3 DISEASES COMMON IN MAMMALS
endospores emanating from the carcass of a
MAMMALS
Mammal, (class Mammalia), any member of
the group of vertebrate animals in which the
young are nourished with milk from special
mammary glands of the mother. In addition to
these characteristic milk glands, mammals are
distinguished by several other unique
features. Hair is a typical mammalian feature,
although in many whales it has disappeared
except in the fetal stage.
COMMON DISEASES IN MAMMALS
ANTHRAX BACTERIUM
Bacillus anthracis is the cause of anthrax, an
acute disease that is often fatal if not treated
quickly and aggressively. The disease is
transmitted by endospores (not by active
bacteria) that are, in most cases, spread by
infected animals. Animals become infected by
grazing on plants and soil containing long-
dormant spores, or by eating an actively
infected animal.
Anthrax is one of the most deadly infections
that affect elephants. Anthrax is a bacterial
infection that produces a high temperature,
shaking, ulceration, and swellings.
B. anthracis endospores enter the body
through abrasions in the skin or by inhalation
or ingestion. Infection results in cutaneous,
inhalational, or gastrointestinal anthrax.
Humans become infected by inhaling
dead infected animal (leading to pulmonary
anthrax)
Bacillus anthracis is a large (1– 1.5×3–10 μm)
gram-positive sporulating rod, with square or
concave ends. It can readily grow on sheep
blood agar leading to the formation of rough
gray white colonies of 4 to 5 mm
Infections may result from contact with
contaminated animals or animal products.
There are no known cases of human-to-
human transmission.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Anthrax: General
Bacillus anthracis is rarely recovered except in
areas where the disease is known to occur
periodically. However, cases occasionally
occur where there has been no history of
anthrax; thus it is important to always be alert
to the possibility of its occurrence.
A variety of special media and tests have been
developed to aid in the isolation and
identification of B. anthracis. and will be of
particular interest to laboratories in areas
where anthrax occurs with appreciable
frequency.
BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS
(MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS)
Etiology
In mammals, tuberculosis is caused by
members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis
complex, which are Gram positive, acid-fast
bacterial rods in the family Mycobacteriaceae.
The organisms maintained in animals include
Mycobacterium bovis (bovine tuberculosis), M.
caprae (caprine tuberculosis), M. pinnipedii,
M. orygis and M. microti. M. caprae, M.
pinnipedii and M. orygis were members of M.
bovis before being designated separate
species.
Cattle are the primary hosts for M. bovis, but it
can probably infect most or all mammals and
marsupials. Susceptibility to illness might vary.
Bovine Tuberculosis
Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) existed in the
Mediterranean even before classical times.
From northern Italy it spread to western
Europe and Great Britain, and it was from
Holland and Great Britain that cattle first
carried the disease to many parts of the world
that had been colonized by those countries.
South Africa has an established bTB
eradication scheme in place for cattle, but the
large, free- ranging wildlife source,
represented mainly by buffalo, may pose
problems in the future. The South African
National Parks and the Directorate of Animal
Health of the Department of Agriculture have
been evaluating possible containment, control
and eradication strategies since the early
1990s.

