Hobes

Intro: Thomas Hobbes is one of the philosophers whose ideas have transcended the
boundaries of time and reached the threshold of modern people in the history of the
progress of political science. Hoss was one of the great philosophers of the seventeenth
century. He occupies an important place in the history of European political philosophy.
His sharp logic created a great stir in the field of political thought. His subtle knowledge,
rational judgment and practical thinking can be found in very few thinkers. Therefore,
he is called Britain's most 'fundamental political philosopher'
Background of Hobbes's Political Philosophy: The political condition of England at the
time of Hobbes was not at all satisfactory. At that time there was an extremely chaotic
atmosphere in the politics of England. Then from 1642 to 1660 there was a conflict
between the king and the parliament. This resulted in several civil wars in the country.
The country was immersed in anarchy. Professor Dunning says that "the political
conditions in which Huss composed his works are reminiscent of the conditions in
Bodin's contemporary France sixty years earlier." Without discussing the political
situation of Hobbes's contemporaries in detail, a few important political events can give
some idea of the situation. The important events of this period are as follows:

1. First Civil War between King and Parliament (1642-1645);

2. Second Civil War (1648);
3. Execution of King Charles I (1649);
4. Reign of Rump Parliament (1649-1653);
5. Cromwell's Protectorate (1654-1658) and
6.the Restoration of the Monarchy (1660).

So based on the mentioned events we can say that there was an extreme
disorganization in the politics of Hoss contemporary England. Hobbes probably
therefore supported the Stuart kings and sought to establish a permanent system of
government and strengthen the king's hand. George H. Sabine (G. H. Sabine) said, "All
these strains of European thought met and crossed in the political philosophy of Thomas
Hobbes, developed in a series of works written between 1640 and 1651." He feels and
we see his reflection in his entire state thought. He mentioned in his 'Leviathan' the
need for strong governance in England at that time. And that's why after his best work
'Leviathan' was published, it faced fierce opposition from various quarters. Professor
Murray (Murray) said, “Monarchists resented him for trying to justify the extreme rights
of whatever government was in power (monarchists believed in the divine right of the
king). The Church of England abhorred his atheism and declared the Christian clergy to
be subject to state authority, so the church refused to accept his book. The monarchists
in exile in Paris especially disliked his doctrine. They feel that if Hoss's doctrine is true, it
will justify their eternal exile. For this reason they expelled Hoss from their party.”4 Hoss
supported the monarchists for the strong, orderly and permanent system that was
needed in the circumstances, so that stability would return to English politics.
Hobbes's Scientific Materialism
Among the modern political scientists, Thomas Hobbes is the only person who wanted
to establish political science or political theory on scientific principles. Not only political
science, but all his philosophical thoughts are based on scientific principles. This
scientific principle is called materialism. In the words of Professor Sabine, "Political
theory was only one part of what he designed to be an all inclusive system of philosophy
formed upon scientific principles. This system would now be described as
materialism."Hoss did not use history like the Italian philosopher Machiavelli to prove
the civilization of his philosophy. Nor did the French philosopher Bodin take refuge in
the Bible. Rather, he relies entirely on - (on the excellence of his contemporary science)
Sabine says, "Hobbes was in fact the first of the great modern philosophers who
attempted to bring to political theory into intimate relation with a thoroughly modern
system of thought, and he strove to make this fact broad enough to account, on
scientific principles, for all the facts of nature, including human behaviour both in
individual and social aspects."

Huss believed in scientific materialism. According to him, scientific materialism is at the

root of whatever natural and social phenomena occur in the world. He divides scientific
materialism into three levels (1) The first level includes the earth, other planets,
satellites and other inanimate objects. (2) Second level has Mathematics, Geometry and
Mechanics places. (3) And thirdly and finally he discusses the concepts of society and
state. However, mathematics and geometry occupy a prominent place in the scientific
method mentioned in his philosophy. there is The real secret of Hoss's materialism is
that he was a student of science. In his mind the idea that numerical methods could be
easily applied to other sciences took root. It is not possible to capitalize on history or
experience to create a whole society and move forward in solving its problems. Just as
science or mathematics proceeds in a certain way and solves problems logically, the
same rules need to be followed in the whole society.
Harmon said, "To construct a common wealth required the ascertaining of specific rules
and principles that had scientific and thus eternal validity," in the words of McGovern
(McGovern), "Indeed, the attraction of mathematics completely overwhelmed Hoss." He
considered 'knowledge' and 'measurement' as one and the same. He was also
particularly influenced by geometry and said that the method of geometry should be
used in all sciences. Above all, the political treatise 'Leviathan' which he wrote bears
some resemblance to the textbooks on geometry.
Hoss believed that sense experience is the source of all knowledge. Everything that
exists in the world is an inanimate object and these inanimate objects are composed of
tiny molecules. He also said that these atoms are not static or stable or there is constant
movement between them. And these dynamics continue to flow with geometric
certainty and mathematical precision. Incidentally, it should be mentioned that
Hobbesian kinetic theory is completed later through the kinetic theory of Newton (Issac
Newton). Hatsa explains kinetic theory that this kinetic theory is not only limited to the
material world, it is applicable to human society. In this context, Professor W.T. Jones
said, "There is no difference in principle between the behavior of billiard balls colliding
and reflecting on a billiard table and the behavior of plants, animals and even humans.
Hesse says, "We behave everywhere in one and the same manner. . . . In all cases we
find the same pattern of determined and definite behavior, whether it is the conscious
or outwardly spontaneous act of man." All behavior in terms of time is governed by past
events and certain predictions about them can be done."
Just as billiard balls control and influence each other, so do people and society in
general. There is also great variation in human behavior depending on the situation.
Emotions and feelings attract and repel people. People always want to get happiness
and comfort. And sadness and grief always want to be excluded. According to Hobbes, it
is futile to discuss political science apart from the human mind or psychology. Serine
(Sabine) said, "The science of politics is therefore built upon psychology."10 Therefore,
this is a special contribution of Hobbes. Hobbes did not merely analyze the psychological
aspects of man, the world's most complex organism, as a physicist confines himself to
the analysis of molecules.Professor Sabine called this theory of Thomas Hobbes
'scientific materialism'. According to him, Hasai is the progenitor of all materialists.
Because he was the first to apply the trend of materialist science developing in his era to
the analysis of human and non-human social life.

Hobbes's View on Human Nature

Analysis of human nature is an important aspect of Horse's thought. Haas's great
achievement is to identify the pace and tendency of the early stages of the bourgeois
society and urban civilization of the emerging society and to highlight the hopes,
aspirations and thoughts of the bourgeois people who were at the root of the creation
of this society and civilization. Professor C.B. Macpherson (C. B. Macpherson) rightly
said, "Hobbes's analysis of human nature, from which his whole political theory is
derived, is really an analysis of bourgeois man; that the assumptions, explicit and
implicit, upon which his psychological conclusions depend are assumptions peculiarly
valid." for bourgeois society. 11 Hassab in his book Leviathan' saw the state of nature as
the primary state of bourgeois society and the people living in this state as driven by
greed, lust and power, obsessed with achieving glory and success, self-satisfied, selfish
people. Such a perfect description of human nature, people No one before Hobbes
could present such a realistic picture of nature, problems and expectations.Thus it
appears that Hawkes had a very pessimistic view of human nature. Below is an
explanation of Huss's concept of human nature:
1. Man is essentially material: Hobbes while analyzing human nature said that man is a
material like other material. He considered the human body as material and the human
mind as perishable matter. The body is subject to the principle of causation like other
inanimate objects. As an inanimate object, human behavior can be predicted in
advance. The only slight difference between human beings and inanimate objects is that
in humans, apart from atoms and molecules like inanimate objects, a special additional
element called logic works. With the help of logic, he wants to act thoughtfully, so there
is a possibility of some uncertainty in his behavior. Otherwise the behavior of solids
could be accurately predicted. Professor Murray (Murray) said, " Hobbes believed that
Man's behavior is largely controlled and guided by nature and his surroundings.
However, it is admitted with an unequivocal voice that through the sense of reason,
man wants to fulfill his desires very effectively. And this calculation can be wrong or
right. So there is some uncertainty in the logic. 12 And this is what makes him distinct
from material things.
2. The effect of desire and aversion: All human efforts, all human emotions, feelings of
attraction and repulsion, derived from the two main intentions of 'desire' and 'disgust',
desire and aversion are the opposites of enthusiasm. When human desires and
aversions to a thing are not noticed, but indifference prevails, Hoss hated such things.
Hobbes believed that the thing that evokes a favorable response to human feelings,
people are attracted to that thing and desire to obtain it. On the other hand, the object
evokes an adverse response in the human feelings, causing his aversion to it, when he
gets the desired object, he is happy, and feels sad when he does not get it. Pleasant
things are good for people. And the thing that people hate is bad. However, according to
the variation of people's views, there can be manipulation of welfare and harm.
3. The primary goal of desire is power: Another great feature of human nature is that,
although man is driven by desire, he does not limit his desire to the pursuit of present
happiness (the primary object of his desire is a power by which he can facilitate the path
of his future desire). In the words, “It is not the aim of man's desire to enjoy only once at
a time, but the aim of his desire is to secure the way to future desires. 13 Thinking from
this point of view, Hoss cannot be classified as Hedonistic Philosophers, although his
speech sounds like Hedonistic Philosophers.
4. The main object of desire is self-preservation: Hawkes said that self-preservation is
the main object of human desire. People want to protect themselves first in any
environment. It is not desirable for any human being to endanger biological existence,
this psychological principle works behind all human behavior. Man's urge for self-
preservation is strong, so he continues to struggle unceasingly. Again, people try to be
more powerful than others due to the need of self-defense. So the struggle for self-
preservation and empowerment are inextricably linked. This struggle is eternal and ends
in death. Hoss believed that no human being could renounce the desire for power from
living a normal life.(#qoute)
5. All men are nearly equal: According to Hobbes, there is no great difference or
discrimination among men, they are all roughly equal. Hobbes' equality does not mean
mathematical equality. That is, it does not mean that all people have the same physical
and mental abilities. 1 According to Hobbes, men are equal in the sense that some may
have less physical strength, but more mental strength, and some may be weak in mind,
but strong in physical strength. Therefore, if physical and mental abilities are judged as a
whole, there is no significant disparity among human beings. However, Hawkes also said
that equality can be observed in mind but not so much in physical strength. In
experience, that person becomes wiser.15 As a result, people think that they are wiser
than others.
6. People are quarrelsome and conflicted: Since people are all equal in power, they all
want the same things. From this comes disagreement, conflict, enmity and strife.
Hobbes said, “From this equality of ability, arises equality of hope in the attaining of our
ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same, which nevertheless they cannot
both enjoy, they become enemies... endeavor to destroy or subdue one or the other.
From the attitude of being superior or subjugating someone or not recognizing the true
qualities of another comes hostility, bitterness and ultimately conflict. Anarchy
established its seat at all levels of society. Disunity instead of unity is a characteristic
phenomenon. Haas mentioned three reasons for conflict among people: competition,
diffidence and pride are one of the reasons for conflict. So everyone is at war with
everyone. (everyman against everyman). In a word, human quarrelsomeness, self-
interested attitude stimulates conflict.
7. Man in defense of peace and security: Man, because of his primal feeling, thinks that
his self-righteousness and security depend on attacking others and usurping other
people's wealth. Therefore, to maintain peace and security in the society, it is most
necessary to instill fear and hostility in the human mind. But later when man tests his
reasoning on the hard stone, the contrary idea is born in him. This idea is not about
mutual conflict, but through mutual cooperation and sympathy, self-reliance and
security can be achieved. Sabine wrote in this context that,(#Criticisms)
Despite the above criticisms, it can be said that Huss's conception of human nature is
very clear. Machiavelli also revealed the nature of human nature, but he was not able to
do such a realistic, rational analysis, such a perfect psychological analysis of man as
Haas. Macpherson (Macpherson) said, Hoss's analysis of human nature seems to reveal
the attitude of today's people, the people of today's society. Because there is
competition for power, competition for glory, and competition for success among the
contemporary civilized people; Also there is mutual violence, mistrust, hatred, fear etc.
19
 Hobbes's View On the State of Nature
Hoss' conception of the 'kingdom of nature' is an inevitable consequence of his
conception of human nature. That is, Hawkes based his depiction of the kingdom of
nature on human nature. According to Ibes, the state in which people lived before the
creation of the state is called the state of nature. Before the birth of the state, man lived
or still lives in the state of nature, even if the fictional picture of life he paints is purely
imaginary, even if its historicity cannot be proven by any real data, the accuracy of
Hoss's state of nature does not disappear. The description of the kingdom of nature is as
follows:

1. Uncivilized state without society: There was no social order or political organization in
the state of nature. Therefore, due to the lack of rules and regulations, people used to
live uncivilized and barbaric lives there. Since every person is selfish, greedy, everyone
was busy in fulfilling their own interests and greed. According to him, in this situation
people always lived in fear and horror of horrible death. In the state of nature, Solitary,
Poor, Nasty, Brutish and Short. Hobbes believed that humans lived in a state of nature
with no government facilities. In such a situation, personal interest and self-defense was
the main goal of all human activities. In fact, it was not possible for anyone to live in
peace in this terrible state of nature. It was 'a pre-civil, pre-political condition of
mankind'.
According to Hoss, there is no general power or force in such an environment, which can
assure people of a safe, healthy life without fear. In this state of nature, in the state of
war, no development of art, culture, art, trade and commerce is possible; There is only
mutual mistrust, enmity, conflict. Hoss has described the state of nature like this, "In
such condition, there is no place of industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain and
consequently no culture of the carth, no navigation nor use of the commodities that
may be imported by the sea.. .no knowledge of the face of the earth, no account of
time, no arts, no letters, no society, and which is worst of all continual fear and danger
of violent death. And the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short
2. Struggle against equals In Hobbes's concept, people are free and equal in the 'state of
nature'. So in the realm of nature, no one thought himself inferior to anyone else.
Everyone wants to have everything equally. As a result, the desire to obtain
simultaneously creates conflict between each other. Even the winner of the conflict is
not safe. Suspicion and distrust of each other prevails. As a result competition and
competition between the two continues in the hope of profit, security and fame. This
competition was for everyone. In Horse's language "war of every man against every
man”. So it can be said that war was the daily routine of the kingdom of nature at that
time.
3. There was no place for justice and injustice: in the kingdom of nature everyone was
an enemy of everyone. They were always engaged in conflicts, quarrels, murders, etc.
Such a terrible state of war prevailed there all the time. In such a situation, there was no
opportunity for people to exercise their intellect and reason. In the words of Hobbes,
"Where there is no general power, there is no law, where there is no law, there is no
justice." That is, there can only be a sense of justice and injustice in a civilized society
under state power. In short, in the state of nature described by Hobbes, people are
lawless, just and unjust, without judgment. Lived in a barbarian kingdom.
Commenting on the real existence of the 'state of nature' described by Hoss, William
McGovern said, "This state of nature exists not only in the infancy of mankind, but also
among the barbarous people of modern times. Duck believes that the Red Indians of his
era were residents of such a state. If there is a slight lack of disorder in the governance
of Europe, the civilized nations of Europe will likely return to the state of nature. So man
reverts to the state of nature only when the state lacks artificial control."

