BAFM-104 – Computer fundamentals and graphics.

Unit - 1: Basic concepts

 What is computer?
A computer is a programmable machine designed to perform arithmetic and logical
operations on the input and instructions given by the user and gives the desired
output after processing.

 Advantages of a computer:
Speed
Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of
performing about 3-4 million simple instructions per second.
Accuracy
In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can
almost always be attributed to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed
system or faulty instructions/programs written by the programmer)
Diligence
Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from
human traits of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration.
Computers, therefore, are better than human beings in performing voluminous and
repetitive jobs.
Versatility
Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as
it can be broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can
be seen in almost every sphere – Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather
forecasting and many more.
Storage Capacity
Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once
recorded (or stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved
almost instantaneously.

 Generations of computers:

1940 – 1956:  First Generation – Vacuum Tubes

These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. As a result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing
a fortune to run. These were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat,
sucked huge electricity and subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused
ongoing breakdowns.These first generation computers relied on ‘machine language’
(which is the most basic programming language that can be understood by
computers). These computers were limited to solving one problem at a time. Input
was based on punched cards and paper tape. Output came out on print-outs. The two
notable machines of this era were the UNIVAC and ENIAC machines – the UNIVAC
is the first every commercial computer which was purchased in 1951 by a business –
the US Census Bureau.

1956 – 1963: Second Generation – Transistors

The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second
generation of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used
significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement
over the vacuum tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat.
However they were hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller,
faster, cheaper and less heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card for
input/printouts.The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic
(‘assembly’) languages. This meant programmers could create instructions in words.
About the same time high level programming languages were being developed (early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first
computers to store instructions into their memories – moving from magnetic drum to
magnetic core ‘technology’. The early versions of these machines were developed for
the atomic energy industry.

1964 – 1971: Third Generation – Integrated Circuits

By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips (called
semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of these
machines.  These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards and
monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant leap up from the
punch cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run several applications at
once using a central program which functioned to monitor memory.As a result of
these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a new mass market
of users emerged during the ‘60s.

1972 – 2010: Fourth Generation – Microprocessors

This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the
Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory,
input/output controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in
the palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year
1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for home use and 1984
saw the MacIntosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond the
realm of computers and into an increasing number of everyday products.The
increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating
networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the
Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user
interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in lap-top
capability and hand-held devices. These computers used VLSI [ very large-scale
integration].

2010 - Present: Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence

Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of
these technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition.AI
 is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning
to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and nano technology. The essence of fifth generation will be using these
technologies to ultimately create machines which can process and respond to natural
language, and have capability to learn and organise themselves. These computers use
ULSI [ultra-large-scale integration]

 Basic computer operations:

Basic Operations of a Computer System are:

1. Inputting
2. Processing
3. Outputting
4. Storing
5. Controlling

 Functional Units:

Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer
system by the user for processing.
Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and
after processing

Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the
computer after processing.
 Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations
is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions
from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions
given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. CPU
includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions
provided, are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operations like greater
than, less than and equal to etc.

Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations
inside the computer.

Memory:
Computer’s memory can be classified into two types; primary memory and
secondary memory

1. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.

RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a
computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are
kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be
‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of
RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.
ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of
which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturer’s
instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’
whose function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.

2. Secondary Memory
RAM is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiliary memory is storage
other than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and controlled by
the computer to enable permanent storage of programs and data.

Secondary storage devices are of two types; magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices include hard
disks and optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.

 Input and output devices:

These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/Output devices are required
for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring
 information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer
system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the
CPU and memory of a computer system.

a) Input Devices:
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer [data and instructions].
There are many input devices, but the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse.
Every key you press on the keyboard and every movement or click you make with the mouse
sends a specific input signal to the computer.

b) Output Devices:
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired
from. The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit,
which then converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually
produced in one of the two ways – on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).

 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software is the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in
particular order. Hardware and software are complimentary to each other. Both have to
work together to produce meaningful results. Computer software is classified into two broad
categories; system software and application software.

System Software:
System software consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer
equipment including functions like managing memory, managing peripherals, loading,
storing, and is an interface between the application programs and the computer. MS DOS
(Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software

OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for
the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer
resources. It hosts several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations
of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the
operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming interfaces. Users
interact with a computer operating system through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or
Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, an operating system enables user
interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application
programs and the computer hardware. Some of the common operating systems are LINUX,
Windows,etc.

Application software:
Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word processing, accounting,
budgeting or payroll, fall under the category of application software. Word processors,
spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of general purpose
application software.
 COMPUTER LANGUAGE
Computer language or programming language is a coded syntax used by computer
programmers to communicate with a computer. Computer language establishes a flow of
communication between software programs. The language enables a computer user to
dictate what commands the computer must perform to process data.

