate viscosity of
the oil at low temperatures. ASTM methods typically indicate
the required temperature control limits during the measure-
ment. For some time, 40 °C, 100 °C, and 150 °C have been the
three most common above-ambient temperatures at which
viscosity data are collected and compared.
4.6.2 When performing different test methodologies, it is
important to have an understanding that time to reach the
temperature equilibrium at which measurements will be made
differs with instrument and technique. For example, the kine-
matic capillary viscosity test, Test Method D445 requires the
use of clear liquid baths which may need 30 min or more to
become constant depending on the temperature of measure-
ment prior to performing a test run. As another example, with
the low-temperature dynamic viscosity Test Method D5133,
the test requires cooling at a rate of 1 °C per hour after
stabilizing either the liquid bath or the refrigerated metal
dry-bath at –5 °C. Not waiting sufficient time for equilibrium to
take place will produce test results outside the expected
repeatability/reproducibility stated in the respective test
method and operators need to be aware that such poor practice
will produce erroneous test results. Obviously, poor tempera-
ture control while taking a viscosity measurement will very
likely lead to:
4.6.2.1 Inaccurate results,
4.6.2.2 Wrong conclusions, and
4.6.2.3 Poor reproducibility and poor consistency,
4.6.3 Checking the temperature measurements devices, such
as the thermometer or PT-100, against a reference on a
semi-annual basis (as a minimum) will help to ensure that the
viscosity measurements being taken are accurate. Each instru-
ment is likely to have specific procedures for calibrating the
temperature measurement and temperature control devices.
ASTM methods often detail the procedures for calibrating a
device. A laboratory practicing a given form or forms of
viscosity measurement should be able to demonstrate profi-
ciency in the performance of the calibrations to the frequency
required by the ASTM method or provide a traceable certificate
to the organization which provides the calibration services.
4.7 Turnaround Time Requirements for Results:
4.7.1 Different viscosity measurement techniques can re-
quire different amounts of time to produce the data. Table 1
provides insights on the elements that affect turnaround time
for each of the viscosity measurement methods. Included in
Table 1 is a brief description of the viscometric measurement
technique and the ASTM method number. The information in
the Typical Location column indicates where the viscosity

TABLE 1 Elements Affecting Turnaround for Each Viscosity Measurement Method

Description ASTM Method Temperature Typical Location Elements that Affect Turnaround
Capillary D445 Typical 40 °C and 100 °C, Oil Analysis • If the measurement is made by an automatic unit or
Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity wide range possible; –40 °C to Laboratory manual procedure.
150 °C • Temperature of measurement as a sample must equili-
brate at the test temperature. Standard temperatures such
as 40 °C and 100 °C are more likely to be ready on an au-
tomated unit or have a bath ready at temperature for a
manual measurement.
Low Temperature D2983 –55 °C to 20 °C Oil Analysis • This method requires the sample to equilibrate to tem-
Viscosity Dynamic Viscosity Laboratory perature for 16 h before measurement.
TBS HTHS Viscosity D4683 40 °C to 200 °C Oil Analysis • Non-standard temperatures will require a calibration pro-
150 °C Dynamic Viscosity Laboratory cedure
Scanning Brookfield D5133 –5 °C to –40 °C is typical, Oil Analysis • Test method requires cooling at 1 °C per hour from –5 °C
Technique Dynamic Viscosity can be run to –70 °C Laboratory to –40 °C. Test will take at least 48 h to complete.
Cold Cranking D5293 –5 °C to –30 °C, Oil Analysis • Test takes 1 h to 2 h to complete.
Simulator Dynamic Viscosity depending on viscosity grade Laboratory
Falling Needle D5478 –40 °C to 350 °C Field, • Field measurements take 2 min to 3 min.
Viscometer Dynamic Viscosity Oil Analysis • Tests completed in the lab take 2 min to 3 min after tem-
Laboratory perature equilibration of approximately 5 min to 10 min.
TBS HTHS Viscosity D6616 100 °C, see D4683 Oil Analysis • Method takes 5 min for results when unit is calibrated and
100 °C Dynamic Viscosity Laboratory ready to test.
Yield Stress and D6896 –15 °C to –40 °C, depending Oil Analysis • Depends on W grade, and the temperature of the test.
Apparent Viscosity Dynamic Viscosity on viscosity grade Laboratory Lower temperatures can require 48 h to 72 h to complete
the test.
Dynamic Viscosity D7042 –60 °C to 135 °C Oil Analysis • Test results take 1 min to 3 min, depending on precision
Stabinger Dynamic Viscosity Laboratory mode selected.
• For samples containing ferrous materials, a magnetic par-
ticle trap can be used with to improve performance by re-
moving larger fragments.
Houillon Kinematic D7279 20 °C to 120 °C Oil Analysis • A typical test takes 2 min to 3 min to complete. Sample
Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Laboratory must equilibrate to test temperature.
Oscillating Piston D7483 –40 °C to 190 °C Oil Analysis • A typical test takes 3 min to 25 min, depending on sample
Dynamic Viscosity Dynamic Viscosity Laboratory viscosity and temperature differential at the time the new
sample is introduced to the viscometer.
Microchannel D8092 40 °C Field • Test takes approximately 1 s per centistoke.
Viscometer Kinematic Viscosity

5
 D8185 − 18
measurement is most likely to be executed if the nature of
measurement is crucial enough to support investment in
equipment and facilities to execute the method and personnel
are trained to run the test method.
4.7.2 Elements That Affect Turnaround column summaries
assume that the instrument is properly set-up, calibrated, and
ready for sample testing. Such time to execute the test may be
extended if calibration and reference procedures are not
included unless required by the method to be completed for
each test. Time estimates obviously do not include time to ship
the samples to a laboratory nor do they include response time
of the chosen laboratory if the measurement technique is not
immediately available at or associated with the location at
which the sample is obtained.
4.7.3 The rate at which data is collected must be balanced
with the information that is required for the information
desired. An in-service oil analysis plan that utilizes the most
appropriate measurement technique and allows for the results
to be turned around in the appropriate time will achieve the
best results with the minimum delay in appropriate response to
the data’s information. Make sure that the laboratory you
choose is qualified, ISO 9001 or 17025 certified, and experi-
enced in running the test method.
4.8 Availability of Certified Reference Fluids—Reference
fluids are an important tool that a laboratory must use to ensure
that the viscosity measurement equipment and procedures of
the technicians are both correct and consistent. When devel-
oping an in-service viscosity measurement program, it may be
advantageous to understand the reference fluids available and
how they can be used by a laboratory to ensure consistent
results. Either the viscometer manufacturer or the ASTM
committee responsible for viscosity reference material pro-
ducer can give assistance with selection of appropriate refer-
ence materials for a particular application. Reference materials
are generally classified as certified and non-certified. Here we
will describe these and how they can be used.
4.8.1 Standard Viscosity Reference Fluids:
4.8.1.1 Special standardized fluids are necessary for:
(1) Viscometer calibration.
(2) Verification of a viscometer’s calibration or perfor-
mance.
(3) Or in the case of non-Newtonian behavior, to appraise
an instrument’s response to certain test conditions.
4.8.1.2 Certified standard viscosity reference materials
should be sourced from the instrument manufacturer, the
ASTM or other group responsible for the viscometric test
method, or an ISO 17025 or Guide 34 accredited laboratory
capable of manufacturing the certified standard viscosity ref-
erence material. Some methods specify qualifications of the
source for these reference materials. Calibration of various
viscometers are defined in their ASTM test methods. Calibra-
tion of automated viscometers may be defined in the corre-
sponding ASTM method or the manufacturer’s operating
manual. A calibration interval for the viscometer may be
suggested in its ASTM test method and should be further
determined by each laboratory. A calibration verification inter-
val should also be determined to ensure accuracy of the
measurement results.
6
4.8.1.3 Calibration verification of a viscometer by use of a
standard is measured by the instrument and the resultant value
compared to the certified value of the standard. If the two
values agree within an acceptable tolerance as specified by the
ASTM Test Method, then the viscometer can be put into use. If
the two values do not agree within the acceptable tolerance,
then the viscometer or its manual should be checked for help or
the manufacturer contacted as needed. (For manual glass
capillary viscometers, see Test Method D445, subsection 9.2
(Certified Viscosity Reference Standards) and Annex A4 (Cal-
culation of Acceptable Tolerance Zone (Band) to Determine
Conformance with a Certified Reference Material).) The cer-
tified reference materials are typically manufactured for an
intended use and the data corresponds to the appropriate
temperature and viscosity range.
