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A Review of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies

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Solid State Phenomena Submitted: 2018-04-26
ISSN: 1662-9779, Vol. 278, pp 1-14 Accepted: 2018-06-05
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.278.1 Online: 2018-07-27
© 2018 Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland

A Review of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies

Mostafa Yakouta*, M. A. Elbestawib and Stephen C. Veldhuisc
Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University
1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
a
mohamemy@mcmaster.ca, belbestaw@mcmaster.ca, cveldhu@mcmaster.ca

Keywords: Metal additive manufacturing, selective laser melting, additive manufacturing processes,
rapid manufacturing, aerospace industry.

Abstract. Additive manufacturing is a layer based manufacturing process aimed at producing parts
directly from a 3D model. This paper provides a review of key technologies for metal additive
manufacturing. It focuses on the effect of important process parameters on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of the resulting part. Several materials are considered including aerospace
alloys such as titanium (TiAl6V4 “UNS R56400”), aluminum (AlSi10Mg “UNS A03600”), iron- and
nickel- based alloys (stainless steel 316L “UNS S31603”, Inconel 718 “UNS N07718”, and Invar 36
FeNi36 “UNS K93600”).

Introduction
ASTM International [1] defines Additive Manufacturing (AM) as “the process of joining materials to
make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing
methodologies”. There are various classifications of AM processes in the literature. The
classifications include: (i) according to the base material, such as polymers, ceramics, and metals [2];
(ii) indirect and direct processes depending on the bonding method [3]; and (iii) according to the state
of the raw material input, such as liquid, molten, powder, and solid layer processes [3-5]. This paper
presents an overview of various metal AM processes, benefits, and applications. It also provides a
comprehensive review of the influence of AM process parameters on the material properties. The
paper highlights the main challenges facing the widespread industrial applications, particularly in the
aerospace industry.

Additive Manufacturing Processes

ASTM International [1] categorizes the AM processes into seven main categories, according to the
adhesion and bonding method. These categories are: (i) VAT photopolymerization, (ii) material
jetting, (iii) material extrusion, (iv) powder bed fusion, (v) binder jetting, (vi) direct energy deposition,
and (vii) sheet lamination. VAT polymerization or material jetting could be used in liquid AM
processes, while material extrusion could be used in filament processes. Powder AM processes could
use powder fusion, binder jetting, or direct energy deposition for binding the powder particles. Fig. 1
classifies the bonding techniques according to the state of the raw material “feedstock”. AM is a
relatively new manufacturing technique, having only been developed in 1986 by Charles W. Hull [6].
Since then various processes have been introduced. Fig. 2 shows a classification of various AM
processes according to the state of the raw material. In this section, these AM processes are
explained.

1. Liquid Processes
Stereolithography. Stereolithography (SLA) is an AM technology which converts liquid
photosensitive resin into a solid state by selectively exposing a resin vat to ultraviolet (UV) light.
Layers are made one by one as the building platform lowers after each layer is fully completed. The
layers are exposed to the UV light for a specified time to fully adhere to each other. This process was
the first AM process to be commercialized [7, 8]. A recent innovation in SLA has been developed by

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2 Manufacturing Engineering and Process VII

Carbon 3D and provides for continuous curing from a liquid pool and achieves 100x the printing rate
of other processes [9]. Not only can SLA fabricate polymeric parts, but it can also conceive ceramic
objects with suspensions of ceramic particles in a photo-curable monomer vat [7, 8].

Fig. 1: Adhesion and bonding methods in additive manufacturing [1].

Fig. 2: Various additive manufacturing processes.

 Solid State Phenomena Vol. 278 3

Multi-Jet Modeling. This process uses multiple nozzle jets to dispense a UV curable polymer or
wax on demand. As soon as the printed polymer comes out of the head, the UV lamp flashes to cure it,
much like SLA. Multi-Jet Modeling (MJM) prints parts on a moving platform that lowers once each
layer is cured in order to continue the process. This is a cost-effective technique that can build objects
in a short amount of time. MJM is safe and quiet enough to be used for printing polymeric parts in an
office environment. This method has some issues when it comes to the printed parts’ quality; the part
strength is relatively poor and the bottom surface is often pitted [10].
Liquid Thermal Polymerization. Liquid Thermal Polymerization (LTP) is a two-jets system that
forms thermo-set layers by feeding liquids to the individual jetting heads that then deposit small
droplets on a platform. The jetted material solidifies as it cools. Different materials can be used by
each jet to produce multi-material parts or parts with wax support material. After each layer is
printed, a milling head removes excess material to assure uniformity. A vacuum then collects the
eliminated particles. After printing, the wax support material can be removed by melting or
dissolving. The range of material for this process is very limited [2, 11].

