Understanding Culture, Society and Politics

Political Institutions
Politics

 Refers to activities through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under
which they live.
 Involves dynamics of conflict resolution and cooperation, as well as the exercise of power.

Power

 Refers to the ability to do something in order to achieve a desired outcome.

 A person with power has the capability to control them or do something that they would not
do otherwise.
 Social scientist emphasises the notion that power involves a relationship-there is one who
exercises power and another who is subject to it.

Authority

 Is legitimate power.
 Has the right to exercise power
 The exercise of authority means that the person who exercise power is obeyed by the people
because he or she is recognizer as the rightful or legitimate ruler or leader.

Legitimacy

 Originated from the Latin word legitimare, meaning “to declare lawful”.
 Defined as rightfulness
 Confers on order or command an authoritative or binding character, thus transforming power
into authority.

Three Types of Authority

1. Traditional Authority
 Is based on system that is believed to have always existed.
 Some people have this type of authority because they inherited it or they occupy a position
that has been passed to them.
 Examples: exercised by elders in a tribe or an indigenous peoples group as well as by monarchs
who have inherited their power and authority.
 Queen Elizabeth II
2. Charismatic authority
 Is based on the presumed special and extraordinary characteristics or qualities possessed by a
certain individual.
  Are often very popular, highly persuasive, and inspire loyalty and obedience from the other
people
 Also seen as born leaders and heroes.
 Charisma is generally considered a gift or innate quality unique to a person.
 Is the most unstable type of authority as leaders may eventually lose their charisma when
people’s view regarding them change.
3. Legal-rational authority
 Is the most typical type of authority in modern society.
 Power and authority are legitimised by a clearly define set of written rules and laws.
 Heads of government such as presidents and prime minsters possess Legal-rational authority.
 Has the highest degree of stability.

Types of political organizations, leadership, and structure

1. Political organizations
 The group within a culture that are responsible for public-decision making and leadership,
maintaining social cohesion and order, protecting group rights and ensuring safety from
external threats.
2. Political dynasties
 Arte believed to have always existed even in advanced Democrats states.
 Dynasty refers to a succession from rulers from the same line or descent.
 Members of the family who continuously hold elective political positions are considered as a
member of political dynasties.
3. Political clientelism or clientilistic
 Is defines by Susan Stokes as giving material goods in return of electoral support.

Nation

 Consist of distinct population of people bound together by a common culture, history, and
tradition who are typically concentrated within a specific geographic region.

State

 Is a political unit that encompasses several communities, has a bureaucracy, and has leaders
that possess legitimate power.
 State is a political unit that has sovereignty-the legitimate and ultimate authority of the state-
over an area of territory and the people within it

Bureaucracy

- is an administrative or social system that relies on a set of rules and procedures, separation of
functions and hierarchical structure in implementing controls over an organization, government or social
system.

- Is basis for the systematic formation of any organizations and is designed to ensure efficiency and
economic effectiveness.
Political Liberalisation

 Refers to the emergence of Liberal-democratic regimes tat are characterized by a

representative from of democracy where political office is gained through formal, competitive
elections in many Western societies.

Political culture

 Refers to the pattern of orientation to political objects such as parties, government, and
constitutions, expressed in beliefs, values. And symbols.

Chapter 8: Social and Political Stratification

Social Stratification

 Refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups based on the categories
determined by economics.
 Members are arranged in hierarchy based on their access to or control over basic economic
resources.
 Categorises groups of people into hierarchy on the basis of wealth, power, or status.

Common basis of social stratification:

1. Occupation and income

2. Wealth and social status
3. Derived power (social and political)

A five classes model

 Upper class
 Upper middle class
 Lower middle class
 Working class
 Lower class

Related to the concept of social stratification and inequality is social exclusion.

- Refers to the process by which individuals are cut off from full involvement in the wider circles
of society.
- People who are socially excluded due to poor housing, lack of employment, inferior, schools,
limited transportations, may lack opportunity for self-improvement.

System of stratification

1. Closed system impose rigid boundaries between social groups and limit interaction among
members who belong to different social groups.
2. Open system is based on the achievement, allowing more flexibility in social roles, increased in
social mobility, and better interaction among social groups and classes.
 3. Caste system are closed stratification system because people are unable to change their social
standing.

Varna system (Hinduism)

Brahmin (scholars)

- Priest
- Scholars
- Teachers

Kshatriya (soldiers, warriors)

- Rulers
- Warriors
- Administrators

Vaishya (merchants, professionals)

- Agriculturalists
- Merchants

Sudra (laborers, servants)

- Laborers
- Service providers

Untouchable

- Tanners
- Laundresses
4. Class system
- Is a stratification system based on the ownership of resources and the individuals occupation or
profession.
- Base social status on an achievement rather than ascription and are thus more in open terms of
social mobility.
- People, therefore are free to move from one social class to another and achieve a higher status
in life through education and employment.

Exogamous marriage

- The openness in class systems result in the prevalence

- Marriage between people who come from different social classes

Endogamous marriage

- Marriage between people of the same class

- Are also common, but these unions are not imposed and are entered into freely by the
individuals.
Meritocracy

- Is another system of stratification that is determined by personal effort and merit.

- Social standing and advancement in this system is determined by how well a person performs
his or her role.
- Remains an ideal and is only implemented in certain areas such as business and industry.

Theoretical perspective of social stratification

1. Functionalism
- Examines how the different aspects of society contribute to ensuring its stability and continued
function
- Each part or aspect of society serves an important purpose
- Is necessary because it motivates individuals to be more efficient and productive in their task
(Davis-Moore thesis)
2. Conflict theory
- Takes a critical view of social stratification and considers society as benefitting only a small
segment.
- Believe that stratification perpetuates inequality; draw many of their ideas from the works of
Karl Marx who believe that social stratification is influences by economic forces, and that
relationships are defined by the factors of production.
- Marx considered society to be: bourgeois or capitalist and the proletariat or workers who
provided manual labor.
3. Symbolic interactionism
- Refrains from looking into the larger structural factors that define social stratification and
contribute to inequality and poverty
- It examines stratification from a micro-level and attempts to explain how people’s standing
affects their everyday interaction
- Often leads people to interact with others within their own social class; a system that groups
people together.

Social mobility

- Is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions within a social stratification
system
- How individual progress from lower to higher social classes, or even how individuals lose their
status and occupy a much lower social position in a society.

Two main types of social mobility

1. Upward mobility
- Upward movement in social class.
- Example are by gaining wealth or rising to fame or power like politicians and celebrities.
2. Downward mobility
- Refers to the lowering of an individuals social class
 - Maybe brought about by economic setbacks, unemployment, illness, and dropping out of
schools.

Social mobility from different generations

1. Intragenerational
- Focuses on the experience of people who belong to the same generation, and the changes in a
person’s social standing throughout his lifetime.
2. Intergenerational
- Changes in social standing experienced by the individuals belonging to different generations
- Patterns can reflect long-term social changes
 Large scale changes in society can result in the improvement or decline of the condition
and status of a large group of people. This is known as Structural Mobility.