4.8.2 Non-certified Reference Fluids:
4.8.2.1 Suitable reference fluids can be chosen and used in
a laboratory for a daily or periodic verification of an instrument
and these measurements can become part of a statistical quality
control (SQC) system for a laboratory. This system would track
changes or drifts in the measurement system. If the measured
result for a SQC sample does not fall within a defined
tolerance, then the viscometer can be calibrated again or the
cause of the error found and repaired. The tolerance should be
based on the ASTM test method’s precision. Non-certified
viscosity reference fluids are also available from accredited
laboratories. However, many companies use their own base
stock or formulated engine oils as the non-certified reference
material. When choosing a fluid to use, some important
characteristics are:
(1) The material must be homogeneous,
(2) Stable over time,
(3) Free of contaminants, and
(4) Of sufficient volume such that the material will be
available for an extended time.
4.8.2.2 The viscometer manufacturer should be able to
assist with selection of an appropriate material for the desired
application. Some viscometers are made to measure shear
sensitive fluids or low-temperature sensitivity to gelation, and
therefore a fluid with similar non-Newtonian characteristics is
preferred. For example, some reference materials are fully
formulated motor oils and can be used to verify that the applied
shear rate corresponds to the method. Practice D6299 is an
available resource for this further information on this topic.
Both certified and non-certified viscosity reference materials
should be considered to ensure the accuracy and consistency of
the viscosity measurements of the in-service fluids.
5. Fluid Rheology; the Flow Behavior of Fluids
5.1 Previous sections of this guide have presented a some-
what simple view of flow behavior of fluids. Understanding of
the property of viscosity of a fresh lubricant is not simple, and
this property becomes more complex with use of the lubricant.
Moreover, the conditions under which the lubricant is used can
add further complexity to its viscous behavior. This section
extends the degree of understanding of how lubricant viscosity
affects and is affected by its hours of use in an effort to remove
some of the complexity.
 D8185 − 18
5.2 Newtonian Fluid Behavior:
5.2.1 As previously noted, the viscosity of a simple fluid
was defined initially by Newton as the ratio of the force
moving the fluid to the rate at which the fluid moves. This ratio
is apparent in a restatement of Eq 1 where Newton’s Equation
is stated as:
η 5 τ⁄Ġ (3)
where:
η = is the viscosity (most often expressed in milliPascal
seconds, mPa·s, or centipoise, cP),
τ = is the force moving the fluid (called shearstress, ex-
pressed experimentally in whatever units of force are
applied) and
Ġ = is the rate at which the fluid moves in response to the
force (called shear rate and expressed in terms of
reciprocal seconds, 1/s or s–1 ).
5.2.2 As stated earlier, an important point is that a fluid
having Newtonian properties will, at constant temperature,
have the same viscosity no matter what the shear-stress or
resultant shear rate is. That is, since Eq 3 is a linear equation,
a plot of Eq 3 should be a straight line with the slope equal to
viscosity and a zero intercept. This is shown in Fig. 3 for a
fresh Newtonian engine oil measured at three temperatures as
an example. Of further interest in Fig. 3 is the evident effect of
temperature on viscosity. Not only does the viscosity of a fluid
increase with decreasing temperature but, as suggested by the
slopes of the engine oil at the three temperatures, the effect of
the temperature is exponential.
5.2.3 That the principles of Newton’s equation remain
constant to the physical limits of high shear rate viscometry has
been shown by studies made, for example, over a very large
shear rate range by the tapered bearing simulator (TBS)
viscometer. A plot of the shear rate versus the shear-stress on
several Newtonian mineral oils in the TBS viscometer over a
wide range of shear rates is shown in Fig. 4. The plot again
emphasizes the linearity and zero intercept associated with
FIG. 3 Viscometric Response of a Newtonian Lubricant
7
FIG. 4 Higher Shear Rate Newtonian Response
Newton’s concept of viscosity shown in Eq 3 when analyzing
the viscosity of Newtonian fluids.
5.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids and Their Complex Behavior:
5.3.1 Many simple fluids, such as basic mineral oils, are
Newtonian. However, with some more complex fluids or when
certain additives are dissolved in some Newtonian fluids the
ratio of shear stress to shear rate is not constant, and these
fluids are called non-Newtonian. Today, many lubricating oils
are non-Newtonian in behavior, and this fact also can affect
their ability to lubricate and the energy required to overcome
their viscous resistance to flow.
5.3.2 Non-Newtonian flow may take many forms in com-
parison to Newtonian flow. An important expression of such
non-Newtonian flow in lubricants is shown in Fig. 5 compared
to Newtonian flow and is termed “Temporary Viscosity Loss”
(TVL). Its history is interesting.
5.3.3 Since the 1940s, some of the important additives used
to formulate lubricants have been so-called “Viscosity Index
(VI) Modifiers.” These additives are composed of very large
polymeric macromolecules which, in relatively small
concentrations, are dissolved in the mineral oil base stock.
These macromolecules impart desirable viscometric properties
at both low and operating temperatures at low shear rates.
FIG. 5 Example of a Non-Newtonian Oil Showing Classic Tempo-
rary Viscosity Loss
 D8185 − 18
5.3.4 On dissolution, the molecular size of these VI modi-
fiers increases greatly, and by doing this impart a resistance to
flow that results in an accompanying large viscosity increase to
the base oil in which they are dissolved as shown in Fig. 6.
Using much lower viscosity base oils results in formulations
that at low shear rates have viscosities similar to those of
non-polymer-containing lubricants at operating temperatures.
This enables the formulator to use lower viscosity base oils and
still achieve the same viscosity that higher viscosity oils show
at operating temperatures. However, as noted above, much of
this viscosity increase is subject to TVL. This approach has
since become a well-known practice in lubricant formulations
and is very common, for example, in blending so-called
“multi-grade engine oils” to meet the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) classifications of engine oils such as SAE
10W-30, SAE 0W-20, and so on. Such non-Newtonian behav-
ior and its variation with usage of the lubricant has been the
subject of much dialogue and technical publications over the
last several decades.
5.3.5 Shear-thinning is very commonly encountered espe-
cially in lubricants in which VI improvers are used. The fact
that this shear-thinning is often called Temporary Viscosity
Loss (TVL) is because on lowering shear rate any viscosity
“lost” returns. Shear rates producing TVL are in the millions of
reciprocal seconds. Such high values of shear rate are the
normal operating level for most lubrication of automotive
engines and other machinery. Temporary viscosity loss may
reach levels of 30 % or more depending on the lubricant
formulation.
5.3.6 Another important reason for high technical interest in
the contribution of viscosity to mineral oils by the addition of
VI improvers is particularly in regard to engine oils.
Unfortunately, at the shear rates and other, non-viscous forces
applied in lubrication, the larger of these polymeric additives
are vulnerable to mechanical rupture. This causes a significant
and unrecoverable loss of lubricant viscosity—a so-called
“Permanent Viscosity Loss” or PVL. The amount of loss is
dependent on how vulnerable the dissolved macromolecules
are to the forces and conditions to which they are exposed
during use. It has been found that PVL may reach 20 % or
more during use of the lubricant.
5.3.7 Another factor that can influence the viscosity/shear
rate response is the increase of viscosity due to oxidation of the
lubricant. Usually, the effect of lubricant oxidation is shown by
viscosity increase which may or may not be affected by shear
rate.
FIG. 6 Distention of the Polymeric Macromolecule in Mineral Oil
Solution
8
5.3.8 Specific to the Falling Needle Viscometer—For shear
thinning fluids, drop a needle with hemispherical ends and
extension bar plus external weights (different densities with the
same geometry) and measure their terminal velocities by the
amount of time taken to travel between two of the measure-
ment lines by using a stopwatch or an automatic sensing
device. The viscosities and shear rates can be determined based
on the needle velocities, the fluid and needle densities, the
needle and system geometries, and gravitational acceleration.
6. Care to Avoid Adverse Effects of Contaminants5
6.1 Sampling Procedures—Sampling procedures must be
developed and applied with care particularly when sampling
from large containers or sumps of machines. This is especially
true when sampling from the bottom of a tank, container, or
sump, where heavier particulates and water—both heavier than
the oil—will accumulate. Viscosity of the oil sample will
obviously be influenced by the water content and particulate
content and perhaps even prevent a viscosity measurement
from being made depending on the instrument. It is certainly
important to choose a viscometric instrument and method to
avoid significant error in the effort to obtain meaningful
information.
6.2 Effect of Solids or Semi-solid Particles in the Sample:
6.2.1 Some viscosity measurement techniques, such as cap-
illary viscometry, can be sensitive to the presence of particu-
lates in a sample and may require the sample to be filtered prior
to analysis. Depending on the purpose of the analysis, filtration
prior to measurement may be an acceptable practice.