2. Molten Filament Processes

Fused Deposition Modeling. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is an AM process in which two
separate nozzles, one for model material and another for support material, are used to build a 3D
model designed using a CAD tool. In a typical FDM system, the build material is melted and
deposited from the build nozzle to create the part layer-by-layer as shown in Fig. 3a. The support
material is added to each layer to support the built layer, but it needs to be removed at the end of the
building process. One of the limitations in the FDM process is the dimensional inaccuracies and poor
surface finish of the fabricated parts. Predicting the dimensional accuracy as a function of process
parameters is a heavily researched area within the FDM research field [12-15]. In addition,
mechanical and thermal properties are big challenges not only in the FDM process, but in most AM
metal processes. For this reason, many researchers focus on studying the mechanical and thermal
properties of AM metal parts [16-20].

3. Powder Bed Processes

Selective Laser Sintering. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is an AM process where layer by
layer, fine powder is spread and sintered to build a part. The powder is distributed and spread evenly
with a coater arm to create a level, uniform surface that completely covers the build area, as shown in
Fig. 3b. A focused laser beam is then precisely directed at the powder layer and scans over the
cross-section of the part. The build platform is lowered and the process is repeated until all layers
have been printed [21, 22]. The basic binding mechanisms of the powders can be split into four
categories: solid state sintering, chemically induced binding, liquid phase sintering, and partial
melting. Solid state sintering occurs at a temperature between the melting point and half the melting
point of the preheated powder [23-28]. Chemically-induced binding uses no binder elements,
whereas the metal atoms bind with oxygen to create a binding material that fuses the powder. Liquid
phase sintering, or partial melting in the last case, combines a structural un-melted material with a
melted material as a binder, in some cases, both can be the same material [23-26]. SLS can process a
large range of materials and so can extend its field of applications to many other areas.
Selective Laser Melting. Full melting of powders strives to produce fully dense objects with
mechanical properties comparable to bulk materials. The development of the Selective Laser Melting
(SLM) process mirrors the process of SLS with that goal in mind. All metals may be candidates but
some act differently when processed. Such differences include reactions to laser absorption, different
surface tensions, and different viscosities. These complications limit the range of available SLM
metals [23]. SLM powders can be broken down into two categories: single material powders or
alloyed powders. Single material powders consist of strictly one type of metal, such as pure titanium.
In this case, tests show an almost 100% part density, however high thermal stresses can cause cracks
4 Manufacturing Engineering and Process VII

[29]. Alloyed powders consist of alloyed materials such as Ti-6Al-4V and steel powders. The
mechanical properties of these materials are comparable to bulk material apart from ductility, which
is significantly reduced [30]. A big benefit of SLM is the ability to process non-ferrous metals such as
titanium, aluminum and copper. As the process uses higher energy, problems arise with instabilities
in the melt pool along with part shrinkage [31].

(a) (b)
Fig. 3: (a) Fused deposition modeling [14, 15], and (b) selective laser sintering [21, 22] processes.
Electron Beam Melting. Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is typically similar to SLM except that
an electron gun is used for melting preheated powder instead of using a laser source for melting a
powder, which makes the EBM more powerful because its build rate is faster than SLM [32, 33].
Powder bed processes are commonly used for metallic applications, especially for complex designs.
EBM is currently the preferred process for fabricating metals, but it is limited by the electrical
conductivity of the material and the need to conduct the process in a vacuum. Because of these issues,
however SLM is considered more versatile [34].