Some of the characteristics of the state of nature described by Hoss are assumed:
First, there was no distinction between ought and ought. Secondly, there was no
difference between right and wrong in the kingdom of nature. Only after the formation
of society can the concept of justice and injustice be established. Third, there was no
such thing as private property in the state of nature.
(#Criticism of the state of nature)
1. It is doubtful whether man ever lived in the kingdom of nature. Because there is no
historical evidence about it. So his idea is not historical, but ahistorical.
2. Hoss denied the human qualities of man as selfish greedy in the kingdom of nature.
3. There is also no historical evidence for Hobbes's analysis of human life as
unaccompanied, helpless, dirty, brutish and transitory.
4. Hobbes sacrificed human superiority by comparing man to the beasts of the forest in
the 'kingdom of nature'.
5. Hobbes's 'kingdom of nature' was a figment of imagination. And his imagination is
more than reality away Because it was difficult for people to survive in this condition. 6.
Hoss belittled the greatness of man by calling him self-centered.
Still, it can be said that Thomas Hobbes's theory of 'state of nature' is an important
theory in the history of political thought. So Gettell said, "The idea that a state of nature
of Hobbes in which men lived under natural law establishment of political society,"22 he
also said, "Turning from psychology to politics, Hobbes's viewed man as living originally
in a state of nature without the benefits of government, "23
Hobbes is view on the Laws of nature
Hobbes's conception of natural law occupies an important place in modern political
philosophy. From the writings of Hobbes, it is known that natural law was in the state of
nature. Natural law is a precept or general rule, based on logic. Natural law in the
human mind awakened the sense of logic. Hoss said, "A law of nature is a precept or
general rule by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life or
takes away the means of preserving the same.” With the help of natural law, man has
entered the state life from the state of nature . Hoss defines natural law as the rules and
regulations which arise from human reason and which prohibit acts harmful to the
general preservation of man. Hoss reformulates natural law, "Natural law is an order or
general rule arrived at by reason which prohibits acts destructive of human life, or
prohibits acts which deprive man of the means of life." 25
In this way, the difference between natural rights and natural law is observed .the
meaning of natural rights is that people can do whatever they think is necessary to fulfill
their desires. That is, the right that a person enjoys to exercise his own power as he
wishes to protect his life. Natural rights. But the essence of natural law is that not only is
it important to satisfy one's own desires, but that everyone is obliged to relinquish some
part of his rights in order that others may satisfy their own desires with greater
certainty.

According to Hoss, natural law is not a law, the qualities that attract people to
punishment and obedience are called natural laws. Hoss said, "In fact, the law of nature
in not law at all, but only qualities that dispose men to peace and obedience. 26 Natural
law prevents people from all injustice and criminal acts. The predominance of natural
law in the minds of people means the predominance of rationality. . Being rational, man
left the kingdom of nature and built civilized society. Hoss says that before he became
rational and enlightened by natural law, he had a desire for self-preservation. Even after
enlightenment, this desire did not disappear. But the difference is that before he
became rational, he was engaged in conflict. did not work in the way of co-
operation.When natural law won over his mind he threw off this tendency too.
Hoss considered natural law to be an abstract symbol of rationality and justice. Only
natural law has inspired man to build a civilized society. Hoss envisioned natural law as a
symbol of social morality and prudence. Morality and prudence are the pre-conditions
for building a state organization. If rationality, morality and prudence did not arise, the
state would not have been formed. We can come to this conclusion from Hobbes's
analysis. People are committed to avoiding violence at all costs. The definite product of
this thought is the state."
Hobbes's Theory of Social Contract
Among the political doctrines that Thomas Hobbes proposed, the most prominent is the
'social contract doctrine'. He discussed the social contract in detail in his famous political
book Leviathan. His concept of the social contract derives largely from natural law.
Origin of Social Contract
According to Hobbes, human beings contracted among themselves to escape from the
anarchic state of nature. He said, when the life of man in the kingdom of nature became
miserable, when the natural law was not able to guarantee the maintenance of life and
property of man, man felt the need of a happy and secure life. And in view of such
necessity, the people of the society themselves contracted among themselves. In view
of this, all human beings unconditionally surrender their natural rights to any individual
or group of individuals in accordance with the provisions of natural law for the purpose
of better living and for greater welfare and well-being. According to Hobbes, this mode
of surrender is achieved through the social contract. Hors says that, this agreement is a
mutual transfer of rights
Nature of Social Contract
According to Hobbes, the social contract is executed like this- “I authorize and give up
my right of governing myself, to this man or this assembly of men, on this condition that
thou give up thy right to him and authorize all his actions in like manner. This done the
multitude so united in one person is called commonwealth in Latin Civitas .According to
Hoss, this is the social contract and this contract is the main source of unity underlying
the state or commonwealth. The person or group of persons to whom all power has
been transferred through such an agreement is the Sovereign and all those who transfer
the power are subjects. But once a treaty is made, men cannot break it, and cannot
show allegiance to another by entering a new treaty without the sovereign's permission.
However, in 'Leviathan' Hoss also notes that “the subjects to the sovereign or the
obedience of the people to be in force so long as the sovereign can protect them. For
the right which man has by natural law to defend himself, if no one defends it, no treaty
can deprive him of that right."
Characteristics of Social ContractA few important features of Hobbes's social contract
are worth noting. These are
1. Peace and Security: The state is a man-made institution and the foundation of public
harmony. The state is for the security and welfare of the people. And the main features
of Hobbes's social contract are to protect the peace and security of the people.
2. Argument dictates: the state of this doctrine was created out of agreement - not out
of fear. It is the dictates of reason that have drawn man to peace and security. Hence
the basis of loyalty to the state is Logic not fear.
3. Permanent: A state created by a permanent and unchangeable social contract is
permanent, and unchangeable. That is, once the social contract is made, it cannot be
changed.
4. King out of the treaty: In this treaty, the sovereign power of the king remained in the
treaty outside Because the agreement is between the people. Therefore, the king
cannot be said evil even for breaking the contract.
5.Contract is above the law: According to Hobbes the sovereign power resulting from
the social contract is law.The sovereign power is the source and sole authority
interpreting all laws
6. Deregulation of contract and according to Thomas Hobbes, the sovereign resulting
from the social contract is free of all forms of regulation. .The scope of sovereign power
is omnipresent and it is not limited by natural, divine or any other law.
7. Contracts made by the people on their own initiative: A notable feature of Thomas
Hobbes's social contract was that people made contracts among themselves. There was
no place for sovereign power in it.
8. Social contract cannot be broken: Social contract cannot be broken. According to
Hobbes, since people have contracted among themselves to surrender their power and
rights to a sovereign power, they cannot break this contract.
9. Basis of Sovereignty: The social contract is the basis of sovereign power. The social
contract sustains sovereign power.
10. Predominance of the opinion of the majority: The opinion of the majority prevailed
as to who should be entrusted with the sovereign power of the state. The minority
accepted the majority.
Criticism
1. Ahistorical: Hobbes' social contract doctrine is ahistorical. In primitive times Social
system was based on lineage and status. Moreover, there is no historical evidence that
the state was formed through the agreement. Hookes discusses the doctrine of contract
based on speculation and imagination.
2. This doctrine is absurd: According to Hobbes, people in the kingdom of nature lived
in a pre-social state and were in constant conflict with each other. In such an anti-social,
apolitical and conflicted environment, it is not at all reasonable that people were able to
gain social and political consciousness by miraculous magic.
3. Pioneers of Autocratic Government: Hoss's Social Contract is pioneered by
authoritarian governments. It invites absolute, free and total state and government.
Here there is no accountability to the sovereign power and the ruler will become
autocratic.
4. Failure to distinguish between government and state: Hobss contract doctrine did not
draw any distinction between state and government. In the agreement described by
Hoss, the aspect of government formation is regulated. He referred to the change of
government as the equivalent of dissolution of the state. Governments change, but
states do not. He failed to realize this fact.
5. Undemocratic: This doctrine is undemocratic. It is said that the state was created on
the consent of the people but the people's rights were not recognized in this doctrine.
6.Against individual freedom: Hoss's social contract theory is against individual
freedom. As a result of this treaty the sovereign ruler was created. His commands and
prohibitions can never be disobeyed by a person.
7. Unreal: Hoss's social contract is just an unrealistic fantasy. Because the absolute and
extreme power of the ruler mentioned in this agreement is nowhere to be seen to be
exercised.

Finally, it can be said that Hoss's social contract theory has been harshly criticized from
various points of view, but there are aspects of this theory whose role is timeless. It is
through this doctrine that one can get an idea about the origin of the state. Moreover,
Hobbes wanted to ensure law and order and public safety by the sovereign ruler created
by this treaty. So it can be said that the importance of the social contract of Hoss is
immense. However, Hobbes's social contract theory was particularly useful in dealing
with the turbulent environment prevailing in England at the time.
17.9 Hobbes's View on the Origin of State

* According to Hrobes, the state or commonwealth is the state or commonwealth,

which is the new system of life that man builds according to the laws of natural law in
order to free himself from the anarchic state of nature, and that system of life that is
not controlled by the instinctive growth of human self-preservation. says Horse said,
Reason has no role in the state of nature. It is entirely driven by growth. But the role of
reason in the humane state is key. Because here nature or desire is strictly controlled.
About the origin of the state, Hoss thinks that the origin of the state can be in two ways.
Namely: (1) voluntary state and (2) coercive state.
1. Voluntary State (State by Institution): When people voluntarily form a state through
an agreement among themselves and voluntarily submit all the powers to the new state
who has sovereign power, the state is called a voluntary state. In this state the sovereign
power is created by the treaty, the sovereign himself is not a party to the treaty and his
power is not limited by any terms of the treaty.
2. State by Acquisition: When a state acquires sovereign power by force, it is called a
state by force. Coercive sovereign power arises when men, either singly or collectively,
for fear of death or slavery, surrender their lives and liberties to some person or body,
and empower him or them for all their actions.
Simply put, voluntary states are formed through freely executed agreements.On the
other hand, the state based on force is formed through the use of force Hobbes
expressed his opinion in this context that Most states are formed through coercion.

According to Hoss, the rational desire to escape from the warlike state of nature and the
foresight of self-preservation motivates people to form states. The origin of the state
lies in such desire and foresight. In the state of nature, man tries to exercise his powers
freely to satisfy his own desires. As a result, constant conflict and insecurity became an
inseparable part of human life. In this situation people feel the need to seek peace. They
feel that they must refrain from enjoying the free reign of the state of nature (Peerez
Zagorin comments that, "According to Huss, human foresight is the ultimate cause of
state formation." Because the establishment of a civilized society or state is the only
means of self-preservation and a comfortable life.
Hobbes's Theory of Sovereignty Origin
The political conditions in fifteenth-century Italy as such inspired Machiavelli to promote
the theory of absolutist and secular sovereignty; Just as the political situation in France
in the sixteenth century helped Bodin to provide his theory of sovereignty, so the
political situation in England in the seventeenth century helped Huss to provide the
doctrine of sovereignty. When Horse began his writings, the political climate in England
was in the throes of disaster.
All over England there was great disorder and fear of civil war. Hobbes perceived the
ultimate and ultimate power of the sovereign to bring this dire situation under control.
In essence, Hoss based his theory of sovereignty on the then political situation in
seventeenth-century England. George Sabine said, "Since society depends on mutual
trust, the next step is eventually to explain now this is reasonably possible and brings
Hobbes to his theory of sovereignty. Because of the unsocial inclination, it is hopeless to
expect them to agree spontaneously to respect each others rights and unless all do so, it
is unreasonable for anyone to forego self-help. The performance of covenants may be
reasonably expected only if there is an effective government which will punish non-
performance."