Alternatively, obtaining the viscosity of both the unfiltered and
filtered oil sample may provide desirable information. On the
other hand, it may be of primary interest to analyze the
unfiltered sample to learn about the cause or character of the
particles.
6.2.2 Once more, it is informative to consider why moni-
toring oil viscosity is very important. Most lubricated, load
bearing moving surfaces are separated by a lubrication film
thickness of 10 µm or less. Many of these loaded surfaces in
near-contact are prevented from contacting only by the viscos-
ity of the lubricant at that temperature. This viscosity-imposed
separation is dependent on the viscosity of the continuously
supplied lubricating oil forced into that zone of separation. If
the lubricant cannot escape the compressive pressure fast
enough, the surfaces cannot come into contact because the
lubricant cannot be compressed beyond a certain thickness,
again dependent upon the lubricant. Especially for systems
such as engines or high speed turbochargers, maintaining the
correct oil viscosity is quite critical. Any significant decrease of
oil viscosity may permit contact of the two surfaces in relative
motion and cause damage. In high-pressure hydraulic systems,
an increase in viscosity may adversely reduce pumping effec-
tiveness.
6.3 Water Saturation of the Sample—Once the saturation
point of water for the oil is exceeded, the viscosity of the oil
5
Additional resources available from Trico Corporation, 1235 Hickory St.,
Pewaukee WI 53072, http://www.tricocorp.com.
 D8185 − 18
will be less accurate. If it is desired to determine the amount of contamination is identified. It is important to note that some-
water in the lubricant, analysis by Karl Fischer, Test Method times two factors may be acting in opposite directions, result-
D6304 is the most accurate test for water up to a concentration ing in an acceptable viscosity range, for example soot (in-
of about 1 % in the oil. Over 1 %, Fourier-transform infrared creases viscosity) and fuel dilution (reduces viscosity) for
spectroscopy (FTIR) is a more informative but less precise test. engine oil. Both factors can be measured separately, and if
See Table 2. either of them exceed acceptable limits, this may be detrimen-
6.4 Viscometric Suspension of Solids or Semi-solid Particles tal to the machine. Hence, viscosity analysis alone is not
in the Sample: sufficient, but extremely important.
6.4.1 Particulate or soot levels depend on the viscosity of 6.4.6 In conclusion, as the most important characteristic for
the oil. That is, depending on the densities of both the oil and lubricating oil, viscosity of in-service oil must be monitored as
the particulates, the particulates will either sink or rise to the a routine parameter in oil analysis. However, in order to get the
surface over time. Also, the viscosity of the oil will determine most benefit from oil analysis, other important parameters must
the rate at which particles will settle out or rise. Of course, be analyzed as well to get the holistic view of oil and
depending on the viscometric information desired, the oil may machines’ condition.
be measured with its particles well-distributed by shaking or
agitation or by removal through filtration or centrifugation. 7. In-Service Oil Viscosity Measurement Techniques
6.4.2 A brief summary of potential effects of a viscosity
Test Method D445
change in an in-service oil:
Reduction in Viscosity:
7.1 Test Method D445 for Kinematic Viscosity of Transpar-
Loss of oil film resulting in excessive wear. ent and Opaque Liquids—As previously discussed, kinematic
Increased mechanical friction causing excessive energy consumption and heat viscosity measurement of in-service lubricants provide a value
generation.
Increased sensitivity to particle contamination due to reduced oil film thickness.
that is dependent on the ratio of the actual viscosity divided by
Oil film failure at high temperatures, high loads during start-ups or coast-downs. the fluid density. The use of glass capillary kinematic viscom-
Increase in Viscosity: eters presents several issues to consider. This section covers
Excessive heat generation resulting in oil oxidation, sludge and varnish build-up.
Gaseous cavitation due to inadequate oil flow to pumps and bearings. both the manual viscometers and automated kinematic viscom-
Lubrication starvation due to inadequate oil flow to pumps and bearings. eters.
Oil whip in journal bearings. 7.1.1 Factors Affecting Kinematic Viscosity
Excess energy consumption to overcome fluid friction. Poor air release or
demulsibility. Measurements—Items discussed here include:
Poor cold start pumpability. 7.1.1.1 Sample preparation.
6.4.3 The end results of above effects are shorter oil 7.1.1.2 Samples containing water.
lifespan, shorter components lifecycle, increased oil 7.1.1.3 Samples containing particulate.
consumption, higher power consumption, and reduced ma- 7.1.1.4 Opaque samples.
chine reliability. It is extremely important for the end user to 7.1.1.5 Solvent selection.
find the root cause of oil viscosity change and to act accord- 7.1.1.6 Samples containing volatiles.
ingly at the earliest possible time to minimize the damage. 7.1.1.7 Solvent selection.
6.4.4 A brief summary of potential root causes of a 7.1.1.8 Sample coating of the kinematic capillary viscom-
viscosity change in an in-service oil: eter walls.
Reduction in Viscosity: 7.1.2 Sample Preparation—Particularly if a sample is non-
Thermal cracking of oil molecules.
Shear thinning of VI improvers (for multigrade engine oil).
homogeneous, the sample should first be thoroughly mixed,
Fuel dilution. stirred, or shaken to improve the homogeneity but assurance of
Cross mixing with lower viscosity oil. homogeneity by such means for any sample is good practice.
Increase in Viscosity:
Oxidation.
After mixing, stirring, or shaking, permit the sample to set for
Water (emulsion). a few minutes to permit any bubbles of air to rise and leave, or
Formation of carbon and oxides that create insoluble soot. else the density of the fluid needed to drive the fluid through
Antifreeze (Glycol).
Cross mixing with higher viscosity oil.
the capillary will be slightly less and result in a slightly higher
kinematic viscosity. Do not use a vacuum on the sample or heat
6.4.5 Most of the factors, except water ingression, may be
it prior to determining its kinematic viscosity, as this may
rectified by changing the oil. However, further analysis is
remove more volatile components of the fluid also resulting in
required to confirm the root cause before any actions are taken.
a somewhat higher kinematic viscosity.
Once the root cause(s) is/are confirmed, remedial action should
7.1.3 Samples Containing Water:
be taken to prevent the incident from recurring, especially if
7.1.3.1 Samples that have a high water content will likely
not give repeatable or valid results at temperatures ≥100 °C
TABLE 2 Examples of Saturation Levels for Various Oils due to boiling of the water in the sample. However, it must be
Oil Type Dissolved (ppm) Emulsified (ppm) Free (ppm) considered that any attempt to remove water by heating the
New Hydraulic Fluid 0 – 200 200 – 1000 >1000 sample to or above 100 °C before measuring its kinematic
Aged Hydraulic Fluid 0 – 600 600 – 5000 >5000 viscosity will also have an effect on removing more volatile
New R&O Oil 0 – 150 150 – 500 >500
Aged R&O Oil 0 – 500 500 – 1000 >1000 components of the sample. Samples of engine oil often have
some water and volatiles present as a consequence of their use

9
 D8185 − 18
and different viscometric instrument might be considered for
in-service viscosity studies.
7.1.3.2 Emulsions are encountered in lubricants and other
mineral-oil-based fluids. A number of these emulsions contain
water. Again, kinematic viscometry at 100 °C and above may
be subject to error both because of the water content and the
size of the emulsion particles. In such cases, it would be wise
to contact the manufacturer of the capillary viscometers to
obtain guidance for kinematic viscometry.
7.1.4 Filtering Particulates:
7.1.4.1 If the presence of particles is undesirable for the
information desired, particulate filtering may be necessary
prior to measuring kinematic viscosity in accordance with Test
Method D445. This method specifies glass capillary kinematic
viscometers and the capillary size would determine the filtering
requirements if one knows the diameter of the particulates.
Specification D446 specifies the capillary diameter for many of
the manual glass kinematic viscometer tubes. For the auto-
mated kinematic viscometers, the manufacturer should be
contacted for information regarding the capillary diameter. One
of the problems is if the sample is not filtered, it is possible to
pull particulate up through the capillary and it can become
lodged at the capillary opening, thus changing the flow rate
through the capillary. This scenario will cause the reported
viscosity to be higher than the actual value.
7.1.4.2 Filtering particulates will prevent partial ‘clogging’
or interference with the flow of the fluid through the capillary.
Any particulates, unless very small in comparison to the
capillary diameter, will cause kinematic viscosity values to be
generated that, on measuring density to convert the value to
true dynamic viscosity, will be in some degree of error.
Filtering samples containing particles before measuring their
kinematic viscosity is desirable, although it will not provide the
accurate kinematic viscosity of the particle-containing oil
lubricating the mechanism.