The emergence of bTB in free-ranging African

wildlife populations may be the most
The first reported free-ranging carnivore
threatening disease event in certain African
infections occurred in 1995 when lions, were
ecosystems, since the rinderpest epidemic of
diagnosed with bovine Tuberculosis (bTB).
1898–1902.
The Kruger National Park (KNP) has a lion
population of approximately 1700 of which
TRANSMISSION
estimated that approximately 500 live in areas
Most information on the transmission of the
where there is high TB prevalence in buffalo.
zoonotic mycobacteria comes from studies of
Restriction fragment length polymorphism
M. bovis. Depending on the sites where it has
analysis has confirmed that the M. bovis strain
localized, this organism may be found in
in lions is the same as that isolated from
respiratory secretions, exudates from lesions
buffalo. This provides further evidence of prey
(e.g., draining lymph nodes, some skin
to predator transmission.
lesions), urine, feces, milk, vaginal secretions
and semen. Shedding can occur intermittently
In lions, the common clinical signs of bTB
and differs between individuals. M. bovis is
include emaciation, staring hair-coat with
more likely to be transmitted when the
poorly healing skin lesions, swollen joints and
respiratory tract is affected and in the late
limbs, lameness and blindness.
stages of the disease, when lesions are more
extensive. Close contact in confined spaces
The first reported free-ranging carnivore
facilitates its spread. It has also been cultured
infections occurred in 1995 when lions, were
from the oral secretions of some animals,
diagnosed with bovine Tuberculosis (bTB).
including ferrets, which may facilitate
The Kruger National Park (KNP) has a lion
transmission in bites.
population of approximately 1700 of which
estimated that approximately 500 live in areas
TREATMENT
where there is high TB prevalence in buffalo.
Antibiotics have been used to treat some
Restriction fragment length polymorphism
animals with tuberculosis, especially pets and
analysis has confirmed that the M. bovis strain
zoo animals. However, the possibility of
in lions is the same as that isolated from
clinical improvement without bacteriological
buffalo. This provides further evidence of prey
cure must be kept in mind. Some animals that
to predator transmission.
responded initially later relapsed, especially
with inadequate treatment (e.g., too short
In lions, the common clinical signs of bTB
treatment or the use of a single drug). The risk
include emaciation, staring hair-coat with
of shedding organisms, hazards to humans
poorly healing skin lesions, swollen joints and
(especially if the respiratory tract is infected or
limbs, lameness and blindness.
there are draining lesions), and potential for
the development of drug resistance make
The existence of bTB in free-ranging
treatment controversial. Treatment is not
mammals in southern Africa poses significant
permitted in some countries.
threats to conservation and tourism. Bovine
TB is virulent in lions and other top carnivores,
and these species exist at relatively low
densities in most of the infected area.
EQUINE INFLUENZA (FLU)
WHAT IS EQUINE INFLUENZA?
Equine influenza is a highly contagious
respiratory disease of horses and other
equidae. It is caused by two subtypes of the
influenza A virus, which are related to, but
distinct from, influenza viruses in other
species. Equine influenza virus spreads easily
through contact with infected horses and via
contact with infected clothing, equipment,
brushes, tack, etc. Some horses do not show
any outward signs of infection, but can shed
the virus and infect susceptible horses.
buckets, brushes, tack, etc. Coughing horses
aerosolize the organism and can spread the
virus as far as 150 feet, quickly infecting an
entire barn. Infected horses can shed the virus
for up to 14 days post-infection. Humans can
potentially pass the infection to horses via
infected hands and clothing. Finally, many
horses are asymptomatic virus shedders,
which means they are immune and will not
become sick, but the virus can still multiply and
transmit to other horses.

