DC-01 INFORMATICS

Chapter 1
Introduction to Information Technology

Computer:- Computer is an electronic machine that can store, process and retrieve data as
and when desired.

Data:- Data is any fact connected with any object.

E.g., name of a person (Johnson)

Information:- The arranged and meaningful form of data is called information.

E.g., Mark list of a student

Knowledge :-Knowledge is the application of information in a given context.

E.g., Tom has a tail

Data Processing:- Converting data into information is called data processing.

It consists of 4 activities
Receive data ,Manipulating data, Provide the result ( information) as output ,
Keep the data and the information for future.

Data represented inside a computer:- Data represented as 0’s and 1’s called binary digit or
bit. The storage capacity of memory unit is represented as
1 bit 0 or 1
1 nibble 4 bit
1 byte 8 bit
1 Kilo Byte (1 KB) 1024 bytes
1 Mega Byte (1 MB) 1024 KB
1 Giga Byte (1 GB) 1024 MB
1 Tera Byte (1 TB) 1024 GB

Characteristics of a computer:-
1) Speed - Computer is a very fast device.
2) Accuracy (precision) – The accuracy of computer is high.
3) Versalility – A computer can do variety of jobs.
4) Diligence –A computer can work for hours or days continuously without creating any
error.
5) Storage capacity (power of remembering)– A computer can store and recall huge
amount of information because of its storage capability.
6) No Intelligence - A computer cannot take its own decision.
7) No feeling/no emotion – Computers have no feelings or emotions.

History of computers:-
 Abacus:-
1) The abacus may be considered the first computer for basic arithmetical
calculations
2) Simple addition and subtraction canbe carried out using this machine.
 Cardboard Multiplication Calculator(Napier’sbone):-
Another calculating device designed in 17th century.
 Pascal’s Mechanical Adding Machine-
The first mechanical adding machine was invented by BlaisePascal in1642.
 Difference Engine and Analytical engine:-
1) Charles Babbage (Father of Computer) designed Difference Engine to solve
mathematical and statistical data.
2) In 1842, Babbage designed Analytical engine to perform simple mathematical
functions.
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 Mark I:-
This is the first fully automatic calculating machine used to perform all four
arithmetic operation.
 The Atanasoff Berry computer (ABC):-
This electronic computer is developed to solve certain mathematical equations.

Generation of computers:-

Features First generation Second Third Fourth

(1942 – 1955) generation generation generation
(1955 – 1964) (1964 – 1975) (1975 – 1989)
Technology Vacuum Tubes Transistors IC Chips Microprocessor
Internal storage Electro static Magnet core Magnet core Semi conductor
tubes memory
External storage Punched cards, Magnetic tape, Magnetic tape, Hard disk,
paper tapes Magnetic drum Magnetic drum Flash drives
Input / Output Punched cards, Keyboard Keyboard, Keyboard,
paper tapes punched card Printer, VDU Printer, VDU
Languages used Machine High Level High Level Pascal, C, C++,
language and Languages – Languages – Java
Assembly Fortran, Cobol Fortran, Cobol
language

Classification of computers:-

Computers can be classified by their size, speed, storage capacity. They are
Microcomputers, Minicomputers, Mainframe computers and Supercomputers.
1) Micro Computers:-
• Micro computers are the smallest and low cost systems.
• A micro computer has a central processing unit built by a micro processor, an
input unit and an output unit.
• They are usually designed for single user.
• Its word length varies from 8 bits to 64 bits.
Word length - the maximum number of bits can be handled by the processor at a time
during execution.
Examples are Desk top PCs, Laptop computers, Personal digital Assistants (PDA) and
Tablets.
Desktopcomputers:-
The desktop computers are the most common type of micro computers. It consist of
CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse, harddisk, modem, printer, speakers etc
Laptop Computers:-
A laptop is a portable micro computer. Laptops are light weight and user can carry it
when travelling.
Palmtops:-
Small portable computers suitable to handle it on our palm. They are also known as
handheld Computers. Examples are Personal Digital Assistant(PDA) and Tablets. They
use memory cards for storage. Touch screen and stylus(a stick to select screen
icons)are used instead of keyboard and mouse.
2) Mini Computers:-
 A mini computer is a medium sized computer.
 It is more powerful and costly than a micro computer.
 These are usually designed as multiusersystems
3) Mainframe Computers:-
 They have large storage capacity and high processing speed.
 Several users can work at the same time.
 They can store large amount of data for banking, railway reservation etc.
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4) Super computers:-
 Super computers can solve complex problems in scientific, engineering and
research application.
 A super computer contains a large number of CPUs to make it faster.
Param Padma is the first super computer of India designed in 2003

