Chapter 3: The Structure of Crystalline

Solids

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• How do atoms assemble into solid structures?

• How does the density of a material depend on

its structure?

• When do material properties vary with the

sample (i.e., part) orientation?

Chapter 3 - 1
 Energy and Packing
• Non dense, random packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

• Dense, ordered packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Dense, ordered packed structures tend to have

lower energies.
Chapter 3 - 2
 Materials and Packing
Crystalline materials...
• atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
• typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 3 - 3
 Metallic Crystal Structures
• How can we stack metal atoms to minimize
empty space?
2-dimensions

vs.

Now stack these 2-D layers to make 3-D structures

Chapter 3 - 4
 Metallic Crystal Structures
• Tend to be densely packed.
• Reasons for dense packing:
- Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
- Metallic bonding is not directional.
- Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.
- Electron cloud shields cores from each other
• Have the simplest crystal structures.

We will examine three such structures...

Chapter 3 - 5
 Crystal Systems
Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which
contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal.

7 crystal systems

14 crystal lattices

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

Fig. 3.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 3 - 6
The 14 Bravais Lattices

Chapter 3 - 7
 Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

Click once on image to start animation

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 3 - 8
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 p (0.5a) 3
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.24,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 3 - 9
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

• Coordination # = 8

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Click once on image to start animation Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8
Chapter 3 - 10
 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
3a

2a

Close-packed directions:
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3 a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
a
atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 p ( 3a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell Chapter 3 - 11
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
• Atoms touch each other along face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

• Coordination # = 12

Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Click once on image to start animation
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8

Chapter 3 - 12
 Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R = 2 a
2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister & atoms volume
Rethwisch 8e. 4
unit cell 4 p ( 2a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
Chapter 3 - 13
 FCC Stacking Sequence
• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C

Chapter 3 - 14
Chapter 3 - 15
Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
(HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

c
B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

a Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Coordination # = 12 6 atoms/unit cell

• APF = 0.74 ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn
• c/a = 1.633 Chapter 3 - 16
Chapter 3 - 17
Summary of packing types for metallic
structures

𝑎 = 2𝑅

4𝑅
𝑎=
3

𝑎 = 2𝑅 2

Chapter 3 - 18
 Theoretical Density, r

Mass of Atoms in Unit Cell

Density = r =
Total Volume of Unit Cell

nA
r =
VC NA

where n = number of atoms/unit cell

A = atomic weight
VC = Volume of unit cell = a3 for cubic
NA = Avogadro’s number
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol

Chapter 3 - 19
 Theoretical Density, r
• Ex: Cr (BCC)
A = 52.00 g/mol
R = 0.125 nm
n = 2 atoms/unit cell
R
Adapted from
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
a a = 4R/ 3 = 0.2887 nm
Rethwisch 8e.
atoms
g
unit cell 2 52.00 rtheoretical = 7.18 g/cm3
mol
r= ractual = 7.19 g/cm3
a3 6.022 x 1023
volume atoms
unit cell mol Chapter 3 - 20
• Ex.

Chapter 3 - 21
 Densities of Material Classes
In general Graphite/
rmetals > rceramics > rpolymers
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
30
Why? Platinum
Based on data in Table B1, Callister
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
20 Gold, W
Metals have... Tantalum Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
Epoxy composites (values based on
• close-packing 60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
10 Silver, Mo in an epoxy matrix).
(metallic bonding) Cu,Ni
Steels
• often large atomic masses Tin, Zinc
Zirconia

r (g/cm3 )
5
Ceramics have... 4
Titanium
Al oxide
• less dense packing 3
Diamond
Si nitride
Aluminum Glass -soda
• often lighter elements Concrete
Silicon PTFE
Glass fibers
GFRE*
2 Carbon fibers
Polymers have... Magnesium Graphite
Silicone CFRE*
Aramid fibers
PVC
• low packing density PET
PC
AFRE*
1 HDPE, PS
(often amorphous) PP, LDPE
• lighter elements (C,H,O)
0.5
Composites have... 0.4
Wood

• intermediate values 0.3

Data from Table B.1, Callister & Rethwisch, 8e.
Chapter 3 - 22
Chapter 3 - 23
Chapter 3 - 24
Chapter 3 - 25
Atoms under e-microscopes

Chapter 3 - 26
 Crystals as Building Blocks
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
-- diamond single -- turbine blades
crystals for abrasives Fig. 8.33(c), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 8.33(c)
(Courtesy Martin Deakins,
courtesy of Pratt and
GE Superabrasives,
Whitney).
Worthington, OH. Used with
permission.)