Example: massive upward mobility during the industrial age; downward social mobility
during economic crises.

Social inequality

- Societies are usually characterized by the divisions that reflect an unequal distribution of
status, wealth, and power within a society.

Poverty

- Is general scarcity, dearth, or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material
possessions or money

Absolute poverty

- Refers to the lack of means necessary to meet basic need such as food, clothing and shelter.

Relative poverty

- Takes into consideration individual social and economic status compared to the rest of society

Subjective poverty

- Is defined by how an individual evaluates his or her actual income against his or her
expectations and perceptions.

Gender inequality

 Gender comprises the behavioural and psychological traits considered appropriate for
men and women. A person’s sex refers to his biological activity.
 Gender roles are the specific behaviours and attitude that a society establishes for men
and women.
 Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are
defined in the culture.
o A more disturbing aspect of gender inequality is its tendency to result in violence,
particularly violence against women.
 o Over the past decades, various groups and advocacies have brought gender equality
to much wider attention through the conduct of various for a that inspired debate
and discussions in wider circles worldwide.
o The United Nations, in particular has been actively supporting women’s right
through its various agencies and through official resolutions and declarations. In
1979b, the UN adopted the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against women (CEDAW), which defined discrimination directed
against women and called for action end such discrimination. This document
became known as the International Bill of Rights for Women.

Ethnicity

- Is the feeling of affinity or loyalty toward a particular population, cultural group or territorial
area.
- The term is complex because it has both racial and cultural overtones

Race

- Refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry.

- It refers to physical or genetic differences among humankind that distinguish one group of
people from another such as skin, and hair color.

Racism

- Refers to set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the supers treatment of one
racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group.
- Racist believes that some individuals are superior or inferior to others as a result of racial
differences.

Discrimination

- Refers to action or behaviour of members of a dominant social group that negatively impacts to
other members of society that do not belong to the dominant group.
 Global inequality

Global stratification

- Refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis, highlighting
patterns of social inequality and resulting in people having vastly different lifestyle and
opportunities both within and among the nations of the world.

Variety of theories that explain global inequality

Market-oriented theories such as modernization theory

- Claim that cultural and institutional barrier to development explain poverty in low-income.
- Believes that poverty can be eliminated by overcoming or adjusting cultural values like negative
attitudes regarding work, limiting government intervention in economic affairs, and
encouraging high rates of savings and investments.

Dependency theories
 - Claim that global poverty is the result of exploitation of poor countries by wealth ones, thereby
creating a cycle of dependence.
- Low income countries are trapped in cycle of structural and economic dependency on high-
income countries.

State-centered theories

- Emphasise the roles of governments in fostering economic development

Chapter 9: Sources of Social and Cultural Change

Change

- Is an essential aspect of culture.

Social change

- Refers to the transformation that alter the roles and status of people as well as structure and
organizations of society and institutions.

Example of Social Change

1. Religious attachment has waned

2. Marijuana legalisation has gained support
3. Interracial marriage has gained acceptance
4. Majority now think first-trimester abortions should be legal
5. Filipinos have become willing to vote for a women for president
6. Filipino now prefer smaller family size
7. Premarital sex no longer taboo
8. Support for gay rights goes mainstream

Cultural change

- Refers to the dynamic processes where the living cultures of the world change and adapt to
external and internal forces.

Home

- The social disorder associated with the increasing absence of parents in the lives of their
children
- The rise in the number of single parents
- The rise at stay-at-home “House bands” looking after their children and house needs

Women

- The increasing role of women in the workforce due to better education and social inequality
- The increasing number of millennial women who do not know how to cook.
- Women have become more liberal when it comes to their sexual and relationships behaviours

Communication
 - The emergence of cheap smartphones
- People relying more and more free texting via apps such as line and messenger
- The openness to talk to stranger and fellow customers

OGBURN

- Considers technology as the primary factor that induces social change

Technology

Before/Older: Books

After/New: I-pads, or smartphones, gadgets

Shopping

Before: Actual shopping

After: Online shopping

Radio to television

Before: Radio and television

After: News via Internet or social media, and other gadgets

Appliances

Before: Refrigerator, air-condition

After: fryer, vacuums

Process of Social changes

Innovation

- Is the process of introducing new ideas, things, and methods in society.

- Entails the improvement of things and processes and is primarily driven by technology

Diffusion

- Spread of certain elements from one group to another in a society

- Technology is an important factor that enables diffusion

Franz Boas (1885-1942)

- Is a German-American anthropologist who pioneered modern-day cultural anthropology.

- His work focused on anthropological historicism
- Father of American anthropology
- Greatly rejected prior theories of evolution and stated that modern cultures evolved from
societal interactions and exchange of culture, values, and norms among groups.
Cultural relativism

- Is the process by which a belief or activity is passed from one group to another.

Edward Tylor

- Father of cultural anthropology

 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Fire Hazards
Fire

 Process of rapid oxidation of any material resulting in burning.

Fire triangle

 Oxygen
 Heat
 Fuel

Fire triangle

 Model that shows the three essential component that when present together can start a fire
and sustain it.

Fuel

 Fuel source or combustible material

Fuel comes in different forms;

2. Solid (wood, paper, plastic)

3. Liquid (gasoline, kerosene, acetone)
4. Gas (methane,propane,acetylene)

Heat

 Needed to start and continue the combustion process

 Combustion happens when flammable vapor mix with air and is ignited by a sparks or flame

Oxygen

 Reacts with the flammable vapor given off by fuels and the reaction releases heat.
 The magnitude of fire, whether it is going to be flammable, depends on the ratio between the
oxygen and fuel.

Fire hazards

 Can happen anywhere because all the three components are present everywhere. Fire will not
cease until one or more of the components are removed.

Causes of Fire

 Fire is a common disaster issue in the Philippines

 The Philippines has been hit by a high number of fire incidents with more than 10,000
cases recorded yearly.
  Some causes of this incidents have been identified by the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)
 Common man-made causes of fire

I. Electrical wirings
II. Unattended ignition sources
III. Cigarettes
IV. Chemicals at home
V. Gasoline leaks from vehicles

Classifications of burns:

Burns

 These are tissue injuries caused by heat, electricity, radiation or chemicals.

 They can cause pain, swelling, blistering, scarring and in severe case, even death.
 Are classified as 1st degree, 2nd degree, 3rd degree

1st degree burns

 Affects only in epidermis

 The damaged is slight and the person is still able to function well with tolerate pain.
 Area that is burned is red and dry without any blister
 There is change in color of the skin to some extent.

2nd degree burns

 The depth of burn has reached into the dermis

 Blisters are usually the first sign
 Are also can reach nerve endings.