Similar to herpesviruses and Streptococcus

equi subspecies equi (agent of strangles), a
greater incidence of infection is observed in
Two types of influenza virus routinely
colder months. Abrupt onset of clinical signs
circulate and cause seasonal flu epidemics
is common, and they usually last less than 3
in people:
days. Sick horses can exhibit fever, nasal
discharge, cough, lethargy, loss of appetite,
LIFE CYCLE
and weakness. A cough is one of the most
The incubation period is only around 1-3 days
notable signs of equine flu. The virus causes
(although some may be less than 24 hours).
the destruction of cells in the throat and
The virus survives in the environment for up to
lungs, which take 3 weeks to regenerate. As
36 hours, but is easily killed by cleaning and
a result, horses are particularly susceptible to
disinfection.
secondary infections such as bacterial
pneumonia during the first 2-3 weeks after
CLINICAL SIGNS
infection.
The main clinical signs are usually:
- sudden increase in temperature (to between
HOW IS EQUINE INFLUENZA TREATED?
39 and 41°C)
Rest and supportive care are given to horses
- deep, dry, hacking cough
who do not develop problems. Animals who
- watery nasal discharge which may later
have been proven EIV positive should be
become thick and smelly.
placed on stall rest and removed from training
for at least one week for every day of fever.
Other signs can include depression, loss of
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs)
appetite, laboured breathing, muscle pain and
may be given if the temperature rises beyond
stiffness.
104oF (40oC). Antibiotics may be prescribed
in specific circumstances, such as when a
WHAT ARE THE CLINICAL SIGNS OF
horse's fever continues, there is purulent nasal
EQUINE INFLUENZA?
discharge, or the horse develops pneumonia.
Equine influenza is a highly contagious
Horses should be gradually restored to work.
respiratory disease with a high rate of
They should take one week off for every day
transmission among horses and a short
of fever, as a general rule. This gives their
incubation time (1-3 days). It is spread by
lungs enough time to recuperate after the
infected, coughing horses, contaminated
illness.
EAGLE AND TARSIER
EXOTIC ANIMALS
EAGLE
● A large bird of prey
● has a fully feathered (often crested) head
● strong feet equipped with great curved
talons that can easily crush the
bones of its prey instantly.
● too ponderous for effective aerial pursuit but
try to surprise and overwhelm their prey on the
ground
● there are approximately 60 different species.
The majority are found in Eurasia and Africa,
with only 14 species found in other areas
including North, Central and South America,
and Australia.
● monogamous
● can fly up to an altitude of 10,000 feet, but
they are able to swiftly land on the ground.
● Eyesight is around 5 times better than the
human's vision.
Collection of Blood Sample
Eagle nestling blood plasma is collected by
permitted and certified individuals using
aseptic techniques.
1. Evaluate. Carefully evaluate the bird
immediately prior to capture and restraint, and
stop if the bird shows signs of distress.
2. Capture & Restrain. Quick immobilization
of the feet, followed by restraint of the head
around the neck.
3. Determine Weight.
4. Select Vein & Position. The 3 most
common sites for venipuncture in birds are the
jugular, basilic, and medial metatarsal veins.
5. Venipuncture. The brachial vein is used for
blood collection (this is the same vein used
when humans give blood)

Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Bilateria
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnath
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Approximately 10 milliliters (mL) of blood is
collected from each eagle. Blood accounts for
approximately 10% of the eagle's body weight
and it is safe to remove up to 10% of their
blood volume without injuring the bird. 10 mL
is significantly less than 10% of the birds blood
volume, and this process will not hurt the bird.

The blood is centrifuged and the plasma is

separated from the blood cell content.
Samples are then frozen until they are
analyzed in the lab.

*Be meticulous in extracting the blood in the

wing vein area of the eagles because it will
influence their flight after.

Collection of Fecalysis
The most common types of fecal analysis are
the following:

Direct fecal smear: In this test, a small

amount of stool is placed on a microscope
slide, mixed with a very small amount of water
or saline, and examined under a microscope.
Parasite eggs and single-celled parasites can Collection of X Ray
sometimes be identified using this method. Anesthesia
Sedation or general anesthesia is often
Fecal flotation: In this test, a sample of stool required for radiographic examination, and
is placed in a small tubular container and can help:
mixed with a small amount of a special ● Alleviate patient stress
solution. Mixing causes the parasite eggs to ● Prevent iatrogenic injury
float to the top of the solution. A clean ● Ensure high quality exposure
microscope slide is placed on the rim of the
container to collect the eggs, which your VENTRODORSAL PROJECTION (Figure 1)
veterinarian can see under the microscope. Positioning
Place the patient in dorsal recumbency,
Gastrointestinal Parasites directly on the cassette for tabletop technique
Gastrointestinal (GI) parasites are any or directly on the table for film-tray technique.
parasites that live in the digestive tract of a Tape each pelvic limb separately, at the level
host. The following are among the GI parasites of the tarsometatarsus, and extend caudally
that can affect avians: (see Tape Protocols).
● Roundworms: usually contract
roundworms from wild birds, either from With the distal extremities placed evenly,
encountering these wild animals while being secure to the table or cassette.
housed outdoors or from its time at a bird store
(if it was brought from one). Infected birds can Extend the pectoral limbs laterally, and evenly
also transmit the parasites to its eggs secure to the table or cassette by placing tape
● Tapeworms: Tapeworms are less common at the level of the mid antebrachium. The piece
than they once were, but several types of birds of tape must be long enough to span the entire
can be infected, including finches, parrots, and wing, including the feathers.
cockatoos.
● Giardia: Giardia is a single-celled GI
parasite. Signs are malnutrition, diarrhea,
faulty absorption of nutrients, weight loss and
itching.
● Trichomonas: Trichomoniasis is caused by
the microscopic organism Trichomonas
gallinae. Trichomonas creates infected lesions
that can damage the mouth, esophagus, and
other organs.
● Coccidia: Signs of coccidiosis range from
decreased growth rate to a high percentage of
visibly sick birds, severe diarrhea, and high
mortality. Feed and water consumption are
depressed. Weight loss, development of culls,
decreased egg production, and increased
mortality may accompany outbreak.

Clinical Signs of Gastrointestinal

Parasites?
Feather plucking, diarrhea, weight loss, and
weakness can be among the clinical signs of
GI parasite infection in birds. Infected birds
can even die. However, many infected birds
don’t show any clinical signs at all. The best
way to tell if your bird is infected is to schedule
an examination with your veterinarian and
have your pet tested for parasites.
LATERAL PROJECTION (Figure 2)
Positioning
Place the patient in right lateral recumbency—
the most common position. In patients with
trauma or pathology, place the affected side
closest to the cassette.
Extend the pectoral limb—closest to the
cassette—dorsal to the coelom, above the
spine.
Place a piece of tape across the mid diaphysis
of the antebrachium. The piece of tape must
be long enough to span the entire wing,
including the feathers.
Position the second pectoral limb in a similar
manner—extended dorsal to the coelom—and
secure individually with a second piece of tape
that spans the antebrachium.
Individually tape the pelvic limbs at the level of
the tarsometatarsus, and evenly extend
caudal to the coelom.
Pectoral Limb (Wing) Projections
LATERAL PROJECTION (Figure 3)
Positioning
For the lateral projection, position the patient
in a similar manner as described for the VD
coelomic projection.
Extend the wing laterally, with the primary
feathers flush with the cassette.
Secure the wing to the cassette using a piece
of tape placed across the entire wing at the
level of the mid antebrachium.
CRANIOCAUDAL PROJECTION OF
HUMERUS (Figure 4)
Positioning
Obtain the craniocaudal projection of the
humerus with the patient positioned in dorsal
recumbency, similar to patient positioning for
the VD projection of the coelom.
Place tape around the most distal primary
feather of the distal extremity.
Gently extend the limb ventrally, along the
lateral body wall.
CAUDOCRANIAL PROJECTION OF
ANTEBRACHIUM AND DISTAL EXTREMITY
(Figure 5)
Positioning
Position the patient in dorsal recumbency to
obtain a caudocranial projection of the
antebrachium.
Similar to the craniocaudal projection of the
humerus, place tape around the most distal
primary feathers of the distal extremity.
Gently extend the limb cranially, adjacent to
the lateral aspect of the head.
Pelvic Limb Digit Projections
LATERAL PROJECTION (Figure 6)
Positioning
Place the patient in lateral recumbency, with
the affected limb placed directly on the
cassette.
Radiograph each foot individually to avoid
magnification and distortion.
To assist with positioning, place tape around
the distal aspect of each digit.
Extend the plantar digit (digit 1) plantarly, while
extending the remaining digits dorsally.
Separate all digits equally, with a gap present
between each one in order to eliminate
summation of the digits.
Interestingly, during plenty, they eat frequently
and store about 2 pounds of food in their
crops.
Eagle diet is principally mammals and birds,
taken both alive and as carrion. Main live prey
consists of medium sized mammals and birds
such as rabbits, hares, grouse and ptarmigan.
The diet of coastal birds includes gulls and
other seabirds.