These languages can be classified into following categories:

1. Machine language
Machine language or machine code is the native language directly understood by the
computer’s central processing unit or CPU. This type of computer language is not easy to
understand, as it only uses a binary system, an element of notations containing only a
series of numbers consisting of one and zero, to produce commands
2. Assembly language
Assembly Level Language is a set of codes that can run directly on the computer’s
processor. This type of language is most appropriate in writing operating systems and
maintaining desktop applications. With the assembly level language, it is easier for a
programmer to define commands. It is easier to understand and use as compared to
machine language.
3. High level language
High Level Languages are user-friendly languages which are similar to English with
vocabulary of words and symbols. These are easier to learn and require less time to
write.
They are problem oriented rather than ‘machine’ based.
Program written in a high-level language can be translated into many machine languages
and therefore can run on any computer for which there exists an appropriate translator.

 Compiler & Interpreter

These are the programs that execute instructions written in a high-level language. There are
two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile
the program; the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.

a. Compiler
A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular
programming language called as source code and converts them into machine language or
“machine code” that a computer’s processor uses.
b. Interpreter
An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then
executes. Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The
advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation
stage during which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming
if the program is long
Unit – 2: Computer communication and Networks:
 Computer network:
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

1. Share resources from one computer to another.

2. Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
3. Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

 Communication protocol:
In computing, a protocol or communication protocol is a set of rules in which computers
communicate with each other. The protocol says what part of the conversation comes at
which time. It also says how to end the communication.

Types of Protocol [few examples]

1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), is used for accessing and receiving Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) files on the internet.
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP), is used for showing files to be copied between devices.
3. Internet Protocol (IP), is responsible for logical addressing called "IP address" to route
information between networks.

 Nodes
In networks, a processing location. A node can be a computer or some other device, such as
a printer. Every node has a unique network address, sometimes called a Data Link Control
(DLC) address or Media Access Control (MAC) address.

 Data Transmission
Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog data over a communication
medium to one or more computing, network, communication or electronic devices. It
enables the transfer and communication of devices in a point-to-point, point-to-multipoint
and multipoint-to-multipoint environment.
Data transmission is also known as digital transmission or digital communications.

 Modes of Data Transmission

There are basically 3 modes of data communication:
Simplex: Data travels in one direction (from A to B). An example of a simplex link would be
scoreboards such as those used in hockey, basketball, or other sports. The information is
entered at a console by the score/timekeeper and sent serially to large displays that
everybody can see.
Half-duplex: Data travels in one direction (from A to B) and then the other direction (from B
to A) but not at the same time.
Full-duplex: Data can travel in both directions at the same time.
 Analog and digital transmission:

Analog Transmission:
An analog wave form (or signal) is characterized by being continuously variable along
amplitude and frequency. In the case of telephony, for instance, when you speak into a
handset, there are changes in the air pressure around your mouth. Those changes in air
pressure fall onto the handset, where they are amplified and then converted into current, or
voltage fluctuations. Those fluctuations in current are an analog of the actual voice pattern—
hence the use of the term analog to describe these signals.

Digital Transmission:
Digital transmission is quite different from analog transmission. For one thing, the signal is
much simpler. Rather than being a continuously variable wave form, it is a series of discrete
pulses, representing one bits and zero bits

 Synchronous and asynchronous transmission:

1. In Synchronous Transmission, data flows in a full duplex mode in the form of blocks or
frames. Synchronization between the sender and receiver is necessary so that the
sender know where the new byte starts (since there is no gap between the data).
Synchronous Transmission is efficient, reliable and is used for transferring a large
amount of data. It provides real-time communication between connected devices. Chat
Rooms, Video Conferencing, telephonic conversations, as well as face to face
interactions, are some of the examples of Synchronous Transmission.

2. In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in a half duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at

a time. It transmits the data in a continuous stream of bytes. In general, the size of a
character sent is 8 bits to which a parity bit is added i.e. a start and a stop bit that gives
the total of 10 bits. It does not require a clock for synchronization; rather it uses the
parity bits to tell the receiver how to interpret the data. It is simple, fast, economical and
does not require a 2-way communication. Letters, emails, forums, televisions and radios
are some of the examples of Asynchronous Transmission.

 Types of networks:

LAN - Local Area Network

WAN - Wide Area Network
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
PAN - Personal Area Network
LAN: Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school,
or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs
(perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP
networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.In addition to operating
in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or
organization.They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token
Ring.

WAN: Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN,
spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called
a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a
WAN address. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet)
are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership
and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity
over the longer distances.

 Network topology:

A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting
lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the
logical (or signal) topology.
The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There are
several common physical topologies like:
1. Mesh
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Bus
5. Tree
6. Line [point to point]
7. Fully connected
 Internet:
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope,
linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The
Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services.
Unit – 3: Understanding Computer Graphics:

 Computer graphics:

Computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally
synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to the study of
three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and
image processing.
Also,
Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers
to computer-generated image data created with help from specialized graphical hardware
and software.It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes erroneously referred to as
computer-generated imagery (CGI).
And,
Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and
meaningfully to the user. It is also used for processing image data received from the physical
world. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many types of media
and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, and graphic design
generally.

