WHAT IS IT

A report is a specific form of writing that is organized around concisely identifying and
examining issues, events, or findings that have happened in a physical sense, such as events that
have occurred within an organization, or findings from a research investigation. Different reports
have different formats as the intentions and aims vary. Note however that report is always
written in a sequential manner in order of occurrence.
One key feature of report is that it is formally structured in sections. Therefore, the use of
sections makes it easy for the reader to jump straight to the information they need. Unlike an
essay which is written in a single narrative style from start to finish, each section of a report has
its own purpose and will need to be written in an appropriate style to suit– for example, the
methods and results sections are mainly descriptive, whereas the discussion section needs to be
analytical.

Here are the most common types of reports that you need to understand.
1. TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS REPORTS –These reports deal with science,
engineering, information technology, commerce, accounting, and finance. This stimulates the
process of report writing in industry in a form of a problem or a case study.
The main purpose of technical writing is to provide material that explains a process or
make a complex concept easier to understand for a particular audience such as purchasing a
product or service. Its purpose may also be to instruct or persuade, but never to entertain. The
content is factual and straightforward. It is expressed in formal, standard or academic language.
The write-up uses a specialized vocabulary and follows a set of rules and conventions. It is also
organized in a sequential or systematic pattern. Often, it is detail-oriented and requires advance
knowledge in the specific field.
2. FIELD REPORTS- These are common reports in disciplines such as Law, Industrial
Relations, Psychology, Nursing, History and Education. These types of reports require the
student to analyse his or her observations of phenomena or events in the real world in light of
theories studied in the course.
The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of people,
places, and/or events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify and categorize
common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the study. The content
represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has been gathered
during one or more observational events. When writing a field report you need to:
a. Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation.
Always approach your field study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe, where
you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record your
data.
b. Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the
meaning underlying the actions you observe.
c. Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing. Recording what you
observe should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to
details. Enter the observation site [i.e., "field"] with a clear plan about what you are intending to
observe and record in relation to the research problem while, at the same time, being prepared to
adapt to changing circumstances as they may arise.
d. Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a
theoretical framework. This is what separates data gatherings from reporting. The theoretical
framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how you observe and
act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings in relation to the underlying
assumptions embedded in the theoretical framework.
Source: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/fieldreport

3. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS- These are another kind of report. They are common in all the
Sciences and Social Sciences. These reports use a standard scientific report format describing
methods, results and conclusions to report upon an empirical investigation.
The purpose of a science report is to clearly communicate key message about why
scientific findings are meaningful. In order to do this, you need to explain why you are testing a
hypothesis, what methodology you used, what you found, and why your findings are meaningful.
This requires a clear link between your introduction and your analysis/discussion.
The scientific report, just like any document consists of important parts that contribute to
its effectiveness. Each part, though a separate unit by itself, must be considered in relation to the
other parts of the report. The following parts are also found in a typical research paper.
The Title Page is the first page that will be read by your readers and consists of the title,
name and details about the author, and date of submission. The title is a concise description
of your report’s main idea. Your readers should be able to tell what your report is about just by
looking at the keywords found in the title.
Provide a Table of Contents if your scientific report is more than six pages. This is the
page containing information about the topics covered and the exact pages where the headings
are found. Some Table of Contents are so detailed that even the subheadings contain page
numbers; in some, however, only the headings contain page numbers.
Defined as a stand-alone summary, the abstract provides a comprehensive synopsis of the
scientific report. Because it is self-contained, it is often regarded as a written document that is
sufficient by itself. This is where you can briefly discuss your reasons for doing scientific
research, the process or methods used, as well as the results. Although the abstract gives a
preview of what the entire report is about, it is not the venue to discuss related literature or
researches that are similar to yours.
The introduction is the part that will contextualize the research for
your readers, and it is the bait that will draw them to read your report. It should include the
following: the purpose of your research; a description of the problem; similar researches that had
been conducted before; the general design of your method; and your research hypothesis, or the
theory that you will be testing in relation to your chosen technical or scientific phenomenon.
The research problem is the part that tackles the how of your scientific
research. Here, you need to include the techniques that you used in carrying out the
process in precise language so that others wishing to
replicate your research could do it with the same success.
This section provides a concise explanation of what happened as a result of your scientific
research. In this section, you may include pictures, tables, and graphs and explaining each visual
aid in the text without repeating the information that you have already stated in the visual aids.
This is the section where you will explain the results of your scientific research. If the
introduction answers the question why, this section answers the question: what do the findings
mean? But more than just explaining the findings, you should explain their implications or what
the report means in a larger context. Although subjective, your interpretation of the findings
should be backed up by actual observation and data. It is also in this section where you may
acknowledge errors in the findings and what caused them.
 This section should be brief but substantial, not longer than the Discussion section. This is
where you will link your findings with the points raised in the introduction. As the clincher, the
conclusion is the part where you emphasize your findings in relation to your objectives and make
suggestions to improve similar researches in the future.
The reference section provides information about all the references that you used in the
course of your scientific research, formatted in the style prescribed by your teacher. Take note
that scientific research involves carefully selecting the appropriate books for your chosen topic.
Source: https://www.elcomblus.com/parts-of-a-scientific-report/