4. Spray Powder Processes

Direct Energy Deposition. Direct Energy Deposition (DED) is an AM process that uses two
different techniques; 3D Cladding and 3D Welding. In 3D Cladding, a metal powder is fed through a
nozzle and then melted using a laser or plasma beam forming a layer as shown in Fig. 4 [35]. The
laser-based method is referred to as Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) [31], Laser Engineered Net
Shaping (LENS) [36], and Laser Consolidation (LC) [37]. LMD or LC occurs through the process of
a nozzle feeding metal powder that is subsequently laser melted onto the substrate layer. It is a
versatile process that has the unique ability to repair metal parts which are difficult to be repaired by
other conventional methods. This process can coat, build, and rebuild very complex components from
laser-consolidated materials, such as nickel-based superalloys, cobalt alloys, titanium alloys, and
steels [36, 37]. The plasma-based method, which is called Plasma Deposition Manufacturing (PDM),
starts by supplying a continuous powder feed to a plasma-melted zone in an inert gas environment
composed of argon, helium or nitrogen, to help reduce oxidation. Since no commercially supplied gas
can be 100% free of oxygen, some oxidized particles can still form when the powder is melted and
solidified as the plasma beam scans across the deposited layer. PDM is a technique for 3D part
creation, suitable for low production metals [38]. 3D Welding, commonly known as Shaped Metal
Deposition (SMD) [39], is a wire-based process in which a wire of small diameter is fed and melted,
 Solid State Phenomena Vol. 278 5

binding to the previous layers through welding. SMD is particularly noteworthy because it can use a
wider range of metals than laser deposition or electron beam welding. Also since the surface area of a
wire is less than a powder there is less opportunity for oxidized particles to form. Although it is
promising in terms of producing parts with good ultimate tensile strength, there are several
difficulties reported in the literature including mostly related to weld pool control and its impact on
dimensional and geometrical accuracies [40, 41]. This process also boasts very dense and large parts
with mechanical properties that are competitive with cast material [39].
Inkjet 3D Printing. Inkjet 3D Printing (3DP) is mainly divided into two different processes;
binder jetting 3DP and material jetting 3DP. In the binder jetting 3DP, a binder liquid is selectively
sprayed and printed onto a powder bed using an inkjet head in order to bind the powder particles layer
by layer. Post processing is required to obtain sufficient mechanical strength in the fabricated parts.
On the other hand, typical material jetting 3DP uses droplets of the building material in a liquid state
to build the required model layer by layer through the inkjet head. These jetted droplets are then cured
by passing a UV light through each layer [42-44]. The selection of the binding material is the most
challenging aspect of 3DP because the binder has a significant effect on the mechanical strength and
properties of the fabricated part. The 3DP process is widely used in biomedical applications including
clinical studies, surgical trainers, custom reconstructive and orthopedic implants, tissue engineering,
and dental repairs because of its ability to fabricate custom bio compatible devices [43]. Another
challenge in 3DP processes is surface finish. For this reason, improving the surface finish through
either smart powder distribution or using small particle sizes is one of the main research issues for
this process [44, 45].

Fig. 4: Laser cladding process [35].

5. Solid Layer Processes

Laminated Object Manufacturing. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) is a solid state AM
process invented by Helisys Inc. in 1991 [46]. The LOM system consists of a laser system to cut the
part layers into the desired shape and a bonding tool to fuse and laminate the solid layers of the
building material using heat and pressure [47]. LOM is considered a high speed process as it is five to
ten times faster than other AM processes, but it has many challenges with realizing geometric
accuracy, surface finish and desired material properties [48].
6 Manufacturing Engineering and Process VII