 Application of computer graphics:

1. Display of information
2. Design
3. User interfaces
4. Simulation

According to these four areas there are several types of applications which are used in
today’s world. These are,
 History of computer graphics:

Computer Graphics (CG) was first created as a visualization tool for scientists and engineers
in government and corporate research centres such as Bell Labs and Boeing
in the 1950s. Later the tools would be developed at Universities in the 60s and 70s. The early
breakthroughs that took place in academic centres continued at research centres such as the
famous Xerox PARC in the 1970¹s. These efforts broke first into broadcast video graphics and
then major motion pictures in the late 70¹s and early 1980¹s. Computer graphic research
continues today around the world, now joined by the research and development in
departments of entertainment and production companies. Companies such as George
Lucas¹s Industrial Light and Magic are constantly redefining the cutting edge of computer
graphic technology in order to present the world with a new synthetic digital reality.
 Unit – 4: Software application in CG:

There are a huge number of softwares out in the market today for creating 2d and 3d
graphics. Some well known names in 2d being photoshop, illustrator, Corel painter, etc.
And some of famous 3d softwares being 2dx max, Maya, Z brush, etc.
2d graphics softwares are of 2 types:
1. Raster [pixel] based.
2. Vector based.

 Raster graphics [bitmap/pixel]:

Raster images are often called bitmap images because they are made of millions of tiny
squares, called pixels. You can identify a raster or bitmap image by looking at it very closely.
If you zoom in enough, you will be able to see the square outlines of each pixel (especially
around edges where there are dramatic color contrasts).
Raster graphics typically have larger file sizes than their vector counterparts. Higher DPI
(dots per inch) and PPI (pixels per inch) settings also contribute to larger files because
software must keep track of and be able to render each pixel.
Used for digital painting and art.

 Vector graphics:
Vector graphics is the creation of digital images through a sequence of commands or
mathematical statements that place lines and shapes in a given two-dimensional or three-
dimensional space. In physics, a vector is a representation of both a quantity and a direction at
the same time. In vector graphics, the file that results from a graphic artist's work is created and
saved as a sequence of vector statements. For example, instead of containing a bit in the file for
each bit of a line drawing, a vector graphic file describes a series of points to be connected. One
result is a much smaller file.

They areinfinitely scalable without having to worry about pixelation or loss of details. It is
generally used to make logos, banners and illustrations.
 MS Paint:

Introduction:
Paint (formerly Paintbrush), commonly known as Microsoft Paint, is a simple raster graphics
editor that has been included with all versions of Microsoft Windows. The app opens and
saves files in Windows bitmap (BMP), JPEG, GIF, PNG, and single-page TIFF formats. The app
can be in colour mode or two-colour black-and-white, but there is no grayscale mode. For its
simplicity, it rapidly became one of the most used applications in the early versions of
Windows, introducing many to painting on a computer for the first time. It is still widely used
for simple image manipulation tasks.

In July 2017, Microsoft added Paint to the list of deprecated Windows features, meaning
that it won't be developed further and might be removed in the future. Microsoft, however,
will make it available in the Windows Store for free.

Tools in Ms paint:

Select
The "Select" tools look like a star or rectangle outlined with hashed lines. The star shape is
the "Free-Form Select" tool that allows you to select part of a picture that is any shape. The
button with the image of a rectangle lets you select a rectangular area within an image.
Eraser
Under the star "Select" tool is the "Eraser" tool. This allows you to erase small areas of the
image by dragging the mouse pointer over the part you wish to eliminate.
Fill Tool
The "Fill Tool" looks like a jar that has paint spilling out of it. When you select an area of your
image with the left mouse button, the foreground color will fill with a color. When you select
an area of your image with the right mouse button, the background of the image will fill with
a color.
Pick Color
The button with the image of an eyedropper is the "Pick Color" tool. This allows you select
an object whose color you want to copy and use the color elsewhere in the image.
Magnifier
Next to the "Pick Color" button is the "Magnifier" button, which looks like a magnifying glass.
Selecting this tool will allow you to zoom in an out of an image.
Pencil and Brush
The button with an image of a pencil in it is the "Free-Form Line" tool. It allows you to draw
lines by clicking and dragging your computer mouse.
The image of the paintbrush next to the image of the pencil is the "Brush" tool. Use this to
brush a thick line on your image with different brush shapes.
Airbrush
The "Airbrush" tool's button has the image of a paint can in it. This tool allows you to "spray"
an area of your image with a color of your choice.
Text
The "Text" tool is next to the image of the paint can, and has the letter "A" on it. Use this to
type text directly onto your picture.
Line and Curve
The "Line" button has the image of a diagonal line in it. Use this tool to draw straight lines in
your picture.
To draw a curve, click on the button with the image of a curvy line in it. The "Curve" tool
allows you to draw a line with one or two arcs in it.
Rectangle
The "Rectangle" tool has an image of a rectangle drawn with a solid line on the button. Use
this tool to draw rectangles in your picture.
Polygon
The "Polygon" tool is next to the "Rectangle" tool. This tool allows you to make several lines
at different angles to form the shape of a polygon.
Ellipse and Rounded Rectangle
The bottom left tool with the shape of an oval in it is the "Ellipse" tool. Make circles and
ovals by selecting this tool and dragging the computer mouse diagonally after clicking on a
place in your image.
Draw a rectangle with rounded corners by selecting the last tool in MS Paint. Use the
"Rounded Rectangle" tool in the same manner you would the "Ellipse" tool.

Menu bar: