ABSTRACT

THIS STUDY AIMS TO COMPARE THE HEAD LOSSES IN AN ABRUPT CHANGE

AND SMOOTHLY CONTOURED CHANGE OF DIRECTION OF FLOW OF FLUID.
THE STUDY WAS CONDUCTED EXPERIMENTALLY USING A FLUID FLOW
APPARATUS, MERCURY MANOMETER, AND A THERMOMETER. THE FLUID
FLOW APPARATUS WAS UTILIZED WHEREIN THE PIPE RUN CONTAINING THE
APPROPRIATE BENDS WAS SELECTED AND THE ISOLATION VALVES FOR ALL
OTHER HORIZONTAL PIPE RUNS WERE CLOSED. A MERCURY MANOMETER
WAS USED TO DETERMINE THE HEAD LOSS FOR EACH FLOW RATE WHICH
WASCONTROLLED USING A VALVE IN ORDER TO ACQUIRE SUCCESSIVELY
HIGHER FLOW RATES STARTING FROM 100 GPH TO 500 GPH. THE VALUES
WERE ACQUIRED AND THE CORRESPONDING EQUATIONS WERE APPLIED IN
ORDER TO COME UP WITH THE CORRESPONDING INTERPRETATIONS,
GRAPHS, AND CONCLUSIONS.

Keywords: HEAD LOSSES, ABRUPT CHANGE, SMOOTHLY AND CONTOURED

CHANGE, FLUID FLOW
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

To move a given volume of liquid through a pipe requires a certain amount of energy. An

energy or pressure difference must exist to cause the liquid to move, and a portion of that energy

is lost to the resistance to flow. This resistance to flow is called head loss due to friction.

Moreover, friction loss or skin friction is the loss of pressure or “head” that occurs in a pipe or

duct flow due to the effect of the fluid’s viscosity near the surface of the pipe or duct. This loss is

due to the shear stress between the pipe surface and the fluid flowing within which depends upon

the conditions of flow and the physical properties of the system which is encapsulated into a

dimensionless number known as the Reynolds number (Re). Furthermore, the friction loss in

uniform, straight section of pipe known as major loss is caused by the effects of viscosity, the

movement of fluid molecules against each other or against the wall of the pipe. In line with this,

skin friction is greatly affected by whether the flow is laminar (Re < 2100) or turbulent (Re >

4000). In laminar flow, losses are proportional to fluid velocity which varies smoothly between

the bulk of the fluid and the surface (where it is zero). In one hand, losses are proportional to the

square of the fluid velocity in turbulent flow.

Additionally, there are also other forms of resistance to flow which includes the viscosity of

a fluid which is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the velocity gradient in a fluid. This

relationship has a more usual form called the Newton’s equation (Equation 1.1) which states that

the resulting shear of a fluid is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely

proportional to its viscosity. Every liquid has its own value for this property which comes in

different units like Pascal second (Pa-s) for the SI system and dyne second per square centimeter

(dyne-s/cm2) or poise named after the French physiologist Jean Poiseuille designated for the
metric system. Also, the higher the viscosity of a liquid is, the higher to flow which therefore

leads to higher friction loss.

τ=μ Equation 1.1

On the other hand, there are an assortment of factors affecting the head loss in pipes which

involves the flow rate of the fluid being analyzed. As the flow rate increases, measured in gallons

per meter or gpm, the velocity of the fluid increases at the same rate. Also, the friction or

resistance to flow, due to viscosity, increases due to this direct relationship between the flow rate

and the velocity of a fluid. With this, the head loss is related to the square of the velocity so the

increase in loss is very quick. In one hand, the inside diameter of a pipe also affects the head loss

due to the fact that when this factor is made larger, the flow are increases and the velocity of the

liquid at a given flow rate is reduced. When the velocity is reduced there is lower head loss due

to friction in the pipe. On the contrary, if the inside diameter of the pipe is reduced, the flow area

decreases, the velocity of the liquid increases and the head loss due to friction increases.

Furthermore, as the roughness of the pipe wall increases so does the thickness of the slow or

non-moving boundary layer of liquid. This results to a reduction in flow area which increases the

velocity of the liquid and the head loss due to friction. Moreover, corrosion and scale deposits

are also contributory factors to head losses in pipes by increasing the roughness inside pipe

walls. Also, scale buildup has the added advantage of reducing the inside diameter of the pipe

resulting to a reduction in flow area, an increase in the velocity of the liquid as well as. on the

head loss due to friction. Likewise, liquids with a higher viscosity contribute to a higher amount

of friction which comes from the moving liquid. In consonance with this, more energy is

required to move a high viscosity liquid than for a lower viscosity liquid. As a further matter,

head loss due to friction will be constant for each foot of pipe at a given flow rate because it
occurs all along the pipe. In one hand, although fittings like elbows, tees and valves are of

importance to piping system for a pump, it must be remembered that they disrupt the smooth

flow of the liquid being pumped. When this disturbance occurs, head loss due to friction also

occurs. To compensate for this, at a given flow rate the losses for the fittings will be calculated

using a factor that must be multiplied by a velocity head figure, or as the head loss equivalent to

a straight length of pipe. As an extra factor, the straightness of the pipe is another component

affecting head losses in pipes. Due to the effect of momentum, a liquid tends to travel in a

straight line through a pipe. If this fluid is disturbed due to a crooked pipe, the liquid will bounce

off the pipe wall thereby increasing the head loss due to friction.
 Appendix D

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

1. Why is equivalent pipe length computed? Explain.

The equivalent pipe length allows the us to describe the pressure drop through a fitting as a

length of pipe. It provides that for each fitting there will be an equivalent length of “dummy”

pipe that generates a friction head loss equal to the localized head loss generated by this fitting,

so that, when using a calculation equation for friction losses, which are generally dependent

equations of the pipe length analyzed, a length calculation is made by the sum of the length of

straight pipe and the equivalent lengths of those fittings installed in it.

2. Between smoothly countered and abruptly changing pipe, which will give a higher

pressure drop? Explain.

An abrupt changing pipe will give a higher pressure drop since under turbulent flow

conditions, pressure drop increases as the square of the volumetric flow rate.

3. Why is there a need to install pipe fittings in a piping network?

It helps in changing the direction of water supply from main pipes to subsidiary pipes.

Proper fitting also helps in checking leakage in the plumbing lines. Pipe fittings are

an important component of the plumbing system.

4. Will the size of fitting affect the friction loss factor? Explain.

Yes, although size of fitting is considered a minor loss, it still represents an additional

energy dissipation in the flow. This is usually caused by secondary flows induced by curvature or

re-circulation.
REFERENCES

 Munson, B.R. (2006). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (5 th Ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley &

Sons.

 Batchelor, G. K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics.Cambridge University Press.

pp. 211–215.

 Fox, R. W.; McDonald, A. T.; Pritchard, Phillip J. (2004). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

(6th ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. p. 348.

 Allen, J.J.; Shockling, M.; Kunkel, G.; Smits, A.J. (2007). "Turbulent flow in smooth and

rough pipes" (PDF). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. 365: 699–714.