Hoss while defining sovereign power said, "Sovereign power is a person or group of
individuals to whom the people surrender all their natural rights through a contract
made among themselves and accept all his actions as their own. The aim of this person
or group of individuals is To exercise the powers conferred by the people, according to
their own discretion, for the purpose of protecting the public safety and punishment.
In other words, the sovereign power is the person or group of persons to whom the
people have transferred all their rights and submitted themselves completely to the
sovereign ruler. Professor Dunning (Prof. Dunning) while explaining the sovereignty of
Hobbes said, "By the sovereign is meant that individual or assembly who, by the terms
of the contract on which commonwealth rests, is authorized to will of stead of every
partly to contract for the end of peaceful life 32 So the people submit their power to the
sovereign ruler for the purpose of leading their peaceful life.
Ibes's concept of sovereignty is derived from his doctrine of the social contract. Men
enter into a contract with themselves in order to be freed from the intolerable and
abominable conditions in the kingdom of nature, by which each surrenders his own
rights to the other and ultimately surrenders his collective rights to the king. In the
words of Horse, "I authorize and give up my right of governing myself, to this man, or to
this assembly of men, on this condition, that you give up any right to him, and authorize
all his actions in the same manner. "32 But the king did not participate in this
agreement. The king stayed out of the deal. So it is a type of one-sided contract,
(Unilateral contract). As a result, the king was no longer responsible to the people, he
was the supreme power-X/. As a result, the king became a despot. Thus Huss advocated
the autocratic rule of the then Stuart kings of England through his concept of
sovereignty.
Hobbes considered sovereign power as the reservoir of extreme power. No other
superior or inferior authority can control the will of the sovereign ruler. There can be no
other authority equal to the sovereign in the state. The sovereign ruler is the source and
explanation of all power. He stands above all laws. Hoss says that no one can be above
the sovereign ruler. Since the whole people have voluntarily placed all their powers in
the hands of the sovereign without condition. So the sovereign ruler has ultimate
power. Sabine said, "For society has only one voice with which it can speak and one will
which it can enforce that of sovereign who makes it a society."33 Hoss rightly calls the
sovereign as a mortal God and He strengthened his hand by giving him a sword. Hoss
said "Governments without the sword, are cut words and of no strength to secure as
man at all."8

17.10.4 Characteristics of Sovereignty

1. Sovereign authority outside the covenant: Since the people have transferred all their
power to the sovereign among themselves, (the sovereign is not a party to the
covenant, he stands outside the covenant. His power is not limited by any terms of the
covenant. He therefore possesses the absolute power of the sovereign. This covenant A
unilateral treaty makes the king no longer responsible to the people for any reason.
Thus the absoluteness or lack of control of the sovereign is established. The sovereign
has no rival in the state. All the subjects submit to him all their rights. He has no
responsibility or obligation towards them.
2. Sovereign power is free from all forms of control: Hobbes's sovereign power is free
from all forms of control. Its power is irresistible and irresistible. No law, moral, social,
natural, divine etc. can control this power.
3. Sovereign power is not accountable to the people: According to Hobbes' terms of
contract, the sovereign power is not accountable to the people, rather it is above all
contracts. According to this agreement, even if the ruler gets power from the ruled, he
is not responsible to the ruled.
4. The people have no right of resistance to sovereignty: the people have accepted all
the acts of the sovereign as their own by a treaty entered into among themselves.
Therefore the power of the sovereign is eternal. The subjects have no right at all against
the sovereign.
5. Sovereign Above Law: Hobbes's sovereign ruler is above all laws. Its extreme power is
authoritarian, not limited by any natural law. According to Hoss, natural law is not a law.
Because there is no power to turn it into action. So natural law has no conflict with it. He
said that the divine law should be obeyed but the power of acceptance rests with the
sovereign.
6. Sovereign Authority Lawmaker and Interpreter: Sovereign authority is not bound by
any law, human, divine, or constitutional. In this case he is the possessor of all power,
the source and expounder of the law. The sovereign power is capable of distinguishing
between morality and immorality.
The sovereign is the source of all power: The sovereign is the source of all power in the
state. can.The supreme sovereign of all military forces within the state. 7. Sovereign is
the source of all power: The sovereign is the source of all power in the state. The
claimant of the title, honor and status of the state is the sovereign. He is empowered to
appoint all military and civil servants of the state. According to Hobbes, the sovereign is
said to be the source of justice. It can fight or declare war. Sovereign is over all military
forces within the state.
8. Sovereign power is indivisible : Sovereign power is indivisible, indivisible, immutable.
Non-transferable. If sovereign power is given to all, there is a possibility of civil war.
Therefore, this power should be given to an association or person who will understand
its dignity.
9. Source of Sovereign Morality: Hobbes had no distinction between right and wrong in
the natural state. Humans were beyond morality and had no property rights. Humans
have created sovereigns based on justice and property rights
10. The sovereign has ultimate power: The sovereignty of the Has is not limited by any
human superior or inferior authority.
Relation Between Sovereignty and Individual
In Thomas Hobbes's 'Theory of Sovereignty' the relationship of the individual to the
sovereign is closely linked. Because individuals have created sovereign power or
absolute sovereignty out of necessity. In this context, Hoss himself said, “Man is
governed by conflicting instincts. The first of these is the desire to live a peaceful and
comfortable life and the second is the desire to avoid the horrors of a painful and
painful life.” Since the beginning of creation, man has had to constantly struggle to
maintain his existence. After that, when the basis of existence is strong, they master
various tricks and techniques to increase the value and influence and prestige, and if
necessary, they focus on increasing their power and status by using force.
1. In the sovereign theory, the sovereign is the king or the ruler. On the other hand the
individual is the subject or the governed.
2. After the delegation of sovereign power, the sovereign or ruler is considered to
possess all the powers. All subjects must express their allegiance to the ruler. Even if the
ruler does not recognize the church, the people cannot show loyalty to the church. In
this case the loyalty of the people must be single-minded and one-sided.
3. The people will obey the sovereign as long as the people can preserve their
fundamental rights and existence of life. According to Hans, sovereignty cannot deprive
someone of the fundamental right to order suicide or to preserve his existence.
So it can be said that Hobbes created sovereign power or absolute sovereignty out of
necessity. So the individual has a deep connection with sovereignty.

Criticisms of Sovereignty
1. Bereft of reality: Many have called Hobbes' sovereignty unrealistic and untrue.
According to them, a sovereign ruler is not capable of exercising unrestricted and
extreme powers.
2. Humiliating: The idea of giving all human rights to a sovereign power is highly
insulting to the judgment of the human race.
3. Impossibility of contract: According to Hoss, the contract created sovereign power.
But in the state of nature it was not possible for fearful people to participate in the
covenant
4. Self-interested: Since the sovereign government can make any law, it can do
everything in its own interest.
5. The denial of people's power and the people's source of power is completely denied
in Hoss's theory of sovereignty. It disenfranchises the people and shackles them in
chains of obedience to the king which is totally untenable in the current representative
democratic regime.
7. Arbitrary Rulers Made: The sovereignty of Hoss makes the ruler to be arbitrary and
tyrannical because he says that the sovereign ruler will not be bound by any law.
8. Hobbes considered the basis of sovereignty in irrational doctrines and the agreement
organized in the state of nature, but in fact no agreement was possible for fearful
people in the state of nature. So this doctrine is absurd.
9. Anti-individualism Hobbes' concept of sovereignty is anti-individual. Because Huss
thinks that what the ruler does not forbid is individual freedom.
10. Dictatorships Hoss's sovereignty is absolute. It has become de facto despotic
monarchy. So his doctrine of sovereignty has culminated in dictatorship.
11. Deed of Slavery: The contract through which Thomas Hobbes spoke about the
creation of state and sovereign power is nothing but a deed of slavery. It has insulted
the humanity of the people
Finally, despite the above limitations, it can be said that Hans's 'sovereign theory' is an
important addition to modern political thought. He is the first philosopher who gives
more idea of sovereignty. Although Machiavelli, Bonin, Grosius discuss about
sovereignty, Hai is the first to accurately describe sovereignty in light of its
characteristics. Although Bodin preached the principle of absolute and unlimited
sovereignty, he could not free his sovereign power from the limitations of natural law,
divine law, constitutional custom, family and private property 1 and thus he remained
essentially medieval in this regard. On the contrary, Hoss freed his sovereign power
from all limitations, whether human or divine, natural or constitutional, familial or
economic, and established it in its proper status. So it can be said in agreement with
Gettell that "No writer has taken a more extreme view, than Hobbes of the absolute
nature of sovereignty." For this, Hos is called the 'Father of Extreme Sovereignty'.

Hobbes's Contribution in Political Philosophy

Hobbes' contribution to modern political philosophy is undeniable. He became famous
as an unbeatable philosopher in the history of political philosophy by writing his famous
book 'Leviathan'. Professor Gettel said that the name of Hoss will be forever
remembered in the political history of England. Professor Sabine said, "Hobbes's
Political Philosophy is beyond all comparison the most imposing structure that the
period of English civil war produced. That is, although Hobbes's political philosophy was
written during the English Civil War, it is an incomparable system of thought, which is
perfect and characteristic. Again, Professor Dunning (Dunning) says, "Husse was the first
Englishman to present a system of political philosophy which may be regarded as one of
the greatest in history. His writings immediately placed him among the first class of
political thinkers, and his doctrines from the moment of their publication were alive
throughout Western Europe." created controversy and great influence." His political
contributions are mentioned below:
1. Application of scientific method: He was the first to apply the scientific method in the
history of political thought and applied the new excellence of science achieved in his
time to the analysis of the character of political thought. The despondent mentality
created in the world of thought as a result of his scientific approach deeply influenced
the development of free and neutral thought in the later period. Under the influence of
mathematics, geometry and physics, he became a realist philosopher and he judged
people, human society, human emotions, human hopes and aspirations, even human
religion and morality according to the criteria of materialism.
2. Introduction to Rationalism: Thomas Hobbes was not only a materialist in the
extreme, but he also had a deep faith in rationalism. And as a result of which the birth of
state, government and sovereign is possible through social contract. Moreover, he
analyzes religion, ethics and justice in general and natural law in particular in the light of
rationalism. He believed that from rationalism arose the state and sovereignty, and with
rationalism natural law or the divine.

3. Analysis of human nature: Hobbes described man as very selfish and self-centered.
On the face of it, it seems harsh, but it is not completely false. Moreover, his idea is also
termed as correct by modern political philosophers. If we can proceed in this matter
with a realistic view and verify it from the point of view of truth, then the accuracy of
Hobbes's statement is found. But his main mistake is that he brings the matter to the
extremes of logic.
4. Description of the state of nature: Regarding the discussion of the state of nature,
Hoss said that if there was a relaxation of law and order in Europe at that time, then the
inhabitants of Europe would return to the state of nature. Hence the need for artificial
control is overwhelming. Because artificial control has kept man from returning to the
state of nature. So, although Hobbes presents the statement very nakedly, there is no
room for doubt that the statement is unpalatable.
5. Social contract doctrine: An important doctrine of Hobbes' political philosophy is the
social contract doctrine. He offered the social contract doctrine as the basis of
sovereignty in England's troubled times, which was a timely step in England's troubled
times. Each individual shall surrender the right to govern himself to the government of
the individuals formed by the treaty. However, there will be a condition that other
persons will also surrender their rights to the same governing authority. The value goal
of social contract doctrine would be peace and security. And for this the sovereign
authority should be powerful enough.

6. The Concept of Sovereignty/The Doctrine of Sovereignty is Haas's most important

contribution. He originated the modern doctrine of the sovereign by perfect reason. It is
true that before Haas the concept of sovereignty was developed in the works of
Machiavelli, Bodin and Glossium, but it is in Haas's work that the current concept of the
sovereign is expressed. According to Gettell, "No. writer has taken a more extreme view
than Hobbes of the absolute nature of sovereignty."He did not allow any legal
restrictions on sovereignty. His sovereign has more absolute power than Bodin's
sovereign. So it is said that, "Hobbes relieved sovereignty from the disabilities which
Bodin had consistently left standing."

7. Concept of Law: Hoss's greatest contribution to political philosophy is his own

concept of law. According to him, law is the command of the sovereign over others. He
thinks natural law is not really law. The power to command the people is vested only in
the hands of the sovereign ruler. Explaining the law, he says,"Law properly, is the sword
of him (Sovereignty) that by right has command over others."
8. Place politics above religion and morality: Haas placed politics above religion and
morality as the basis of philosophical theory. Before him, the adventurous writer of the
sixteenth century, Machiavelli, distinguished religion and morality from politics, but he
did not dare to hand over all power to the state. Gettell said, While Machiavelli had
separated politics from religion and morals in practice, Hobbes had set politics above
religion and morals in philosophical theory.

