IDEAL TRANSFORMER ideal transformer is a Joss/ess transformer. mi Secondary o Primary Side Side E=4.44Nfb > om inwebers; bm =BmA E=4.44Nfb_x10°% > dm in maxwells F = voltage induced in the windings N= number of turns in the windings f= frequency of the voltage induced $m = maximum flux in the core 8n = maximum flux density in the core iE N er oo eave etvnem jeez Wb il m Vv turns Hz Mx G cm? | EXAMPLE: A 60 Hz, 2200-V/220 V transformer is designed to operate at a maximum flux density of 1 T and an induced emf of 15 volts per turn. What is the Cross sectional area (in cm’) of the core? A=_F/N____15___ 09,0563 m2 4.44fB 4.44(60)(1) 2 A =0,0563 m? x (100- Zo2 =Ro2 + Xo2 E2 =V2 +12Zo2 Scanned with CamScanner2 kv/200 V, 50 Hz 4 LE: A single- -phase, 2 1 pen forme! has primary resistance of 3.5 Q and eactance of 4.5.0. The secondary resistance and r 0.015 Q and 0.02 Q respectively, Fing reactance are equivalent complex impedance referred to primary, = 2000 10 200 Zo. =2Z1 +2°Z2 = (3.544. 5) +(10)? (0.015 + 0.02) Zp; =5+ 56.5, ohms EXAMPLE: A 10-kVA single-phase transformer designed for 2000/400 V has the following constants, R: = 5.59, Ro = 0.2 Q; Xi = 12 Q; X2 = 0.45 Q. Solve the approximate value of the secondary voltage at full load, i lagging, when the primary supply voltage is 2000 2000 a = 2000 _ 400 7° Roz -Ry += 0.2455 0.420 X02 =X +74= 0.45 + 12 9.939 52 Le- Srated 10,000 25 = ———— = 25 A V2( rated ), 400 6 = cos? 0.8 = 36,87° Scanned with CamScannerg=M= 2000 volts No) _ 400 \ _ Ey =: (}2) = 2000( $9) = 400 volts FE, = Vs +152Z.3 400 Za = V2 Z0 + (25 2 - 36.87° (0.42 + j0.93) 400 Za =V> + 22.35 + j12.3 4002 = (V2 + 22.35)? + (12.3)? V> = 377.46 volts OPEN CIRCUIT TEST ON A TRANSFORMER OPEN CIRCUIT TEST ON A I RANSTORMER i test, the /ow side is supplied with rated voltage while the high side is /eft open circuited. Scanned with CamScannerTg. = ammeter reading during the test Px. = wattmeter reading during the test E- = voltmeter reading during the test Equivalent Circuit Note: The wattmeter reading is equal to the core loss Poc =Peore 2 e Re = Eo X= Ege oc Qoc Qoc = Soc? -Pye? ; Soc =Egcloc Prore = Core loss Rco= resistance representing the core loss, in ohms Xm = magnetizing reactance of the core, in ohms In = magnetizing current Scanned with CamScannerLe: A 500 kVA, 11/2.3 kV, 60 Hz in n tested and gives the following open ea Poa KV, 23 A, 4 kW. Determine the nest pi resistance representing core loss (b) magnetizing reactance of the core = 1322.59 —_— Re = Poe 4000 { 2 D | Eoc 2300 | s,,=Eocloc = 2300(2.3) = 5290 VA 2 _ 52902 — 40002 Oye = 3461.805 VAR Ex? 23007 - _ aE — = 1528 Q Xy = 2S = "'Qoc 3461.805 Scanned with CamScannerSHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON TRANSFORMER. During the test, the low side is short Citcuited whi}, th high side is supplied with voltage adjusted so that th 7 high side will draw rated high side current. e ma) Psc Ise UY) Shorted bY | Ld Tee = ammeter reading during the test P.. = wattmeter reading during the test Fz. = voltmeter reading during the test Row Xau Zon Xon Esc Row Equivalent Circuit Note: The wattmeter reading is equal to the fullload copper loss Psc =Peu (full-load) =Jz.2-p.2 E. Xou Zon -Row? ; Zon == SC) Scanned with CamScanner_ equiv. resistance referred to the high side fi equiv. reactance referred to the high side 4 2 equiv. impedance referred to the high side " AMPLE: A 1-KVA 230/115-V transformer has been ved for short circuit test and the results are the following: Esc = 19.1 V; Isc = 8.7 A; Psc = 42.3 W. Find 2 equivalent complex impedance of the transformer 3 d to the high voltage side, referret P. 42.3 Rod = = = 0.559. ee Cee E 19.1 Zou =-S = =22Q Ig 8.7 Xo =VZon2 -Ron? =V2.22 - 0.5592 =2.1279 Thus, the equivalent complex impedance referred to the high side is (0.559 + 2.127) ohms COPPER LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER Sper loss (Pcu) — \osses due to heating in the transformer windings due to resistance. Scanned with CamScannerPoy =1y7Ry +1p7Rp =1,?Roi =1n°Rqp EXAMPLE: A 30 kVA, 2000/200 V, single-phase transformer has primary resistance of 3.5 9 and reactance of 4.5 Q. The secondary resistance ang reactance are 0.015 © and 0.02 © respectively, Fing ty load copper loss. _ 30,000 _ 45 A 30, 000 = S000 200 Pay =1?Ry + 1y°Ro P,, = (15)2(3.5) + (150)2(0.015) = 1125 W =150A ALTERNATE SOLUTION: 2000 a=-——= 200 Rog = Ro + "2 =0.015+ 35-0050 a 102 10 Poy = 1p’Rop = (150)* (0.05) = 1125 W PPER LOSSES OF THE TRANSFORMER AT X-SIZE OF LOAD Let: x = decimal equivalent for the size of load Carried by the transformer in reference to its full load value © yy? Pou(x-load) = (x) Pcucfull-load) Scanned with CamScannerPLE: The full load copper Io SS of ; en w, Solve the copper loss at hal | “oe is & (y\2 Pruthalt-load) = (x) Peu(full-toad) = (1/2)? (6400) = 1600 W CORE LOSS OF A TRANSFORMER core losses are losses due to Aysteresis and eddy quent losses in the magnetic circuit (core) of the transformer. (-1.6 Py =k (Bm! ® Ph =ky| = { f0-6 Pe =Kf*°Bm? Pe SkgE? P, = hysteresis loss, in watts Pe = eddy current loss, in watts k= proportionality constant fe frequency of the input supply voltage 5, = maximum flux density in the core EXAMPLE: The hysteresis loss in a 6,600 V, 60 Hz transformer is 480 W. What will be the loss when the transformer is connected to a 6,900 V, 40 Hz source? Scanned with CamScannermh=k 706 a 0.6 fa = (e] 8) 1 (Er) (fe 1.6 0.6 Ap = 480 (o> (=) = 657.33 watts EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER Efficiency is a ratio between power delivered or output to the power intake or input of the transformer. This is sometimes called commercial efficiency. Ae Pout _ Pout Pin Pout + Pou + Peo Pout = (x)(Pratea )>P=Sepf Pout = output power delivered Py = input power delivered x = size of load Pey = Copper loss of the transformer Peo = core loss of the transformer Scanned with CamScanner| EXAMPLE: A 50-KVA, 4,600/230-volt, 60-Hz ansformer has a full load copper loss of 615 watts and core loss of 285 watts. Calculate the percent efficiency when the transformer is delivering, (a) rated load at a pf of 0.8 (b) quarter-load at a pf of 0.9 Pout(FL) = Srated ° pf Pout(rt) = 50,000(0.8) = 40,000 w Pout(FL) Pout(FL) + Poucety + Poo 40,000 ee 0, 40,000+6i5.285 8% TFL = TRL Pout(aya) = 4(Srated ° pf) = +(50, 000)(0.9) = 11,250 w Poucx) =X*PouceL) Pou(1y2) =(4)? (615) = 38.44 W ——__Poutaryay Pout(a/4) * Peui/4) + Peo 11,250 1/4 = 77950 + 38.44 + 285 = 97.205% Scanned with CamScannerMAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER To operate at maximum efficiency, the copper loss of the transformer must equal to the core /oss. Pout(max) Nm = Pouty max) + 2Poore Size of load (x) at maximum efficiency, X= Peo a Pou(FL) Load current (Iz) at maximum efficiency, b= Poore \ Roe Load (Sjoas) at maximum efficiency, Pp Sload = Srated P a cu Scanned with CamScanner; E: A 25-kVA single-ph AMPLE: A 2 g!e-phase transforme nated core loss and copper losses of 300 W fd ow cove the maximum efficiency at 0.8 pf lagging. Sjoad = Stated Sad = 2 s = 