7.1.5 Measuring Opaque Samples—Reverse-flow manual
kinematic viscometers are available for measuring opaque
samples, such as highly-oxidized or particle-containing engine
oil. Some automated viscometers use thermal detection of the
meniscus rather than optical detection, and the opacity of the
sample does not offer any obstacle to the sample measurement.
Consult the manufacturer to determine the ability to measure
opaque samples.
7.1.6 Solvent Selection for Cleaning Kinematic Viscom-
eters:
7.1.6.1 To clean the kinematic viscometer according to Test
Method D445, one must choose a cleaning solvent miscible
with the sample as well as a drying solvent miscible with the
cleaning solvent and water. Prior to selecting the cleaning
solvent, determine the likely contaminants that may be present
in the sample. After removing the bulk of the sample by
pouring it out or vacuum-extracting it, a suitable solvent can
then be selected to adequately remove the remnant sample
from the viscometer. Soot, glycol, fuels, water, and metals will
potentially be in a sample and need to be removed. While the
metals are normally flushed out with the sample; soot, glycol,
and water may require different solvent selections than would
be needed for new lube oils.
10
7.1.6.2 For automated kinematic viscometers, verify the
solvents are compatible with all wetted components in the
viscometer. The manufacturer can provide information for this
choice.
7.1.6.3 Verification that the kinematic viscometer has been
adequately cleaned after measuring a particular type of sample
can be accomplished by measuring a certified reference fluid
using two or three measurements using the kinematic
viscometer, and then verifying that the repeatability meets the
Test Method D445 precision statement for it. Also, verify the
kinematic viscosity result agrees with the certified value.
7.1.7 Measuring Samples Containing Volatile Components:
7.1.7.1 Volatile types of samples can offer several issues.
For manual measurements, boiling can occur while measuring
at elevated temperatures, such as 100 °C and above, kinematic
viscosity, and more volatile components of the oil can be lost.
Light ends can also be lost when the sample is drawn into the
viscometer tube under vacuum. Moreover, the more volatile
components can separate and air pockets or foam can develop
within the sample column. Timing in determining kinematic
viscosity can be more difficult if bubbles develop at the
meniscus.
7.1.7.2 Automated instruments may exhibit the same issues
as in manual testing, and the column separation and bubbling
can be exasperated by the sample being drawn up through the
capillary at the test temperature.
7.1.7.3 Measuring volatile samples at 40 °C may be an
alternative to 100 °C measurement.
7.1.8 Sample Coating on the Viscometer Walls:
7.1.8.1 Some samples may adhere and coat the wall of the
glass capillary of the kinematic viscometer over time. The
length of time a sample requires to coat the wall of the
viscometer tube will vary depending on what is coating it,
cleaning effectiveness, and the measurement temperature.
Among these coating-forming components adhering to the
glass may be additives used to improve the lubrication or
engine performance. Also, soot can adhere to the glass or to a
coating on the surface. Kinematic viscometer cleaning with
chromic acid can be performed to remove such coatings.
Alternative products to chromic acid are available and may be
used, or sulfuric acid may be used, to clean the viscometer
without etching the glass. Glassware detergents are also
available and will work to clean the kinematic viscometer.
However, some of these are highly alkaline and could etch the
glass wall of the capillary and thus change the viscometer
constant. In this case, the viscometer would need to be
calibrated again, or at a minimum a certified reference material
measured to verify the calibration constant for the particular
kinematic viscometer has not changed.
7.1.8.2 Some automated kinematic viscometer customers
use an alkaline cleaner, but the cleaning solution should not be
held in the viscometer for more than a few minutes. A certified
reference fluid should always be used to verify that the
viscometer’s calibration constant has not been altered by the
cleaning solution. The instrument manufacturer should be able
to offer further assistance with these cleaning techniques.
 D8185 − 18
Test Method D2983
7.2 Test Method D2983 for Low-Temperature Viscosity of
Automatic Transmission Fluids, Hydraulic Fluids, and Lubri-
cants Using a Rotational Viscometer—The low-temperature,
low-shear rate dynamic viscosity behaviors of automatic trans-
mission fluids, gear oils, torque and traction fluids, and
industrial and automotive hydraulic oils at low temperatures
are of considerable importance to the proper operation or even
continued operation of a number of mechanical devices.
Measurement of dynamic viscosity for these oils and fluids at
low temperatures is often used to specify their acceptance for
service. Test Method D2983 uses a rotational viscometer with
LV torque (max torque = 0.0670 milliNewton-meter) and 4B2
spindle (equivalent dimensionally to Brookfield LV-4 spindle).
The instrument measures low shear rate viscosity of lubricants
in the viscosity range from 300 mPa·s to 900 000 mPa·s at low
temperature down to –12 °C, –40 °C, or –55 °C. The back-
ground of the test is interesting.
7.2.1 History of Development of the Low-Temperature
Brookfield Method:
7.2.1.1 In the early years of the automatic transmission
(early 1950s), it was suspected that the low-temperature
pumpability properties of some automatic transmission fluids
(ATF) were the cause of frequently occurring failures during
cold weather operation of the vehicle caused by insufficient
rate of clutch plate closure as a consequence of the inadequate
flow rate of the cold ATF activating the closure mechanism. At
that time there were no developed techniques for measuring
low temperature viscometric properties. Viscosity values of
0 °F or lower were calculated by empirical extrapolation of
viscosities obtained at 100 °F. Initial studies of viscosity at low
temperatures immediately showed that the extrapolation tech-
niques were in serious error by indicating much lower viscosi-
ties obtained at 100 °F and 210 °F. Initial studies of viscosity at
low temperatures immediately showed that the extrapolation
techniques were in serious error by indicating much lower
viscosities than were truly correct.
7.2.1.2 As a consequence, by the 1950s, a low-temperature
viscometric bench test was developed utilizing a Brookfield
viscometer, which showed good correlation with cold-room
ATF tests and automatic transmission failures. In 1971, after
considerable efforts in the 1960s to encourage the use of this
technique and a successful ASTM round robin involving
several laboratories, this bench test became Test Method
D2983.
7.2.1.3 The original Test Method D2983 method used a
glass test tube stator into which a thin metal spindle was
inserted into the fluid and spun by a Brookfield viscometer.
(See Fig. 7). A wooden or plastic stopper was placed in the
mouth of the stator to hold the rotor in proper position. Cooling
of the test sample to the desired temperature in a refrigerated
cabinet requires a number of hours depending on the final
temperature desired and 16 h of sample cooling in the refrig-
erated cabinet is necessary for any temperature desired.
7.2.1.4 To eliminate any warming of the sample when
moving the rotor-stator cell from the air bath to the viscometer,
a specially made balsa carrier is used. This carrier is also
cooled in the refrigerated cabinet. After the 16 h sample
11
FIG. 7 Original D2983 Rotor/Stator Assembly
cooling period, it is necessary to quickly place the sample
container of Fig. 7 into the cooled carrier to move it to the
viscometer head and measure its viscosity.
7.2.2 Development of Alternative Test Procedures Capable
of Giving Very Similar Results:
7.2.2.1 In the development and later studies of the technique
of Test Method D2983, it was found most informative to obtain
the highest rotor speed at which readable torque response of the
viscometer could be obtained. Overall, the repeatability of this
low-temperature viscometric technique was acceptable,
but—as would be expected—less precise than other forms of
viscometry at higher temperatures. It has been found that while
some of the variation in determining viscosity was caused by
sample heating during analysis, what we know as “gelation” of
the sample plays an important role. Repeatability is improved
using two back-to-back samples of the same material and for
the first, finding the highest rotor speed giving the highest
possible torque in determining the viscosity reading. The same
speed is then set for the second sample, and this viscosity
recorded.
7.2.2.2 In an effort to improve the low-temperature Brook-
field method by maintaining the test sample temperature, the
use of liquid baths have been explored and used. As demon-
strated in Fig. 8 when the test sample is put into a liquid bath
that is at the desired temperature, the cooling rate of the sample
is much more rapid than in an air bath. More rapid cooling can
significantly affect the viscosity values. As a consequence,
efforts were undertaken to mimic the air bath cooling rate. One
approach has been to use a liquid bath held at the final
temperature and transfer the samples from the air bath about an
hour before analysis. Another approach has been to use a more
energetic refrigeration system for the liquid bath and apply a
temperature control program emulating the cooling rate of the
air bath.