Applications of Metal Additive Manufacturing

Aerospace Industry. An important requirement for the aerospace industry is to consistently
produce light complex geometries with good mechanical properties in small quantities. These reasons
make AM a very efficient manufacturing method for aerospace applications. The most common AM
processes used in the aerospace industry are FDM [49], DED [50], SLM [51], and EBM [52]. These
techniques are used to fabricate low-volume complex aerospace parts, aircraft wings, and
replacement parts in the aerospace industry along with fabricating specialized parts, lightweight
structures, parts with minimal waste, on-demand parts, and replacement parts to support long term
space exploration [53]. Advanced materials such as aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, nickel
super-alloys, and special steels have been manufactured in the aerospace industry using AM
technologies [3]. AM technologies open the door for developing new materials and designs in the
aerospace industry. The main challenges reported in the literature include mechanical anisotropy,
microstructural inhomogeneity, residual stresses, dimensional accuracy, and surface finish [54-60].
Automotive Industry. Metal AM has significant implications on part design as well as supply
chains and inventory systems, which is particularly relevant for the automotive industry. An
important feature of using metal AM processes in the automotive sector is fabricating complex
lightweight structures. The weight of the automotive parts can be reduced significantly by leveraging
the ability of AM processes to produce parts with complex geometries while maintaining relative
strengths. Examples of automotive parts produced by AM include structural composite components,
engine valves, and turbocharger turbines [61, 62]. A significant advantage is in-house and on demand
production, which reduces inventory needs, shipping costs, and material procurement costs [63].
Notwithstanding the capabilities of the AM processes in the automotive industry, the parts produced
should comply with the standards to perform a certain level of performance. The main challenges in
the AM of automotive components are: (i) the thermal stresses induced in the AM parts which affect
the repeatability and performance of these parts, (ii) the surface finish and dimensional accuracies,
and (iii) the size of the parts produced [42, 56, 64] in addition to this, processing speed is critical due
to typical production volumes.
Tooling Industry. For the tooling industry, AM can offer time saving through the reduction of the
fabrication steps and cost reduction through the elimination of material loss associated with
traditional subtractive manufacturing. In addition, the AM technology offers the ability to produce
customized molds with optimized cooling channels which can impart unique properties to parts and
reduce production cycle time. AM molds made with integrated conformal cooling also prolong their
service life as it provides the designer with the ability to reduce the thermal stress loading that the die
experiences [65]. The mechanical behavior of the tools fabricated by AM affects the performance and
service life of these tools. In general, performance tests are highly recommended for the tools
fabricated by AM to fully assess their cost and performance benefit for an application [65, 66].
Healthcare Industry. The use of metal AM processes in the healthcare industry is briefly
reviewed. In the dental industry, AM processes are used for creating precise dental crowns, bridges,
and implants. The capability of the SLM process to manufacture custom, complex, accurate, and fully
dense objects makes it suitable for dental applications. The process of creating crowns and bridges
consists of scanning the dental impression of the patient's teeth, digital modeling of the part, and then
SLM production [67]. This process provides a competitive market for AM of dental implants that
rivals traditional casting and milling production methods. Additionally, a similar process is used for
the manufacturing of personalized prosthesis and supports for artificial teeth made of titanium or
cobalt-chromium [68]. Moreover, metal AM processes are used in the medical sector due to its ability
to quickly produce highly custom components. The technology is very useful for fabricating
custom-made medical implants as well as surgical tools and fixtures for use in operation rooms. There
is no doubt that fabricating custom implants is more accurate than the previous traditional methods
[69]. The main advantage of AM in the medical industry is its capability to produce very complex
components with low production cost as well as customized components [70].
 Solid State Phenomena Vol. 278 7

Nanomanufacturing. Recently, AM technologies have been integrated with nanotechnology to

fabricate parts from new nanocomposites. The main benefit of using nanomaterials in AM processes
is enhancing the material properties of the fabricated parts. Parts with better optical, thermal,
electrochemical, and mechanical properties have been obtained. Over the past few decades, a wide
variety of nanomaterials were used in AM processes, including carbon nanotubes, nanowires, metal
nanoparticles, nano-graphene, and quantum dots [71]. Nanoscale AM plays a vital role in producing
metal parts with nanopores, thus eliminating or minimizing the formation of pores and voids [72].