9. Religion is part of the original philosophy: Hobbes's statement on religion is not at all
independent of his original philosophy. He judged religion in terms of materialism.
Covering everything with the cloak of religion and removing it from the municipal
administrator's domain did not get his approval. As two sovereign powers could never
coexist peacefully within the same political and geographical boundaries, he believed
that the conflict between state and church would result in chaos and anarchy, making
the church a religious institution under the king. Hoss recorded his discourses on
religion and the church with great cleverness and awareness. Hoss was careful not to
infringe the sovereign power of the king.
Huss's discussion of classification of government is one of the main aspects of his
political thought. He divided governments into three categories according to the locus
of sovereign power. Namely: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy (Iss says, “those
who are unhappy in monarchy call it despotism, those unhappy in aristocracy call it
tycoon, and / those deprived in democracy call it anarchy.” So the same government
may be a monarchy to one; but to another According to the position of sovereign
power, he divided the government into monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, and after
comparing their merits, he called monarchy the best government.
10. Classification of Government:Huss's discussion of classification of government is one
of the main aspects of his political thought. He divided governments into three
categories according to the locus of sovereign power. namely: monarchy, aristocracy
and democracy (Iss says, "Those who are unhappy in a monarchy call it despotism, those
who are unhappy in an aristocracy call it tyranny, and those who are deprived in a
democracy call it anarchy." So the same government may be a monarchy to one person;
but to another It is autocracy. According to the position of sovereign power, he divided
the government into monarchy, aristocracy and democracy and after comparing their
merits, he called monarchy as the best government.
12. Growth of the Nation State: Hobbes made a significant contribution to the growth of
the nation state. After Machiavelli and Bodin, the idea of the nation-state was nurtured
by Hobbes.The nation-state gained new impetus as Hobbes undermined church
supremacy. And as a result, the nation-state took a more or less definite shape before
the eighteenth century began. So it can be said that Hsei laid the foundations of the
national state.
13. Individualism: Individualism is very prominent in his political thought. Basically, he
was a major representative of the individualism of the seventeenth century. “The State
was born for the happiness, peace and security of the individual” – he declared in a
magnanimous voice – and placed absolute power in the hands of the sovereign, based
on the consent of the individual. In this way Huss made the rights of the individual one
of the most discussed issues in modern philosophy and thus took one of the biggest
steps towards the formation of contemporary democratic theory.

14. Behaviourist { Behaviourism is the name given to giving preference to human

behavior and attitudes over institutions. Hoss tried to build the state structure by
thinking about the behavior of the people as well as their punishment and security. As a
result, he can be called a behaviorist. Humans are inherently selfish and self-centered,
yet humans are individualists. Everyone wants joy and happiness and avoids sorrow.
Judging from this aspect, man can be imagined as a machine. By observing human
behavior, Huss developed other theories including the social contract theory. As a
result, he is known as a behaviorist.

15. Utilitarianism: The basic premise of utilitarianism is that humans are naturally
indulgent and pleasure-loving. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes is called the father
of utilitarianism. Humans make agreements and form states to escape the intolerable
and abominable environment of the natural state. Thus the basis of contract, sovereign
theory etc. is utilitarian) Huss was the first to realize that people form states with a view
to the utility of civilized society. Hobbes' views inspired Bentham and Mill's
utilitarianism as a source. So Hobbes can be called the pioneer of utilitarianism.
17.12 Limitations of Hobbes's Political Philosophy

However influential the philosopher Thomas Hobbes was in the history of political
thought, his approach was far from perfect. Serious inconsistencies or limitations lurk in
many places in his philosophy. Hence his doctrine has been criticized by various
quarters. "Hobbes remained a loner throughout his life and had many critics," says
Professor Murray. Again Gettell (Gettell) also said, "Hass had no direct support in the
history of English political philosophy." The following are the limitations of Hobbes's
political thought:
First, commentators have offered divergent arguments about Hoss's seminal work
'Leviathan'. C. E. Vaughan (C. E. Vaughan) said, “Leviathan is like a monster of a strange
nature. It has no influence, no fruit, and is unfit to breed.”40 Leviathan did not receive a
favorable response after its publication.
Second, in saving man from the warlike state of the 'state of nature', Hobbes casts man
under the tyranny of arbitrariness. John Locke said, “Man is so foolish, according to
Hoss, that he takes care to protect himself from the malice of jackals and jackals, but is
content to be devoured by lions, even to him.

Also called security. 41 Thirdly, Hobbes portrays the state as an instrument or a means
to an end. As a result, he has lost sight of the fact that the state itself is a goal -
cherished since time immemorial.

Fourthly, he may have shown some respect for the Consent of the governed by believing
that the state was born on the basis of the conscious consent of the people through
social contract, but he also did a great disservice by doing so. The state which the great
philosopher Aristotle, by careful steps, had freed from the hands of the Sophist thinkers,
Hoss has handed back to the Sophists. He declared the state to be an artificial
institution.

Fifth, Hobbes's materialism, atheism and liberalism have also been variously criticized.
Theologians such as Henry Moore, Cudworth, Cumberland and political thinkers such as
Filmer tried to destroy his doctrine. Later, John Locke also criticized it and said,
"According to Huss, men are so stupid as to think of what evil can do them." Even
though he tries, he feels safe by entering the lion's belly.”

Sixth, the scientific method by which he examined political problems was no longer
followed. In those days the scientific method was seen as one with the geometrical
method or the descending method, but that method was adopted by no other political
thinker than Spinoza. Hoss remained alone in this regard.

Seventh, although Hobbes endeavored to formulate a clear and unambiguous

philosophy of state, he failed to protect himself and his philosophy from self-
contradiction. Careful readers of Hussain's philosophy must have noticed that serious
contradictions lurk in many parts of his philosophy. Considering the contradictions of
Hobbes' political philosophy, Professor Phyllis Doyle commented, "Hobbes's political
theory may have pleased some at the time."

Eighth, there is no doubt that the maintenance of peace and security is one of the
purposes of the state. But the state also has multiple purposes. But Hobbes did not pay
attention to this at all
Thirdly, another charge against Hoss is that he failed to distinguish between the state
and the government. But state and government are completely different. He thought
that the fall of the government means the fall of the state, but in practice it is not.

Tenth, Hobbes' social contract is an irrational doctrine. In response to the origin of the
state on the basis of treaties, critics argue that small associations or associations can be
formed through treaties. But there is no precedent in the history of the world for
building a large organization with a comprehensive purpose like the state.

Eleventh, critics say that Hawkes's explanations of natural law are misleading and
unnecessary. He interpreted natural law in various ways / sometimes said natural law is
a brute instinct. Again at the same time he said it is a moral ideal) He could not preserve
the rationality in analyzing the character of natural law.
Twelfth, although Hobbes considered the observance of religion to be a duty, in his
political philosophy he subjugated religion to politics. As a result, he was considered an
atheist by religious priests.
In conclusion, despite some inconsistencies and limitations in Hosse's political
philosophy, his philosophy is a valuable asset in the history of political theory. He was
the first to attempt to judge political science from the point of view of the scientist and
modern researcher. English speaking. Of all the men who have ever written on political
philosophy, Hobbes is perhaps the greatest in terms of clarity of expression and skill of
structure. Sabine rightly wrote, "These tendencies the increase of legal power and the
recognition of self-interest as the dominant motive in life-have been among the most
pervasive in modern times. That Hobbes made them the premises of his system and
followed them through with relentless logic is the true measure of his philosophical
insight and of his greatness as a political thinker. Therefore, it can be said that Haas's
contribution to nationalism is unforgettable and eternal.

LOCKE
"He (Locke) is the last great voice of one great tradition and first great voice of another
great tradition”- Wayper
John Locke is one of those who claim originality in the field of political thought during
the era of the English Revolution. He was one of the leading men of the seventeenth
century and the inventor of democratic ideas. The English philosopher Locke is a unique
common name in the history of political philosophy, possessing practical experience and
unprecedented philosophical wisdom in matters of governance. His realistic thinking,
democratic awareness and individualism have placed him in the forefront of the great
thinkers. Therefore, John Locke can be called as a prominent political scientist of all time
and era.
18.4 Locke's View on Human Nature
Locke did not express any distinct opinion about human nature, as Huss did. But Locke is
distinctly human in his "Two Treatises on Civil Government."
Although he does not discuss anything about nature, the information that has been
scattered about it in various places in his book, the real picture about human nature is
as follows:
1. Man is rational: Locke thinks that man is rational. Reason is the most important thing
in human personal and social life, there is also element of greed in human. But people
always demonstrate them by applying logic. At times there have been explosions of
passion and lust among men. In the next moment it is seen that reason prevails among
them and it is with the help of this reason that they are able to restrain the outburst of
lust or passion.
2. Humans are equal: Locke believed that humans are equal by nature. Some people
may be more wise, some less wise; Some are strong, some are weak. But these
differences are insignificant compared to their similarities. He strongly believed that the
mental, moral and character differences of people depend mainly on differences in
environment and opportunities. The theory which he analyzes in his 'Second Treatise' of
paternal power, i.e. the greater relation of father to child and father to child, is based on
the principle of natural equality. So Locke's idea is that people are born equal, but they
are made unequal by the influence of environment,
In view of the above discussion, according to Locke, human character was highly
developed, they were naturally calm and lawful. Showing sympathy and love for others
was a special quality of human character.
18.5 Locke's View on State of Nature
Like Hobbes, Locke believed in the 'state of nature'. But Locke did not paint a pessimistic
picture of the state of nature, which he laughed at. So Locke's conception of the state of
nature is completely opposite. John Locke describes the state of nature in the second
chapter of his 'Second Treatise on Civil Government'. According to him, humans are
inherently social and rational and the 'kingdom of nature' is governed by natural laws.
So in this state generally punishment and amity, harmony and brotherhood prevail. In
Parva's words, "The kingdom of nature is the kingdom of peace, goodwill, mutual
cooperation and defense." "In the 'state of nature' all men are not only equal, but they
are also free. In Locke's state of nature, men cannot do whatever they want. They must
obey the laws of nature.

Locke describes the state of nature as follows- "All men are naturally in and that is a
state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their * possessions and
persons as they think fit, within the bounds of law of nature, without asking leave or
depending upon the will of any other ..”4 That is, the state of nature is the kind of
environment where complete freedom prevailed. man All people could decide
individually about their personal affairs and affairs. But in all these activities the laws of
nature had to be obeyed. Man had no dependence on anyone but the laws of nature
alone. Below is a diagram of the state of nature described by Locke:
1. Freedom prevailed: Freedom prevailed in the state of nature. The people here were
like a connected alien. Here rights and freedom prevailed in full measure. That is, in the
state of nature, people enjoyed complete freedom and equal rights. People did not
interfere with each other's lives, property or privacy. One man did not enjoy more
privileges or freedom than another, but neither did he have much opportunity. Not that
they were jealous, but that they had no disposition to enjoy more freedom. No one
wanted to be demoted. In this case the people of the kingdom of nature were guided by
judgment. Although there was freedom in the state of nature, there was no
arbitrariness. In the words of Locke, "But though this is a state of * liberty, yet it is not a
state of license." Although he wished to enjoy complete freedom, he never thought of
destroying himself. Even humans did not kill all the superhuman creatures that they
used for their own needs. That is, consideration and rationality always worked in the
human mind.

2. Morality and sociality were presented: Locke said that rights and duties coexisted side
by side in the state of nature. Morality and sociality prevailed in the kingdom of nature.
According to Locke, "The state of nature is moral and social in character." In the state of
nature human life was not at all abominable and animal. No one made life miserable.
The state of nature was pre-political. But it was at all pre-social. In this context,
Professor Dunning (Dunning) said, "The state of nature as conceived by Locke is a pre-
political rather than pre-social condition." That is, even if there is no political
organization or activity in the state of nature, it cannot be said that there was no
sociality. As the kingdom of nature was devoid of political religion, its inhabitants sought
to form municipal organizations.

3. Adverse environment in the state of nature: Locke believed that the state of nature
had various difficulties. Although there was not always war or strife, there was neither
peace nor silence in heaven. Locke calls the state between extreme anarchy and
extreme peace. Peace was not secure. Corruption and various defects in the society
destroyed the normality of the society. As everyone became independent, no one was
afraid of anyone. But one was always in danger of being attacked by the other. No one
knew from which direction the danger would come, so everyone was afraid of the
unknown danger. Law, judiciary and administration were not sufficient to beautify the
kingdom of nature. He opined that the environment was not conducive to a peaceful
and healthy life overall.
18.6 Locke's View on the Law of Nature
Locke's concept of natural law comes in the context of describing the 'state of nature'.
Locke's state of nature did not have the monstrous, arbitrary social order of Hoss' state
of nature;
The kingdom of nature is governed by natural laws. According to Locke, natural law is as
natural as human beings and operates automatically. Locke's own statement about
natural law is- "The State of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every
one, and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult is that,
being all equal and independent no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty
or possession.” That is, 'There is natural law to govern the kingdom of nature, and
everyone is subject to this law. The reason from which natural law is derived teaches all
men that they should act according to this law. Natural law teaches men that, since all
are equal and free, therefore One cannot harm another's life, health, liberty and
property.
Locke strongly believed that people generally obey the rules of natural law, even when
there is no coercion or sanction. But even so he does not deny that the law-abiding or
law-breaking may arise from time to time. Natural law is not a custom, but a law of
human judgment. And since man is a rational being, he can understand this law very
easily. Below are some features of natural law described by Locke:
1. Symbol of equality: Law of nature is a symbol of absolute equality. There was no lack
of absolute freedom for man due to the existence of natural law in the kingdom of
nature.
2. Natural Rights: The natural or natural rights of people implied within natural law. That
is, the question of law and rights were inextricably linked.
3. Universal law: The law of nature is universal and according to the provisions of this
law, all people are considered to belong to the same society. Society organized by
natural law is totally distinct from society formed by animals.
4. Preservation of society: Locke says in paragraph 134, first and fundamental Law of
Nature is the preservation of society. It is the responsibility of natural law to see that
society is well-organized and united, not divided or destroyed.
5. Every man in the kingdom of nature had the power to judge criminals and enforce the
laws of nature. Because of this, everyone had the power to punish criminals.
6. Natural law is very clear on the question of property rights and property rights. By law
of the nature people of the kingdom of nature could acquire, preserve and enjoy
property.
Locke's conception of natural law is not flawed. J. W. Gough has commented that,
“Locke's conception of natural law is not at all free from inconsistencies. He has in many
cases put contradictory ideas side by side, without feeling the need to explain them."
However, this critic also admits that the inconsistency is greater if the laws of nature are
considered in the context of Locke's whole political thought rather than in isolation.
Get separated. Locke's Laws of Nature are not difficult to understand with a little
common sense. The source of Locke's laws of nature is the Bible. In various cases he
drew on the Bible. He wanted to see the law of this nature as the only tool for managing
the entire social system.