7.2.2.3 A simpler approach is to modify the stator with a
thin gas-filled Dewar section to modulate the heat transfer from
the test fluid to the liquid bath. This form of stator was called
the SimAir (trademarked) Cell. The cooling curve for the
SimAir stator is very similar to that of the original air bath even
 D8185 − 18
FIG. 8 Comparison of Bath Design Cooling Rates
though the sample is in a liquid or metal bath held at the
desired temperature. Accordingly, the SimAir stator eliminates
the need for sample bath transfer and the need for two sample
analyses. Thus, there is a choice of three different procedures
for achieving temperature control of the test sample prior to
viscosity measurement: Procedure A—air bath; Procedure
B—mechanically refrigerated programmable liquid bath; Pro-
cedure C—mechanically refrigerated constant temperature liq-
uid bath or refrigerated metal block, using the SimAir Cell.
7.2.3 A Summary of the Test Procedure:
7.2.3.1 In summary, the test fluid sample is first preheated to
either 50 °C for 30 min for lower viscosity fluids at room
temperature and 90 °C for 30 min for higher viscosity fluids at
room temperature to remove any “memory” that might affect
its low temperature responses. Afterward, it is allowed to
stabilize at room temperature and is then poured into the glass
stator cell to the proper spindle depth, keeping in mind that the
oil will contract somewhat at measurement temperatures.
7.2.3.2 The spindle is then inserted into the glass cell
through the special stopper and suspended at the proper depth
by the clip. An alternative approach is to first fill the glass cell
with the test sample to the proper depth, insert the spindle
through the special stopper, and after suspending the spindle by
the clip, preheat the sample to 50 °C or 90 °C in the glass cell
in which its viscosity will be measured. In either case, the test
sample is allowed to come to room temperature after preheat-
ing. A reference fluid with known viscosity value is also
prepared to verify the test temperature for the purposes of
greater accuracy.
7.2.3.3 Since lubricants such as ATFs are likely to be
non-Newtonian at low temperatures, the spindle speed selected
for measuring the viscosity of a test fluid can strongly influence
the measured viscosity. Unless the approximate viscosity is
known, it is important to begin at one of the viscometer’s lower
rotational speeds and work up. Initial speeds of 0.3 r ⁄min or
0.6 r ⁄min are appropriate speeds. When measuring viscosity,
the instrument torque reading should be between 20 % and 80
% of full scale on the viscometer (50 % is optimal). If the
torque value is below 20 %, increase the spindle speed until the
12
torque reading is between 20% and 80% on the torque scale.
After an acceptable spindle speed has been attained, record the
stabilized torque reading observed between 60 s and 180 s.
7.2.4 Recommended Low-Temperature Report of Rotational
Viscometer Results:
7.2.4.1 A routine report should include:
(1) The fluid identification.
(2) The measured viscosity.
(3) The test temperature (°C).
(4) The Procedure used for temperature control
(A, B, or C).
(5) The spindle speed.
7.2.4.2 Spindle speed data are needed to ensure that differ-
ent laboratories use the same shear rates. Data where the
reference fluid values are beyond the precision of the method
shall not be reported.
7.2.4.3 In cases where this test method is used for reference
testing between laboratories, a full report including:
(1) The identity of the Newtonian reference fluid used in
bracketing the test fluid.
(2) Its reference viscosity at the temperature of measure-
ment.
(3) Its apparent viscosity through measurement by the
laboratory.
(4) The spindle speed at which the test was run should
accompany the test fluid data.
7.2.4.4 Over time, application of the Test Method D2983
has been extended beyond ATFs and has been applied to gear
oils and hydraulic fluids. Moreover, Test Method D2983 is part
of various international lubricant specifications. The test
method can be applied to in-service oils as a routine check that
the oils have not exceeded the low-temperature pumpability
limits of the equipment. A viscosity versus temperature curve
developed for an in-service oil compared to the same curve
developed on the fresh oil can be used to determine if
equipment is at risk when operating in low-temperature con-
ditions. Marketers of transmission fluids and lubricants can use
Test Method D2983 on in-service fluids to determine how
formulations’ low temperature viscosity changes with
oxidation, particulate contamination, and breakdown of addi-
tives. OEMs may set maximum low-temperature viscosity
requirements and periodic measurement of in-service fluids
may be recommended.
Test Method D4683
7.3 Test Method D4683 for Measuring Viscosity of New and
Used Engine Oils at High Shear Rate and 150 °C by Tapered
Bearing Simulator:
7.3.1 History of the Development of the Tapered Bearing
Simulator (TBS) Viscometer:
7.3.1.1 The tapered bearing simulator (TBS) viscometer
was developed to provide a precise measurement of the
rheological properties of lubricating fluids over at least a
temperature range of 100 °C to 150 °C, and at a shear rate
range of one hundred thousand (100 000; or 1.0 × 105) to seven
and one-half million (7 500 000; or 7.5 × 106) reciprocal
seconds (s–1). The instrument was developed with a slightly
tapered rotor/stator cell, as shown in Fig. 9, to determine the
 D8185 − 18
FIG. 9 Cutaway Diagram of a TBS Viscometer
operating properties of automotive engine oils in their journal
bearings—hence, the name. The design of the TBS instrument
incorporates the ability to exactly change shear rate by precise
adjustment of the rotor’s position in the stator as well as to
exactly determine the shear rate during operation of the TBS.
This ability made the TBS an absolute viscometer as will be
discussed in a following portion.
7.3.1.2 An interlaboratory study program, sponsored by
ASTM Subcommittee D02.07 on Flow Properties, culminated
in Test Method D4683, outlining the application of the TBS
specifically to automotive engine oils. Test Method D4683
calls for viscosity determinations in the TBS viscometer at a
shear rate of 1.0 × 106 s–1 and temperatures of 150 °C.
7.3.2 Society of Automotive Engineers Request to the
ASTM—This ASTM program was part of a direct response to
a request from the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) to
“develop a test method that incorporates high-temperature,
high-shear viscometric and the rheological characteristics, and
which predicts the performance of both single and multi-grade
[i.e. both Newtonian and Viscosity Index (V.I.) improved]
engine oils, in engine bearings and/or ring and cylinder areas.”
7.3.3 Other Applications of High Shear Rate Viscosity—In
addition to fresh automotive engine oils, the TBS viscometer
has been used in a number of other applications including
in-service automotive engine oils, hydraulic fluids, automatic
transmission fluids, gear oils, printing inks, water-based fluids,
and shock absorber fluids. The TBS viscometer has obtained
reliable viscosity data on oils from 40 °C to 200 °C over a
range of viscosity up to 30 mPa·s.
7.3.4 The TBS—An Absolute Viscometer—Of importance in
the high shear rate viscometry of non-Newtonian fluids, the
TBS is an absolute viscometer on which both the shear rate and
shear-stress can be measured and set while the instrument is
operating. The principle involved uses the TBS’s variable-gap
identically-matched, tapered rotor and stator geometry. The
spinning rotor exhibits a reactive torque response to the viscous
resistance of an oil filling the gap between the rotor and stator.
Using a variant of Newton’s equation, the gap between the
rotor and stator is established by using the reciprocal of the
torque at several precisely measured rotor positions. The
13
collected data are extrapolated to a value of zero reciprocal
torque to obtain the rotor height at theoretical zero gap. Using
the known taper of the rotor/stator set, any shear rate can be
calculated. This technique can be further simplified by calibra-
tion using a TBS-established non-Newtonian reference oil.
Once the gap is set that provides the desired shear-rate, other
oils of unknown viscosity may be examined at the specified
shear rate. For reference, the rotor/stator gap is quite
narrow—on the order of 3.5 µm at 1.0 × 106 s–1
7.3.5 Operating Technique for the TBS Viscometer:
7.3.5.1 Operation of the TBS viscometer is achieved with a
minimum of about 3.5 mL of test oil injected if the rotor/stator
chamber is clean and dry, unless special techniques are used, in
which case less than 1 mL can be sufficient. However, at least
30 mL of sample is needed for effective use of the ‘chase-flush’
technique of completely forcing out the previous fluid with the
introduction of the new oil for test (a 50 mL sample is
recommended). Under standardized conditions, the viscosity of
a fluid can be measured in approximately 5 min to 7 min. A
periodically replaced 10 µm filter is placed on the injection
tube just before the test oil is injected into the rotor/stator cell.
This filter is important in removing particulates in the test oil
that might otherwise cause damage to the rotor/stator interface.
Such filtration also permits analysis of in-service oil samples
making the TBS a capable viscosity measurement technique
for both new and in-service viscosity oil samples.
7.3.5.2 Considering the:
(1) High shear rate viscometric information carried by
in-service oils.
(2) Critical nature of engine oils.
(3) Lubricants that are used in other demanding applica-
tions such as the power industry’s various turbine engines and
the critical lubricants in wind turbines.
