Basics of Mathematics Formula Sheet

1. Type of Numbers
(i) Natural Numbers
The set of numbers {1, 2,3, 4, } is called natural numbers and it is denoted by
N . i.e. N = {1, 2,3, 4, .}
(ii) Whole Numbers
The set of numbers {0,1, 2,3, 4, ..} is called whole numbers and it is denoted by
W . i.e. W = {0,1, 2,3, 4, }
(iii) Integers
The set of numbers {, −3, −2, −1, 0,1, 2,3, } is called integers and it is
denoted by I or Z ,
i.e. I ( or Z ) = {., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0,1, 2,3, 4,}
where we represent;
(a) Positive integers by I + = {1, 2,3, 4, ..} = natural numbers.
(b) Negative integers by I − = {, −4, −3, −2, −1}
(c) Non-negative integers {0,1, 2,3, 4, ..} = whole numbers
(d) Non-positive integers {., −3, −2, −1, 0}
(iv) Rational Numbers
a
All the numbers of the form , where a and b are integers and b  0 are called
b
rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q .
a
i.e. Q =  : a, b  I and b  0 and HCF of a, b is 1 } .
b
(v) Irrational Numbers
Those values which neither terminate nor could be expressed as recurring decimals
a
are called irrational numbers, i.e. they can't be expressed as form and are denoted
b
C
by Q (i.e. complement of Q ).
1 −3 2 1
e.g. 2,1 + 2, , , , 3,1 + 3,  ,  ,  etc.
2 2 2 3
Remark
The set of rational and irrational numbers cannot be expressed in roster form.
(vi) Prime Numbers
A counting number is called a prime number when it has exactly two factors, 1 and
itself.
e.g. 2,3,5, 7,11,13,17, etc
Remarks
(a) 2 is the only even number which is prime.
(b) A prime is always greater than 1 .

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How to test a number is prime or not

Let given number be p , then
Step I Find whole number x such that x  p.
Step II Take all prime numbers less than or equal to x .
Step III If none of these divides with p exactly, then p is a prime otherwise p
is non-prime.
e.g. Let p = 193 ; clearly, 14  193
Prime numbers upto 14 are 2,3,5, 7,11,13.
No one of these divides 193 exactly.
Hence, 193 is a prime number.
(vii) Co-prime Numbers
Two natural numbers are said to be co-primes, if their HCF is 1.
e.g. (7,9), (15,16) are called co-prime numbers.
Remark
Co-prime numbers may or may not be prime.
(viii) Twin Prime
A prime number that is either 2 less or 2 more than another prime number, i.e. a
twin prime is a prime that has a prime gap of two.
e.g. (3,5), (5, 7), (11,13), (17,19), (29,31), are called twin prime pairs.
(ix) Composite Numbers
Composite numbers are non-prime natural numbers. They must have atleast one
factor apart from 1 and itself.
e.g. 4, 6,8,9, are called composite numbers.
Remarks
(a) Composite numbers can be both even or odd.
(b) 1 is neither prime nor composite number.
(x) Real Numbers
The set which contains both rational and irrational numbers is called the real
numbers and is denoted by R .
i.e. R = Q  Q C
R =  x : x  Q or x  Q c  R = Q  Q C

Figure 1.1
(ii) The sum, difference, product and quotient of two rational numbers is a rational
number.

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(iii) The sum, difference. product and quotient of two irrational numbers need not be
irrational.
(iv) The sum, difference, product and quotient of a non-zero rational and an irrational
number is always irrational.

2. Intervals
Intervals:
Intervals are basically subsets of R and are commonly used in solving inequalities or in
finding domains. If there are two numbers a, b  R such that a  b , we can define four
types of intervals as follows:
Symbols Used
(i) Open interval: (a, b) = {x : a  x  b} i.e. end points are not included.
( ) or ] [
(ii) Closed interval: [a, b] = {x : a  x  b} i.e. end points are also included.
[]
This is possible only when both a and b are finite.
(iii) Open-closed interval: (a, b] = {x : a  x  b}
( ] or ] ]
(iv) Closed-open interval: [a, b) = x : a  x  b}
[ ) or [ [
The infinite intervals are defined as follows:
(i) (a, ) = {x : x  a} (ii) [a, ) = {x : x  a}
(iii) (−, b) = {x : x  b} (iv) (, b] = {x : x  b}
(v) (−, ) = {x : x  R}

3. Number Line Rule

It is used to solve algebraic inequalities using following steps:
(i) Factorize numerator as well as denominator.
(ii) Now, check the coefficients of x and make them positive.
(iii) Put only odd power factors in numerator and denominator and put them equal to
zero separately and find the value of x .
(As for polynomial function only numerator = 0 , denominator  0 ).
(iv) Plot these points on number line in increasing order.
(v) Start number line from right to left taking sign of f ( x) .
(vi) Check your answer so that it should not contain a point for which f ( x) doesn't
exist.