3rd degree burns

 The epidermis, dermis and even underlying fat tissue are damaged
 Aside from the loss of function of the skin in terms of protection, and fluid and heat retention,
many nerve cells die such that the victim may no longer feel anything.
  Precautionary Measures Against Fire Incidents
1. Fire risk assessment is an important procedure against fire incidents. It is means to understand
the situation of an area and determine the different preventive measures needed to reduce the
vulnerability of an area against fire.
2. Installing a fire alarm system helps in being aware of a fire before it gets big and uncontrollable.
3. Buying a fire extinguisher and a fire blanket is also important in preventing a fire outbreak from
becoming uncontrollable. A risk assessment should be done first to determine which types of
fire extinguishers are needed for a specific area.
4. Safe cooking should be done, as some fire incidents recorded in the Philippines were caused by
Unattended cooking stoves.
5. Proper disposal of cigarette butts should be practiced. Cigarette butts can cause a fire if they are
simply thrown away without giving notice to the surroundings.
6. Appliances and other equipment should be handled with care. Regularly check the electrical
wires and components of the equipment to ensure that no faulty connections are present.
 Basic response procedures during fire incidents
1. An individual should also depend on the action plan crated.
2. Action plan is done after a fire risk assessment has been done for the building.
3. Action plan should be followed to minimise the negative effects of fire during fire incidents.

Below are some ways on how to address a fire depending on the situation;

Inside

A. Locate the exit

B. Evacuate immediately once the fire alarm is heard
C. Pull the fire alarms if fire is seen
D. Inform other people in the affected area as he or she vacates the premises
E. Try and extinguish the fire it is still small and controllable
F. Touch doors first to see if they are not warm before opening them to ensure that the other
side is also not burning
G. Use the stairs not the elevators
H. Stay low as he or she exits to prevent inhalation of smoke
I. Get someone else attention if it is too difficult to get out of a burning area.

Outside

a. Stay away from the burning area

b. Do not attempt to go inside the burning area
c. Contact the Bureau of Fire Protection and other emergency hotlines that respond to fire
incidents.
d. Relay information to those in the surrounding area
e. Organize and participate in bucket relays to help firefighters In extinguishing the fire
f. Listen and follow the order being relayed by verified emergency response teams

If an individual is caught on fire, he or she should;

  Stop, drop and roll to extinguish the fire
 Immediately attend to the burnt wounds to reduce chances of infection
 FIRE EMERGENCY AND EVACUATION PLANS (FEEP)
 Is an important tool in preventing and mitigating losses during a fire hazard.
 May differ from one location to another
 Are dependent on a number of factors that need to be maximized to create the most efficient
evacuation plan.
 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Disaster risk reduction (DRR)

 Is a process of decreasing and preventing the risk of disasters.

 Risk= Hazard (H)x Vulnerability (V)/ Capacity

Factors that increase the potential loss from disasters;

1. Political
 A government’s poor will and commitment to develop better disaster risk assessment plans can
contribute to a community’s vulnerability.
2. Economic
 The economic status of a community on tributes to bits capacity to resist and copes with
disasters.
3. Physical
 This incudes the availability of proper housing and building materials that can sustain any form
of catastrophe.
 Poor physical environment are more prone to flood, landslides, typhoons, earthquakes, and
health hazards.
4. Social
 This includes the education of a community on disasters and disaster risk.
 The vulnerability increases when a community lacks education or information.
 The United Nations general assembly created the United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) in 1999 as part of the UN secretariat.

Objectives of UNISDR;

1. Climate change adaptation

2. Increasing investments for DRRM
3. Building disaster-resilient cities; schools and hospitals
4. Strengthening the international system for DRRM

Importance of DRRM

 There is a need for an effort to reduce disaster risk by integrating policies, plans, and
programs for sustainable development supported through bilateral, regional, and
international collaboration and partnerships.

DRRM should be given utmost priority, especially in the Philippines, because of the following reason:
 1. The Philippines, by virtue of its geographical location, is exposed to numerous biological and
hydro meteorological hazards. To lower the risk of disasters brought by these natural hazards, it
is important that a DRRM be in place
2. The Philippines being a developing country, may not have enough materials and support to
address the immediate needs of disaster victims and to recover from the damage of disaster. To
be prepared for the potential damage of disasters, a DRRM needs to be implemented.
3. DRRM is essential in building a more equitable and sustainable future for the communities in
high risk areas for disasters

Key principles of DRRM

1. Development can either increase or decrease disaster risk.

2. DRRM policies, laws and regulations will no save lives unless implemented in a communities.
3. The community is the front line of disaster risk management.
4. DRRM is not a stand alone activity
5. The main objective of DRRM is to build a resilient community.

ELEMENT OF DRRM PLANS

1. Assessment and Analysis

 This is also known as the needs and risk assessment.

Risk are identified and assessed based on the following;

1. Hazard Profile
2. Vulnerability of the area
3. Capacity of the community

2. Design
 This is a modelled on the findings from the assessment and analysis stage. It should include the
following key components;
1. Issues identifies during the analysis
2. Identification of responsibility, priorities, and competencies of individuals and institutions
or agencies carrying out the task.
3. Identification of other programs and strategies that may complement, add, or duplicate
with other programs.
4. Potential partners, allies, and networks.
5. Sources of funding and its restrictions.

3. Results of implementations
 Implementing the DRRM plan is usually in the form of a drill.

Community Based DRRM

 Is essential to develop, implement and maintain an effective early warning system in a hazard-
prone community.
Key components of a community preparedness plan:

a. Community profile
1. Identification of vulnerable communities
2. Manpower
 Experts conducting risk assessment
 Rescue team (Trained personnel or experts are designated to form a team for the ff;)
1. Search and rescue
2. Medical assistance
3. Relief distributions
4. Relational connectivity with local authorities, NGOs etc.
 Physical structure
 Risk assessment
 Early warning system
 Emergency response protocol
A. Search and rescue
B. Needs of survivors
 A well planned DRRM provides survivors with these needs;
J. Clean,. Potable water
K. Ready to eat food
L. Huge, secured and safe evacuation centers
M. Visible, accessible and equipped health care providers
N. Debriefing
 Survival kits and materials
 General evacuation procedures
 Recovery Plans
 Having recovery plans will give communities option for rehabilitation of livelihood, restoration
of social and economic activities, advancement in development projects, and reconstructions
of shelters and infrastructures.
 Community disaster reduction fund
 It is important to develop a comprehensive DRRM plan to estimate and allocate funds for the
implementation of plan before, during and after a disaster.
 PAGBASA AT PAGSUSURI

KONSEPTONG PAPEL
 PAGPILI NG PAKSA
 ANG KONSEPTONG PAPEL BILANG PANUKALANG PANANALIKSIK

KONSEPTONG PAPEL

 ISANG MAIKLING AKADEMIKONG PAPEL NA NAGBIBIGAY NG PANGKALAHATANG

IMPORMASYON TUNGKOL SA ISANG PANUKALANG SALIKSIK.
 ITO AY NAGBIBIGAY NG PANGKALAHATANG IDEYA TUNGKOL SA BINABALAK NIYANG PAG-
AARAL.