7.3.5.3 All of these need periodic viscometric analysis at the
shear rates at which they serve. Such analysis is critical in
regard to lubricant life duration and consequences if over-
looked. It is evident from the foregoing information that the
viscosities of non-Newtonian oils containing VI improvers
may change radically with use.
7.3.5.4 Similar high-shear-rate viscosity measurement can
be used to monitor in-service machining lubricants where there
is a need to maintain an appropriate viscosity level in the
presence of other fluids used as coolants or for other lubrication
needs.
Test Method D5133
7.4 Test Method D5133 for Low Temperature, Low Shear
Rate, Viscosity/Temperature Dependence of Lubricating Oils
Using Temperature Scanning Technique:
7.4.1 A Low-Temperature Method to Measure Undesirable
Gelation Tendencies:
7.4.1.1 Low-temperature viscometry data obtained from the
Scanning Brookfield Technique has provided important infor-
mation regarding the effects of base oils, wax content, VI
modifiers, pour point depressants, and other additives on the
pumpability of engine oils and automatic transmission fluids
since the early 1980s. It was developed to understand and to
predict the negative response of engine oils that may generate
 D8185 − 18
undesirable gelation tendencies at low temperatures (Fig. 10).
The method has become Test Method D5133 for fresh oils and
Test Method D7110 for used and soot-laden oils.The standard
operating range is from –5 °C to –40 °C up to 100 000 mPa·s
but can be easily modified to ranges well outside of those
limits.
7.4.1.2 Continuous measurement of low-temperature vis-
cosities from –5 °C to –40 °C or below is used to characterize
the low-temperature rheological performance of lubricating
oils and other fluids including jet fuels. The Scanning Brook-
field Technique provides the most complete iscometric analysis
available on engine oil pumpability in the critical sump-to-
pump screen zone and is the only technique capable of
generating valuable information on adverse low temperature
gelation tendencies with the gelation index and gelation index
temperatures. Automated data acquisition and analysis can be
carried out with Test Method D5133 as well as the tabular and
graphical printout of both parameters. The viscosity/
temperature curve is continuously updated and displayed on
the monitor while data are written to disk for later analysis.
7.4.1.3 Specifically, the Scanning Brookfield Technique
measures the low-temperature pumpability and gelation index
of fresh, sooted, and highly-oxidized engine oils by slowly and
continuously lowering the test temperature while recording the
two values. Values of gelation index above 15 have resulted in
engine failures under certain field conditions of cooling.
7.4.1.4 The automation program calculates the first deriva-
tive of the ASTM-Walther curve in order to provide still more
information about the nature of the low-temperature gelation
phenomenon in engine oils and ATFs, which as noted above,
was later named the gelation index.
FIG. 10 Sketch of Rotor and Stator
14
Test Method D5293
7.5 Test Method D5293 for Apparent Viscosity of Engine
Oils and Base Stocks Between –5 °C and –35 °C Using
ColdCranking Simulator:
7.5.1 History of a Low-Temperature Viscometric Method to
Determine Engine Oil Startability Resistance:
7.5.1.1 In the early 1950s, the problem of starting automo-
tive engines due to elevated viscosity of the engine oil at lower
temperatures was finally seriously attacked by use of a viscom-
eter developed to measure engine oil viscosity at fairly high
shear-stresses. Up to that time, engine oil viscosity at low
temperatures was estimated by a technique of extrapolating
kinematic viscosities determined at 100 °F and 210 °F. Actual
measurement of engine oil viscosity at low temperatures
showed that such extrapolation produced much error by
seriously underestimating the viscosity of these engine oils.
Over a several-year period of use in several laboratories, this
experimental viscometer was considered not as precise as
desired although for several years it produced comparable and
meaningful viscometric data that were used to establish better
blending techniques for engine oils.
7.5.1.2 However, in the early 1960s, a viscometer that
became known as the cold-cranking simulator (CCS) was
developed and, with its improved precision, became a desirable
test device for producing high-shear-stress, low-temperature
viscometric data and ultimately both SAE viscosity classifica-
tion values and, in 1991, Test Method D5293.
7.5.2 Operation of the Cold Cranking Simulator:
7.5.2.1 This test method provides a viscosity value related
to the cranking and startability resistance of an engine at low
temperatures. This method is part of the SAE J300 Specifica-
tions for SAE multi-grade engine oils and is thus an important
test for both passenger car and light and heavy-duty truck
engine oils.
7.5.2.2 The low-temperature cold-cranking simulator (CCS)
utilizes a rotor/stator test cell similar to that of the TBS
previously discussed in 7.3. In this application, sample filtering
is not recommended unless particles are larger than 5 µm in
size. In such cases, a centrifuge may be used to remove
particulates and the supernatant decanted off for viscometric
analysis in the CCS.
7.5.2.3 Aerated sample measurement results may be incor-
rect. As a consequence, it is best to avoid shaking the sample
thus minimizing air entrapment. However, entrapped air/gas
bubbles can be removed by inserting the sample container into
an ultrasonic bath (with no heat) for 5 min or 10 min.
7.5.2.4 When possible, it is recommended to certify new
lube oils and measure in-service lube oils in different instru-
ments to minimize potential damage to the instrument used for
certification.
7.5.2.5 A nitrogen purge option is also recommended to
avoid moisture in the cell area.
7.5.2.6 Calibration verification should be performed rou-
tinely to monitor performance and detect any damage to the
rotor/stator cell.
 D8185 − 18
Test Methods D5478
7.6 Test Methods D5478 for Viscosity of Fluids by a Falling
Needle Viscometer:
7.6.1 Viscometric Techniques—The falling needle viscom-
eter (FNV) was originally developed to measure the rheologi-
cal properties of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
However, the FNV is a versatile instrument that can also
experimentally determine other physical properties of liquids.
In addition to measuring viscosity, it can measure liquid
density, very low shear rate viscosity and yield stress, mixture
concentrations, relative particle settling rates, intrinsic viscos-
ity and molecular weight, high-pressure (up to 344 738 kPa or
50 000 psi) and high-temperature (up to 350 °C) viscosity.
7.6.2 A Viscometer That Can Be Used in the Field—Because
of the simplicity of the FNV principle, portable and/or dispos-
able viscometers can be made available for lubricants and
greases even under field conditions. These types of viscometers
greatly reduce testing time because sample tube cleaning is not
required.
7.6.3 Configuration of the Falling Needle Viscometer and
How it Works:
7.6.3.1 Fig. 11 shows a schematic of a laboratory FNV,
which consists of an inner cylinder containing the liquid whose
properties are to be measured. A constant temperature liquid is
circulated between the measuring cylinder and the coaxial
outer cylinder to control the temperature of the test liquid.
7.6.3.2 A slender hollow cylinder (needle) with hemispheri-
cal ends and a weighted tip or a needle with hemispherical ends
and extension bar plus external weights falls through the test
liquid with the longitudinal axes of the needle and the
measuring cylinder parallel to the gravity vector. The needle
quickly reaches its terminal velocity, which is then measured
either visually (by a stopwatch) or electronically (by Hall
sensors). Measurements of the terminal velocity, the fluid and
needle densities, and the needle and system geometries are
sufficient to determine the viscous properties of Newtonian
fluids. For non-Newtonian fluids whose viscosity depends
FIG. 11 Schematic of the Falling Needle Viscometer
15
upon the shear rate, a needle with extension bar plus external
weights (different densities with the same geometry) is
dropped. The falling needle is an absolute method of viscosity
measurement that does not need any instrument calibration.
7.6.3.3 There are three main models (minimum sample size:
0.6 mL, viscosity and shear rate and temperature ranges: 0.5 cP
to 108 cP, 10–4 1/s to 104 1/s, and –40 °C to 350 °C, respec-
tively) of the falling needle viscometer that are currently
available: general laboratory, disposable sample tube, and
portable field. The absolute accuracies are better than 61 %
and 62 % for electronic and visual falling time measurements,
respectively.
7.6.3.4 Because of the simplicity of the FNV principle,
portable and/or disposable viscometers are made available for
lubricants and greases even under in-service or field condi-
tions. These types of viscometers greatly reduce testing time
because sample tube cleaning is not required. The portable
field FNV consists of a viscometer main body with a dispos-
able (or reusable) syringe (tube) and a falling needle attached
to an extension bar with two markings shown in Fig. 11. The
viscosity of the sample is determined by measuring the falling
time of a needle between two markings on the extension bar
attached to the needle.
7.6.3.5 Using the portable field FNV, the entire process of
obtaining in-service lubricant (engine oil) viscosities can be
completed within only a few minutes. This includes sampling,
testing, sample unloadingand cleaning. Also, it conforms to
SAE AIR 5704. It is simple to use, accurate, low-cost, and an
alternative to larger full-featured laboratory viscometers. Com-
pact and lightweight, the portable field viscometer can be taken
anywhere to check the viscosity of even non-Newtonian fluids.