• Properties of crystalline materials

often related to crystal structure.
-- Ex: Quartz fractures more easily
along some crystal planes than
others.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 3 - 27
 Polycrystals
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
Anisotropic

Adapted from Fig. K,

color inset pages of
Callister 5e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of
Paul E. Danielson,
Teledyne Wah Chang
Albany)
1 mm

• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld. Isotropic

• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
Chapter 3 - 28
 Single vs Polycrystals
• Single Crystals
-Properties vary with
direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
E (edge) = 125 GPa
• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)
-If grains are textured,
anisotropic.
E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.3,
Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Source of data is
R.W. Hertzberg,
Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials,
3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1989.)
200 mm Adapted from Fig.
4.14(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C.
Brady, the National
Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC [now
the National Institute of
Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
Chapter 3 - 29
 Polymorphism
• Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same
material (allotropy/polymorphism)
iron system
titanium
liquid
, -Ti
1538ºC
BCC -Fe
carbon
diamond, graphite 1394ºC
FCC -Fe
The metallurgy of titanium is dominated by
the crystallographic transformation which 912ºC
takes place in the pure metal at 882°C.
Below this temperature, pure titanium has a
BCC -Fe
hexagonal close packed structure known
as alpha (α); above it, the structure is body
centred cubic and termed beta (β)
Chapter 3 - 30
 Point Coordinates
z
111 Point coordinates for unit cell
c center are
a/2, b/2, c/2 ½½½

000
y
a b
Point coordinates for unit cell
x • corner are 111
z 2c
•

Translation: integer multiple of

• • lattice constants → identical
b y position in another unit cell
b
Chapter 3 - 31
 Crystallographic Directions
z Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of
unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
y 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas

x [uvw]

ex: 1, 0, ½ => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ]

-1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a
negative index
families of directions <uvw>
Chapter 3 - 32
 Linear Density
Number of atoms
• Linear Density of Atoms  LD = Unit length of direction vector

[110]
ex: linear density of Al in [110]
direction
a = 0.405 nm

# atoms
a 2
LD = = 3.5 nm-1
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
length 2a
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 3 - 33
 HCP Crystallographic Directions
z
Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of unit
a2 cell dimensions a1, a2, a3, or c
3. Adjust to smallest integer values
- 4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas
a3
[uvtw] a
a1
2
Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a2 -a3
2

ex: ½, ½, -1, 0 => [ 1120 ] a3

a1
2
dashed red lines indicate
projections onto a1 and a2 axes a1
Chapter 3 - 34
 HCP Crystallographic Directions
• Hexagonal Crystals
– 4 parameter Miller-Bravais lattice coordinates are
related to the direction indices (i.e., u'v'w') as
follows.
z

[ u 'v 'w ' ] → [ uvtw ]

1
u = (2 u ' - v ')
3
a2
1
v = (2 v ' - u ')
- 3
a3
t = - (u +v )
w = w'
a1

Fig. 3.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 3 - 35
 Crystallographic Planes
• Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial
intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions &
common multiples. All parallel planes have
same Miller indices.

• Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)

Chapter 3 - 36
 Crystallographic Planes

Adapted from Fig. 3.10,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 3 - 37
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (100) a b
x
Chapter 3 - 38
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 •
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
2 1 4/3 • y
•
3. Reduction 6 3 4 a b

4. Miller Indices (634) x

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

Chapter 3 - 39
Examples of cubic symmetry

Chapter 3 - 40
 Crystallographic Planes (HCP)
• In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used
z

example a1 a2 a3 c
1. Intercepts 1  -1 1
2. Reciprocals 1 1/ -1 1
1 0 -1 1 a2

3. Reduction 1 0 -1 1
a3

4. Miller-Bravais Indices (1011) a1

Adapted from Fig. 3.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 3 - 41
MgO (Rocksalt) crystal

Chapter 3 - 42
FCC lattice: different planes

Chapter 3 - 43
NiO (Rocksalt) structure

Chapter 3 - 44
 Crystallographic Planes
• We want to examine the atomic packing of
crystallographic planes
• Iron foil can be used as a catalyst. The
atomic packing of the exposed planes is
important.
a) Draw (100) and (111) crystallographic planes
for Fe.
b) Calculate the planar density for each of these
planes.

Chapter 3 - 45
 Planar Density of (100) Iron
Solution: At T < 912ºC iron has the BCC structure.
2D repeat unit

(100) 4 3
a= R
3

Adapted from Fig. 3.2(c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Radius of iron R = 0.1241 nm
atoms
2D repeat unit 1
1 atoms atoms
19
Planar Density = = 2 = 12.1 = 1.2 x 10
area a2 4 3 nm 2 m2
R
2D repeat unit 3
Chapter 3 - 46
 Planar Density of (111) Iron
Solution (cont): (111) plane 1 atom in plane/ unit surface cell

2a atoms in plane
atoms above plane
atoms below plane

3
h= a
2
2
 4 3  16 3 2
area = 2 ah = 3 a = 3 
2
R  = R
atoms  3  3
2D repeat unit 1
atoms = atoms
Planar Density = = 7.0 0.70 x 1019
nm 2 m2
area 16 3 2
R
2D repeat unit 3
Chapter 3 - 47
 SUMMARY
• Atoms may assemble into crystalline or
amorphous structures.
• Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC, and
HCP. Coordination number and atomic packing factor
are the same for both FCC and HCP crystal structures.
• We can predict the density of a material, provided we
know the atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal
geometry (e.g., FCC, BCC, HCP).
• Crystallographic points, directions and planes are
specified in terms of indexing schemes.
Crystallographic directions and planes are related
to atomic linear densities and planar densities.

Chapter 3 - 48
 SUMMARY

• Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline.

Material properties generally vary with single crystal
orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally
non-directional (i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals
with randomly oriented grains.
• Some materials can have more than one crystal
structure. This is referred to as polymorphism (or
allotropy).

Chapter 3 - 49