Hard wired programming:-

Programs are designed using physical circuit switching is known as Hard wired
programming
Stored program concept:-
Instructions and data are stored in memory is known as stored program concept
introduced by Dr. John Von Neumann. (Father of modern computers)

2. COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Computer as data processing machine:-

To process data, computer performs the following steps
 Inputting
 Storing
 Processing
 Outputting
 Controlling

1. Inputting:- Process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.

2. Storing:- The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as
Storing.
3. Processing:- All the arithmetic and logical operations performed in a computer is
called processing.
4. Outputting:- Giving result after data processing is called outputting.
5. Controlling:- The process of coordinating all operations are called controlling

Functional units:- The functional units of a computer are input unit, output unit, memory
unit and central processing unit
1) Input unit:- This unit performs three functions
 Accepts data and instructions
 Converts data to digital form
 Supplies data for processing
e.g., for input devices are keyboard, mouse, scanner etc

2) Output unit:- This unit performs three functions

 Accepts results after processing
 Converts results to human readable form
 Give information to outside world
e.g., for output devices are monitor, printer etc

3) Memory unit:-Memory unit keeps instructions and data to be processed and keeps the
intermediate and final results
4) Central processing unit:- The main components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Registers
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): All arithmetic and logical operations are performed
by ALU
 Control Unit (CU): Controls and co-ordinates all activities inside the computer
 Registers: Temporary storage locations inside the CPU.
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Block Diagram:-

Primary Memory
Input Unit Output Unit

ALU
CU

Secondary Memory

System Components:-
1) Motherboard:- It is the main printed circuit board (PCB) inside a computer. It holds
memory, processor and provides connectors for other peripherals
2 ) Chipset:- A chip set is a group of Integrated Circuits (ICs) that manages the
data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals.
3) Buses:- A bus is a set of connections between two or more components. There are
three types of buses in a computer
 Data bus:- Through data bus we can sent or received data
 Address bus:- It is used to pass address to I / O devices or memory
 Control bus:- It is used to send control signals to and from I / O devices, memory
or CPU
4) Expansion Slots:- It is used to provide additional capability to the computer. Various
expansion slots are sound card slot, video card slot etc

5) Input /Output ports:- Devices like keyboard, mouse, printer etc are connected to a
motherboard through a socket known as ports. Various ports are
 Serial port:- Serial port:- Serial port can be used to connect mouse or keyboard.
 Parallel port:- Parallel port can be used to connect a printer or scanner.
 PS/2 (Personal System / 2)port:- PS/2 port is used to connect keyboard and
mouse. It is slow. Hence nowadays it is replaced by USB ports.
 Universal Serial Bus (USB) port:- USB port can be used to connect external hard
disk, flask drive etc
6) Microprocessor:- An electronic chip that performs all the arithmetic and logic
operations.
 Intel microprocessor:- Intel is one of the world’s largest chip producer.
Different types of Intel processors are Celeron, Pentium , Xenon etc. Hyper-
Threading is a technology used by some Intel microprocessors that allows a
single micro- processor to act like two separate processors to the operating
system.
 AMD Processor:- Different types of AMD processor are Sempron, Athlon,
Phenom etc

3. Memory

CPU Registers:- The CPU Registers are fastest memory elements. It is smallest and most
expensive type of memory.
Cache memory:- It is a special type of high speed memory situated in between CPU registers
and Primary memory. It is used to reduce speed mismatch of CPU and Primary memory.
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L1, L2 and L3 cache:- L1 cache (also called Primary cache) is the processor chip itself. L2
cache placed between L1 and primary memory. L3 caches are found on the motherboard.

Primary Memory (Main memory):- The primary memory is divided into RAM and ROM
1. RAM (Random Access Memory):- It is also referred to as Read/Write memory. The RAM
is volatile, that is when the power supply is switched off, the information stored is lost.

