1.

DIGITAL COMPUTER

A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system that performs various

computational tasks.

The first electronic digital computer was developed in the late 1940s and was used
primarily for numerical computations.

By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which has two digits:
0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.

A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and Software.

The hardware consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical devices
that comprise the physical entity of the device.

The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that the computer
manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.
o The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for
manipulating data, a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit for
fetching and executing instructions.
o The memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for instructions and data.
o The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing of the data.
o The Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user and displaying the
final results to the user.
o The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard,
mouse, terminals, magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices.

2. History and Evolution of Computers.

The history and evolution of computers span several centuries, marked by

significant milestones that have shaped the modern digital landscape. Here's a
concise overview of this journey:

Early Calculating Devices (1600s-1800s): The roots of computing can be traced

back to mechanical devices designed for basic calculations. Inventors like Blaise
Pascal and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed early mechanical calculators,
paving the way for Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine concept in the 19th
century, considered the first general-purpose mechanical computer.

The Advent of Electronic Computers (1930s-1940s): The era of electronic

computing began with inventions such as the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) and
the Colossus, developed during World War II for code-breaking purposes.
However, the most influential development was the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), completed in 1945, which was the first general-
purpose electronic digital computer.
Transistors and Mainframes (1950s-1960s): The invention of transistors in the
late 1940s led to the development of smaller, more reliable computers. This era
saw the rise of mainframe computers, large and powerful machines primarily used
by corporations and government agencies for data processing tasks.

Microprocessors and Personal Computers (1970s-1980s): The invention of the

microprocessor in the early 1970s revolutionized computing by enabling the
integration of processing power onto a single chip. This led to the emergence of
personal computers (PCs), starting with the Altair 8800 in 1975 and popularized by
products like the Apple II and IBM PC in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

Advancements in Computing (1990s-Present): The 1990s witnessed rapid

advancements in computing technology, including the widespread adoption of
graphical user interfaces (GUIs), the development of the World Wide Web, and the
rise of mobile computing with devices like laptops and smartphones. Additionally,
the 21st century has seen the proliferation of cloud computing, artificial
intelligence, and the Internet of Things (IoT), further shaping the digital landscape.

Throughout this history, computers have evolved from massive, room-sized

machines to compact devices that fit in our pockets. They have become an integral
part of daily life, revolutionizing communication, commerce, entertainment, and
countless other aspects of society. As technology continues to advance, the history
and evolution of computers remain an ongoing narrative of innovation and
progress.
 3. DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE.

Data are the raw alphanumeric values obtained through different acquisition methods. Data in
their simplest form consist of raw alphanumeric values.

Information is created when data are processed, organized, or structured to provide context
and meaning. Information is essentially processed data.

Knowledge is what we know. Knowledge is unique to each individual and is the accumulation of
past experience and insight that shapes the lens by which we interpret, and assign meaning to,
information. For knowledge to result in action, an individual must have the authority and capacity
to make and implement a decision. Knowledge (and authority) are needed to produce actionable
information that can lead to impact.

The flow and characteristics of these terms are illustrated in Figure 1 and Table 1. Table 2 provides
examples of data, information, and knowledge for water data.

The flow from data to information and knowledge is not uni-directional. The knowledge gained
may reveal redundancies or gaps in the data collected. As a result, an actionable insight may be
to change the data collected, or how those data are converted into information, to better meet
user needs.

Characteristics of data, information, and knowledge:

 4. EXPLAIN THE ANATOMY OF A CMPUTER.

The anatomy of a computer can be understood through its major components, each playing a crucial role
in its functioning:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Often referred to as the brain of the computer, the CPU executes
instructions and performs calculations. It comprises the control unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and
registers.

2. Memory (RAM): Random Access Memory temporarily stores data and instructions that the CPU needs
to access quickly. It is volatile, meaning it loses its contents when the computer is turned off.

3. Storage Devices: These devices, such as hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs), provide
non-volatile storage for data and programs, allowing them to be accessed even when the computer is
powered off.

4. Motherboard: The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects and communicates with all
other components of the computer. It houses the CPU, memory, storage devices, and other essential
peripherals.

5. input Devices: Input devices like keyboards, mice, and touchscreens allow users to interact with the
computer by providing input, such as typing text or moving the cursor.

6. Output Devices: Output devices, including monitors, printers, and speakers, display or provide the
results of computations and processes performed by the computer.

7. Expansion Cards: These optional components, such as graphics cards and network interface cards
(NICs), can be added to the motherboard to enhance the computer's capabilities for specific tasks.

8. Power Supply Unit (PSU): The PSU converts electricity from the wall outlet into a form usable by the
computer's components and distributes it to them.
9. Cooling System: To prevent overheating, computers use cooling systems, such as fans and heat sinks,
to dissipate heat generated by the CPU and other components.

10. Peripheral Ports: These ports, such as USB, HDMI, and Ethernet ports, allow the computer to connect
to external devices like printers, monitors, and networking equipment.

Understanding the anatomy of a computer helps users and technicians troubleshoot issues, upgrade
components, and make informed decisions when purchasing or building a computer system.

5. FUNCTIONS AND COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER.

Certainly! Here's a brief explanation of the functions and components of a computer:

1. Input: This is the process of entering data or instructions into the computer. Input devices like
keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones facilitate this function.

2. Processing: The CPU (Central Processing Unit) performs calculations, executes instructions, and
manages data. It's often referred to as the brain of the computer.

3. Memory: Computers use memory (RAM - Random Access Memory) to temporarily store data and
instructions that the CPU needs to access quickly. Memory allows for efficient processing of tasks.

4. Storage: Storage devices, such as hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs), provide non-
volatile storage for data, programs, and operating systems. They retain data even when the computer is
powered off.

5. Output: Output devices, such as monitors, printers, and speakers, present the results of processed data
to users in a human-readable form.
6. Motherboard: The main circuit board of the computer, the motherboard, connects and communicates
with all other components. It houses the CPU, memory, and connectors for peripherals and expansion
cards.

7. Power Supply: The power supply unit (PSU) converts electricity from the wall outlet into a form usable
by the computer's components and distributes it to them.

8. Cooling System: Computers generate heat during operation, and cooling systems, including fans and
heat sinks, dissipate this heat to prevent overheating and ensure proper functioning of components.

9. Peripheral Ports: These ports, like USB, HDMI, and Ethernet ports, allow the computer to connect to
external devices such as printers, monitors, and networking equipment.

Understanding these functions and components helps users comprehend how a computer works,
troubleshoot issues, and make informed decisions about purchasing or upgrading computer systems.