DORSOPLANTAR PROJECTION (Figure 7 ) Clinical Importance

Positioning ● useful for population genetic studies
Place the patient in ● for the conservation and management of the
dorsal recumbency. species
● wellness evaluation, during illness or
Tape: toxicosis, for DNA testing, and in
The wings down infectious disease screening
laterally to remove ● help identify abnormalities in debilitated or
them from the field diseased birds
of view ● DNA testing is used to determine the sex of
a bird when, for example, female
Each digit reproductive problems are suspected
individually to aid in ● In many cases, birds infected with GI
positioning parasites don’t exhibit clinical signs. That
means the only way to tell if a pet is infected is
Tape the plantar to perform fecal testing periodically to screen
digit (digit 1) for parasites.
medially to prevent
summation with the Proper Handling
tarsometatarsus. Anyone handling or possessing an eagle or its
remains must be covered by a migratory bird
Extend the remaining digits dorsally, permit or a permit exception as listed in 50
spreading them equally and directly in line with CFR 21.12.
the tarsometatarsus. In general, you should not be handling or
transporting sick, injured, or dead eagle
Collection of Feed sample remains unless you are: A Service law
According to researchers, eagles consume enforcement officer.
about 0.5 to 1 pound of food every day.
LIVE EAGLE
These birds of prey do not consume as often, Step 1 : Reporting
especially in the event of food scarcity. Do not approach or try to handle the eagle
yourself. Contact a federally permitted
rehabber or trained professional for
assistance. To find out what rehabilitation
experts are near you and to get proper
assistance.
DEAD EAGLE
A freshly dead eagle has no smell, eyes are
not sunken in, and the body is usually intact
and has not been scavenged. While dead
eagles would undergo rigor mortis between 2-
6 hours after it’s death.
Step 1 : Reporting
Leave the eagle in place and let law
enforcement take care of it unless instructed
otherwise by an officer.
Step 2 : Documentation
Step 3: Collection
Wear rubber, latex, or nitrile gloves. Attach a
tag securely to the remains, if possible. If the
eagle is intact, attach it to the leg
Step 4 :Transfer
It depends on the type and how long the eagle
has been dead for, their is a handbook that
specify what to do with the common types of
eagles.
TARSIER
● Coloration varies between buff-gray and
beige.
● As nocturnal animals, their huge eyes and
big ears help them see and hear in
the dark.
● 5,000-10,000 left as of May 2017
● Has two grooming claws on each foot.
● Has large eyes which do not reflect light.
● The membranous ears are slender and
almost bare.
● About 13 species of small leaping primates
found only on various islands of Southeast
Asia, including the Philippines.
● marks its territory with scents from urine and
glandular secretions on a substrate while
scratching the surface with its hind-limb toe
claws.
● It's the only venomous (and poisonous!)
primate. The tarsier is able to secrete a
particular toxin from a gland found in their arm.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Tarsiiformes
Family: Tarsiidae
Collection of Blood Sample
Owing to the small size of tarsiers it was not
appropriate to collect blood samples.
Collection of Fecalysis
Direct fecal smear: spreading a thin film of
feces on a glass slide and adding a few drops
of saline. The slide is then examined under a
microscope for evidence of microscopic
organisms. A fecal smear can also be used to
examine fecal cytology—the cells contained in
the specimen.
Gastrointestinal Parasites
Gastrointestinal (GI) parasites are any
parasites that live in the digestive tract of a
host. The following are among the GI parasites
that can affect primates like tarsier
● Entamoeba coli - ause of amebic dysentery
● Balantidium coli - intestinal protozoan
parasite that causes the infection called
balantidiasis, can become infected with
Balantidium coli by ingesting infective cysts
from food and water that is contaminated by
feces.
● Iodamoeba butschlii - Usually harmless, it
may cause amebiasis in immunologically
compromised individuals.
Collection of X Ray
● Tarsier extremely large eyes are “most likely
related to the absence of a tapetum lucidum,
the mirror-like structure that results in ‘eye
shine”. The huge eyeballs are highly sensitive
to light.
● Since X-rays are a type of light, it is not
recommended.
● It is highly not recommended because
touching or strapping down a
tarsier will cause it to bang its head after the
examination and would cause it to die because
of the stress it has undergo.
Collection of Feed sample ● “If you touch, they die”, warned by guides in
● Entirely carnivorous, eating mainly insects Bohol when explaining to the to tourists.
including beetles, grasshoppers, cockroaches,
butterflies, moths, praying mantis, ants and
cicadas.
● They may also feed on small vertebrates
including bats, snakes, and birds.
● Answers about metabolic rate and torpor
await physiological study, but we do have
evidence that tarsiers use behavioral
mechanisms to cut energy expenditures. For
example, they do not probe about their
enclosures like shrews or tamarins but rather
have a "sit and wait" prey capture strategy.
● If the prey comes close enough the tarsier
leaps on it at once, pinning it to a branch with
its hands and immobilizing it with a bite from
its specially modified first and second incisors.
● We have observed tarsiers to capture prey
in three different ways:
1) about 20% of the time they remain immobile
until they can reach out and catch prey as it
walks nearby.
2) About 29% of the time, the prey come close
enough to be caught by a single jump.
3) The remaining 51% of the attacks required
a series of 2 or 3 short leaps.