4. Wavy Curve Method

Wavy Curve Method or Methods of Intervals

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The Wavy Curve Method or the Methods of Intervals is helpful in solving Inequalities of
the form:
F ( x) F ( x) F ( x) F ( x)
 0,  0,  0, 0
G ( x) G ( x) G ( x) G ( x)

Steps For Solving Quadratic Inequalities

Step 1: Consider the given Polynomial Equation and Find all the roots of the given polynomial
Equation F ( x) and G ( x) .
i.e.
F ( x) ( x − 1 )( x −  2 )( x −  3 )( x −  n )
H ( x) = =
G ( x) ( x −1 )( x −2 )( x −3 ) ( x −m )
Where,
1 , ,  3 , .... n
are roots of F ( x) and
1 , 2 , 3 , ..... m
Are roots of polynomial equation G ( x) .
Note: H ( x ) for x =
1 ,  2 ,  3 , .......  n
and H ( x ) is not defined for x =
1 , 2 , 3 , ....n

Step 2: Compare the roots of both F ( x ) and G ( x ) and arrange all the roots of F ( x ) and
G ( x ) in increasing order say
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , .am + n
Step 3: Plot them on the number line. Now, draw wavy curve starting from the right of am + n
along the number line that alternatively changes its position at these points.

Note: H ( x ) is a positive function for all the intervals in which the curve lies above the number
line and H ( x ) is a negative function for all the intervals in which the curve lies below the
number line.

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Note: All the zeros of the given polynomial equation H ( x ) must be marked with colored black
circles on the number line whereas, all points of discontinuities of the function H(x) must be
marked on the number line with white circles.
Remarks
(a) Points of discontinuity will never be include in the answers.
(b) If asked to find the intervals where f ( x) is non-negative or non-positive, then make the
intervals closed, corresponding to the roots of the numerator and let it remain open
corresponding to the roots of denominator.

5. Logarithms
The logarithm of any positive number, whose base is a number ( 0) different from 1, is
the index or the power to which the base must be raised in order to obtain the given
number.
i.e. if a x = b (where a  0,  1 ), then x is called the logarithm of b to the base a and
we write log a b = x , clearly b  0 . Thus, log a b = x  a x = b, a  0, a  1 and b  0 .
If a = 10 , then we write log b rather than log10 b . If a = e , we write ln b rather than
log e b . Here, ' e ' is called as. Napier's base and has numerical value equal to 2.7182.
Also, log10 e is known as Napierian constant.

Remember
(i) log 2 = log10 2 = 0.3010
(ii) log 3 = log10 3 = 0.4771
(iii) ln 2 = 2.303log 2 = 0.693
(iv) ln10 = 2.303

6. Properties of Logarithms
Properties of Logarithmic Functions
1. log e (ab) = log e a + log e b [ a, b  0]

a
2. log e   = log e a − log e b [ a, b  0]
b
3. log e a m = m log e a [a  0, m  R ]
4. log a a = 1 [a  0, a  1]
1
5. log bm a = log b a [a, b  0, b  1 and m  R − {0}]
m
1
6. log b a = [ a, b  0 and a, b  1]
log a b

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log m a
7. logb a = [a, b, m  0 and b, m  1]
log m b
8. a log a m = m [ a, m  0 and a  1]
9. a logc b = b logc a [a, b, c  0 and c  1]
 x  y, if m  1
10. If log m x  log m y   [m, x, y  0, m  1]
 x  y, if 0  m  1
11. log m a = b  a = mb [m, a  0, m  1, b  R ]
 a  mb , if m 1
12. log m a  b  
a  m , 0  m 1
b
if
 a  mb , if m 1
13. log m a  b   .
a  m , 0  m 1
b
if

7. Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

1. Graph of y = log a x , if a  1 and x  0

2. Graph of y = log a x , if 0  a  1 and x  0

8. Characteristic and Mantissa

The integral part of a logarithm is called the characteristic and the fractional part (decimal
part) is called mantissa.
i.e., log N = Integer + Fractional or decimal part (+ve)
 