18.7 Locke's Theory of Social Contract

Locke in his 'Two Treatises on Civil Government' discussed the essence of social contract
theory. Locke, like Huss, accepted the social contract as the basis of all state authority.
According to Locke, however, the state of nature had a peaceful atmosphere. And the
people obeyed the natural law, yet there was no authority to punish those who broke
the natural law. On the other hand, no authority to interpret natural law was found in
the kingdom of nature. As a result, some difficulties are created in social life. In order to
get rid of all these difficulties, in the hope of ensuring a better social life, the people of
the society come under the organization called the state by contracting among
themselves.(# Causes of Social Contract
The Nature of Social Contract
According to John Locke, people in the state of nature form the state by entering two
contracts First, by the first covenant, the people of the kingdom of nature contract
among themselves to form themselves into a collective body or community, and
transfer to the state or community the right to interpret and enforce the laws of nature
which they have hitherto enjoyed separately. Second, the people as the neutral
authority of the community or state according to the treaty. They constitute a
constitutional authority for the security of society and delegate their right to self-
determination to that authority. As a result, the authority's job is to maintain life and
property. If the authorities fail to do these, the public will be able to change the
authorities. Thus Locke argues for systematic or responsible governance.
18.7.3 The Result of Social Contract
As the state is formed through social contract, first of all the uncertainty of natural law
is removed and clear and disinterested law is established. Second, fair, impartial
arbitrators are appointed to settle disputes. Thirdly, effective measures are taken to
ensure that the weaker party to the dispute can get legal justice. According to Locke's
social contract theory, sovereign power rests with the people. If the government fails to
protect the rights of the people or the government indulges in bad governance, the
people have the ultimate power to revolt and overthrow the government. There are no
legal barriers for the people to change the government. Thus John Locke tried to prove
that the consent of the people is the basis of all governing power.
Thus, it can be said that a new chapter in social life has begun as a result of the
agreement described by John Locke. Human society gave rise to political organization by
contract and conditioned political authority. As a result, the real power remained with
the masses. The authority came under regulatory powers as a result of the treaty. As a
result of such agreements, a good relationship developed between the ruler and the
ruled.
Characteristics of Social Contract
1. Rule of Majority: John Locke stated several times that the consent of every citizen
shall be behind the contract. He regarded the majority opinion as the only acceptable
method for conducting routine or normal activities. Although the whole society is
formed based on the consent of everyone, the majority will be one of the strategies of
governance. Everyone agrees
When the whole society was formed and the terms of the agreement fixed, the people
decided that the whole society would be governed according to the opinion of the
majority. That is, majority rule will be the basic principle that is part of the agreement.
2. Irrevocable: Locke believed that, "When people are once bound by a contract, they
will not willingly cancel it. Because to cancel the contract means to return to the state of
nature again. But the people are not bound by the contract to return to the state of
nature. So People cannot create an atmosphere of ridiculousness or crisis by abrogating
the will."
3. The next generation must obey: If a group of people is bound by an agreement and
forms the whole society, that agreement will be binding on the next generation. Locke
argues that only through contract can the foundation of the state be created, and once
established, the state cannot be destroyed by contract. According to Locke, the child
who is born as a member of the father's state and comes under the laws of the father's
state, joins the service and seizes the enjoyment of property. It must then be assumed
that there is tacit consent to the state organization created by the predecessors out of
necessity.
4. Individualism is characteristic: the transfer of extreme power to the authorities is not
one of the aims of the contract. According to John Locke, one of the goals of the signers
of the treaty was to impose restrictions on total authority. That is, under no
circumstances can the entire authority exercise unlimited power over the people. Locke
ignored the theory of sovereignty to the extent that he succeeded in trying to curb all
authority.

5. Contract completes the political structure: for the state to take full shape, the
formation of government and its separation from the state, the arrangement of various
political institutions, etc., and Locke did this. No society can achieve its goals without
institutions. He discussed the workings of political institutions with enough seriousness
that he was convinced of this.
6. Nasik Organization: In Locke's Treatise we see that although the legislature has the
highest power, the highest power rests in the hands of the people. According to Locke,
the legislature is nothing but a passive body. If necessary, the people can take power
from the hands of the legislature. So one of the hallmarks of Locke's contract theory is
the generative contract of nascent power. People first formed the whole society
through contract. Later they formed a government. But they did not make any separate
agreement with the government. Nasik Shakti cannot act of its own volition. Nasik
Shakti will operate as per the terms of the agreement.
18.7.5 Criticism of Social Contract
1. Absent Explanation of Ani Contract: Locke uses the term original contract in several
places in his book to explain his social contract. But Locke nowhere explains this. Sebain
says that it is characteristic of Locke not to make things clear. Again, denying the original
agreement leaves much of Locke's political thought obscure.
2. inconsistency Some inconsistencies remain in Locke's treatise. He did not feel the
need to explain anything. For example: With the help of contract, the people of the
kingdom of nature formed the society or the state and behind it was the consent of all.
But the problem is that they should have discussed what the condition of the majority
would be. But he didn't. As a result, the inconsistency has remained.
3. Legitimate Sovereignty Neglected: Locke states that states are constituted by the
consent of the people. But if the people mean the vast masses of the state, then total
consent is never possible. Locke recognized the sovereignty of the people. But John
Locke did not give much priority to legitimate sovereignty. 1
4. Purposive: Locke's social contract was primarily purposive. Because supporting
Glorious revolution and systematic were the main objectives of the agreement.
5. Bonds of servitude: In the kingdom of nature, humans are naturally born equal and
free. But because of the social contract in the newly formed state, they lost their natural
freedom and fell into the discipline of slavery.
6. The origin of government is unclear: Locke states in paragraph 97 that those who
united and formed a whole society came under a government. That is, with the
formation of the whole society, the institution called government emerged from itself.
Locke did not concern himself with the independent emergence of government. He
thought, "The government is itself an essential part of civil or political society and the
two must have come together." So Thomas Peardon says, "Locke should have discussed
how government came about."
Nevertheless, it can be said that Locke's social contract theory deserves considerable
importance. The main objective of his agreement was to provide for the fuller and
continued enjoyment of the natural rights of man. His treaty ended the ruler's claim to
absolute authority and ushered in a bright chapter of individual freedom. By establishing
a social contract, Locke sought to prevent the arbitrariness of the monarch in
seventeenth-century England and establish a systematic monarchy.
Evaluation of Social Contract
 Despite the above criticisms, it can be said that Locke's theory of social contract is a
seminal theory in modern political philosophy. In paragraphs 14 and 15, Locke tries to
gather evidence to prove that the social contract doctrine is not ahistorical. The
foundation of the state by treaty is also rational. Moreover, 'Locke's social contract is
that of slavery
In response to the allegations in the document, the famous commentator of
Rashtrakhinta C. E. C. E. Vaughan (C. E. Vaughan) denied the correctness of the doctrine,
saying, "The contract by which man 'enters from the state of nature into the state of
nature is not a document of slavery, but a charter of liberty. For by this contract the
individual is subject to a despotic king or to a despotic aristocracy. does not surrender
all his power to the community. He surrenders only so much of his power as is
absolutely necessary for the sake of security necessary for the free and undisciplined
exercise of the rest of his power. In the 'state of nature' security exists only as a right, it
has no existence at all. No. "10

Judging from that aspect, it can be seen that the agreement that Locke envisions is not a
comprehensive and general agreement like Hobbes' agreement, but a special and
limited agreement. Especially because it is carried out for the special purpose of
interpreting and implementing the law and limited because it does not imply a final and
unlimited transfer of power like Hobbes's contract. Moreover, according to Locke, the
powers that people transfer are not accumulated in the hands of a specific person or
group of individuals, rather they are accumulated in the hands of the community itself.
The interpretation and implementation of the natural law rests on the shoulders of the
community, and if anyone breaks this law, it is the community that punishes him. In fact,
the community's area of authority is limited within it and this authority is not final and
unlimited like Hobbes's authority.

The Consent Theory of Locke

Consent theory is very important in John Locke's political philosophy. The main basis of
any ruler's legitimacy is the consent of the ruled. A government that is not founded on
the consent of the citizens, according to Locke, cannot demand the obedience of the
citizens. Locke is the founder of liberalism (and Locke's main tenet of liberalism is the
consent of the people as the foundation of government.)
Meaning of Consent
Consent generally refers to the disposition of the person or persons concerned to act or
make a decision. But the term consent is used by Locke in his political philosophy based
on expressing the attitude of the governed people in forming a state or government.
According to Locke, in the state of nature some selfish individual would deprive other
individuals of their various rights and privileges. This is why the majority of people agree
to the question of state formation and natural rights to get rid of deprivation. According
to Locke, there is no doubt that the state is founded on the consent of man in the state
of nature. Moreover, Locke's clear opinion on the question of the formation of
government is that no government possessing the power to govern without the consent
of the governed is legitimate.
So it can be said that government by consent means democratic, representative and
popular government. But learned commentators of political thought did not take the
matter so easily. Consent means giving someone permission to do something. No official
can work without this permission. Government by consent means that the right to rule
is created by the will of the governed. A government which fulfills the aspirations of the
people cannot be called a government by consent. For example, the government of
Queen Elizabeth I of Britain cannot be called a government by consent. Because he did
not take the right to rule from the citizens.
18.8.2 Classification of Consent Theory : Locke divides consent into two parts.
1. Express Consent: The consent through which people form a government to free
themselves from the irregularities of the natural state is called Express Consent. In the
state of nature man enjoyed property rights but could not secure them. That is why the
state was formed through open consent. Express consent is pre-social or pre-state like
property rights.
2. Tacit Consent: The consent which does not help in making the functional organs of
the state operational is known as tacit consent. Tacit or express consent is a type of
consent where the consenter is aware of giving his consent. That is, there is no overt
expression in giving this consent. John Locke believed that the state can touch any
human right based on tacit consent. Cannot tax him without express consent.
Composition of Political Theory of the Basis of Express and Tacit Consent
Based on the openness or tacitness of consent, Locke structured his political theory as
follows: First, on the basis of consent, Locke made a distinction between the duty and
obedience of citizens. According to Locke, those who constitute the state by express
consent are indissolubly bound to the state. But those who have formed the state by
tacit consent are not indissoluble or permanent in their relation to the state. John Locke
in his "Two Treatiseson Civil Government" said, "Those who consent to the constitution
of the state by public declaration are bound by a perpetual and immutable bond of
allegiance to the state, and they can never effect any change in that allegiance."11 But
those who by tacit consent to the state By gaining membership they are not bound by
the bonds of perpetual allegiance to the State.
Second, there are two types of consent, and two types of consent have two
manifestations. For example, when men form a commonwealth, when they contract
with each other, they publicly declare their consent. There is no ambiguity or ambiguity
in this consent. But tacit consent is a little different. According to Locke, whenever a
person enjoys a right under the government, he is presumed to have tacitly accepted
the taxation of the government. John Locke said, “Whenever a man has anything under
a government, or enjoys a part of its authority, he is presumed to have tacitly consented
to be subject to its laws, like all the other inhabitants under that government. 12
Third, membership of states requires consent, whether express or tacit. The state is
founded in principle on the basis of the consent of all members. John Locke said that if a
person owns even the slightest property in a country, no matter how big or small, or
enjoys the slightest right to land in that country, it can be considered as a tacit consent
to his obedience to the government of that country. Natural equality is a prerequisite
for consent.
Hence, compliance theory shows that both compliance and compliance are interrelated.
An analysis of obedience and consent as described by Locke shows that consent is
essential for state formation, stability and all welfare work. Although Locke recognized
the real existence of government created by military force, he did not give it legitimate
status. Any government has to get the consent of the people to get legitimate status.