Clinical Importance
● prevent the animals from early extinction
● Because of the rapid decline and difficulty
with the threats include habitat
destruction and fragmentation, hunting,
agricultural pollutants and human disturbance
so it is more than now ever to encourage to
widen the sanctuary for tarsier.
● Tarsiers are very shy animals that prefer to
stay away from human contact so taking
clinical exams with these animals would be
proven difficult especially during xrays where
the patient must stay in place and animals
should be strapped down.

Proper Handling
● Tarsiers aren't allowed to be touched.
● They are fragile animals and respond poorly
to handling, it is important to minimise
handling.
● If you put them in a cage they want to go out.
That's why they bump their heads on the
cage, and it will crack because the cranium is
so thin.
● They are known to commit suicide even with
the smallest amount of stress.
THE NATURAL BEHAVIOR OF BIRDS
INCLUDE WILD EAGLES 2. CANOPY FEEDING
-The birds are somewhat hidden behind tree
INTRODUCTION leaves, and further away.
The key to understanding bird behavior is EXAMPLE
having the right mindset to observe & • Warblers
articulate what is actually happening with Eat a lot of Insects and Spiders
birds, while also having plenty of real life
examples. The ability to identify, observe &
interpret what birds are doing, largely depends
on being able to make high quality
observations.

3. BARK FEEDING
EXAMPLE
• Nuthatches and Brown Creepers.
-These birds are adapted with special feet that
are capable of holding onto the trunks of trees,
sometimes walking up and down the trunk as
FEEDING BEHAVIOR if it were flat ground.
Many modern birds are insectivorous, as were
likely the earliest birds, and these birds have
developed numerous specializations for
catching insects. Raptorial birds (raptors and
owls) have evolved talons and hooked bills for
feeding on larger animals. Herons hunt fish
using trigger systems in their necks and bills
that resemble spears. Wading birds with long
bills look for worms and other invertebrates.
The majority of the numerous species of birds
that eat plant matter rely on high-nutrient
seeds, fruit, or nectar; leaves and buds are 4. AERIAL FEEDING
used by fewer species. While some bird EXAMPLE
species only consume a specific type of food, • Swallows and Swifts
others may consume a variety of foods, and - Who catch insects on the fly.
many have seasonal changes in diet. - They often have very specific requirements
for nesting & roosting sites next to an open
TYPES OF FEEDING BEHAVIOR field with plenty of insect activity.
1. GROUND FEEDING
EXAMPLE
• The American robin
-They stop, look, listen, walk a few paces and
suddenly pounce on an unsuspecting worm.
• Sparrows
- seem to putter
around in circles 5. HAWKING BEHAVIOR
slowly picking along EXAMPLE
the forest edge for • Flycatchers.
insects. -It’s sort of like a mixture between aerial
-each species has it’s feeding & perch hunting.
own unique pattern of -The bird will perch at a high point in a tree
feeding. waiting for insects to fly by. Then the bird will
suddenly leap out from it’s perch, catch the
insect and quickly fly back to the tree.
6. PREDATORY FEEDING Example:
-Aerial predators keep nature in balance. Robins in north america
-Some will perch on a tree and wait for the right -the males are all feeding together in large
moment to pounce. groups, with no females in sight.
-Others will soar high overhead and watch for -these male groups begin to disperse across
opportunities, covering much larger distances. the landscape, while singing & defending
-Some will fly way high up in the sky and then territory.
nosedive down to catch their prey at incredible - less and less likely to see large groups of
speeds. male robins feeding together in the daytime.
-Some eat mostly fish, while others focus more - each male is accompanied by a female with
on small mammals or even snakes & frogs. slightly lighter or softer plumage.
-the male feeding the female as their bond
TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR solidifies.
-Bird songs can also be used as part of
courtship NEST BUILDING
-Territorial behavior is actual aggression - pairs of birds spending
activity when all their time together.
songbirds will physical yell, scream, chase,
and on rare
occasion physically fight with each other to Example: Swallows
maintain their - Commonly build
boundaries. fascinating mud nests
-Territorial behavior is most common during against the sheltered
spring as birds sides of homes & buildings
are getting ready to mate. Quite soon after pairing up, birds start building
their nests.
• In Large Birds - Gathering grasses, mud or small sticks, and
-Territorial behavior can also be expressed by carrying them into hidden spots on the
the eagle or a landscape.
large soaring hawk circling high over their • During spring,
territory. • Late winter
-Aggressive activity can also be a courtship • Early summer.
behavior if it’s - Most birds are quite secretive about where
happening between a male & female. the place their nests,
- Sometimes birds will build nests in some of
Example the most obvious spots,
• Crows
-Crows can be extremely territorial against Different types of nests made by different
other families and potential threats to their types of birds.
nesting site. - Sometimes it’s the female who makes the
nest.
COURTSHIP BEHAVIOR - Sometimes both the male and female help
-pairs of birds spending all their time together. out. It all depends a lot on what species you’re
watching.

