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Challenges of learning mathematics in a second language.

Conference Paper · November 2013

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Mary P Truxaw Eliana D Rojas

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PMENA 2013
CHICAGO • NOVEMBER 14-17
Broadening Perspectives on Mathematics Thinking and Learning

Proceedings
Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting
of the North American Chapter of the International Group
for the Psychology of Mathematics Education

November 14–17, 2013

Chicago, Illinois

Eds:
Mara V. Martinez,
Alison Castro Superfine
Teaching and Classroom Practice: Brief Research Reports 1077

CHALLENGES OF LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN A SECOND LANGUAGE

Mary P. Truxaw Eliana D. Rojas

University of Connecticut University of Connecticut
mary.truxaw@uconn.edu eliana.rojas@uconn.edu

This paper presents a self-study that explores challenges of learning mathematics when the
primary language of the learner is not the language of instruction. An English-speaking
mathematics educator (with limited Spanish-language proficiency) observed elementary school
mathematics classrooms taught in Spanish in Guatemala and in dual language classrooms in the
western United States. Cogenerative dialogue with a bilingual mathematics education colleague
supported this self-study. Issues of equity and implications for teaching mathematics to students
whose first language is not the language of instruction are discussed.

Keywords: Equity and Diversity, Classroom Discourse, Teacher Knowledge

Objectives/Purposes
U.S. schools are becoming increasingly linguistically diverse (National Clearinghouse for
English Language Acquisition, 2011). Being able to speak more than one language is a strength,
not a deficit; however, it is also true that linguistic diversity can impact teaching and learning in
complex ways (Moschkovich, 2007). For example, measures such as the National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) demonstrate significantly lower performance in mathematics for
English language learners (ELLs) than for other students (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2012). This disparity suggests that U.S. schools, overall, are not supporting ELLs
adequately. Research to learn more about teaching and learning of mathematics to students
whose first language is not the language of instruction needs to be a priority.
As part of a larger study that investigates discourse in linguistically diverse mathematics
classrooms, this paper presents a self-study at the intersection of mathematics and language,
focusing on a mathematics educator’s learning. An essentially monolingual (English-speaking)
mathematics educator (with limited Spanish-language skills), sought to investigate her own
learning in elementary mathematics classrooms where Spanish was the language of instruction.

Perspectives/Theoretical Framework
Language is critical to teaching and learning of mathematics for all students (Moschkovich,
2002, 2007; NCTM, 2000) and for the growing population of English language learners (ELLs)
in particular (NCELA, 2011). Sociocultural theory, with its contention that higher mental
functions derive from social interaction, provides a theoretical framework for analysis and
discussion of language as a mediating tool in the teaching-learning process. Language is a
primary means for how we communicate about ideas and come to understand something new
(Vygotsky, 2002). Sociocultural theory provides a framework for exploring math/language
perspectives such as vocabulary acquisition, use of linguistic registers, and participation in
meaningful mathematical discourse (Moshchkovich, 2002).
Although there is evidence to suggest cognitive advantages related to speaking more than one
language (e.g., cognitive flexibility, better problem solving, and higher order thinking skills,
Hakuta, 1986), there are challenges involved in switching between languages (e.g., response time
for arithmetic operations may be slower when using a second language, Moshchkovich, 2007).
Further, language use and comprehension (or lack of) can impact students’ attitudes and

Martinez, M. & Castro Superfine, A (Eds.). (2013). Proceedings of the 35th annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago.
Teaching and Classroom Practice: Brief Research Reports 1078

“appreciation of mathematics” (NCTM, 2000) and, in turn, their self-efficacy. Levels of efficacy
affect effort, persistence and resilience (Bandura, 2001). Monolingual educators can sympathize
with challenges involved with learning mathematics in a second language and can employ
strategies to support student learning – for example, SIOP (an instructional approach that offers a
framework for planning and implementing high quality instruction for ELLs) (Echevarría, Vogt,
& Short, 2010). Sympathy and strategies provide beginnings, but there is more to be learned.
Therefore, the research question follows: What can a monolingual, English-speaking
mathematics educator learn about relationships of language to mathematics education through
an immersion experience where Spanish is the language of mathematics instruction?

Modes of Inquiry
Participant 1 (P1) is a monolingual (English-speaking) mathematics educator who
participated in an immersion experience in Guatemala that involved language instruction and
formal observations of mathematics classes in public elementary schools. P1 followed this
experience with observations in dual language classrooms in the western U.S. where
mathematics classes were taught in Spanish. Participant 2 (P2) is a bilingual mathematics
educator (first language, Spanish) who participated in cogenerative dialogue with P1 (Tobin &
Roth, 2005). P1 and P2 served as both participants and researchers.
For the self-study, classrooms where math was taught in Spanish were observed. In
Guatemala, one second-grade classroom was observed 3 times. In the U.S., one kindergarten and
one first-grade classroom were observed 3 times each; two second-grade classrooms were
observed 2 times each. The larger study included additional data from classrooms where
strategies (e.g., SIOP) were employed to support ELLs, but where math was taught in English.
Data sources for the self-study include: field notes of classroom observations; audio and/or
video recordings of classroom dialogue; journals documenting and reflecting on classroom
observations and experiences; cogenerative dialogue (via email) related to journals and field
notes between P1 and P2. Cogenerative dialogue involves reflection where members refer to the
same set of events and explanations are cogenerated, thus supporting reflection on experiences
and co-generation of perspectives (Tobin & Roth, 2005).
Qualitative research techniques were employed that draw from self-study methodology
(Loughran, 2007). Open coding was used to identify prominent themes in the data. Constant
comparison methods facilitated axial coding to further assemble and identify the themes (Straus
& Corbin, 1990).

Results
Thematic analysis revealed that language is critical to understanding mathematics. P1’s
immersion in Spanish-language classrooms helped her to gain greater appreciation of challenges
inherent in learning math in a second language. To illustrate key themes and issues, an
observation of a math lesson in a second grade classroom in Guatemala is highlighted.
The teacher displayed representations showing circles, lines, and numbers on a white board
(see Figure 1). The teacher asked students to come to the board to complete parts of the
representation and to explain their work (in Spanish). Verbal exchanges followed a triadic
structure with the teacher initiating, the student responding, and the teacher evaluating (Cazden,
2001). It seemed to P1 that the class was reviewing previously learned skills. P1 sat in the back
of the room (with notebook and audio recorder), trying to make sense of the language, the
representations, and the mathematics. Following are excerpts from P1’s journal:

Martinez, M. & Castro Superfine, A (Eds.). (2013). Proceedings of the 35th annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago.
Teaching and Classroom Practice: Brief Research Reports 1079

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Figure 1: Representation From 2nd-grade Classroom in Guatemala

After reviewing on the white board, the students were directed to cut out paper circles and
strips. Also, they each folded a paper in two parts to create a “mat” for placing the circles and
strips. Then, the teacher asked students to form numbers – for example, “Forma el numero 21.”
The students represented the numbers on their mats using the circles and strips. “Practicantes”
(high school students training to be teachers) walked around correcting and helping the students.
For example, P1 heard a “practicante” count by 20s with a student (providing a hint that 20s
were important). The following excerpt is from P1’s journal (in italics):
I kept thinking that I had figured it out, trying to guess the correct picture before looking at
student work. Sometimes I’d get it right and sometimes wrong. One thing that I didn’t figure
out until the end was that the lines represented 5 times the place value. My scribbly notes
include things like, “Boy am I lost … I don’t understand… some kind of decomposition… I
don’t understand why they are using 20s instead of 10s.”
It wasn’t until the end of the class when homework was written on the board that P1 was able
to puzzle out what they had been doing. The teacher wrote, “Tarea: formar los siguientes
números utilizando la numeración maya en su cuaderno …” [Homework: form the following
numbers using the Mayan numeration system in your notebook …]
“Aha!” I said to myself. “Mayan numbers!” … suddenly there was a context. There was a
potential reason for using 20 as a place value – a different number system.
Having a context made a difference, but P1 still needed time to think (in English – her
primary language), drawing on notes taken during class. Eventually, P1 was able to figure out
the number system [the numbers to the left show the place value. A circle represents 1 times the
place value. A line represents 5 times the place value], but not before recognizing the impact of
language, representation, and context on her ability to learn and perform mathematically:
I had to ask myself, if I, a university mathematics educator, was confused in a second-grade
math class, how would second grade student in similar circumstances feel?
Cogenerative dialogue with P2 helped to further unpack the experiences. P2 suggested that
“live” experiences help to provide some sense of the challenges involved with learning and doing
mathematics in a second language and/or within an unfamiliar culture. P2 asked P1 to think
about how experiences trying to learn mathematics in such a context might impact students’ self
efficacy. P2 asked P1 if she had been confronted with having to answer a math question publicly

Martinez, M. & Castro Superfine, A (Eds.). (2013). Proceedings of the 35th annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago.
 Teaching and Classroom Practice: Brief Research Reports 1080

in Spanish. P1 had not had to do this, but could imagine herself as a student, trying to shrink
down so as not to be have to publicly participate. Self-esteem would have been an issue for P1.
Learning a second language is a worthwhile endeavor; however, there are challenges when
using the second language while trying to learn mathematics – especially for a beginning
speaker. Some issues that emerged from cogenerative dialogue between P1 and P2 follow:
• Academic language is much more challenging than conversational language.
• Working to understand even basic instructions in a second language can be exhausting.
• Asking meaningful questions in a second language can be difficult (and intimidating).
• Lack of opportunity to reason in one’s primary language can hinder sense making.
• One may choose not to participate publicly.
• Visual representations can help, but are not sufficient.
• Unfamiliar representations and contexts may present additional challenges.
• One is likely to appear (and feel) less intelligent than one really is.
• Personal experience as a second-language learner can be enlightening.
The issues presented are consistent with existing literature (e.g., Echevarría, et al., 2010;
Moschkovich, 2002, 2007). However, they are more poignant when personally experienced.

Discussion/Conclusions
There are potential implications for mathematics teaching and learning in a second language.
For example, language comprehension may impact students’ attitudes toward mathematics and,
as a result, their self-efficacy. Because self-efficacy is associated with effort, persistence and
resilience, this may, in turn, impact academic performance (Bandura, 2001). Teachers need to
better understand challenges inherent in trying to make sense of mathematics when language
and/or representations and/or cultural contexts are unfamiliar. Issues of equity are at stake.
Awareness is an important first step, but more needs to be done to figure recommendations for
supporting students whose first language is not the language of instruction.

References
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Cazden, C. B. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning (2nd Ed.). Portsmouth, UK:
Heinemann.
Echevarría, J., Vogt, M. E., & Short, D. (2010). The SIOP model for teaching mathematics to English learners.
Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Hakuta, K. (1986). The mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Basic Books. Loughran, J.
(2007). Researching teacher education practices: Responding to the challenges, demands and expectations of
self-study. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(1), 12-20.
Moschkovich, J. (2002). A situated and sociocultural perspective on bilingual mathematics learners. Mathematical
Thinking and Learning, 4, 189-212.
Moschkovich, J. (2007). Using two languages when learning mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
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National Center for Education Statistics (2012). The Nation’s Report Card: Mathematics 2011. (NCES 2012-458).
Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Education.
National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. (2011). The growing number of English learner students.
Retrieved from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/publications
Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques.
Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Tobin, K., & Roth, W. M. (2005). Implementing coteaching and cogenerative dialoguing in urban science education.
School Science and Mathematics, 105(6), 313-322.
Vygotsky, L. S. (2002). Thought and language (13 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Martinez, M. & Castro Superfine, A (Eds.). (2013). Proceedings of the 35th annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago.

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