Characteristics of the Consent Theory Analysis

1. Citizens' Loyalty Demands: Citizens' demand for loyalty is a special feature of Locke's
consent theory. A government whose basis is not consent cannot demand obedience. So
it appears that both loyalty and compliance are interrelated. A government founded on
the consent of its citizens can only expect obedience from its citizens.
2. Basis of the State: Analyzing the consent theory as described by Locke, it can be seen
that consent is especially necessary for the creation, stability and all the welfare
functions of the state. Although Locke recognized the real existence of government
created by military force, he did not give it legitimate status. Any government or
community has to get the consent of the people to get legal status. Locke said in
paragraph 96, "...the consent of every individual made a community." So according to
Locke, the foundation of the state must be founded on consent.
3. Enjoyment of property: Locke favors the consent theory for the enjoyment of
property. According to Locke, those who enjoy property under the state do so by
consent. Locke said in paragraph 138, “The supreme power cannot take from any man
any part of his property without his consent.” According to him, the rights of individual
property are inviolable. Tax cannot be levied without the permission of the owner. If
one's property rights are to be touched, the government cannot do so without the
consent of the owner of the property,
4. Perpetual Bonds: A special feature of Locke's theory of consent is that it is perpetually
bound to the state. Locke said about it, “Those who consent to form a state by public
declaration,are permanently and necessarily bound by the bond of allegiance to the
State, and in this allegiance they can never make any change in loyalty.”
5. Preservation of Political Rights: Another aspect of Locke's consent theory is the
question of political rights. Humans are inherently social and political creatures. Political
rights can be preserved by expressing the right to consent.
Criticism of Theory of Consent
1. Vagueness to blame: John Locke's consent theory is charged with vagueness. J.
Plamenatz states that, “Lock somewhere consent means and scope. How far he did not
explain logically and coherently. Just discussed the importance or role of consent in
various fields starting from the origin of state organization to protection of property. "13
2. Can create chaos: Locke wanted to block the way to anarchy and despotism through
the theory of consent. But critics say he has paved the way for chaos. Added Locke's
display of obedience to consent. Therefore, many may not express loyalty to the
government even though the stability of the government depends on the consent of the
citizens. As a result, chaos may arise in the country.
3. Inconsistent with reality: John Locke's theory of consent is inconsistent with reality.
He said that the consent of one generation is not binding on the next generation. For
example: The child is not born with the citizenship of any country or government. When
he is an adult he shall have the freedom to go under any government and no one can
deprive him of this. Looking at actual situation, we see that his statement is not correct
at all.
4. Reflections on Bourgeois Mentality: Critics regard Locke as a proponent of bourgeois
thought. They argued that property rights reflected Locke's bourgeois mentality. For
consent has no value to him who has no property. All theories including Locke's
liberalism, individualism or consent are given to protect bourgeois interests.
5. The interpretation of tacit consent is incorrect: according to Locke, if a person has any
wealth in a country, whether large or small, or if he has the slightest interest in that
country
If the right is enjoyed, it can be considered as a tacit consent of his allegiance to the
government of that country. Rightly Professor McDonald (McDonald) said, "If this
interpretation of Locke prior tacit consent is correct, then there is a void in the moral
foundation of the theory of consent. Because if it is taken in the broadest sense, there
will be no people in a country who do not have any property in that country." 14
6. Cannot be governed by consent: John Plamenage, criticizing Locke's theory of
consent, states that "Unless the people can safely and lawfully put an end to the
authority of the government, that is, until adequate measures are pending to secure the
responsibility of the government to them, direct or indirect, It cannot be said that any
government is ruling by the consent of the people, be it overt or tacit.15
7. According to critics of consent only for support, Locke spoke of consent theory only
for support. C. E. Vaughon says, “Locke's theory of consent, which he attaches the
greatest importance to as the foundation of all political society, and which he asks us to
expect as a consequence of his theory, has in fact been reduced to a much less
important thing. The theory of the fundamental treaty which created the
Commonwealth is ultimately nothing more than a meager endorsement of that treaty.
16

Evaluation of The Theory of Consent

Despite the many ambiguities and inconsistencies in Locke's theory of consent, it can be
said that this theory is simple, straightforward and straightforward. Locke's theory of
consent is of particular importance. Some positive aspects of his consent theory are
presented below:
1. Element of Individualism: The element of individualism is noticeable in Locke's
consent theory. Locke states in paragraph 95, "No one can be put out of this estate and
subjected to the political power of another without his consent." This means that the
person's consent is genuine. Nothing shall be done without consent. That is, Locke is a
first class individualist. At least within consensus theory he has established himself as
such. So individual's own opinion is not negligible. In simple words, this is individualism.
This is what he tries to say in Consent Theory. In the words of J. W. Gough, "It is
sometimes thought that this individualist position was Locke's characteristic
contribution to political theory."
2. End of Autocracy: Wanted to end extreme monarchy and autocracy by proclaiming
individualistic thought and especially consent theory. Property cannot be interfered
with without the consent of the owner, the foundations of the state cannot be
established without consent, etc . By saying these words, he declared jihad against the
tyrannical king. He considered autocracy to be a obstacle for individual freedom.
3. Establishment of Systematic Government: Just as Locke did not want despotism, he
did not want it anarchism If he were to subsume the consent of each individual into the
daily regime, anarchy would eventually result. His aim was to establish a systematic
government and make the whole society welfare. Too much emphasis on individual
freedom will lead to anarchy. Man will return to the state of nature. For that reason, he
carefully renounced authoritarianism. J. W. Gough said, "Locke certainly did not write in
order to advocate a Hobbesian despotism, nor on the other hand did he advocate
anarchy or the continuation of the state of nature. His objective was constitutional
government."59

18.8.7 Locke's theory of consent is the foundation of modern democracy

Modern Democracy is Stand the Consent Theory of Locke The basis of modern
democracy is people's participation, security of people's life and property and personal
freedom. Modern democracy can be traced back to John Locke's consent theory.
According to Locke, the stability of government depends on the consent of the people.
The power of the government is determined by the people. John Locke also advocated
individual liberty. Locke gave more importance to individual rights and interests.
Because democracy is based on the will of the people. John Locke realized the
importance of the natural rights of citizens through the theory of consent. Moreover,
Locke's theory of consent derives from the social contract. According to him, consensus
is expressed through agreement. The main basis of government is consensus. That
government is not founded on the consent of the people. That government cannot
expect the loyalty of the people. John Locke strengthened the foundations of democracy
by consensus. This is why John Locke's theory of consent is called the foundation of
modern democracy.
Finally, however limited, John Locke sought to establish the sovereignty of the people
through consent theory. Although he recognized the role of the individual in the
formation of the state, he did not establish him as a self-respect. But Locke not only
accepted the active role of the individual in the formation of the state, but also accepted
that the opinion of the individual is essential in all aspects of the administration of the
state. The foundation of modern democracy owes much to John Locke's consent theory.
Locke's Theory of Property
The 'property theory' is an important topic in John Locke's political philosophy. Locke's
theory of property occupies a very significant place in the world of political thought.
According to Locke, man enjoyed three natural rights in the kingdom of nature. Namely:
right to life/liberty and right to property. One of these is property rights. According to
John Locke, the right to property is the most significant of all natural rights. In his words,
“The right of property is one of the most prominent and distinctive features of his
system of politics."*
In the state of nature, man could not properly maintain the property, so he built the Pur
institution. Because the people thought that the birth of state organization and the
establishment of government would be able to properly protect property from outside
attacks. Therefore, the commonwealth or state structure was formed to ensure the
enjoyment of property rights by the people of the state of nature. In this regard, Locke's
unambiguous declaration is, "The reason why man enters into the society is the
preservation of their property." That is, the main reason for people to enter the state
society is the maintenance of property.Locke's theory of property has had an enormous
influence on sociology. His theory of property started a revolutionary movement that
overthrew the communist concept.
18.9.1 Background of the Theory of Property
Locke's property theory is not an isolated concept. In the Middle Ages property was
considered a social concept. Property was not used for personal comfort and security.
By the time Locke appeared in the seventeenth century, the feudal system of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was in decline. Commercial capitalism was then
emerging. Under the influence of renaissance, economic development and commercial
capitalism emerged in the society. People's desire for property and personal matters has
become very strong. The public's sensitivity to property is particularly noteworthy in
England. One of the reasons for the people's conflict with the monarchy was that the
king used to levy taxes and collect revenue. They considered it unconstitutional to
impose taxes without the consent of taxpayers.
People from different strata of society raised their voices in the demand that the king
could not levy taxes as a privilege. Locke appeared in this situation. The author said, "It
is only to be expected that a writer of Locke's day should give great prominence to the
inviolability of private property." England's Whigs and Tories had become sensitive to
community and property. They could not tolerate arbitrary interference with property,
even if they supported the king's despotism or other behavior. The Tories were more
interested in the protection of property than the Whigs. In this situation Locke could not
oppose the mentality of the Whigs and the Tories; Rather, they propagated their desire
in the form of theories by weaving a web of various arguments.
The Origin of Property
Locke elaborates on property throughout the fifth chapter of his famous book Second
Treatise of Civil Government. He says in paragraph 26 that in the beginning there was no
such thing as property. Nature's bountiful bounty was open to all. In the kingdom of
nature, man used to collect his needs from nature's store. But this arrangement could
not be sustained.
Although all had equal rights over the resources provided by nature, only humans had
rights over human bodies. That is, no one could use people. In the words of Locke,
“Every more. has a property in his own person; this nobody has any right to but
himself." Man was quick to assert his right over whatever he had collected by his
physical labor and mental energy. By investing his labor and energy in the thing which
nature had given him, that thing became his own, and that was his. Became a property.
When man invests labor and energy in the thing given by nature, that thing becomes
his own and becomes his property. Locke says in paragraph 28, that it is not only man
who invests his labor who creates property. With the help of various kinds of domestic
animals and servants, he extracted goods from the storehouse of nature and all those
things became his property. According to Locke, "The Labor of his body and the work of
his hands are his property. Whatever, then he removes out of the state that nature has
provided and left it in, he has mixed his labor with and joined to it something that is his
own and thereby makes it his property."
The Meaning of Property
Locke used property in two senses. John Locke used property in a broad sense to mean
human life, liberty and material wealth) (but in a narrow sense only material wealth is
understood.) Although it is used in a double sense, Locke used the word property in a
broad sense. Hence the theory of property derived from Locke is not merely an
economic theory or doctrine. In this theory, human life, freedom and worldly happiness
and peace are pervaded. 18
Logical Explaination of Property
John Locke was the first to attempt to provide a rational explanation of property. He
said that every man has his own property and no one has any right to property except
himself. In the kingdom of nature every man had the right to gather food. In the state of
nature anyone could enjoy or use property as he wished. Locke was heavily influenced
by the political philosophy of the Greek philosopher Aristotle when discussing the right
to private property. Just as Aristotle considered personal property to be essential to the
development of the individual's psyche, Locke also considered the right to private
property to be essential to the satisfaction of people's daily needs and the full
development of their personality.
Locke's conception of the origin and nature of private property was contrary to
medieval conceptions. Regarding the medieval belief, Prof. Sebain says, “Communal
ownership is more organized and natural than individual ownership. Because in the
Middle Ages private property was the moral decline of man
It was considered to be caused by and the result of sin. 19 According to the Roman
jurists, property arose from human rights of enjoyment. Private property was thought to
have arisen by appropriating those things which were formerly jointly owned by men.
But John Locke contradicted both these views saying that man created private property
by connecting his labor with property. He declared that, “A man has a natural right to
that with which he has mixed the labor of his body. Thus, in the words of John Locke,
since the labor of the body and the work of the hands belong exclusively to man, so
when these things are mixed with a substance, that substance also becomes an integral
part of his body.

18.9.5 Labor theory of property

Labor Theory of Property Locke describes labor theory with his property theory.
Although the source is nature, yet the infinite store of nature cannot be claimed as the
property of one or more individuals. When labor is applied to a thing given by nature, it
becomes property. It is property to him who draws or carries from the store of nature. It
is clear here that wealth cannot be created without labour. In other words, the creation
of property would never have been possible unless the investment of labor had taken
place. So Locke said, "He by his labor does enclose it from the common." No one else,
who has no labor, can claim that he has an equal right to that commodity after it has
been collected in exchange for that labour. While creating various things in nature, God
instructed man to use his labor to extract from nature for his own enjoyment. In Locke's
words, "God and his reason commanded him to subdue the earth, i.e. to improve it for
the benefit of life" between private property and the gift of nature is the labor of the
individual. Only labor helps to transform the gift of nature into private property. .

So in John Locke's property theory, it is proved that labor creates property. He said,
people have created the right of private property by connecting manual labor with
property. In this context, Sabine said, "The right to private property arises because of
labor a man extends, so to speak, his own personality into the objects produced.20 In
this sense, the more property a person can cultivate, the more property he owns."
Locke believed that people would naturally cultivate the land and produce crops if they
had property rights. He placed more importance on private agricultural economics
because he believed that this would lead to increased production. And increased
production would lead to a better standard of living.
18.9.6 Labor Theory of Value
According to John Locke, labor not only creates property, but also determines the value
of property. through labour. His argument is that private property gives man the status
of purely labor and transmits and extends his personal being in the objects produced by
labor. According to the amount of labor expended on the object, its value is also
determined. Therefore, the theory given by the later conservative economists and
socialist economists as 'Labor theory of value' is basically inspired by Locke's labor
theory. Conservative economists use Locke's theory of value to support capitalism.
18.9.7 Amount of Property
John Locke said that no man should acquire unlimited wealth. God did not create
anything to be wasted. So without wasting any thing he can acquire the amount of
property that is required for the living of man. He cannot lay any equitable claim on the
surplus property. It is what others deserve. So it is a crime to let property go to waste
without putting it to proper use and to deprive another person of a share. The boundary
of acquisition of property depends on the amount of labor of the worker. God has
ordered man to work hard to meet the needs of his life. Wealth is the reward of a
diligent and intelligent person. Therefore, the amount of property is determined by both
human effort and need.