DESIGN TESTS AND REVISES SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES

In each kind of report, there are instruments used to gather data. One of the ways to
gather data through a survey is by using a survey questionnaire.
Have you tried entering your classroom and you were asked by your teacher to answer
a series of questions about your experience or feeling for the day? Sometimes you are also asked
to choose the type of smiley that speaks of how you feel during the day. These are examples of
simple survey questionnaires.
A questionnaire, or survey instrument, is a series of questions designed to elicit
information from respondents that relate to the research question. Questionnaires are
administered by surveying respondents. A questionnaire must fulfill four basic tasks:
1. Collect appropriate data that meet the research objectives
2. Make data available for analysis
3. Minimize the bias, or distortions, caused by poorly worded questions and
improper survey administration
4. Make the questions varied and engaging to eliminate respondent
fatigue.
The questionnaires standardize data collection. Every respondent is asked the same
question. Researchers develop questionnaires based on the survey objectives, which are
developed from the understanding of the research problem and the selected pool, or sample, of
respondents.

DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Here are the suggested steps on how to develop a questionnaire:
 Source: (Adapted from QuickMBA.com)

THE BASICS IN QUESTION WORDING

1. Write short and simple questions

Assume that respondents will answer the questionnaire quickly.
Therefore, provide clear, short items that will not be misinterpreted.
2. Avoid leading questions
These are wordings that influence respondent’s preference or opinion.
3. Appropriately Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions
Use open-ended questions when responses need to be elaborated by the respondents for
exhaustive and comprehensive data gathering.
On the other hand, closed-Ended questions are popular because they provide greater
uniformity or responses and are easily processed compared to open-ended questions. However,
closed-ended questions the response categories should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. In
other words, all possible options should be provided.
Example:
Why do you watch K-Drama?
1. Actors/Actress 2. Plot 3. Culture 4. Other-----
4. Questions must be non-threatening and attempt to evoke the truth. Example:
Who do you think consume more liquor: you or your friends?

When a respondent is concerned about the consequences of answering a question in a

