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properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do atoms assemble into solid structures?
(for now, focus on metals)
1
Energy and packing
• Non dense, random packing Energy
typical neighbor
bond length
typical neighbor r
bond energy
typical neighbor
bond length
typical neighbor r
bond energy
Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(b),
Callister 6e.
3
Metallic crystals
• tend to be densely packed.
• have several reasons for dense packing:
-Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
-Metallic bonding is not directional.
-Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.
4
Simple Cubic (SC) structure
• Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.
• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
5
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 (0.5a)3
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.19,
Callister 6e. 6
Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
structure
• Close packed directions are cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
• Coordination # = 8
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 7
Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R
= 3a
Unit cell contains:
1 + 8 x 1/8
=2 atoms/unit cell
R
Adapted from a
Fig. 3.2,
Callister 6e. atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 ( 3a/4)3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
8
Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
structure
• Close packed directions are face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
• Coordination # = 12
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
9
Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.74
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R
= 2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
=4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister 6e. atoms volume
4 3
unit cell 4 ( 2a/4)
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
10
FCC stacking sequence
• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection
A
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites
A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C
11
Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
structure
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection
• Coordination # = 12
• APF = 0.74
12
Theoretical density,
#atoms/unit cell Atomic weight (g/mol)
nA
Volume/unit cell Vc NA Avogadro's number
(cm3/unit cell) (6.023x 1023 atoms/mol)
Example: Copper
Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see next slide):
• crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
• atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
• atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10 -7 cm)
Vc = a3 ; For FCC, a = 4R/ 2 ;Vc = 4.75 x 10 -23cm3
3
Result: theoreticalCu = 8.89 g/cm
Compare to actual:Cu = 8.94 g/cm3
14
Characteristics of Selected Elements at 20C
At. Weight Density Crystal Atomic radius
Element Symbol (amu) (g/cm3) Structure (nm)
Aluminum Al 26.98 2.71 FCC 0.143
Argon Ar 39.95 ------ ------ ------
Barium Ba 137.33 3.5 BCC 0.217
Beryllium Be 9.012 1.85 HCP 0.114
Boron B 10.81 2.34 Rhomb ------ Adapted from
Table, "Charac-
Bromine Br 79.90 ------ ------ ------ teristics of
Cadmium Cd 112.41 8.65 HCP 0.149 Selected
Elements",
Calcium Ca 40.08 1.55 FCC 0.197 inside front
Carbon C 12.011 2.25 Hex 0.071 cover,
Cesium Cs 132.91 1.87 BCC 0.265 Callister 6e.
Chlorine Cl 35.45 ------ ------ ------
Chromium Cr 52.00 7.19 BCC 0.125
Cobalt Co 58.93 8.9 HCP 0.125
Copper Cu 63.55 8.94 FCC 0.128
Flourine F 19.00 ------ ------ ------
Gallium Ga 69.72 5.90 Ortho. 0.122
Germanium Ge 72.59 5.32 Dia. cubic 0.122
Gold Au 196.97 19.32 FCC 0.144
Helium He 4.003 ------ ------ ------
Hydrogen H
1.008 ------ ------ ------ 15
Densities of material classes
Graphite/
metals ceramics polymers Metals/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Composites/
Alloys fibers
Semicond
Why? 30
Based on data in Table B1, Callister
Platinum
Metals have... 20 Gold, W
Tantalum
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
• close-packing Epoxy composites (values based on
60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
(metallic bonding) 10 Silver, Mo
Cu,Ni
in an epoxy matrix).
(g/cm3)
• large atomic mass Steels
Tin, Zinc
Zirconia
Ceramics have... 5
Titanium
4 Al oxide
• less dense packing Diamond
Si nitride
3
(covalent bonding) Aluminum Glass -soda
Concrete
Glass fibers
Silicon PTFE
• often lighter elements 2 Magnesium Graphite
GFRE*
Carbon fibers
Silicone CFRE *
Polymers have... PVC
PET
Aramid fibers
AFRE *
• poor packing 1 PC
HDPE, PS
PP, LDPE
(often amorphous)
• lighter elements (C,H,O) 0.5 Wood
Composites have... 0.4
0.3
• intermediate values Data from Table B1, Callister 6e.
16
Polycrystals
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
19
Anisotropy
Demo: Heating and cooling of iron
wire
The same atoms can
• Demonstrates "polymorphism" have more than one
crystal structure.
Temperature, C
Liquid
1536
BCC Stable
1391
longer
heat up
FCC Stable
shorter!
914 longer!
BCC Stable
cool down
Tc 768 magnet falls off
shorter
22
CHAPTER 12: Structure of
ceramics
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Structures of ceramic materials:
How do they differ from that of metals?