Finally, it can be said that the right to enjoy property is a universal natural right of
people. Rousseau and other philosophers say that society is created from all kinds of
rights. But John Locke objected to this and said that all rights arise from property rights.
A person establishes his right over property by his physical strength. Therefore, a person
cannot be deprived of his right to property. Therefore no person's personal rights can be
undermined.
Characteristics of the Theory of Property
-First, property is the natural or natural right of man. Secondly, property is created for
human needs.Third, property belongs to people without any contract.
Fourth, private property enhances human dignity.Fifthly, the property created by the
mixing of labor belongs exclusively to the individual.Sixth, the surplus property that
people have after meeting their personal needs is not their own, but others. Seventh,
the principle of property dissipation is limited by the size of the property. Eighth,
property makes people economically prosperous.
18.9.9 Criticism of property theory.
1. The concept of creation of property is wrong: The property created by mixing labor
with an object may be exclusively for his own use, but that does not mean that he has
the right to give it to someone else after his death. rights included. According to
Plamenaz, the right to enjoy property, and the right to bequeath that property to
someone else, are not the same thing.
2. Consequences of Monetary System: The boundaries that Locke had drawn for the
acquisition of property, as a result of the monetary system, had no boundaries. Because
the monetary system has reduced the possibility of property destruction.
3. Emphasis on natural rights:Locke's property theory Based on the natural rights. If the
theory of natural rights proved unrealistic, then property theory become weak. Because
it is It is not reasonable to think about natural rights in the state of nature in the
absence of state and government

4. Criteria for determining the extent of property are not acceptable : The principle of
non-waste has been laid down by Law as the criterion for determining the extent of
property. It is as irrelevant as it is inadequate. The conditions under which it can be
accepted are rare indeed.
5. Economic colonization: Locke's theory of property provided the motivation for
economic colonization, which at one time allowed the merchants of Britain.
6. Imaginary: John Locke's conception of the origin of property is purely imaginary,
because the state of nature is supposed to have no idea of human rights.
7. He did not say anything about the transfer of property:Locke talked about the
possession and accumulation of property; But what will happen to the usufructuary
property after the person's death is not clear. That is, he didnt express any comments
and opinions regarding the succession.
8. Valuation of labor is meaningless: According to critics, labor cannot always be valued
in all situations. Moreover, Locke did not think that people can acquire property without
using labor.
9. Contributing to the development of bourgeois economy: Locke's theory of property
promotes bourgeois economy and creates differences between people. Hence it is
conducive to the development of bourgeois economy.
10. Not acceptable in modern society: The nature that Locke speaks of no human being
is born with it. What people naturally want is certain fixed powers. Moreover in this
theory, socialists are rejected favoring capitalists. So it is not acceptable in modern
complex society.
11. Opposition to Socialism: No human being is born with the fundamental rights that
Locke talks about. Humans get it naturally. This theory favors capitalism opposing
socialism.
12. Inequality in society: John Locke's theory of property helps to create inequality in
society. Individuals create inequality in society by acquiring property.
Despite the above criticisms, it can be said that Locke's theory of property is
undoubtedly one of the most important theories. Professor Sibley said, “Property theory
is an important aspect of Christian political philosophy. Locke's theory of property marks
the beginning of a revolutionary move to overthrow feudalism. There, all natural
resources were treated as resources, and new political forces emerging from the
revolution accelerated the formation of the bourgeoisie.”

18. Locke's Theory of Sovereignty

In the seventeenth century John Locke presented a democratic conception of
sovereignty. Locke's conception of sovereign power was not as absolute and
omnipotent as Hobbes's. Barker says, "Locke could not have presented a theory of
sovereignty as good as Hobbes's." He did not even have a clear idea of the position of
sovereignty. According to Locke, the sovereign ruler would have limited power. By
delegating limited power to the government, he Attempt to establish Popular
Sovereignty.
Locke's concept of sovereign power is a direct consequence of his social contract theory.
In Locke's social contract theory there is no way for a king or ruler to be arbitrary; Since
the ruler is committed to the people to rule them well. According to this agreement, the
ruler will be responsible to the people and the people can depose the ruler if they wish.
As a result, it is not possible for a king or a ruler to rule according to his whim or act
against the interests of the people. Locke's social contract paved the way for systematic
monarchy by protecting the people from the arbitrary hands of the king. Thus Locke
gave a clear idea that the people are the source and seat of real sovereign power.

All philosophers before Locke referred to sovereignty as the absolute and ultimate
power of the state. According to them, the judgment of this sovereign power is final and
there is no appeal against it. The will of the sovereign will prevail legally and ethically
over every man in the society. They also think that the sovereign ruler is the sole law
maker. But Locke contradicts their idea that sovereign power depends on the will of a
particular individual. Similarly, he also states that the sovereign is not the sole
lawmaker; Rather, according to him, the people will collectively participate in making
laws through the legislature. The state will be governed by the laws made by the
legislature. Thus Locke rejected the idea of sovereignty of his predecessors, especially
Hoss and Grocious. Key features of Locke's theory of sovereignty are as follows:
1. Consent of the people was made for the sovereign.
2. The sovereign is not a particular individual but a collective of individuals.
3. The sovereign is empowered to rule, but the people can overthrow the government if
they feel that they have been deprived of their rights or are being unjustly administered.
4. The sovereign should be at least partially controlled by the people. Capacity of the
sovereign is limited.
Finally, John Locke sought to establish a systematic government through his theory of
sovereignty. The main theme of Locke's political writings was the protection of
individual liberty from infringement and oppression. John Locke's ideas contributed
significantly to the establishment of systematic governance in Britain. According to
Locke, the people possess the true sovereign power. In his philosophy, there is no place
for any sovereign ruler who is against the interests of the people. According to him, the
sovereign government and the people are inextricably linked. Locke laid the foundations
of democracy by placing sovereign power in the hands of the people.

18.11 Locke's Conception on Government and the Classification of Government

One of the most discussed topics in Locke's political philosophy is the discussion of
government and the classification of government. Locke discusses government in detail
in his Second Treatise on Civil Government. He said that the government is created for
the purpose of upholding the rights of people to life, liberty and property within the
state.
John Locke, while introducing his government, said that as a result of the social contract,
the overall responsibility for the interpretation, analysis and implementation of natural
laws is transferred to state institutions. But the state or the people do not perform
those duties directly, rather the new organization is born with the consent of the
majority of the people as the 'representative of the state' or 'in charge', it is that
organization that does these things. Locke called this organization 'government'.
According to Locke, government is not an institution equal to the state but is
subordinate to the state. According to Locke, the government was born as a reliable
guardian of the state. Within the state, the concept of duty and responsibility of the
government prevails. His duty is to ensure the welfare of the people.
The government enjoys power on the condition of protecting the interests of the people
and if it fails to fulfill the conditions of protection of these interests, it is ousted from
power. Power will be vested in the hands of the state government through elections or
any other method. In this way, the government is controlled by the people to protect
the interests of the people. So it can be seen that one government is not given unlimited
power. Government has been given only such power as is necessary to protect the
rights of the people. So Locke promoted the idea of democracy by limiting the power of
the government. William Einstein (William Ebenstein) said, "According to the theory of
divine rights, only the ruler has rights, the people have no rights. According to contract
theory, both the ruler and the people have rights, but in Locke's conception of
government as a trustee, only the people have rights, the ruler has no rights.”22
18.11.2Conception on the Classification of Government
In classifying governments, Locke was heavily influenced by the classification of the
Greek philosopher Aristotle. According to the number of exercisers of power, Locke
divides government into the following three categories:
(a) Democracy: John Locke gave a clear definition of democracy in his political
philosophy. According to him, when the legislative power is vested in the community
itself and the community exercises this power through its majority, it is called
democracy. In a democracy, the people have the sovereign power.
(b) Aristocracy: According to John Locke, When the legislative power is exercised by a
handful of influential people or their hereditary heirs, it is called aristocracy.
(c) Monarchy: Monarchy is a special form of government given by John Locke. According
to him, when power is vested in the hands of a king, it is called a monarchy. The
monarchy is again divided into two parts. When the king is appointed on hereditary
basis it is called hereditary monarchy. And when after the death of the king, the
community appoints another person as his successor, it is called elective monarchy.
18.12 Locke's concept of separation of powers
Locke divides government power into three categories. Namely : (1) Legislative
Department, (2) Administrative or Executive Department and (3) Federative
Department. These are described below:
1. The Legislature: Establishing a consensus standard for the correct interpretation of
natural law, that is, more precisely, determining what is the correct form of natural law.
The department of the government which performs this work is called the law
department. According to him, this department is the highest department of the
government.
2. (The Executive): Laws which the legislative department enacts or which are
determined to be proper natural laws are not automatically effective. It needs some
people. The department of government that performs this role of enforcing the law is
called the administrative or executive department. Not only does the executive
department play the role of enforcing the law, but this department also settles disputes
with the help of prescribed laws. That is, what we call judicial functions in modern
terms, according to Locke, is performed by the executive branch.
3. The Federative): The department that carries out foreign responsibilities is the
federative department. Its function is to protect the interests of other states and the
citizens of the states with which the government regulates the relations of its own state
and the citizens of the state. Today, Locke's separation of judicial power from the
executive has been made into a separate department and Locke's 'federative'
department has been vested in the executive.
18.12.1 Supremacy of the Legislature
According to Locke, among the three departments of government, the law department
is the highest or the highest department. Because the legal department acts as the
proper representative of the state or community and plays the role of the final
preserver of the original agreement that is executed to provide the security necessary to
protect the natural rights. Since legislation is the most important of the functions of the
state, the power and prestige of the legal department is naturally the greatest. Locke
said, the legislative is the supreme power of the commonwealth.
However, in this context it is necessary to remember that what Locke meant by the
supreme power of the legal department does not mean that this department has
sovereign power. The word "law department supreme" means that it is supreme
compared to other departments, not compared to the state. Professor Ebenstein
(Ebenstein) said, "Other departments, especially the executive department, must be
subordinated to the supreme power of the legislative department. Law department is
relatively better than other departments. There is something higher than this
department, and that is the people.”23 According to Locke, “Whether the power be in
the hands of one, or in the hands of many, whether in perpetual session, or in
temporary sessions, the power of the legislative department is supreme in every
commonwealth.”24
18.12.2 Limitation of the Legislature
Although the powers of the Law Department are the best among other departments,
this department has some limitations. These are as follows:
1. The law department does not have the power to rule at will. The people did not give
this power to the Law Department and the Law Department does not have that power.
2. The Law Department shall not encroach upon the property without the consent of the
owner. It is said in Article 138, "it is a mistake to think that the supreme of legislative
power of, any commonwealth can do what it will or dispose of the estates of the
subjects arbitrarily or take any part of them at pleasure."
3. The law department has no ultimate power over the lives and fortunes of the people.
Department of Law cannot destroy people's lives and property by using power
capriciously.
4. Whatever law the Law Department makes, it has to be subject to the constitutional
law of the state. That is, the legislature should run according to the constitution or
written law.
5. One of the functions of the Legislature is to make laws and this function cannot be
delegated to anyone else by the Law Department. That is, the work of the legal
department is not transferable. Therefore it can be said, "... The legislature can have no
power to transfer the authority of making laws and place it in other hands".
Notwithstanding the above limitations, it can be said that the Law Department, though
the most powerful body in the entire Commonwealth, is not arbitrary. The work of the
legal department is constructive, not destructive. Locke subordinated all other
departments to the department of law and has been awarded the title of father of
parliamentary democracy in the world of political thought.
18.12.3 Theory of Separation of Power
Locke reflects the principle of separation of powers in his theory of three categories of
work. However, he himself did not provide any comprehensive explanation of this
principle. Montesquieu, the main proponent of the principle of individualization of
power, got his main inspiration for this principle from Locke.
However, Locke's statement about the individualization of power is not an integral part
of his main philosophy. Nor do we notice any originality in his political thought. His main
topic of discussion was the Department of Law. While discussing about the law
department, he only briefly discussed about other functions of the government.
Moreover, it is very surprising that Locke does not say anything about the judiciary. But
in Locke's time, judges had a special role in society.
That the various functions of government should be carried on by different departments
in complete isolation from each other was not supported by Locke. Because,
cooperation and coordination among all departments is very necessary for the smooth
running of government work. He therefore states that the Administration and the
Federative Department, though separate, are closely related in function; Although the
executive and federative power...be really distinct in themselves, yet they are hardly to
be separated and placed at the same time in the hands of distinct persons; for both of
them requiring the force of the society for these exercise," because the goal of both
departments is the fair and practical application of law. Locke wants to say that the goal
of all departments of government is the welfare of society and the source of their power
is not possible to make a strict separation in that case. Therefore, Arguably, Locke did
not advocate strict segregation.
18.13 Locke as the Father of Parliamentary Democracy
English philosopher John Locke was one of the pioneers of democracy. He was more
forceful and forward-looking than the previous philosophers regarding the
establishment of people's rule. The reflection of modern democracy can be seen in his
various doctrines. So he can be termed as the father of modern or parliamentary
democracy. He discussed about democratic governance in his book 'Two Treatises on
Civil Government'
The institution called government has come into being to complete the necessary tasks
for the protection of all kinds of rights of the people. As an institution subordinate to the
state, the government carries out all the responsibilities of interpretation-analysis and
implementation of natural laws on behalf of the state. The government fulfills this duty
of protecting public rights based on the rules made by the governed people. Locke's
ideas about government later formed the basis of parliamentary government (for this
reason Locke is called the 'father of parliamentary democracy' in the modern world).
In a parliamentary democracy, the highest status and preeminence of the legislature can
be observed. The elected representatives of the people of the parliamentary
government have the right to form the legislature and make all the laws of the state.
The government is accountable to the legislature for all its activities, in a word, the
people are the basis of the governing power of the parliamentary government. And
democracy is the government of the people. Therefore Locke is called the 'Father of
Parliamentary Democracy' by considering various aspects.The reasons for calling John
Locke the father or son of modern parliamentary democracy are mentioned below:

1. Founder of Systematic Democracy: John Locke was the first philosopher who spoke of
systematic government for political stability and welfare of the state. He is the founder
of systematic democracy. 'The king is the representative of God', he completely rejected
the doctrine and explained it as a strategy of kingly rule.
2. Opinion in favor of popular consensus: Locke strongly opposes dictatorial or arbitrary
or arbitrary power taking or usurpation or enjoyment and entrusts governance to
popular consensus. He said, "The main basis of the government's power is public
support and consensus." A government which is not founded on the consent of the
people cannot claim the loyalty of the people.” Analyzing his speech, it can be seen that
he was a complete democrat.
3. Establishing Mass-Sovereignty: John Locke expressed a very rational opinion on the
question of sovereign power. Referring to the people as the source of sovereign power,
he said, "Democracy cannot succeed without popular sovereignty, and as a result,
autocracy is likely to spread." He described people-sovereignty as the ultimate
revolution or opinion. He opined that majority rule is symbolic of popular sovereignty.