1. CUP NEST
-Are one of the most standard nest types that
most people envision when they think about
bird nests.
Example :
-America Robin build cup nests about 10-15
up in a tree.
- Sparrows tend to build cup nests in low
shrubs within 3-5 feet of the ground.
- Juncos will even build cup nests right on the
ground, which requires a tremendous amount
of stealth.
2. CAVITY NEST
-These are often made by woodpeckers, or
they form on old trees after large branches fall
off.
-Chickadees & blue birds, sometimes coming
back to the same spots year after year to raise
their families.
OTHER NEST TYPE
- Sometimes they hang down like a string of
moss with a single entrance hole that
completely closes off the eggs from predators.
- Birds like swallows will build little mud homes
on the side of buildings or cliffs.
- Aerial predators have very basic nests that
just look like a bunch of sticks, or even no nest
at all, preferring to lay eggs right on the ground
with absolutely no protection.
– Always remember to be cautious and
respectful of birds during the nesting season.
MATING BEHAVIOR
- mating is sometimes one of the tougher
behaviors to actually see because it typically
doesn’t last very long.
- It only happens for a few days as the eggs
are being fertilized.
- However birds do commonly mate in plain
sight that would make most humans blush.
- a brief flurry of wing flapping that lets you
know love is in the air.
MOBBING & PREDATOR EVASION
-Some of the most intense alarms happen
during the spring nesting season
-Parent birds will intensely chase, scream &
mob, sometimes directed towards animals
- like rats, jays, squirrels, raccoons, snakes,
etc.
FLEDGLING BEHAVIOR
- The courted pairs of birds are suddenly
accompanied by small groups of their
immature offspring.
- They will sometimes appear almost groggy
and clumsy as they test out their wings.
- Fledglings at this stage have not yet learned
to be fearful of humans, and it’s common for
them to land on people at this time of year.
- They don’t know yet how bird language
works, and sometimes won’t respond to alarm
calls for nearby predators.
- Often see them following their parents
around the forest, shaking their wings and
making constant begging calls for food.
FLOCKING BEHAVIORS
As spring turns into summer,
more fledglings becoming independent.
-the mating pairs who were furiously defending
their territory as a couple, are gradually
replaced by larger flocks of birds.
-The juveniles are now self- sufficient, but
remain with the group for safety.
-Bird flocks can become quite large at this time
of year, and for some species, territorial
behavior is no longer maintained.

MIGRATION & SEASONAL MOVEMENT

- As summer comes to a
close,
-Summer flocks of birds
begin making their autumn
journey to winter territories.
- new and interesting species
coming through your
favourite bird watching
areas.
-These are not nesting
residents, but rather
migratory birds. Some bird
species will travel incredible
distances across the globe. -Others only go a
short distance, even just moving to a different
section of the same bio-region.
-It happens in fall, and again in spring, when
the whole thing repeats over again.