RAMs come in two varieties, they are Static RAM(SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

 Static RAM(SRAM):- In Static RAM, binary values (bits) are stored using flip flop. Here
the bits are represented by voltages. They are fast but costly.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM):- In Dynamic RAM, information is stored in the form of charges
on a capacitor. They are small in size, less cost, slow and consumes less power than
SRAM.
 Synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM):- It is Dynamic RAM, its data
transfer operations enabling higher speeds with the help of processor.
 Double Data Rate-SDRAM( DDRAM):- It is a type of SDRAM in which data transfer
speed is double compared to ordinary SDRAMs. DDRAM uses relatively little power,
and is widely used in laptop and personal computers. DDRAM is also commonly
referred to as SDRAM-II or DDR-SDRAM.
 RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory):- It is a type of RAM made by
‘Rambus Co’ and is the fastest type of RAM available. RDRAM is typically used for video
memory on graphics cards. It is also used in cache memory located on the CPU and in
system memory within high-performance workstations and servers.

ROM (Read Only Memory:- The basic instructions to the computer are stored in ROM chips.
These instructions are called micro programs. The ROM chips with micro programs are called
Firmware
• Masked ROMs – It is not possible for a customer to modify the programs stored inside
the ROM chip. It has large memory capacity (density) at low cost, low power
consumption and fast access. 
• PROM (Programmable ROM) –This memory can be programmed once by the user with a
special PROM programming device. Then the information stored is permanent.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):- It can be erased using ultra violet radiation
and can be reprogrammed.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) – It can be erased using electricity
and can be reprogrammed.

Secondary Memory ( Auxiliary memory) :- The characteristics of secondary memory devices are
low cost, large storage capacity and data stored are permanent in nature. The secondary
storage devices are basically classified into Sequential(Serial) access and Direct access
devices.
• Sequential Access Devices:- The sequential access devices are very slow, but the
storage capacity is high. A magnetic tape is an example of sequential access storage
device.

Magnetic tape:- Magnetic tape is a plastic ribbon, coated one side with iron oxide. The
tape is divided into vertical columns called frames and horizontal rows called channels
or tracks.
Features of tape storage
 Enormous storage capacity –The storage capacity of a magnetic tape is infinite by
adding new ribbon with old one.
 No direct access- Tape is a sequential access device so it will make a considerable time
delay to access the addressed location.
 Environmental problem – Dust, humidity and uncontrolled temperature can cause tape
reading errors.
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• Direct Access Devices:- In direct access device we can access any addressed storage
block directly. A magnetic disk is the best example for direct access devices.

Magnetic disk:- It is a thin circular metal or plastic plate. The plate coated on both
sides with magnetic material like iron oxide. Each surface of the disk is further divided
into concentric circles called tracks. A set of corresponding tracks constitutes a
cylinder. Each tracks further divided into small strips called as sectors.

Types of magnetic disks:-

1. Floppy discs:- A floppy disk is a flat circular flexible plastic disk coated with
magnetic oxide . Two popularly used floppy disks were 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch. The
storage capacity of the 3.5 inch disk is 1.44 MB
2. Hard disks :- Hard disks are made up of rigid metal platters. The most common
type of hard disk is Winchester disk. It consists of multiple hard disk platters
mounted on a single shaft. Its and storage capacity is high.
3. Optical disks:- A disk which uses light source (laser beam) for reading and writing is
called optical disk. The various types optical discs are CD ROM, CD WORM, CD
Rewritable, DVD and Blu Ray Disc.
 CD ROM:- CD is an optical storage that can store upto 700 MB of data. CD
drive uses red laser beams for reading and writing data into CD. Different types of
CD’s are CD-R (CD Recorder able), CD-RW (CD Rewritable)
 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD):- DVD’s are optical storage that can store from 4.37
GB to 15.9 GB. Smaller spots are used to record data to increase storage capacity.
DVD drive uses red laser beams for reading and writing data into DVD. Different
types of DVD’s are DVD-ROM (DVD Read Only Memory), DVD-RW (DVD Rewritable)
and DVD-RAM (DVD Random, Access Memory).
 Bluray Disc:- Blu-Rays are optical storage that can store high definition (HD)
video between 25 GB to 50 GB. Blu-Ray drive uses blue-violet laser beams for
reading and writing data. Since blue-violet laser has a shorter wavelength, it is
possible to focus the laser spot with greater precision. Hence it have 5 times the
storage capacity of DVD.