Test Method D6616
7.7 Test Method D6616 for Measuring Viscosity at High
Shear Rate by Tapered Bearing Simulator Viscometer at
100 °C:
7.7.1 Application of the Tapered Bearing Simulator (subsec-
tion 7.3) at 100 °C—Test Method D6616 is conducted using
the same tapered bearing simulator (TBS) viscometer as Test
Method D4683, which was covered in 7.3. The main difference
is essentially the temperature of the measurements and any
reference oils used to more quickly set the rotor position
relative to the stator for a desired shear rate. For a detailed
description of the tapered bearing simulator viscometer, see
7.3.
7.7.2 History of Lower-Temperature Operation of the TBS
Viscometer—When the TBS viscometer was developed, a
temperature of 150 °C was desired to meet motor torque
limitations. With equipment power advancements, measure-
ment of high shear rate viscosity at 100 °C became desired and
Test Method D6616 was developed, a round-robin was run and
published. Several sectors in the lubricants industry are now
using the HTHS viscosity at lower temperatures. Specifications
are also beginning to adopt the 100 °C test. The industry has
used the approximate value of kinematic viscosity information
at 100 °C for many years. Having a true dynamic viscosity at
100 °C provided by the TBS has been perceived as more
desirable and useful.
 D8185 − 18
7.7.3 Importance of Lower-Temperature High Shear Rate
Viscosity to Diesel Engines:
7.7.3.1 For condition monitoring of diesel engines, TBS
high shear rate viscosity at 100 °C is especially useful. Diesel
engines are known to run cooler than gasoline engines and
having a lower temperature measurement point is important. In
Europe, diesel engines are much more popular in the passenger
car segment, and TBS viscosity at 100 °C can be used to serve
multiple segments.
7.7.3.2 Any laboratory that runs the Test Method D4683
method at 150 °C should also be able to run the Test Method
D6616 method at 100 °C with information and guidance from
the manufacturer of the TBS.
Test Method D6896
7.8 Test Method D6896 for Determination of Yield Stress
and Apparent Viscosity of Used Engine Oils at Low Tempera-
ture:
7.8.1 History of the Mini-Rotary Viscometer—In the 1970s,
considerable work on low-temperature engine startability also
revealed that at low temperatures, depending on cooling rate,
some engine oils could exhibit a tendency to form a waxy
structure, a phenomenon that later was called ‘gelation.’ As a
consequence, the Mini-Rotary Viscometer was developed to be
sensitive to such formation. However, shortly after its intro-
duction in 1979 and inclusion in the SAE Viscosity Classifi-
cation System, during the winter of 1979-80, a catastrophic set
of field failures occurred in engines that had been freshly filled
with a popular engine oil. This brought in another low
temperature test (see 7.5) and results from both methods are
now part of the SAE Viscosity Classification System.
7.8.2 Mini-Rotary Viscometer Method:
7.8.2.1 As mentioned, this viscometric technique became
Test Method D6896 in the year 2003. The sample is heated to
remove any crystalline structure present, and then cooled at a
controlled rate. A chosen, fixed force is applied to the rotor and
the motion of the rotor observed to determine if the rotor will
rotate freely under that force or if a further yield force is
required to begin the rotation. Once rotating, the speed of
rotation is used to determine the low temperature viscosity. The
force required to begin rotation is also recorded.
7.8.2.2 Filtering is not specified for this test method. The
rotational speed at which the rotor moves is quite slow and thus
damage due to contaminants unlikely. However, this instru-
ment utilizes a rotor/stator that could be damaged if larger
metal particulates are contained with the sample specimen.
Caution should be used to avoid testing samples with large
metallic particulates.
7.8.2.3 Sample preparation is defined within the method.
The sample must be preheated, shaken and then allowed to
settle for 10 min.
7.8.2.4 It is recommended to isolate the test cell by using the
supplied cell caps to avoid condensation and ice crystals at the
top of the sample. A nitrogen purge option is also recom-
mended to avoid moisture in the cell area.
7.8.2.5 Calibration verification should be performed rou-
tinely to monitor performance and detect any damage to the
rotor/stator cell.
16
Test Method D7042
7.9 Test Method D7042 for Dynamic Viscosity and Density
of Liquids by Stabinger Viscosity (and the Calculation of
Kinematic Viscosity):
7.9.1 Description of Test Method D7042 and Instrument:
7.9.1.1 This test method measures both dynamic viscosity
and the density of in-service oils which can be opaque. This
test method is applicable to petroleum liquids which primarily
exhibit Newtonian flow behavior. Many petroleum products
such as in-service oils are needed for the correct operation of
the equipment, which depends upon the appropriate viscosity
of the oil being used throughout the life cycle of the equipment.
7.9.1.2 As shown in Fig. 12, the viscosity cell consists of a
pair of rotating concentric cylinders and an oscillating U-tube.
The dynamic viscosity is determined from the equilibrium
rotational speed of the inner cylinder under the influence
in-service oil’s resistance to flow and an eddy current brake for
determining the dynamic viscosity measurement. The density
is determined by the oscillation frequency of the U-tube. The
kinematic viscosity is calculated by dividing the dynamic
viscosity by the density.
7.9.1.3 To perform a measurement, an in-service oil sample
is injected into the viscosity and density measuring cells by
means of syringe or auto sampler. If necessary, the Stabinger
viscometer can utilize a magnetic particle trap to screen iron
filings from the sample. Test results can be achieved in 1 min
to 3 min per sample, depending on the level of precision with
which the viscometer is set to perform a measurement.
7.9.1.4 Verification of the viscosity and density measuring
cells should be performed monthly while the calibration the
density and viscosity measuring cells should be checked
annually. This should be performed to monitor performance
and detect any damage to the measuring cell.
Test Method D7279
7.10 Test Method D7279 for Kinematic Viscosity of Trans-
parent and Opaque Liquids by Automated Houillon Viscom-
eter:
7.10.1 Description of Houillon Viscometer—This test
method covers the measurement of the kinematic viscosity of
transparent and opaque liquids by automated viscometry, using
Houillon viscometers (see Fig. 13). These viscometers were
designed as a high-speed, low-volume alternative to other
commonly used viscometer types. The sample volume is very
low (typically less than 1 mL) and as a consequence, the entire
FIG. 12 Diagram of Stabinger Viscometer
 D8185 − 18
FIG. 13 Houillon Tube Schematic Diagram
measurement cycle is very short, allowing high sample
throughputs. These two significant features privilege this
method in testing kinematic viscosity of in-service oil samples.
Additionally, this test method is used for analysis of base oils,
formulated oils, diesel oil, biodiesel, biodiesel blends, residual
fuel oils and marine fuels.
7.10.1.1 The small sample and cleaning volumes used are
helpful where quick results are necessary, for example, in a
continuous feedback process for a production line or where a
large number of viscosity tests are performed on a daily basis
to in-service oils. Houillon viscometry uses much smaller
quantities of both sample and solvents and thus, reduces
measurement time for cleaning and sample warm-up.
7.10.2 Description of Houillon Viscometer Method:
7.10.2.1 The Houillon kinematic viscometer uses a thermo-
statically controlled liquid bath equipped with heater and
stirrer. The kinematic viscosity is determined by measuring the
time required for a sample to fill a calibrated volume at the bath
temperature.
FIG. 14 Diagram of the Oscillating Piston Viscometer
17
7.10.2.2 The sample cycle starts with injecting an exact
volume of the sample by micro-pipette into the viscometer
tube. The sample travels down towards the detection sensors
and heats up to the test temperature during flow. Upon reaching
the first sensor, the time measurement by stopwatch is started.
When the meniscus reaches the second sensor, the measure-
ment of flow time is stopped. The time interval thus measured
allows the calculation of the kinematic viscosity using a
viscometer tube constant determined earlier by calibration with
certified kinematic viscosity reference standards. On some
instruments, the results are either displayed on-screen or
through the PC software.
7.10.2.3 After an analysis, a predefined cleaning/vacuum
cycle automatically commences, cleaning and drying the vis-
cometer completely. Some units use a second solvent for
drying the tube. This operation is repeated several times until
the viscometer tube is clean.
Test Method D7483
7.11 Test Method D7483 for Determination of Dynamic
Viscosity and Derived Kinematic Viscosity of Liquids by
Oscillating Piston Viscometer:
7.11.1 Description of Oscillating Piston Viscometer—This
test method allows viscosity measurement of a broad range of
materials including transparent, translucent and opaque liquids.
