Strain gauges

The strain gauge is a widely used sensing element for measurement of small deformations.
Sometimes it is called as piezoresistive sensor.
The R resistance of a conductor with A cross section area, l length and ρ specific resistivity is:
l
R=ρ
A
In case of small tensile or compressive deformation (in the direction of the axis of the
conductor) the dR change of the resistance is:
∂R ∂R 1 l
dR= dl+ dA=ρ dl −ρ 2 dA
∂l ∂A A A
Not forget, in the above formula we have to take into account the change of the length and the
cross section simultaneously. In case of tensile deformation, the dl length change is positive
and the dA cross section area change is negative. (In case of compressive deformation the
signs are opposite.)
A relative resistance change:

1 l
ρ dl ρ 2 dA
dR A A dl dA
= − = −
R l l l A
ρ ρ
A A

Supposing a circular cross section wire with radius r:

2
A=r π
dA=2 rπdr
Substituting A and dA into the equation of the relative resistance change:
dR dl 2rπdr dl dr
= − 2 = −2
R l r π l r

dr
The relative size change in transversal direction is proportional to the ε strain value:
r
dr dl
=−μ
r l
dR dl dl
= + 2 μ =( 1+ 2 μ ) ε
R l l
The relative change of the resistance is directly proportional to the strain.
In the practice, the conductor is used in the form of strain gauge (fig.1).
The thin conductor wire b) is fixed onto a flexible insulator foil a). On the insulator foil
soldering pads c) are placed, to connect flexible cables to the gauge.
The gauge has to fix onto the surface of the object on such way, that their deformations
should be exactly same. We can do this by using special epoxy resins. The gauge arrangement
on fig.1 is sensitive only the direction denoted by double arrow. Deformation in perpendicular
direction not causes change in the resistance.

Fig.1

Unfortunately, the resistance can change because of the change of the temperature as well.
The reason of this is the temperature dependence of the specific resistivity ρ. The variation of
temperature can cause resistance change in the same order as the deformation. The
compensation of temperature dependence is essential. The bridge connection of identical
gauges is the standard method for temperature compensation.
On the elastic beam on fig.2 four identical strain gauges are fixed. The resistance of R 1 and R4
gauges on the top surface of the beam increases, while the resistance of of R 2 and R3 gauges
on the bottom surface of the beam decreases in case of the plotted, bending down
deformation. The temperatures of the gauges are the same because of the good heat
connection between the gauges.

R1 R4

R2 R3

fig.2.

The electrical circuit corresponding to the above arrangement is shown on fig.3. Arrows show
the direction of resistance change at bending down. In case of non-deformed state the
resistance values are identical, denoted by R0.
At deformation the resistance change value, dR is the same at all elements, but its sign is
positive at R1 and R4 and negative at R2 and R3.
The current of a) side in non-deformed state:
U
I a=
2 R0

The current of a) side in deformed state:

¿ U U
I a= = =I
R0 +∆ R+ R 0−∆ R 2 R 0 a

The current of side a) is not changed during the deformation. The situation is the same in case
of side b) as well.

R1 R2

a b U

Ua Ub
R3 R4

Fig.3.

The voltage Ua in non-deformed state is denoted by Ua0:

U U
U a 0 =I a R3= R0 =
2 R0 2

In the b) side the Ub0 voltage can be calculated in similar way:

U
U b0=
2
The voltage Ua in deformed state:
U
U a =I a ( R 0−∆ R)= ( R −∆ R)
2 R0 0

The voltage Ub in deformed state:

U
U b =I a (R 0 +∆ R)= ( R + ∆ R)
2 R0 0

The output voltage of the bridge is Uout=Ub-Ua:

 U U 2∆R ∆R
U out =U b−U a=
2 R0
[ ( R0 + ∆ R )−( R 0−∆ R ) ]=
2 R0
=U
R0
=U ( 1+2 μ ) ε

The output voltage of the bridge is directly proportional to the U, power supply voltage and
the ε strain.
In case of temperature change, the resistance changes are identical and the output voltage is
not variated:
U ( R 0 +∆ R ) U ( R0 + ∆ R )
U out =U b−U a= − =0
2 ( R0 + ∆ R ) 2 ( R 0+ ∆ R )