Iraq Kurdistan Region

Dohuk Polytechnic University

Bardarash Technical Institute
Business Administration Department
Dep:IT

Computer
Report : Calculator

Prepared by:Mumtaz fath

Supervised by:Mr.Sami Hussen

2021-2022
An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to
perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to
complex mathematics.

An electronic pocket calculator with a seven-segment liquid-crystal

display (LCD) that can perform arithmetic operations

A modern scientific calculator with a LCD

The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s.
Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel
4004, the first microprocessor, was developed by Intel for the Japanese
calculator company Busicom.

Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-

sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became
popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of integrated circuits reduced
their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point
where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in
schools.

Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included

interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and
interactive BASIC could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s
home computers. Calculator functions are included in most personal digital
assistant (PDA) type devices.
In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific
markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which
include trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators even have
the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph
functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional Euclidean space. As
of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to
cost more.

With the very wide availability of smartphones, tablet computers and personal
computers, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less
common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represented an
estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute
information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.[1]

Design

Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents

Input

Electronic calculators contain

a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations; some even
contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to
enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each
button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-
function working with key combinations.

Display output

Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output in place of

historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent
displays (VFD); details are provided in the section Technical improvements.

Memory

Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic
calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are
able to store many numbers represented in variables. The variables can also be
used for constructing formulas. Some models have the ability to
extend memory capacity to store more numbers; the extended memory
address is termed an array index.
Power source

Power sources of calculators are batteries, solar cells or mains electricity (for
old models), turning on with a switch or button. Some models even have no
turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no
operation for a moment, covering solar cell exposure, or closing
their lid). Crank-powered calculators were also common in the early computer
era.

Key layout

The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the
arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from
model to model; the illustration is an example.

Usual basic pocket calculator layout

MC MR M− M+ C±% √789÷456×123−0.=+Calculator buttons and their

meaningsMC or CMMemory ClearMR, RM, or
MRCMemory RecallM−Memory SubtractionM+Memory AdditionC or
ACAll ClearCEClear (last) Entry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears
the last entry (CE), a second press clears all (C)± or CHSToggle
positive/negative number aka CHange Sign

%Percent

÷Division

×Multiplication

−Subtraction

+Addition

.Decimal point

√Square root

=Result
Internal workings

In general, a basic electronic calculator consists of the following

components:[2]

Power source (mains electricity, battery and/or solar cell)

Keypad (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function
commands (addition, multiplication, square-root, etc.)

Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and

results. Liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs),
and light-emitting diode (LED) displays use seven segments to represent
each digit in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use dot
matrix displays.

A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit

that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism.

Processor chip (microprocessor or central processing unit).

Calculators compared to computers

This section does not cite any sources. (March 2009)

The fundamental difference between a calculator and computer is that a

computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take
different branches according to intermediate results, while calculators are pre-
designed with specific functions (such as addition, multiplication,
and logarithms) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed
as programmable calculators have programming functions, sometimes with
support for programming languages (such as RPL or TI-BASIC).

For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might

implement floating point mathematics with code in read-only
memory (ROM), and compute trigonometric functions with
the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require much
multiplication. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators
whereas bit parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a
bit serial design minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles.
This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips
associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so
the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, and some custom designs
specialized for the calculator market.

History

Precursors to the electronic calculator

Main article: Mechanical calculator

The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to
tally items), pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus, known to have been
used by Sumerians and Egyptians before 2000 BC.[6] Except for
the Antikythera mechanism (an "out of the time" astronomical device),
development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century:
the geometric-military compass (by Galileo), logarithms and Napier
bones (by Napier), and the slide rule (by Edmund Gunter).

Use in education

A TI-30XIIS scientific calculator, used commonly by students

A Catiga CS-103 Scientific Calculator

In most countries, students use calculators for schoolwork. There was some[by
whom?] initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or elementary
arithmetic skills would suffer.[citation needed] There remains disagreement
about the importance of the ability to perform calculations in the head, with
some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has
been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching estimation methods
and problem-solving.
Reference:
1_https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator
2_https://www.calculator.net/
3_https://www.gov.uk/benefits-calculators