The measurement principle and stainless steel construction
makes the oscillating piston viscometer resistant to damage and
suitable for portable and in-line operations. The measurement
itself is automatic. The electromagnetically driven piston
mixes the ample while under test. The instrument requires a
minimum sample volume of a few milliliters and typical
solvent volume of less than 10 mL which minimizes cleanup
effort and waste.
7.11.2 Description of Test Method—A specimen of sample
is introduced into the thermally controlled measurement cham-
ber (See Fig. 14) where the piston resides. The piston is driven
into oscillatory motion within the measurement chamber by a
controlled magnetic field. Once the sample is at the test
 D8185 − 18
temperature, as determined by the temperature detector, the
piston is propelled repeatedly through the liquid (by the
magnetic field). A shear-stress ranging from 5 Pa to 750 Pa is
imposed on the liquid under test due to the piston travel. The
dynamic viscosity is determined by measuring the average
travel time of the piston. The kinematic viscosity is derived by
additionally measuring the ratio between the up and down
travel times. This information is then applied to an internal
calibration curve output of the dynamic viscosity or kinematic
viscosity of the liquid under test.
Test Method D8092
7.12 Test Method D8092 for Field Determination of Kine-
matic Viscosity Using a Microchannel Viscometer:
7.12.1 Description of Microchannel Viscometer—The speci-
men in this test method flows by means of gravity between two
parallel plates held at 40 °C in a channel area approximately
2 mm wide. The parallel plates are spaced 100 µm apart. This
is illustrated in Fig. 15. Note that the flow is unbounded, in the
sense that the sample is open to air on two sides as it is only
constrained by the two plates. The fact that it is unbounded
helps when the sample contains a significant portion of gaseous
material, as the gas has a path to escape from the channel. The
flow time down channel area is noted by three pairs of optical
sensors. This flow time is linearly related to the kinematic
viscosity of the sample. The advantage of this method is that
these parallel plates are hinged, so when the measurement is
complete the plates may simply be opened and wiped directly.
In this way, the “capillary” may be opened, cleaned, and
reassembled for the next measurement. Thus, the viscometer
requires no liquid cleaning flush cycle. Only a clean cloth is
needed to wipe off the sample. The plates themselves are
constructed from aluminum so that the sample rapidly in-
creases temperature to 40 °C (within milliseconds) without the
need for a temperature bath. The viscometer is designed for one
sample at a time field use for in-service lubricants where there
are challenges with using liquid cleaning materials and the
FIG. 15 Diagram of the Microchannel Viscometer
18
measurement cycle must be easy and quick. Further, issues
with highly sooty samples are addressed as the plates may be
directly wiped, and the short “capillary” of only approximately
5 in. means that there is a minimum amount of surface area for
the soot to attach to and potentially alter the measurement.
7.12.2 Description of Test Method—60 µL of the sample to
test are gathered into a disposable pipette. With the hinged
plates closed, the sample is deposited into the area in Fig. 15
marked “Liquid Loading.” As it travels down the channel, its
velocity will be marked by the LED/photodiode pairs # 1,2,3 as
the sample passes by each. When the sample passes LED/
photodiode pair #3 the measurement is signaled as complete.
The viscosity is calculated by using the time it takes the liquid
to travel between pair #1 and #3. Typical flow times are
approximately 1 s/cSt. Linear flow is verified by comparison to
pair #2. The user is then prompted to open the viscometer and
wipe the channel clean. As the user prepares to run the next
sample, a drop of the new liquid is placed on each channel and
wiped clean as a pre-wetting phase. The plates are then closed
and the next sample is run. A calibration check should be
performed once per day on the device or when a new user is
operating the device. A full calibration is recommended once
per year, or when repeated calibration checks fail.
8. Closing Summary
8.1 This guide has been written and reviewed by a task force
assigned by the D.02.96.01 sub- group on Emerging Viscosity
Measurement Technologies.
8.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide sufficient
knowledge for a person with a technical background in
lubrication or condition monitoring by which they can deter-
mine the options for testing viscosity of an in-service oil. Such
information from this guide should enable the user to engage in
productive discussions with colleagues, service providers,
managers, and service personnel about obtaining and using
viscosity data on in-service oils. There are many different
approaches to viscosity measurement and this guide is intended
to be a helpful resource in selecting the right viscosity
measurement approach for the in-service applications.
8.3 The introductory Section 1 discusses the meaning and
importance of lubricant and fluid viscosity in the modern
world. Essentially it is one of the most critical properties of
lubricants of all forms in ensuring to some important degree
that the mechanical devices of this civilization will give
adequate functionality.
8.4 In the third and fourth sections, the development of
viscometric understanding and definition of the terms related to
viscosity, such as Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, kine-
matic viscosity, dynamic viscosity, and shear rate and shear
stress are presented. In relatively few pages, the reader can
obtain a basic understanding of viscometric principles and their
application. Certainly, there are many technical papers and
publications covering the principle of viscosity in greater
depth, and the reader is encouraged to explore the Related
Material section of this guide for information and assistance.
8.5 Section 4 covers the topics associated and critical to the
measurement of viscosity—the factors to consider for any of
 D8185 − 18
the measurement methods. The experience of the authors
provides the reader guidance on best practices to obtain
reliable, repeatable viscometric data, and insights on how to
use that data to gain understanding and maintenance of good
lubrication practices.
8.6 Section 5 goes into greater depth on the presence and
causes of distinctions between Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids and lubricants. Some of these differences were the cause
of development of several viscometric methods that have
successfully been used to make better lubricants and fluids.
8.7 Section 6 presents the cautions to be exercised in
dealing with various contaminants affecting the viscosity of
lubricants and other fluids. The contaminants—particularly
when in particulate form—can erode the precision of a
viscometer or actively damage it.
8.8 Section 7 contains descriptions of a number of today’s
instrumental methods to measure the viscosity of an In-service
oil. This guide presents information on the basic operating
principles of these instruments and techniques. The reader can
understand the basic principles of each measurement approach
and match the approaches to the need for information. No
specific approach is recommended. Cost information has been
excluded due to the complexity in determining a cost versus
value created by having reliable and meaningful viscosity
information to solve lubrication problems.
8.9 There were a number of contributing authors and
reviewers of this In-Service Viscosity Measurement guide. It is
worth noting the authors include instrument manufacturers
who build viscometers, laboratories who measure viscosity as
a service, consultants who advise clients on technical matters
related to viscosity, equipment manufacturers who must under-
stand how viscosity of lubricants affects the service life of their
products, and lubricant formulators who use viscometric infor-
mation to optimize formulations to intended applications. The
task force team was carefully selected to provide the reader
with a balanced perspective and useful information on In-
service lubricant viscosity measurement.

RELATED MATERIAL

Toms, L. A, Toms, A. M., “Machinery Oil Analysis,” 2008, pp. 103–108.
Selby, T., “Problems in Bench Test Prediction of Engine Oil Performance
at Low Temperature,” SAE International Fuels and Lubricant Meeting
and Exposition, SAE Paper #922287, 1992.
Selby, T., “Instrumental Approach and Improvement of the Low-
Temperature Determination of ATF Fluidity,” 63rd Annual STLE
Meeting & Exhibition, Cleveland, OH, 2008.
Selby, T., “Instrumental Approach and Improvement of the Low-
Temperature Determination of ATF Fluidity,” 63rd Annual STLE
Meeting & Exhibition, Cleveland, OH, 2008.
Selby, T., Piasecki, D. A., “The Tapered Bearing Simulator—An Absolute
Viscometer,” SAE International Congress and Exposition, Detroit,
Michigan, SAE Paper #830031, 1983.
Selby, T., Hite, R. J., Miiller, G. C., “Viscometry of New and Used Engine
Oils at Engine Shear Rates—Application of the Automatic TBS
Viscometer,” SAE International Powertrain Fuels and Lubricants
Congress, SAE 2002-01-2799, 2002.
Park, N. A. and Irvine, T. F. Jr., “Measurement of rheological fluid
properties with the Falling Needle Viscometer”, Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol
59, No. 9, 1988, pp. 2051–2058.
Park, N. A. and Irvine, T. F. Jr., “The Falling Needle Viscometer—A new
technique for viscosity measurements,” Warme und Stoffubertragung,
Vol 18, 1984, pp. 201–206.
Park, N. A. and Park, H. L., “Rheological Property Measurements of
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids with the Falling Needle
Viscometer,” STP 1564: Viscosity & Rheology of In-Service Fluids as
They Pertain to Condition Monitoring, edited by A. Rishell and T.
Selby, ASTM International, Pennsylvania, 2013, pp. 88–100.

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