17.677 kVA Note: Poag = Stoad x pf ee ee Pout +2Pcg 17, 677(0.8) + 2(300) 1m = 95.93% Scanned with CamScannerALL-DAY EFFICIENCY All-day efficiency is the ratio of the energy Output of delivered within a 24-hour period to the ener i i 5 input ; the same period of time. It is sometimes Called ph in efficiency. { Slergy. Wout N all-day) == - out + Wey + Woo Wow = output energy We, = energy lost in the copper windings We = energy Jost in the core Wout = 2 (Pout ¢ t) Weu =X (Poy ot) Woo =Peo et t = time of transformer usage, in hours Note: If the transformer is connected to the primary lines the whole day (loaded or not), the multiplying factor for Wey is 24 hours. Pout =(X)(Srated )(Pf) Pu = (x)? Pcu(FL) x = size Of load, in decimal value pf = operating power factor Srated = apparent power rating of the transformer Pet) = full load copper loss Scanned with CamScannerMPLE: A 3-kVA transformer has a core loss of 30 wand 4 full load copper loss of 75 W. Solve the all day efficiency for the following loads: 1 ¥% times the rated kya, pf = 0.85, 2 hrs; rated kVA, pf = 0.9, 5 hrs; 34 rated KVA, Pf = 0.95, 6 hrs; Ya rated kVA, pf = 1.0, 7 hrs; no-load, 4 hrs. ‘ Wout = XO&)MSratea )( pF )(t) = (1.5)(3)(0.85)(2) + (1)(3)(0.9)(5) +(0.75)(3)(0.95)(6) + (0.5)(3)(1)(7) Wout = 44.475. kWh Wey = D(X)? Peucery (0) = (1.5)? (0.075)(2) + (1)? (0.075)(5) +(0.75)? (0.075 )(6) + (0.5)* (0.075 )(7) Woy =1.1 kWh ; Wop = Peg ot Weo = (0.030)(24) = 0.72 kWh 7 Wout (all-day) = Wout + Weu + Weo n = ne = 96.068% (all-day) “44.475 + 1.1 40.72 Scanned with CamScannerPER UNIT VALUE IN TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS gan a A Tee) The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ray, of the quantity to its base or reference value. For single-phase system: _ Ease — Epase” Thase Sbase Zactual _ Sbase Zactual Zhase Eyasa” Sbase i lbase = pues 2base base pu = For three-phase system: : 2 lense = Spase_. 7 _ Ebase(LL) . V3Ebase is Spase Zpy = Zactual . Sbase Zactual Zpase — Ease(LL)” Ease = line to line voltage rating, (V) Stase = rated apparent power, (VA) Zactuat = Ohinic impedance, (ohm) Scanned with CamScanner' AMPLE! A 50 kVA, 2400/240 v transformer has a ar unit reactance of 5%, Solve the equivalent ohmic "tance of the transformer referred to the primary. . SpaseXohmic me Ebase 2 _ XpuEbase(ty” _ 0.05(2400)? tt Shase 50,000 | Xp, = 5.76 ohms Scanned with CamScannerPER UNIT VALUE BASED ON A NEW VOLTAGE Bs AND NEW POWER BASE E 2 P-U.(new) -[enm | cold-base P.U. (old) Sold-base Enew-base EXAMPLE: The per unit impedance of a transformer is 2%, based on 50 MVA and 13.8 kV. Solve the new per unit impedance if the base is change to 100 MVA ang 6.9 kV? _ Sold-base Enew-base 2 100 \/13.8 = co 25 50 JL 6g ) 2 as Snew-base Eold-base Zpu(new) oe Zpu(old) Scere | eee Zpu(new) =16% Scanned with CamScannerVOLTAGE REGULATION centage voltage ‘regulation is the percentage rise in Frage in the secondary side after the load is switch- off £, = terminal voltage at no load \) = terminal voltage at rated load Erin. Even OBVR = —e-toad) 7 =(fulhload)_ E (Full-load) E2 -V2 2 %VR = Vp “4 Alternate formula using per unit data: %VR =) (cos 0+ %IR)* +(sin O + VIX)? -1 tsign = for a lagging pf - sign = for a leading pf Note: If the pf is lagging, the voltage regulation is a Positive value while if the pf is leading the voltage regulation is a negative value. a Scanned with CamScannerEXAMPLE: A 7.2 kVA, 1.2 kv/120 V, single-phase transformer has the following winding parameters; p, . 