4. Limited power to government: Locke expressed his opinion against giving unlimited
power to government. He felt that if the government enjoys sole sovereign power or
ultimate power, it can turn into arbitrariness. He said, “Government is formed through
agreements. The powers and functions of this government are limited by the standards
of human birthright. Government power is not final or absolute. Government exists to
further the natural rights of man. If a government fails to protect these rights, the
people may revolt against that government and overthrow it.”
5. Believer in Individualism: John Locke was a staunch supporter of individual liberty. He
gave the individual the highest priority. He said, "The state is created for the purpose of
proper development of individuals, regulation of happiness and sorrow, provision of
security. The main objective of the state is to help develop the individual's personality
by providing maximum opportunities and security to every citizen of the state."
According to him, one of the prerequisites of democracy is to ensure individual
freedom.

6. Secularism: Political thinker Locke referred to religion as a purely personal matter for
the welfare and cohesion of the state. According to him, “fanaticism creates
complications in the unity of the state, creates mistrust among people and through a
religious frenzy can engage in activities against the order of the state, which has the
potential to disrupt democracy and democratic environment.
7. Tolerance: Tolerance among the citizens of the state is necessary for the unity of the
state and to maintain the democratic environment. According to Locke, “Unity is
impossible without tolerance. Irrespective of religion, caste and caste, everyone should
focus on work from a single bond. The best way is to show tolerance.”
8. Superiority of the Department of Law: John Locke was the first political philosopher
who opined that law is the supreme concern of the state. In this context, he reiterated
the parliamentary style by describing the legislature as the highest body of the state. He
justified bringing other departments under the control of the legislature. According to
him, “Legislature is the guardian of state control. The members of the legislature shall
be elected by the people. Only then can the Legislature enact laws of public welfare.”
Thus he achieved the first pioneer of modern parliamentary democracy by promoting
the principle of judicial excellence.
9. Importance in government formation: He laid more importance on government
formation. According to him, once most people agree to form a government, all the
powers of the society are naturally vested in them. Thus he left an example of his
political genius by advocating for public elections as an essential feature of modern
democracy.

10. ANALYSIS OF THE FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT:

Locke came from the experience of revolution in England with the idea that the place of
legislative power is supreme in the system of governance. He, however, acknowledged
that the administration could also play a role in law-making. However, the power of this
department is limited. A ruler cannot rule by suddenly issuing an order. Executive
powers are more limited as they depend on the managing body and special powers are
restricted by law. 1
11. Natural Rights Theory Balak through his natural rights theory mentions the rights of
human life, liberty and property as the most sacred rights of human beings and essential
for the existence of society and people. According to Locke “Natural law teaches that,
since all are equal and free, one cannot do any injury to another in life, health, liberty,
or property.” His doctrine is helpful in the development of human personality.
12. Public property: Another important contribution of Locke is his doctrine of property.
He considered people's right to property as a natural right. It is true that John Locke's
theory of property has been criticized in various ways, but it must be acknowledged that
through this theory he strengthened the influence of the middle class.

13. Concept of Principle of Individualization of Powers: John Locke to ensure individual

liberty he Mentioned the concept of individualization of power in his doctrine.
According to him, t Individual freedom can be protected only by decentralization. He
said, to consolidate freedom three types of people should be entrusted with the
responsibility of performing three types of government work.
14. Institutionalization of Democracy: John Locke wanted to institutionalize democracy
for the welfare of the people. He feels that if democracy is not institutionalized then it
will never benefit the people.
Finally, it can be said that John Locke gave birth to democracy, which helped modern
democracy to take shape. Locke's clear views on systematic government, majority rule,
concept of parliamentary sovereignty etc. paved the way for democracy. He
recommended a parliamentary system of government, binding the legislative
department composed of representatives elected by the people to be the supreme
powerful department and the executive department accountable for the work of
government to the legislative department. And for this reason, he is called the father of
modern parliamentary democracy.
18.14 Contributions of John Locke in Political Philosophy

John Locke occupies a prominent place in modern political philosophy. Contemporary

political and social events and issues reflected in his thought and philosophy gave them
a realistic form. He is able to collect various materials from the past and tries to link the
past with the present. As a result, from his political philosophy various theories were
developed in the next century. Locke's contribution to modern political philosophy is
discussed below:
1. Realist Philosopher: Locke did not place fantasy or idealism in his philosophy. He was
a realist philosopher. He devoted himself to observing the social and political conditions
and problems of England at that time and finding solutions to them. He invents practical
ways to solve real problems.
2. Rational philosopher: John Locke is also a rational philosopher. He believed that the
whole world and its various organizations were created for man. People are created for
them. no In the case of problems of personal life, only rationality or thinking power can
be used to provide peace and happiness in human life. Hence he is closer to Glossius
than to Duck.
3. Doctrine of Natural Rights: One of Locke's contributions is his doctrine of natural
rights (Doctrine of Natural Rights) and in this regard he was influenced by the
independentists (Independents) thought. He has done the welfare of the human race by
declaring the right to life, liberty and property as the most sacred right of man through
the theory of natural rights.
4. Doctrine of Property: Doctrine of Property he mentioned right to personal property as
one of the natural rights of the people. The explanation of this doctrine reflected the
opinion f the middle class of the society and gained special popularity.Also he gained
particular fame by describing property as a means of developing human personality.
5. Invention of the labor theory of value: John Locke first explained the labor theory of
value. It was later elaborated by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx. Locke said
about labor theory that the more labor invested in a thing, the more the value of that
thing increases. That is, the value of things will be determined by the amount of labor.
Locke's theory of labor was later used by Karl Marx to give his liberal value theory.
6. Doctrine of Consent: Locke's doctrine of consent is one of his most important
contributions to political philosophy. Locke distinguishes between state and
government. It was Locke who gave the concept of the consent of the governed
permanent status in English politics. Locke emphatically expressed these valuable ideas
that government is based on the consent of the people and that government has
conditional power as an entity.

7. Proponents of liberalism and the aim of the government is not to curtail the freedom
of the people or to deprive the people of their real rights but to expand the freedom of
the people. John Locke gained fame as one of the exponents of liberalism by providing
this idea.said, “Locke can be called the soul of liberalism. Locke's idea of liberalism had a
considerable influence on the Western world."
8. The defense of individual liberty and the protection of individual freedom from
infringement and oppression was the main theme of Locke's political writings. He was
among the modern thinkers. An early advocate of human rights.Plamenatz states that
"Locke emphasized the preservation of liberty as the goal of government more than
anyone before him."
9. Religious Toleration: Religious toleration is an important contribution to Locke's
political philosophy. Although he did not take a completely pessimistic view of religious
toleration, Europe particularly benefited from his theory. According to Locke, the state
has nothing to do in religious matters. He said that the worship of God is only a means
of divine salvation and therefore beyond the jurisdiction of the state. Religious affairs
are administered through the church and the spheres of state and church are
completely separate. In this way, Locke has developed the state as a secular state.
Locke's conception of secularism has been particularly well received since then.
10. Individualism 4 John Locke is one of the pioneers of individualism. Locke's main
objective was to provide for the happiness and well-being of individuals and to protect
their interests. All his thoughts revolved around this person. Locke is therefore called
the antithesis of individualism.
11. The impact of Locke's political philosophy in the United States:- Locke's clear
influence can be seen on the American Declaration of Independence. The authors of the
Declaration made Locke's constitutionalism an integral part of the United States
Constitution. Constitutions and declarations of member states are also taken from
Locke. Larkin said, "Locke's individualism his glorification of property right and his love
for conscience have been interwoven into the economic and social texture of American
life. 26 Lindsay said, "The reason for Locke's unprecedented popularity in America is that
Locke is a national Society imagined, that national society existed in eighteenth-century
America 27

12. Proponent of responsible governance: Locke's contribution to the establishment of

responsible governance is undeniable. He spoke eloquently against absolute monarchy.
According to him, the government is accountable to the people for its actions. If the
government is unable to fulfill its responsibilities, it must be ousted.
13. First Proponent of the Principle of Individualization of Powers: John Locke made
great efforts to protect individual liberty by promoting the principle of individualization
of powers. Later on, the French philosopher Montage developed the principle of the
individualization of power through amplification and extension. So he was the first
proponent of decentralization policy.
14. Father of Parliamentary Democracy: John Locke is called the father of parliamentary
democracy. Because he declared with a loud voice that the main basis of the
government's power is the support and consent of the people. He believed in the
principles of democracy. Also he declared the superioty of legislature. Locke
commented, "Whether in the hands of one person or in the hands of several people,
whether in permanent session or temporary session, the power of the legislature is
supreme in every commonwealth." Parliamentary sovereignty of England means this
supreme power of Parliament.
Finally, it can be said that Locke's political philosophy is very important. He is said to be
one of the pioneers of the modern age. Locke's philosophy greatly influenced many
famous philosophical and political events of later times. Philosophers like Montesquieu,
Rousseau were his disciples. Even Dutch and French thinkers were influenced by Locke.
The demand for Irish independence was influenced by Locke's political philosophy.
Professor Gettell said, "The influence of Locke on later writers was extensive... French
Hugents, and the Dutch adopted many of his doctrines. Montesquieu made Locke's
separation of powers the main idea in his work. Locke's theories were developed by
Rousseau."
18.15 Limitations of Locke's Political Philosophy
Although apparently Locke's political philosophy seems simple, straightforward and
coherent; A deeper dive reveals that its limitations, inconsistencies and complexities are
far-reaching. Locke began to think about all the political ideas that had been so
influential in the seventeenth century and tried to gather them together to form a
coherent philosophy of state. But in the end his efforts were not fruitful. As a result,
there is a lot of inconsistency in the state thought. All the limitations or inconsistencies
are mentioned below:
1. Did not have realism: Critics think that Locke did not have a sense of realism. Locke
placed the legal department at the highest authority. If so then the king and his cabinet
will operate under the law department. But in reality it was not possible
2. Application of the same word in different senses: One critic, pointing out Locke's
error, says that he applies the same word in different senses at different times. For
instance, he did not hesitate to use the word consent in different senses at different
times. As a result, the root of the word is lost.
3. The relationship between rationalism and empiricism is irreconcilable: Locke tried to
reconcile empiricism and rationalism. But critics say the gap between them is
irreconcilable. 29
4. Property Concepts Obsolete Today: Modern Concepts of Property has no consistency
with Locke's ideas. Locke's theory of property is written in the interests of capitalists. It
has no special role in achieving overall welfare of society
5. Did not say anything new: An analysis of Locke's political thought shows that he did
not say anything new. Hobbes and Boda have given us a much developed and coherent
view of sovereignty. Ideas such as the king's autocratic power should be reduced or that
the people are the source of all power were prevalent before Locke.
18.16 Evaluation of Locke's Philosophy of State
There are many inconsistencies in Locke's political thought. Locke was not able to make
analysis attractive and acceptable while maintaining the tradition of logic. However,
despite all these errors, Locke's place in history is very high. But to some extent he was
able to establish the individual on an equal footing. In fact, the introduction of
constitutional government began from Locke's time.
The scattered and incoherent theories, which had prevailed before him, he brought
together with extraordinary skill. All the ideas that were floating in the vortex of
European political thought Locke handed over to the reader in a coherent form. So even
though there is no originality in his political thought, he can claim a special status in the
history of political thought for this work. Maxey says that Locke's three valuable political
theories are individualism, popular sovereignty and parliamentary government.