Advanced portable storage devices:-

o Zip Drive:-The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable floppy disk. Originally, Zip
disks launched with capacities of 100 MB, but later versions increased this to 750
MB.
o Pen drive (USB flash drive):- It is a data storage device that includes flash memory.
USB flash drives are removable and rewritable. It’s storage capacity range from 2
GB to 32 GB. It is used for storage, back-up and transfer of computer files.
o Super Disk:- Super disk is a high-speed, high-capacity floppy disk. The storage
capacity of a typical super disk is 32 MB.

4. INPUT / OUTPUT DEVICES

Character Input Devices:-

 Keyboard:- Keyboard is used to enter alphabets, numbers and other characters.

Standard keyboard has 101 keys. Keyboard layout is called QWERTY design. Wired
and wireless keyboards are available.
 Graphical Input Devices:-
 Mouse:- Mouse is used to move the cursor on a computer screen. Mouse has
one or more buttons with a scroll wheel.
 Optical Mouse:- An optical mouse uses LED or laser to detect movement. A
sensor is used to detect the light reflections as the mouse is moved.
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 Trackball:- A trackball is used in notebook and laptop computers. The user rolls the
ball to move the cursor to the desired place on the screen. He can click one of the
two buttons to select desktop objects.
 Track Pad:- It used in laptops. User can slides the finger tip across the window
to move the cursor.
 Track Point:- This device is called as eraser pointer. It has a replaceable red tip and is
located in the middle of the keyboard between G, H, and B keys.
 Joystick:- Joystick is a pointing device. It is used for playing video games, controlling
robots etc. Joystick has a button to select objects. Joystick has a vertical stick to
move the pointer.
 Scanners:- Scanner is used to convert pictures or text into a digital format. Different
types of scanners are flat bed, sheet feed and hand held scanners.
 Optical Mark Reader (OMR):- OMR readers can recognize the marks done in OMR
sheets. The answers are marked by darkening the correct bubble option using a pen or
pencil.
 Barcode Reader:- Barcode readers are used to read the number represented by
barcodes. Barcode is a set of vertical lines of different thickness that represents a
number. It is used in shops to get the price of products for billing
 Smart Card Reader:- A smart card is a plastic card that stores data. Smart card
contains a memory or a microprocessor. Smart card readers are used to access data in
a smart card.
 Touch screen:- Touch screen is used to operate by simply touching on the display
screen. Touch screen is used in tablets, smart phones, information kiosks at railway
station, bank ATM’s etc.
 Web camera:- It is used to capture live video or images. It is just like a digital camera,
placed on top of the PC monitor or laptop.
 Microphone:- Microphone is used to input sound. It converts sound to a digital
format. The digitized sound can be stored in the computer for processing.

Output Devices:-

Output devices are devices that print(hardcopy) or display (soft copy) output from a
computer. Hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters. Softcopy output devices are
visual display units and projectors.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors:- Two types of CRT monitors are monochrome and color
monitors. Monochrome monitors that can display shades of grey is called a grey scale
monitor. Color monitors use 3 basic colors red, green and blue to display shades of colors.
a) Liquid Crystal Display Monitors (LCD):- LCD monitors consists of liquid crystals
between two plastic plates. These crystals form an image when electric current is
passed.
b) Thin Film Transistor (TFT):- TFT displays have a transistor, which allows the electrical
current that illuminates the display to be turned on and off at a faster rate. LCD’s that
use TFT technology are called active matrix displays.
c) LCD Projector:- LCD projector is used for displaying video or images on a large screen.
The beam of light passes through a lens which projects the image on a large screen.
Printer:- Printers are used to produce hardcopy output. Printers are classified as impact
printers and non-impact printers. In Impact printers a hammer strikes the paper through a
ribbon to print. E.g., dot matrix printer. Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while
printing. E.g., inkjet printer, laser printer, thermal printer.
o Dot-matrix printer:- Dot matrix printers have pins in the print head and an inked
ribbon for printing. It is economic printer. We can take carbon copies. But it is
slow and noisy.
o Inkjet printer:- Inkjet printers print by spraying droplets of ink from the print
head. Different colors of ink are used for color printing. Inkjet printers have low
cost but the costs of ink cartridges are high.
o Laser printer:- Laser printers print by spraying toner powder by using a laser
beam through heating the powder is fused on to the paper. Color toner
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cartridges are used for color printing. Laser printers are high quality printers.
It is faster but it is expensive.
o Thermal printer:- Thermal printers print by heating heat sensitive thermal paper.
The paper turns black where it is heated. It is faster, smaller, lighter and need
less power. It can be used as portable printers.
 Plotter:- Plotters are used to produce hardcopies of graphs and designs of cars, ships,
buildings etc. Plotters are classified as drum plotter and flat bed plotter.
o Drum plotter:- Drum plotter also known as roller plotter has a drum or roller on
which a paper is placed. The drum rotates back and forth. It also has a set of
pens on a drawing arm for drawing.
o Flatbed plotter:- Flatbed plotter also known as table plotter plots on a paper
spread over a flatbed table. It has two drawing arms with sets of pen for
drawing. It is very slow.

5. COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software:- Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer
system. Softwares are classified into System software and Application Software.

System Software:- System software is a set of programs that help to control the operations of
a computer. System softwares are divided into Operating system and language processors.

Operating system:- Operating system is a set of program that acts as an interface between
user and computer. Operating system controls and co-ordinates the operations of a
computer. Eg., DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux, Mac OSX etc. The major functions of an
operating system are
i. Process Management:- The process management, manages all the processes.
ii. Memory Management:- The memory management allocate and deallocate memory.
iii. File Management:- The File management manages all file related activities.
iv. Device Management:- The Device management manages the devices attached to the
computer.
v. Input / Output Management:- The Input / Output Management controls different
input / output devices connected to the computer.
vi. Security – P rotect computer resources from unauthorized access
vii. Command interpretation – A user can communicate with an operating system
using some simple commands

Types of Operating System:-

 Single User Operating System:- This type of OS permits only one user to operate
the computer at a time. Eg., are MSDOS, Windows XP etc.
 Multiuser operating system – Here two or more users can use a computer at a
time.
 Multitasking Operating system – In multitasking environment, a computer can
perform more than one job at a time.
 Real time Operating System – These OS are designed for special purpose i.e., in
automated manufacturing plants, oil refineries, weather prediction etc.
 Mobile Operating System - A mobile operating system is designed to run on
mobile devices such as mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs, tablet computers
and other handheld devices. Examples of such OS are Android and Blackberry.
Language Processors:- Language processors are system software used to convert High Level
Language or Assembly Language Program to Machine Language Program. Three types of
language processors are Assembler, Interpreter and Compiler.
1. Assembler:- Assembler converts programs in Assembly language to Machine language.
2. Interpreter:- Interpreter converts High Level Language program to machine language
by converting and executing it line by line. BASIC is an interpreted language.
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3. Compiler:- Compiler converts High Level Language program (Source program) to
machine language (object program) program by converting the whole program to
machine language. The object program is then executed. E.g., C, C++ are compiled
languages.

Classification of Programming Languages:-

Classification Features Advantages Limitations
Machine Binary  Fastest  M ac hi n e
Language Instructio execution. de pe n de nt
ns  Direct .
control on  Difficult to
hardware write pro-
components. gram.
 No need o f  Difficult to
language detect error
translator and modify.
Detailed kn
owle dg e on
h ardware
architecture
required
Assembly Symbolic Progra mm i n g b e  M ac hi n e
Language cod e s c a me e as y co de pe n de nt
m p are d t o ma c  Detailed
h in e l an g uag e knowledge on
hardware is
re qui red .
 A la n g ua
g e translator
is needed.
H i gh l ev e l Familiar Easy to understand,  Slow execution.
language English words program, error  A lang uag e
and math- det e ct i on a n d tra n s la t o r i
ematical correction are Machine s needed.
symbols independent

Fourth generation languages (4GL):-Fourth generation languages have syntax rules like
simple English. It is commonly used to access databases. E.g are SQL, Report generators
and Application generators.

Application Software:- Application softwares are classified as General purpose softwares and
Specific purpose softwares.