PANANALIKSIK

 ISANG SISTEM ANG PARAAN UPANG MALUTAS ANG MGA SULIRANIN NG MAS MALAWAK NA
MUNDONG GINAGALAWAN.

ITO AY NANGANGAILANGAN NG:

5. PAGOD
6. PANAHON
7. PONDO

PAGPILI NG PAKSA

 PROBLEMANG NAIS LUTASIN O ANG PENOMENONG NAIS PAG-ARALAN.

 SA PAKSA NG PANANALIKSIK AY DAPAT MANGGALING SA MGA SULIRANING:
1. PERSONAL
2. TEORETIKAL
3. POLITICAL AT PANLIPUNAN

MGA DAPAT ISAALANG-ALANG SA PAGPILI NG PAKSA

A. NAKABATAY SA INTERES NG MANANALIKSIK.

B. MAY SAPAT NA KAUGNAY NA PAG-AARAL AT LITERATURA
C. ANG PAKSA AY DAPAT ESPISIPIK O TIYAK

ELISABETH BLANDFORD

 SA KANIYANG AKLAT NA HOW TO WRITE THE BEST RESEARCH PAPER EVER (2009)
 ISA SA PARAAN UPANG MAGAWANG TIYAK ANG ISANG PAKSA AY ANG SURIIN KUNG
MAY MGA ESPISIPIK PA BANG PAKSA SA ILALIM NITO.
 SA PAGGAWA NG TIYAK NA PAKSA, MAKAKATULONG ANG PAGGAWA NG WEB DIAGRAM
O CONCEPT MAP NA MAGPAPAKITA NG PAGSASANGA-SANGA NG ISANG MALAWAK NA
PAKSA HANGGANG MARATING ANG MGA TIYAK NA IDEYA.
 PAGSULAT NG TENTATIBONG BALANGKAS
BALANGKAS

 ISANG PARAAN UPANG MAPLANO NANG HUSTO ANG ISANG PANANALIKSIK AT MAPANATILI
ANG DIREKSYON NG ISANG PLANO.

HANOVER RANTS

 AYON SAKANYA ANG PAGGAWA NG KONSEPTONG PAPEL AY MAY “MGA ELEMENTONG DAPAT
LAMANIN ANG PAPEL”
1. PANIMULA

BINIBIGYAN DIIN DITO DIIN DITO KUNG PAANO NAGKAKATUGMA ANG LAYUNIN NG MANANALIKSIK AT
ANG LAYUNIN NG INSTITUSYON O ORGANISASYONG NAGKAKALOOB NG PONDO.

2. RASYONAL

NAGBIBIGAY ITO NG PANGKALAHATANG PAGTATALAKAY KUNG ANO ANG PINANGGALINGAN NG PAG-

AARAL

3. PAGLALARAWAN NG PROYEKTO

SA BAHAGING ITO TINATALAKAY KUNG ANO BA ANG PANUKALANG PROYEKTO O PANANALIKSIK

APAT (4) PAGLALARAWAN NG PROYEKTO

1. PANGKALAHATANG LAYUNIN- ANG ASPIRASYON NAIS MAABOT NG PAG-AARAL.

2. TIYAK NA LAYUNIN ITO NAMAN ANG TIYAK NA PAGKILOS NA NAIS ISAKATUPARAN NG
PANANALIKSIK O TIYAK NA IMPORMASYON NAIS NITONG MALAMAN.
3. METODOLOHIYA- INILALARAWAN DITO ANG PARAAN NG PAGSASAGAWA NG PANANALIKSIK.
4. INAASAHANG BUNGA- INILALATAG DITO ANG INAASAHANG KAHIHINATNAN NG PANANALIKSIK.

BADYET

TINUTUKOY RITO ANG HALAGANG KAKAILANGANIN SA PANANALIKSIK

CONTACT INFORMATION

TINUTUKOY NAMAN DITO KUNG PAANO MAKAKAUSAP NG INSTITUSYON O ORGANISASYONG ANG

PAGPOPONDO NG PROYEKTO ANG MGA MANANALIKSIK.

KUNG GAGAWA NG BALANGKAS, GANITO ANG MAGIGING ANYO NG GAGAWING KONSEPTONG PAPEL

1. PANIMULA
2. RASYONAL
3. PAGLALARAWAN NG PROYEKTO
4. PANGKALAHATANG LAYUNIN
5. MGA TIYAK NA LAYUNIN
6. METODOLOHIYA
7. INAASAHANG BUNGA
8. BADYET
 9. CONTACT INFORMATION

PAGBUO NG TENTATIBONG BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPY

 AYON KAY GATES (1994) NA SINIPI NG MOUNT ALLISON UNIVERSITY.

 TALA NG MGA AKLAT, ARTIKULO, OPISYAL NA DOKUMENTO NG GOBYERNO,
MANUSKRITO, AT IBA PANG PUBLIKASYON TUNGKOL SA ISANG PAKSA NA BINIBIGYAN
DETALYE AT ISINASAAYOS NANG MAY SISTEMATIKONG PAGKASUNOD-SUNOD.
 PINAPAKITA RITO ANG MGA PAG-AARAL NA NAISULAT NA TUNGKOL SA PAKSA NG
SINALIKSIK NA MAGAGAMIT NA BATAYAN O SALALAYAN NG GINAGAWANG PAG-AARAL

INTEXT CITATION

 PAGSISINGIT NG APELYIDO NG MAY-AKDA AT TAON NG PAGKALIMBAG NG BINASANG LIBRO.

IBA’T IBANG ESTILO NG BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. APA (AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION)

 GINAGAMIT SA MGA PAG-AARAL TUNGKOL SA AGHAM-PANLIPUNAN
2. MLA (MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION)
 PAG-AARAL UKOL SA WIKA AT HUMANIDADES; PANANALIKSIK TUNGKOL SA FILIPINO AT
ENGLISH, MGA PANANALIKSIK TUNGKOL SA SINING AT IBA PA.
 DAHIL SA MODERNONG TEKNOLOHIYA, MAY MADALI NG PARAAN SA PAGHAHANDA NG
BIBLIOGRAPHY ANUMAN ANG TEKSTONG ESTILO. ITO’Y SA PAMAMAGITAN NG
REFERENCE TAB NG MICROSOFT WORD NA PINAKA-KARANIWANG PROGRAMA NA
GINAGAMIT SA PAGTATYPE NG MGA DOKUMENTO.