Characteristic Mantissa

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The mantissa of log of a number is always kept positive. i.e., if log 564 = 2.751279 , then
2 is the characteristic and 0.751279 is the mantissa of the given number 564 .
And if log 0.00895 = −2.0481769
= −2 − 0.0481769
= (−2 − 1) + (1 − 0.0481769)
= −3 + 0.9518231
Hence, −3 is the characteristic and 0.9518231
(not 0.0481769) is mantissa of log 0.00895 .
In short, −3 + 0.9518231 is written as 3.9518231 .
Remark
1. If N  1 , the characteristic of log N will be one less than the number of digits in the
integral part of N .
For example, If log 235.68 = 2.3723227
Here, N = 235.68
 Number of digits in the integral part of N = 3
 Characteristic of log 235.68 = N − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2
2. If 0  N  1 , the characteristic of log N is negative and numerically it is one greater than
the number of zeroes immediately after the decimal part in N .
For example, If log 0.0000279 = 5, 4456042
Here. four zeroes immediately after the decimal point in the number 0.0000279 is
(4 + 1) , i.e. 5 .
3. If the characteristics of log N be n , then number of digits in N is ( n + 1)
(Here, N  1) .
4. If the characteristics of log N be −n , then there exists ( n − 1) number of zeroes after
decimal part of N (here. 0  N  1 ).

8. Modulus Function
The modulus function is defined as
 x, x  0
y= x = .
 − x, x  0
It is the numerical value of x.

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9. Geometrical Interpretation of Modulus Function

Geometrically, x represents the distance of the point P ( x, 0) or Q ( − x, 0) from origin.

Figure 3.22
i.e. d (O, P) = ( x − 0) 2 + (0 − 0) 2 = x 2 =| x |

d (O, Q) = (− x − 0) 2 + (0 − 0) 2 = x 2 =| x |

10. Properties of Modulus

x = x2
2
(i)

(ii) x 2 =| x |
(iii) ‖x‖=| − x |=| x |
(iv) | x |= max{− x, x}
(v) − | x |= min{− x, x}
a +b a −b
(vi) max(a, b) = +
2 2
a +b a −b
(vii) min(a, b) = −
2 2
(viii) | x + y || x | + | y |
(ix) | x + y |=| x | + | y | , iff xy  0
(x) | x − y |=| x | + | y | , iff xy  0
(xi) | x | a, (a is +ve )  − a  x  a or x  [−a, a ]
(xii) | x | a, (a is + ve)  x  − a or x  a or x  (−, − a ]  [a, )
(xiii) | x | a, (a is -ve)  No solution or x  
(xiv) | x | a , (a is -ve)  x  Real number or x  (−, )
(xv) a | x | b , where a and b are +ve.
 −b  x  − a or a  x  b or x  [−b, − a ]  [a, b]

11. Greatest Integer Function

[ x] indicates the integral part of x , which is nearest and smaller to x . It is also known
as floor of x .

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Figure 3.24
Thus,  2.3202 = 2, 0.23 = 0.5 = 5,
 −8.0725 = −9,  −0.6 = −1
In general, n  x  n + 1  n  Integer 
  x = n
Here, f ( x ) =  x  could be expressed graphically as

x  x
0  x 1 0
1 x  2 1
2 x3 2
−1  x  0 −1
−2  x  − 1 −2

Figure 3.25
(•) darkened circle represents value is taken, ( ) represents value is neglected.

12. Properties of Greatest Integer Functions

(i) [ x]  x  [ x ] + 1
(ii) x − 1  [ x]  x
(iii) I  x  I + 1  [ x] = I , where I  Integer
(iv) [[ x]] = [ x]
 0, if x  Integer
(v) [ x] + [ − x] = 
−1, if x  Integer
 − x, if x  Integer
i.e. [− x] = 
−1 − [ x], if x  Integer

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 2 x, if x  Integer
(vi) [ x] − [− x] = 
2[ x] + 1, if x  Integer
(vii) [ x  n] = [ x]  n, n  Integer
(viii) [ x]  n  x  n, n  Integer
(ix) [ x]  n  x  n + 1, n  Integer
(x) [ x]  n  x  n + 1, n  Integer
(xi) [ x]  n  x  n, n  Integer
 x   x + 1
(xii) [ x] =   +  
2  2 
 n + 1  n + 2   n + 4 
(xii)  + +  + = n ,
 2   4   8 
n  Natural number
(xiii) [ x] + [ y ]  [ x + y ]  [ x] + [ y] + 1
 1  2  n − 1
(xiv) [ x] +  x +  +  x +  + +  x + = [nx], n  N
 n  n  n 

13. Fractional Part Function

y = {x},{x} indicates fractional part of x
Let x = I + f , where I =  x 

and f =  x

Then, y =  x

= x −  x
Here, y = {x} could be expressed graphically, as

x  x
0  x 1 x
1 x  2 x −1
2 x3 x−2
−1  x  0 x +1
−2  x  − 1 x+2

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14. Properties of Fractional Part Functions

(i) {x} = x , if 0  x  1
(ii) {x} = 0 , if x  integer.
(iii) {− x} = 1 − {x} , if x  integer.
(iv) {x  integer } = {x} .

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