particular manner, there is a good possibility that the answer will not be truthful.
5. Question Clarity
Avoid ambiguities and vague words (e.g. usual, regular, normal) Example:
What is your number of serving of rice in a typical day?
Problem: How many rice constitute a serving? What does ‘a typical day’ mean?
Better question:
On days you eat rice, how many cups do you usually consume?
6. Avoid using double-barreled questions
Ask one question at a time. Avoid asking 2 questions, imposing unwarranted assumptions,
or hidden contingencies. Whenever you use ‘and’ on a question or a statement, check if it is
double-barreled.
Example:
Do you find the classes you took during your first semester in SHS more demanding and
interesting than your JHS classes? Yes No
How would someone respond if they felt their SHS classes were more demanding but also
more boring than their JHS classes? Or less demanding but more interesting?
Because the question combines “demanding” and “interesting,” there is no way to respond
yes to one criterion but no to the other.
Do you find the classes you took during your first semester in SHS more demanding than
your JHS classes?
7. Clearly define the response scale dimension or continuum.
When using a response scale, clearly define the dimension or continuum respondents are
to use in their rating task Example:
Response categories - Make them logical and meaningful: NOT:
Many......Some.......A Few......Very Few ....... None
DO a Bipolar or Unipolar rating scale: Bipolar measures both direction and intensity of an
attitude: Unipolar scale measures one concept with varying degrees of intensity.
8. Minimize presuppositions – an assumption about the world whose truth is taken for granted.
Answering a question implies accepting its presuppositions, a respondent may be led to
provide an answer even if its presuppositions are false.
Example:
Are you a DDS or a Dilawan?
Problem: presupposes that one of the alternatives is true.
Source: (Adapted from Vargas, H. (2021) Designs, Tests and Revises Survey Questionnaires

TYPE OF QUESTIONS AND ITS USAGE

1. Open-Ended Best Used for:
• Breaking the ice in an interview
• When respondent’s own words are important
• When the researcher does not know all the possible answers

Example:
What changes do you recommend for the school to do in order to help students perform
better?

2. Closed-Ended Best Used for:

● Collecting rank ordered data
● When all response choices are known
● When quantitative statistical tool results are desired

Example:
In which of the following do you live? o A house o
An apartment
o A condo unit
 Other forms closed-ended questions: a. Likert-Scale
b. Multiple Choice
c. Rating Scales
d. Ranking Questions

ORDERING THE QUESTIONS

(Adapted from Contemporary Communication Research by Smith, M.J.,
1988)
1. Adapt a general organizational pattern that complements a survey’s research
objectives. Two general patterns:
a. Funnel pattern – begins with broad questions followed by progressively narrower or
more specific ones
b. Inverted pattern – narrowly focused questions are followed by more general ones.
2. Topically related questions should be grouped together. A
researcher should group together questions pertinent to a single topic then move to another topic.
3. Easy-to-answer questions should be placed first.
Easy questions serve as motivation.
4. Questions should be ordered to avoid establishing a response bias.
*Response Bias – a tendency of a respondent to answer all closed- questions the
same way regardless of content. Example: A respondent check “Somewhat agree” to all
criteria.

TESTING AND REVISING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaires are a potential source of bias and must be formulated very carefully to
guarantee the quality of the data collected. From survey design to questionnaire testing, it is
important to avoid errors in respondent comprehension and interpretation and to avoid
influencing or offending respondents. Hence, survey protocol, data collection and
questionnaire testing are fundamental components of the data production process. Testing
provides a means to check whether the questionnaire is valid in itself (form; question
formulation, including translation if relevant; overall structure and transitions between
questions and to validate the data collection protocol.
The most effective protection against error is to PRE-TEST the questionnaire in full or in
part.
That is the last part of designing your questionnaire before finally administering and
distributing it to your respondents. There are no fixed steps on how to test your
questionnaire but here are some general guidelines that might be helpful. Keep in mind that
you are aiming for the questionnaire to be as effective as it can be.

Some Practical Tips on Testing a Questionnaire:

1. Find 5 to 10 people from your target group
2. Ask them to complete the survey while thinking out loud.
*take note of their opinions and feedback
3. Observe how they complete the survey.
 * if there are hesitations in answering, this is an indication that the survey questions and
layout are not clear enough and needs improvement.
4. Make improvements based on the results.
Source: (Adapted from tools4dev.org)

Tips before you finish the module:

1. All questionnaires need an introduction. Be sure to have one.
2. It is useful to begin every questionnaire with basic instructions for completing it.
3 .The format of a questionnaire is as important as the wording and ordering. Be sure that it is
spread out and uncluttered.
4. Physical aspects such as page layout, font type and size, questions spacing, and the type of
paper should be considered.
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4797036/