General purpose software:- It is classified as Word processing software, Spreadsheet

software, Presentation software, Database software, Multimedia Software etc
Specific purpose software:- Specific purpose software are tailor made software to satisfy the
needs of an user. It is also known as customized software since it is developed for a single
customer. e.g., payroll system, inventory management system etc.

Malicious Software(Malware):-

1. Computer viruses:- A computer virus is a program that damage normal working of

computer system. An antivirus program scans computer for viruses and remove
them, if found. Example for antivirus programs are Norton, AVG, Avira, Avast etc.
2. Worm:- A worm is a special type of virus that can replicate itself and use memory.
3. Torjan Horse:- This program cause theft or loss of data and even crashes the system.
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4. Spyware:- These programs are used to gather information from internet such as
e-mail ids, passwords, credit card information etc.
5. Cookie:- It is a small piece of program used to gather user’s profiles or browsing
activities.

 Copyright:- A copy right is a legal right given to the creators for an original work,
usually for a limited period of time.
 Software Piracy:- When you are copying a software product without the legal
permission of its creator, this act is known as software piracy.

Free software philosophy:- Free and open source software gives the user the freedom to use,
copy, distribute, examine, change and improve the software. The four freedom levels are
 Freedom 0: Freedom to run program
 Freedom 1: Freedom to access and change the program
 Freedom 2: Freedom to distribute copies.
 Freedom 3: Freedom to improve the program and to release it.

6. APPLICATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1) Communication:-

i. Internet:- With the help of internet, we can send sms, mms, e-mail etc. Also we can
make video conferencing, chatting using this facility with low cost and also with high
speed.
ii. Mobile Communication:- Any type of data can be send through mobile phones.
2) Business:- E-commerce refers to the electronic means to conduct commerce
between business communication and transactions over the internet. It includes
buying and selling over the internet, electronic fund transfers, smart cards,
digital cash etc.
3) Medicine and Health care:-
i. Medical Diagnosis:- Doctor can examine patient’s diseases with the help of
computerized system. E.g., ECG
ii. TeleMedicine:- is used to examine patient in remote location.
iii. Medical Imaging:- is used to view internal structure of human body. E.g., MRI
Scan, CT scan etc.
4) Entertainment:-
i. Animation:- is the process of recording, manipulating and displaying motion
pictures. e.g., cartoon films
ii. Computer games:- are created with the help of animated graphics, helps to
increase concentration power and hand-eye co-ordination.
5) e-Governance:- is the delivery of government services and information to the
public using electronic devices. E.g., Akshya centres
6) Education:-
i. e-Learning:- E-learning includes Computer Based Training (CBT) and Web
Based Training (WBT). Students can interact with e-learning software, answer
quiz questions, enjoy colorful presentations etc.
ii. Virtual classrooms:- It is an online learning environment. Students and
teachers can log on the software at the same time and can interact with each
other through web conferencing, video conferencing and live streaming.
7) Engineering Manufacturing:- Computer controlled equipments and robots are
used in manufacturing field. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacturing (CAM) are used for designing, developing, assembling etc. In
industry, production can be planned, controlled and co-ordinate with the help of
computers. Computers are widely used in call centers, data entry jobs,
electronic firms, human resource service etc.
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8) Science:- Computers are widely used in the application areas of Genetics,
research laboratories, meteorology and space technology. Computers are used to
predict natural calamities.
9) e-Commerce:- It is the purchasing, selling and exchanging of goods and services
through internet. Examples of e-commerce websites are amazon.com, ebay.com
etc.
Types of e-Commerce:-
i. B2B (Business to Business):- When commerce taking place between business it
is called B2B. e.g., Companies doing business with each other such as selling to
distributors and wholesalers, selling to retailers etc.
ii. B2C (Business to Consumer):- When commerce taking place between business
and a consumer, it is called B2C. e.g., purchasing things through internet.
iii. C2C (Consumer to Consumer):- When commerce taking place between consumer
and a consumer, it is called C2C.
iv. P2P (Peer to Peer):- It is used to share files online.
10) m-Commerce:- Buying and selling of goods with the help of mobile devices is
known as m-Commerce. Many services can done through mobile phones such as
banking, payment, ticketing etc.
11) Online Trading:- Buying and selling of stocks and shares through internet is
called online trading.
12) Net-Banking:- With the help of internet, banking activities can be done. It is
also known as Online Banking, Web Banking or E-banking.