MGA FORMAT NA DAPAT SUNDIN SA BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ICLICK ANG REFERENCE TAB SA GAWING ITAAS NG MICROSOFT WORD

2. IKALAWA ICLICK ANG ICON NG INSERT CITATION AT ICLICK ANG ADD NEW SOURCE
3. IKATLO PILIIN SA TYPE OF SOURCE ANG URI NG SANGGUNIANG GINAMIT KUNG ITO AY BOOK,
WEBSITE, INTERVIEW AT IBA PA.
4. IKAAPAT IBIGAY ANG MGA HINIHINGING IMPORMASYON AT ICLICK ANG OK/OKAY

FORMAT SA PAGTUKOY NG MGA SANGGUNIANG SUNOD SA ESTILO NG APA AT MLA:

APA

AKLAT

KINAKAILANGANG MALAMAN NG MGA SUMUSUNOD;

1. PANGALAN NG MAY-AKDA
2. TAON NG PAGKALIMBAG
3. PAMAGAT NG AKLAT
4. POOK NA PINAGLIMBAGAN
 5. PANGALAN NG KOMPANYA

KAPAG IISA LAMANG ANG MAY-AKDA

 REYES, A. (2016) KOMUNIKASYON AT PANANALIKSIK SA WIKA AT KULTURANG PILIPINO,

LUNGSOD MAKATI: UNIVERSITY PRESS OF FIRST ASIA

KAPAG DALAWA O HIGIT PA ANG MAY-AKDA

 REYES, A., & SETUBAL, J. (2016). PINAGYAMANG WIKA AT PANITIKAN 10. LUNGSOD
MAKATI: UNIVERSITY PRESS OF FIRST ASIA.

KAPAG WALANG MAY-AKDA

 ORTOGRAPIYANG PAMBANSA. (2014 ed.). MANILA:KOMISYON SA WIKANG PILIPINO

ARTIKULO SA MGA PAHAYAGAN AT MAGASIN

KINAKAILANGANG MALAMAN NG MGA SUMUSUNOD:

1. PANGALAN NG MAY-AKDA
2. TAON NG PAGKALIMBAG
3. PAMAGAT NG ARTIKULO
4. PAHAYAGAN O MAGASING NAGLIMBAG
5. BILANG NG TONO
6. BILANG NG ISYU
7. PAHINA KUNG SAAN MABABASA

ARTIKULO NG PAHAYAGAN

 KAPAG IISA ANG MAY AKDA: DELOS REYES, J. (2015, NOVEMBER 17). THE INTERNET
REMEMBER US. INQUIRER LIBRE P. 4.
 KAPAG DALAWA O HIGIT PA ANG MGA MAY-AKDA AT NASA MAGKAKAIBANG PAHINA
ANG ARTIKULO: BALAGTAS, A., & BRIZUELA, M. (2015, NOVEMBER 17). PAGSASARA NG
MGA KALYE NA NAGIGING KALBARYO SA LIBU-LIBONG NAPILITANG MAGLAKAD.
INQUIRER LIBRE, PP. 1,2.

ARTIKULO SA MAGASIN

 VILLANUEVA, J. (SY 2010-2011). ANG MGA PAGKAING TSINO. ALITAPTAP, 22(4), 8-10

SOCIAL MEDIA

 DAHIL SA POPULARISASYON NG SOCIAL MEDIA AT PAGKAKAROON NITO NG DI-

MATATAWARANG NILALAMAN, MULA SA MGA ARTIKULO HANGGANG SA DIREKTANG
PAHAYAG MULA SA MGA AWTORIDAD O MAHALAGANG PERSONALIDAD SA PAMAMAGITAN
NG KANIYANG MGA OPISYAL NA ACCOUNT. HINDI MAIIWASANG HINDI ITO GAMITIN BILANG
SANGGUNIAN.
  KUNG TUTUKUYIN ANG SOCIAL MEDIA SA MGA SANGGUNIAN, MAHALAGANG MAISAMA ANG
TOTOONG PANGALAN NG MAY-AKDA (KUNG KILALA ITO) O ANG USERNAME NIYA, ANG PETSA
NG UPDATE, ANG BUONG TEKSTO NITO, ANG PARAAN NG PAGLATHALA, AT ANG URL O LINK
KUNG SAAN ITO NAKUHA.

AKLAT

KINAKAILANGAN MALAMAN NG MGA SUMUSUNOD;

1. PANGALAN NG MAY-AKDA
2. LUNGSOD NG PINAGLIMBAGAN
3. PANGALAN NG KOMPANYA NG NAGLIMBAG
4. TAON NG PAGKALIMBAG
5. PARAAN NG PAGKALIMBAG

ARTIKULO SA MGA PAHAYAGAN AT MAGASIN

KINAKAILANGAN MALAMAN NG MGA SUMUSUNOD;

1. PANGALAN NG MAY-AKDA
2. PAMAGAT NG ARTIKULO
3. PANGALAN NG PAHAYAGAN O MAGASIN PINAGLIBAGAN
4. PETSA NG PAGKALIMBAG
5. BILANG NG PAHINA
6. PARAAN NG PAGKALIMBAG

SOCIAL MEDIA

 KUNG TUTUKUYIN ANG SOCIAL MEDIA SA MGA SANGGUNIAN, MAHALAGANG MAISAMA

ANG TOTOONG PANGALAN NG MAY-AKDA (KUNG KILALA ITO), ANG USERNAME NIYA,
ANG BUONG TEKSTO NG UPDATE (HAL., TWEET O FB STATUS), ANG PETSA AT ORAS NG
UPDATE AT ANG PARAAN NG PAGLATHALA.

KARAPATANG INTELEKTUWAL AT PLAGIARISM

PLAGIARISM

- AY ANG PANGONGOPYA NG IDEYA O SALITA NG IBANG TAO NA HINDI SILA KINIKILALA.

ILAN SA MGA KASO NG PLAGIARISM

1. PAGPAPALABAS NA ANG ISANG AKDA AY GAWA NG ISANG TAO KAHIT HINDI

2. PANGONGOPYA NG PAHAYAG O IDYEA MULA SA IBA NANG HINDI SILA KINIKILALA
3. HINDI PAGLALAGAY NG PANIPI SA MGA PAHAYAG NA SINABI NG IBA
4. PAGBIBIGAY NG MALING IMPORMASYON TUNGKOL SA PAGKAKAKILANLAN O
PINANGGALINGAN NG ISANG PAHAYAG
5. PANGONGOPYA SA AYOS NG ISANG PAHAYAG NANG HINDI KINIKILALA ANG PINAGKUNAN NITO
KAHIT PA BINAGO-BAGO NA ANG MGA SALITA
6. PANGONGOPYA NG NAPAKARAMING SALITA O IDEYA MULA SA IBANG AKDA NA HALOS ITO NA
ANG BUMUO SA SARILI NG GAWA, KAHIT PA TINUKOY ANG PINAGKUHANAN
MGA SUMUSUNOD NA MAITUTURING DING PLAGIARISM AYON SA NASABING WEBSITE

1. PANGONGOPYA NG MIDYA MULA SA MGA WEBSITE, LALO NA ANG MGA IMAHEN PARA ILAGAY
SA SARILI NG AKDA O SARILING WEBSITE
2. PAGGAWA NG VIDEO GAMIT ANG FOOTAGE NG IBANG VIDEO O PAGGAMIT NG MUSIKANG
MAY COPYRIGHT BILANG BAHAGING NG GINAGAWANG SOUNDTRACK
3. PAGTATANGHAL NG MUSIKANG PROTEKTA NG COPYRIGHT (HALIMBAWA: PAGGAWA NG
COVER)
4. PAGLIKHA NG KOMPOSISYONG PANGMUSIKA NA HINANGO SA IBANG MUSIKA

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

- KINOPYA ANG ISANG AKDA AT PINALABAS NA SARILI ITONG GAWA AT IBENTA ITO,
MAARING KASUHAN ANG TAO NG PAGLABAG SA KARAPATANG INTELEKTUWAL.