0.8.0, Xi = 1.2. Q, Ro = 0.01.9, and X = 0.01 a, Determine the voltage regulation of the transformer when it is delivering rated load at 0.8 pf lagging, Solve the equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side: a= 120-10 120 0.8+j1.2 AL _ (0,01 + j0.01) +S we 10 Zp = 0.018 + j0.022 Zo2 = 22 + Stated 7200 = In(rated) = = OA o(rated) 120 Roz Xo2 Equivalent Circuit referred to Secondary Side E, =V2 +1pZq2 = 120 + (60 4 - 36.87° )(0.018 + j0.022) Ez =121.656 20.192° E,-V2 _ 121.656 - 120 V2 120 %VR = = 1.38% Scanned with CamScannerseRNATE SOLUTION: i Srated202_ _ (7200)(0.018 +. j0.022) oC to vy? (120)2 ea 0.009 + j0.011 050 = 0:8; sin = 0.6 wR = \(COSO + %IR)* + (sind + IX)? —1 = (0.8 + 0.009)? + (0.6 + 0.011)? 4 %HVR = 1.38% POLARITY TEST ON A TRANSFORMER The Polarity of a transformer refers to the re/ative rections of the induced voltage in the primary and Secondary windings with respect to the manner in which the terminal leads are brought out. Proper transformer Polarity is needed when transformers are connected in Parallel or when transformers are banked. Scanned with CamScannerExternal connections a Vis less than V1 V is greater than V, (Subtractive Polarity) (Additive Polarity) EXAMPLE: A 2300-V/230-V distribution transformer is tested for polarity in accordance to the standard method. If 110 V is impressed across the Hi and H2 terminals, what will be the voltmeter reading if (a) the polarity is additive © (b) the polarity is subtractive E, Np (=) | a =-4 56 =110)/ =~ |=1 EN 2 2300 | 1 volts If additive polarity, reading = 110+ 11 =121V If subtractive polarity, reading = 110-11 =99V PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS Like generators, transformers are also operated in ‘paralle/to supply a bigger common load and to prevent overloading the transformers. Scanned with CamScannerieee ol ti yea ‘the same voltage rating for both Primary and "secondary the transformer must be Properly connected as to "polarity the ratio of the equivalent resist; equivalent reactance must be th ‘ance to the e same Equivalent circuit referred to secondary side = equivalent impedance of T; referred to sec. equivalent impedance of T> referred to sec. urrent delivered by T; current delivered by T> le . = load voltage or terminal voltage & = secondary induced emf 1,Z2 121 e+; 1p =o Z, +Z2 2, +22 : : Z SZ #572 ge Se Zi S z “Zy +2, Z, +Z> Note: s,s, and St are conjugate apparent power Values £0 for leading pf and -0 for lagging pf Scanned with CamScannerEXAMPLE: Two transformers A and B are connecteg parallel. The respective impedances referred to the in secondary are (0.5 + j4) Q and (0.8 + j6) Q. The total load on the transformer is 120 kVA at 0.8 pf lagging power factor. Calculate the kW load on transformer A, « Stotar Zp _ (1202 ~ 36.87°)(0.8 + j6) SA = Za4Zy (0.5+)4) + (0.8 +}6) Sq = 57.482 kW - j43.407 KVAR EXAMPLE: Two transformers A and B are operated in parallel to share a load of 125 kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Transformers are rated as follows: A: 100 kVA, 0.9% resistance, 10% reactance; B: 50 kVA, 1% resistance, 5% reactance. Find the kVA share of transformer B. Note: Since the transformers have different power ratings, convert first the per unit impedances to a common power base. Assume 100 MVA as the new power base. Convert the pu impedance of B based on 100 MVA: 100 Zou(new) = (0.01 + jo.05)( "2° = 0.02 + j0.1 ‘ St Za _ 1252 - 36.87°)(0,009 + j0.1) Za+Zp (0.009 + j0.1) + (0.02 + j0.1) Sg = 62.1032 - 33.76°, kVA [Sp| = 62 kVA Scanned with CamScanner