1
CERAMIC BONDING
• Bonding:
--Mostly ionic, some covalent.
--% ionic character increases with difference in
electronegativity.
• Large vs small ionic bond character:
H
2.1
CaF 2: large He
-
Li C F
1.0
Be
1.5 SiC: small 2.5 4.0
Ne
-
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 Table of Electronegativities
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by
Cornell University. 2
Ionic bonding & structure
• Charge Neutrality:
--Net charge in the F-
structure should CaF 2: Ca2+ +
cation anions
be zero.
F-
rcation ZnS
Coord #
ranion (zincblende)
Adapted from Fig. 12.4,
< .155 2 Callister 6e.
.155-.225 3 NaCl
(sodium
.225-.414 4 chloride)
Adapted from Fig. 12.2,
Callister 6e.
.414-.732 6
CsCl
(cesium
.732-1.0 8 chloride)
Adapted from Fig. 12.3,
Adapted from Table Callister 6e.
12.2, Callister 6e.
4
Sample calculations of radii ratios
CN = 6 – Octahedral site CN = 4 – tetrahedral site
2rA
rC rC h 6
rA 3
rA
rC rA rA 2 h rC 6
rC rA 1
rC 2 rA 3
1 2 r
rA rC 6
rC rA A 6 1 0.225
rC 3 rA 3
2 1 0.414
rA
Structure of compounds: NaCl
• Compounds: Often have similar close-packed structures.
• Structure of NaCl • Close-packed directions
--along cube edges.
CN = 6
Anion
O2- 0.140
Cl- 0.181
F-
Data from Table 12.3,
0.133 Callister 6e.
5
Example: Predicting structure of FeO
• On the basis of ionic radii, what crystal structure
would you predict for FeO?
Cation Ionic radius (nm) • Answer:
Al 3+ 0.053 rcation 0.077
Fe 2+ 0.077
ranion 0.140
Fe 3+ 0.069 0.550
Ca2+ 0.100
based on this ratio,
--coord # = 6
Anion
--structure = NaCl
O2- 0.140
Cl- 0.181
F-
Data from Table 12.3,
0.133 Callister 6e.
5
AmXp structures
rcation 0.100
• Consider CaF2 : r 0.8
anion 0.133
• Based on this ratio, coord # = 8 and structure = CsCl.
• Result: CsCl structure w/only half the cation sites
occupied.
• Only half the cation sites
are occupied since
#Ca2+ ions = 1/2 # F-
ions.
6
AmBnXp structures
BaTiO3 MgAl2O4
Perovskite Spinels
Ti4+ Ba2+ O2- Mg2+ Al3+ O2-
”
“1
or
i n ra
s
co ys
X- y reflections must
ra
m
be in phase to
X-
”
“2
in “2”
detect signal
“1
ng
g
i
”
extra
distance tgo Adapted from Fig.
travelled o u 3.2W, Callister 6e.
by wave “2” spacing
d between
planes
Crystal systems
Cubic system
•3 mutually axes; = 90
•3 equal edges; a = b = c (lattice
constants)
Cubic system is only one of
seven crystal systems!
(3) Cubic a= b=c All angles = 90
(2) Tetragonal a = b≠c All angles = 90
(4) Orthorhombic a≠b≠c All angles = 90
(2) Monoclinic a ≠ b≠c 2 angles = 90; one ≠ 90
(1) Triclinic a≠ b≠c All angles ≠; none = 90
(1) Hexagonal a = b≠c 2 Angles = 90; one = 120
(1) Rhombohedral a=b=c All angles equal ≠ 90
Miller Indices (crystal planes)
• Crystal Planes can also be z
defined within a cell.
– 1. Select a convenient origin for B
the coordinate system so that the
plane does not pass through it A
– 2. Find the coordinate of the
points where the plane intersects C
the 3 major axes. (If the plane
does not intersect a particular
axis, the intercept is infinity!)
y
– 3. Take the reciprocal (inverse) of
the intercepts D
– 4. The plane indices are the final
numbers obtained
• Generally designated as (h k l) x
also called Miller indices
Family of directions
(h.u+kv+l.w)
Cosine
= (h2+k2+l2)1/2.(u2+v2+w2)1/2
Linear density
2 atoms
LD110 = ;(m)-1
4R
Planar density
Properties of crystals can be dependent on the
specific plane (chemical, mechanical, magnetic etc.)
Number of atoms centered on a plane
Planar density =
Area of plane
”
“1
or
i n ra
s
co ys
y reflections must
X-
ra
m
be in phase to
X-
”
“2
in “2”
detect signal
“1
ng
g
i
”
extra
distance tgo
travelled o u
by wave “2” spacing a
d between =
planes(hkl) (h2+k2+l2)1/2
0