INTELLECTUAL DISHONESTY

- ITO AY SULIRANIN SA PAARALAN DAHIL SA SOPISTIKASYON NG TEKNOLOHIYA NA

NAPAPADALI ANG PAGNAKAW NG IDEYA
- KINIKILALA NG MGA PAARALAN, KOLEHIYO, AT UNIBERSIDAD NA ISANG SERYOSONG
PAGLABAG

SAKLAW NG PLAGIARISM

1. COPYRIGHT
2. PATENT
3. TRADEMARK
4. MG DISENYONG PANG-INDUSTRIYA
5. MGA PANANDANG HEOGRAPIKAL

KAHULUGAN

COPYRIGHT

- ITO ANG LEGAL NA KATAWAGAN SA PAGMAMAY-ARI NG ISANG ALAGAD NG SINING SA

KANIYANG NILIKHA O NG ISANG MANUNULAT SA KANIYANG AKLAT

PATENT

- ISA ITONG EKSKLUSIBONG PAGMAMAY-ARING IBINIBIGAY SA ISANG TAO PARA SA

KANIYANG IMBENSYON.
- NASA KANIYANG KUNG ANO ANG GAGAWING SA PATENT, KUNG SASARILIHIN BA NIYA ITO,
PAKIKINABANGAN, O IBEBENTA SA IBA AT PAGKAKAKITAAN

TRADEMARK
 - ITO ANG TATAK NG ISANG PRODUKTO O SERBISYONG NAGSISILBING PAGKAKAKILANLAN

MGA DISENYONG PANG-INDUSTRIYA

- ITO ANG DISENYO O NATATANGING GANDA O PAGKAKAAYOS NG ISANG BAGAY NA

NAGSISILBING NITONG PAGKAKAKILANLAN

MGA PANANDANG HEOGRAPIKAL

- ITO ANG INILALAGAY NA POOK NA PINANGGALINGAN O PINAGGAWAAN NG ISANG

PRODUKTO NA NAGPAPAKILALA NG KLASE NG PAGGAWA, REPUTASYON, O MGA
KATANGIANG NATATANGI SA POOK NA IYON

HALIMBAWA

1. BANGUS FESTIVAL-DAGUPAN
2. BAGOONG-LINGAYEN
3. PUTO-CALASIAO
4. HUNDRED ISLAND-ALAMINOS
5. EMPANADA-VIGAN
6. SURFING CAPITAL OF THE PHILIPPINES-LA UNION
7. SUMMER CAPITAL OF THE PHILIPPINES-BAGUIO
 PAGBUO NG KONSEPTONG PAPEL

KONSEPTONG PAPEL

- NAGSISILBING PROPOSAL PARA MAIHANDA ANG ISANG PANANALIKSIK

- ITO AY ISANG KABUUANG IDEYA NA NABUO MULA SA ISANG FRAMEWORK O BALANGKAS NG
PAKSA NG BUBUUIN

PINAKAMAHALAGANG BAHAGING NG KONSEPTONG PAPEL

1. ANG RASYONAL
2. LAYUNIN
3. METODOLOHIYA
4. SARBEY
5. FEASIBILITY STUDY
6. CASE STUDY
7. EKSPERIMENTO
8. INAASAHANG AWTPUT
- PANANALIKSIK NA KUWALITIBO
- PANANALIKSIK NA KANTITATIBO

ANG RASYONAL

- TAGLAY NITO ANG PINAGMULAN NG IDEYA O KADAHILANAN KUNG BAKIT NAPILI ANG ISANG
PAKSA
 - ANG KABULUHAN AT KAHALAGAHAN NG NATURANG PAKSA O PAG-AARAL AY INILALAHAD
SA PUNTONG ITO.

LAYUNIN

- ANG HANGARIN O PAKAY NG PAG-AARAL NA NAIS MATAMO NG NA PILING PAKSA.

- MAARI ITONG PANGKALAHATANG (GENERAL) O TIYAK (SPECIFIC)

PANGKALAHATANG LAYUNIN

- IPINAHAYAG NITO ANG KABUUANG LAYON, NAIS GAWIN, MANGYARI O MATAMO SA

PANANALIKSIK

TIYAK NA LAYUNIN

- IPINAHAYAG NITO ANG ESPISIPIK ON PAKAY SA PANANALIKSIK SA PAKSA.

MGA TIYAK NA LAYUNIN

1. NATUTUKOY ANG LAWAK AT HANGGANAN NG PAGGAMIT NG FILIPINO SA LARANGAN NG TEXT

MESSAGING
2. NA IBIBIGAY ANG MGA PARAAN NG PAGGAMIT NG MENSAHE SA FILIPINO GAMIT ANG TEXT
MESSAGING
3. NAILALAHAD ANG IMPLIKASYON NG PAGPAPAIKLI NG PAHAYAG SA FILIPINO GAMIT ANG TEXT
MESSAGING

METODOLOHIYA

- ANG PARAAN AT PAMAMARAANG GINAGAMIT SA PAGKUHA NG DATOS AT PAGSUSURI NG

PINILING PAKSA SA PANANALIKSIK AY NASA BAHAGING NG METODOLOHIYA
- MAARING GAMITIN SA PAGKUHA NG DATOS ANG SERBER, QUESTIONNAIRE, CASE STUDY,
OBSERBASYON, INTERVYU, AT IBA PA. KUNG MAGSUSURI, MAGAGAMIT ANG PARAAN
EMPIRICAL, KOMPARATIBO, INTERPRETASYON O PAGPAPAKAHULUGAN.

INAASAHANG BUNGA

- ILALAHAD SA BAHAGING ITO ANG RESULTA NG ISINAGAWANG PANANALIKSIK

- MAARING BANGGITIN DITO ANG MGA IDINAGDAG GAYA NG APENDIKS
 Reading and Writing Skills

Literature Review
What is literature review?

 Assessment
 It is an assessment of a body of a research that addresses a research question.
 Process
- It is the process of reading, summarizing, analysing, evaluating a scholarly materials about a
specific topic.
 Summary
- It can simply be a summary of the sources where it gives a recapitulation of the important
information of the source.