Influence of Process Parameters

From the above survey of AM processes, FDM, DED, SLM, and EBM are the most commonly used
processes for metal fabrication. In this section, the influence of process parameters on the
microstructure and mechanical properties of selected aerospace materials are reviewed.
Titanium Alloys. Many researches are focusing on studying the characteristics of titanium
TiAl6V4 (UNS R56400) produced by different AM processes to meet aerospace standards. A study
showed that the mechanical and fatigue behaviors of the SLM TiAl6V4 parts are significantly
affected by the internal voids as well as the residual stresses in the parts produced. The tensile
strength and fatigue strength are strongly affected by the pores size, however the crack growth is
influenced by the residual stresses [73, 74]. Another study demonstrated that the microstructure of the
SLM TiAl6V4 components also alters the mechanical properties of these parts [75]. The SLM
process parameters such as scanning parameters, scanning strategies, and laser melting parameters
exhibited a strong influence on the surface quality [76], voids characteristics [77], microstructure
[78], and mechanical properties [75, 79] of TiAl6V4 parts. Moreover, few studies were performed to
find the optimum SLM process parameters for fabricating TiAl6V4 parts suitable for the aerospace
industry [80, 81]. Similar studies performed using other AM processes such as DED [40, 82] and
EBM [82-85] achieved similar results. In EBM production of TiAl6V4, a function is developed to
control the beam speed and energy during the fabrication process in order to enhance the thermal
properties of the parts produced [86].
Aluminum Alloys. Although AM has gained considerable popularity in aerospace and
automotive applications, it still faces many challenges with processing aluminum alloys [87]. Many
investigations were performed to find the process parameters required to produce high dense
aluminum AlSi10Mg (UNS A03600) parts by SLM [88, 89]. Few studies focused on investigating the
quality of the aluminum parts produced by AM processes [90]. These studies showed that the
microstructure of the SLM AlSi10Mg and AlSi12 parts has a significant effect on the mechanical
properties such as fatigue behavior, strength, elongation, etc. Moreover, the microstructure of these
parts is influenced by the imperfections formed during the process and the post-processing
procedures [91, 92]. The AlSi10Mg still manifests fatigue strength lower than that of a corresponding
wrought material. Internal voids and/or large internal precipitated particles serve as fatigue crack
initiation sites. However this material also does show a very fine microstructure and anisotropic
mechanical properties along the building direction [93, 94].
Iron- and Nickel- Based Alloys. Stainless steel 316L (UNS S31603) is the most commonly used
material in powder-based AM processes. Starting from the raw material, the powder grain size affects
the density and consequently the mechanical properties of the produced parts [95, 96]. In SLM of
stainless steel 316L, some studies showed that point distance, exposure time, scan speed, layer
thickness, and building direction have a strong influence on the quality of the parts produced. These
parameters should be controlled during the fabrication process in order to get reasonable surface
finish and mechanical properties [22, 97-99]. AM technology opens the door for fabricating special
alloys such as nickel-based alloys. Some studies showed that AM produced Inconel 718 (UNS
N07718) parts contained small cracks that may affect mechanical properties in all directions
especially in the building direction [100-102]. These cracks can be attributed to the phase transition
and the formation of columnar dendrites during the melting process [103, 104]. On the other hand,
8 Manufacturing Engineering and Process VII

few studies illustrated the selection of the process parameters for fabricating dense parts from Invar
36 (UNS K93600) [21, 105].

Conclusions
This paper aimed to review various additive manufacturing processes and their applications. The
above survey showed that additive parts differ from wrought parts in that they can have many defects
including, but not limited to, voids, lack of adhesion between subsequent printed layers, and
substandard mechanical/fatigue properties. Developments in metal additive manufacturing offer
significant possibilities for the creation of new types of products. Research and development
priorities have been discussed in the literature. A summary of the main research issues includes:
1. Studying the influence of process parameters on surface features, mechanical properties, and
material characteristics of the parts by modeling studies and/or experimental work [106,
107].
2. Developing new materials based on the capabilities of the additive processes [83, 108].
3. Establishing rules and protocols to design for additive manufacturing [56, 63].
4. Creating a real-time process control for the additive manufacturing systems [108].
5. Exploring the hybrid manufacturing and multi-materials additive manufacturing [3, 83].
6. Improving the productivity of the additive manufacturing systems [42, 51, 108].
Newly emerging metal additive manufacturing processes have many limitations and challenges
compared to extensively studied subtractive manufacturing processes. Process repeatability, complex
thermal stresses, and material microstructural implications of the process are the largest challenges to
industrial applications of additive manufacturing, especially in the aerospace industry. These factors
affect the density of additive parts and consequently all the mechanical properties and material
characteristics. There are currently two options to overcome these challenges. The first, and most
common solution is to refine the quality of the additive parts through carefully controlled post
processing techniques [73, 74]. The second, and less established solution is to optimize and control
the process parameters to produce high quality parts [21, 91, 98, 106, 107].

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