Purposes of a literature review

1. It establishes the importance of the topic and the research gap

2. Provides readers with relevant information that will familiarize them with the topic
3. Clarifies the contradictions between and among the previous studies.
4. Justifies the research method, questions, and the conceptual and theoretical framework.

Types of literature review

 Stand alone literature review

- It provides an overview and analysis of the current state of research on a topic or question.
 Parts of a research proposal
- It is important in demonstrating how a proposed research will be a useful to a particular field.
 Parts of a research project
- This review will provide the context to which a researchers work is a contribution

Writing a stand alone literature review

1. Make sure that you know what is expected

a. On which topic are you doing a review?
b. How long should it be?
c. How many papers are you supposed to be reviewing?
d. What kind of papers are you allowed to include in your review?
e. Do you need to include heading and subheadings?
f. Are you supposed to use a specific referencing style?
g. When is the paper due?
2. Identify keywords around your topic
a. Think of all possible synonyms and variations of the words you have identified.

For example: Drills on conflagration in academic institutions.

The keywords: drills, conflagration, academic institutions

Synonyms:

Drills- exercise, practice, approach

Conflagration- fire, blaze, arson

Academic-educational, scholastic

Institutions – establishment, foundation

3. Begin your literature search

- It may be easier to check the Internet for sources of information, but it is advised that you go
to your school library in searching for resources.
4. Read the documents that you have found and take note
- Not all sources that you have found are useful for you review. Therefore, you have to choose
those that are interesting. Taking notes on the other hand will help you to avoid
unintentional plagiarisms. To avoid this, always take notes but make sure that your notes are
accompanied by the exact reference of the document you are reading; title, author, date and
page number.
5. Decide on the structure of your review
- Here are some examples of how you can structure your literature review.
a. From general concepts to specific concepts or vice-versa
b. By chronological order
c. By theme
d. Type of research
e. By topic
6. Write your review

This will be your drafts. There will be three parts: introduction, body, conclusion

7. Edit, proofread and revise your paper.

a. Proofread for errors in grammar, spelling and punctuations
b. Pay attention to sentence structures
c. Omit wordy or redundant phrases and sentence
d. Check for unity of ideas
e. Check for proper referencing of your sources

Guides in writing your review

1. Make sure that you know what is expected of you.

2. Identify key words around your topic
3. Begin your literature research
4. Read the documents that you have found and take notes
5. Decide on the structure of your review
6. Write your review
7. Edit, proofread and revise your paper
The structure of literature review

1. Chronological literature review

- It is best used fir historiographical papers and research methodology that focuses more on
how the ideas have developed over time.
2. Thematic literature review
- It can be compared to an inverted pyramid that focuses on broad to specific topic and ends
with a synthesis

Synthesis of a literature review

 Broad topic
 Information partly related to the paper
 Information directly related to the paper

Meaning

Broad topic

- Discusses a clear background on what the research is.

Information partly related to the paper

- Refers to data from studies not directly related but somehow can influence the research.

Information directly related to the paper

- Refers to data from other authors with the same problem statement. It can either agree or
disagree with the problem stated.

Synthesis of the literature review

Synthesis, means to put together multiple ideas from different sources to understand the role of each
part or element of the paper. It is also suggested to compare and contrast work done by the authors.

Research Paper
Research

- Is derived from the middle French “recherche”, which means “to go about seeking”, the term
itself being derived from the Old French term “recerchier” a compound word from
“re”+”cerchier”, or “sercher” meaning “search”
- It is a systematic process of gathering and analysing data to establish a plan of action. It is
simply the collection of facts, information, or details on a particular subject.
 Research will help you and all people to discover and to explain facts that maybe the
reason why a modification in almost everything is happening. As Fermin (1999) stated,
“truth exposes that mans’ life is always touched by the products of research”
Characteristic of Good Research

1. Accurate
- The data are correct through and not fabricated
2. Logical and Objective
- It deals with the facts and not the opinion of the researcher
3. Relevant
- It can be used to improve condition and solve problems
4. Patiently done
- The researcher devoted enough time to gather research successfully
5. Specific, Measurable, Attainable

Specific- based on the problems

Measurable- research instrument used in research analysis

Attainable- data required for the research should be available

6. Systematic
- Carefully plan
7. Timely
- The topic is new
8. Clear
- It made use of correct language
9. Complete
- All the basic parts are included
10. Presentable
- The physical quality from the margin, spacing, etc. Is very neat

10 steps involved in preparing research

1. Choosing a topic
- Consider something which is not complicated and will bring definite result to your question
2. Narrowing a subject
- To limit it to small or specific topics

2 simple ways on narrowing

1. Look for books which Discusses your topic you have chosen
2. Check your topic if you’re topic will addresses your question
3. Taking down notes
- Jot down information like the source, topic or heading that you can use as your guide

Example
 - Heading
- Source number
- Note
- Page reference

3 types of note card

1. Summary note card

- Condensed form of what you have read
2. Paraphrase note card
- This includes a more comprehensive discussion compared to a summary
3. Quotation note
- This note is an exact copy of the statements read during a research
4. Formulating a thesis statement
- Contains the main idea of the research

ROSENWASSER and STEPHEN consider a basis a thesis weak if;

a. If makes no claim
b. It states a fact
c. It restate conventional wisdom
d. It offers a personal conviction as the basis for the claim
e. It makes an overly broad claim
5. Drafting the outline
- Outline, general plan of what you intend to write
6. Writing the first draft
- How facts or events are arranged logically (coherence)
- Chronological arrangement of outline in writing

Introduction

- It gives the background of your paper

- Gives your audience an idea what your topic is about

Introduction or a research includes the following;

1. Background of the study (history of the problem)

2. Statement of the problem (clearly stated and defined)
3. Significance of the study (explanation importance of the study)
4. Scope and delimitation of the study (limitation and coverage)
5. Hypothesis (intelligent guesses)

Body

- Is the longest part of the paper

- Contains the main points and the details about them

Conclusion
 -
It is the summary of the restatement of what has been discussed in the introduction and
body of the research.
7. Documentating and writing in-text citations
- Documentation is defined as the recording of published source materials for the research
method
- It can also be the acknowledgment of the sources or references used in research

The examples for the basic guides in citing sources will makes use of both APA and MLA

a. Single author

Example: Armstrong (2003) statistical analysis

b. Multiple authors

Example: Salvosa, Pangilinan and Fabic (2005) stated that....

Below are the examples of in-text citation using the APA and MLA style

APA

Galura (2011) defined plagiarism as the stealing of someone else’s work

MLA

Galura (p.9) defined plagiarism as the stealing of someone else’s work

8. Preparing the bibliography

- Bibliography is a list of the books or works that you have read and consulted in writing your
paper.
9. Revising your drafts
- Means that you need to do some changes in your work like rephrasing your sentences to
improve them, rethinking of ideas and so on.
10. Writing the final paper
- At this point, everything should have been checked and fixed

Guidelines in writing the title

1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of research work

2. The title must contain there subject matter of the study
3. It must be broad enough to include all subject matter studied or to be studied
4. It must brief and concise
5. Avoid using terms “an analysis of”, “a study of”, “an investigation of”
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid

Preliminary parts of a research paper

 1. Title page
- This is the page that is easiest to prepare
2. Approval sheet
- It is the document that shows if your committee has approved the contents of your paper
3. Acknowledgment
- This page shows the people whom the writer wishes to thank
4. Table of contents
- This page lists the contents of the paper and the pages where to find them
 Project proposal
- Is a detailed description of a series of activities aimed at solving a certain problem
- It is a document which you present sponsors or clients to receive funding or get our project
approved
- Plan of action

In Business, a project proposal is written for funding

In School, some faculty use this proposal as an informal contract to establish an agreement about the
content and limits of the final project report

Parts of making project proposal

1. Project description
- This part conveys the gist of the entire proposal to the authorities who have to take a
decision
- Must contain all the information in brief

Project Description

- Project title (Project title)

- Type of project (Education, Health, Sports Art Exhibit, Etc.)
- Project proponent/s (Name of organization)
- Number of beneficiaries (No. Of households and individuals)
- Location of beneficiaries (Address of beneficiaries)
- Date of implementation (Start date/ number of implementation days)
- Area of project implementation (Address where the project is implemented)
- Budget requirement (Overall amount of budget requirement)
- Budget requested (State amount requested)
2. Project background/Situation analysis
- This section Discusses what has brought about the need for the project
- What problem, what opportunity there is for improving things and what the basic situation is
3. Project objectives
- It Discusses the short and long-term goals your project will contribute to.
- The objectives should be in response to the core problem stated
4. Describe impact and outcome of the project
- This part Discusses the effects of the project (Economic, social, cultural, environmental, etc.)
- The specific measure to sustain the project
5. Risk management plan
 - Risk are external factors that could potentially jeopardise the project and are beyond control
6. Project organization and staffing
- This part Justifies the need to expatriate personnel
- Explains the responsibilities and tasks of each key person in the project
7. Project work plan
- This section describes how you will accomplish the proposed task
- It also presents the time required to complete the work
8. Detailed budget requirement
- This section furnishes the details of all the expenses
- Include the amount of the required materials, travel fare, etc.
9. Other relevant information
- This includes projects that are lined-up to compliment the current initiative as well as the
pledges received from the sponsors
10. Signatories
- It is the last part of the project proposal where the names of people involved are written

Why is a project proposal important?

 When done right, a successful proposal can unlock new and exciting work, help an
organization grow, and make a positive contribution to culture and morale. Whether you
work for a start-up, a small business, or massive enterprise, it’s important to have a solid
process that finds the balance between being competitive and practicing due caution.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH (SPORTS)

Table Tennis

 The history of table tennis

- Table tennis
Is a recreational activity and an Olympic sports since 19988
Is also known by the term PING-PONG
1897, the first national championship were organised in Hungary
1901, James Gibb brought back the first celluloid ball, which was a lot lighter than the
rubber balls.
1902, E.C. Gould, a British enthusiast of the game, introduced the first bat’s covered in
rubber and rubberized pimples. It was game on for the history of table tennis.

Table tennis

- Relies on simple equipment: a tables, bat’s and balls.

- Indoor tables are favoured for gentle indoor practice
- Outdoor table, which are a lot more solid and durable, are perfect for outdoor games,
without risk of damage.

Official rules of table tennis

1. Game played to 11 points

- A game is played to 11 points. A game must be won by two points. Match is generally the
best three of five games.
2. Toss the ball straight up when serving
- Hold the ball in your open pal, behind your end table. Toss at least 6’ straight up, and strike it
on the way down.
- It must hit your side of the table and then the other side.
- Note: Once the ball leaves the server’s hand it is in play, and so count as the receivers point if
the ball is missed or miss-hit
3. The server can land anywhere in singles
- There is no restriction on where the ball lands on your side or your opponents side of the
table. It can bounce two or more times on your opponents side (if so that’s your point),
bounce over the side, or even hit the edge.
4. Double serve must go right court to right court
- The serve must bounced in the server’s court and receiver’s right court
 - Note: Landing on centre line is fair
- Double partners switch places after their team serves twice.
5. Alternate hitting in a doubles rally
- Double partners must alternate hitting balls in rally, no matter where the ball lands on the
table.
6. Volleys are not allowed
- In regular tennis you may volley the ball (hitting the ball before it bounces on your side of the
net)
- Note: When your opponent hits a ball that sails over your end of the table without I-touching
it and then hits you or your paddle, that is still your point.
7. If your hit bounces back over the net by itself is your point
- Ig you hit the ball in a rally or serve and it bounces back over the net after hitting your
opponents side of the table (due to extreme spin), without your opponent touching it, that is
your point.
8. You may not touch the table with your non-paddle hand
- You may touch the ball or the table with your paddle hand (after reaching in to return a short
serve, for example)
- Note: If the table moves at all from your touching it during a rally, that is your opponents
point.
9. An edge ball bouncing off the horizontal table top surface is good
- An otherwise legal serve or hit may contact the top edge of the horizontal table to=p surface
and be counted as valid, even if it bounces sidewise.
 Lawn tennis

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LAWN TENNIS

- French word “tenez”, which is a plural imperative form, of the verb tenir (“Hold, receive, or
take”)
- This term is used as a call from the server to his opponent, indicating that he is preparing to
serve the ball across the court.
- The word racket was derived from the Arabic word “Rakhat”, which translated to the “Palm
of the Hand”
- Major Walter Clopton Wingfield (1833-1912) was a famous Welsh inventor that is
remembered today as the father of lawn tennis and a crucial figure in forming the style of
modern tennis that is played today.
- First Tournament The Championships, Wimbledon courts were established in 1868 as the
private club that provided lawns and courts for aristocratic players who enjoyed croquet.
- Spencer Gore, a 27 years old rackets player from Wandsworth, became the first Wimbledon
Champion by defeating William Marshall, a 28 year old real tennis player, in three straight
sets in final that lasted 48 minutes.

The court

- The tennis court must be 78 feet long, from baseline to baseline, and 27 feet wide for singles
and the same 78 feet long, but 36 feet wide for doubles. A net that is 3 feet high at the centre
 and 3 ½ feet high on both ends in strung across the middle of the court, attached by net
posts.

Rules and Regulations

 USTA regulations refer to tournaments. Whether the tournament is a professional or an

amateur one, there must be uniformity that applies to all the tournaments in the circuit
 Their is typically a tournament committee with a director, a chairperson and a referee.
 The tournament must provide an adequate number of courts so the event can be completed on
time.