DP OPERATIONS

Pipelaying Operations
Dedicated lay barges or pipe laying vessels have laid the majority of offshore oil
and gas pipelines. The commonest method of installation is the on-board
construction of the pipeline by means of sequential welding of sections of the pipe
string. The vessel moves forward as the pipeline descends to the seabed in an S-
curve, partly supported by a Stinger, or support gantry overhanging the stern of
the lay vessel. Other methods of pipe laying are shown below; J-lay, used for deep
water operations, and Reel-lay, or Drum-lay, where the pipe is pre-constructed at
a shore factory and reeled aboard the vessel.

Operaciones de colocación de tuberías

Las barcazas de colocación especializadas o las embarcaciones de tendido de

tuberías han tendido la mayoría de las tuberías de petróleo y gas en alta mar. El
método más común de instalación es la construcción a bordo de la tubería
mediante soldadura secuencial de secciones de la cadena de tubería. La
embarcación avanza a medida que la tubería desciende al lecho marino en una
curva en S, en parte sostenida por un aguijón, o pórtico de soporte que sobresale
por la popa de la embarcación. Otros métodos de colocación de tuberías se
muestran a continuación; J-lay, utilizado para operaciones en aguas profundas, y

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Reel-lay, o Drum-lay, donde la tubería se preconstruye en una fábrica costera y se

enrolla a bordo del barco.

Pipe is constructed in a linear pipe fabrication facility called the "Firing Line".
Pipe is brought up from hold storage and is prepared for fabrication and welding.
Often, 12 metre pipe lengths are welded into 24 metre double joints prior to
arrival at the firing line. In the firing line, a number of stages of welding take
place, both externally and internally within the pipeline. Each operation is
conducted at a "station". Further stations conduct X-ray and NDT testing on the
welded joints, anti-corrosion coating, and weight coating if necessary. Each
station is equipped with a button controlling indicator lamps. When all the
buttons, at each station have been pressed, a “green line” shows on the DP bridge,
and the DPO initiates a move ahead a distance equivalent to the joint-length. Once
the move ahead has been completed, the firing-line operations continue.

La tubería se construye en una instalación de fabricación de tubería lineal llamada "Línea de

disparo". La tubería se saca del almacenamiento de bodega y está preparada para la
fabricación y soldadura. A menudo, las longitudes de tubería de 12 metros se sueldan en
juntas dobles de 24 metros antes de llegar a la línea de tiro. En la línea de cocción, se llevan a
cabo varias etapas de soldadura, tanto externa como internamente dentro de la tubería. Cada
operación se realiza en una "estación". Otras estaciones realizan pruebas de rayos X y END
en las uniones soldadas, el revestimiento anticorrosión y el revestimiento de peso si es
necesario. Cada estación está equipada con un botón que controla las luces indicadoras.
Cuando se han presionado todos los botones, en cada estación, se muestra una "línea verde"
en el puente DP, y el DPO inicia un movimiento hacia adelante una distancia equivalente a la
longitud de la junta. Una vez que se ha completado el avance, las operaciones de línea de
fuego continúan.

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It is essential that tension be maintained on the pipeline. At the back end of the firing line, the
pipe is controlled by a number of pipe tensioners. These consist of sets of caterpillar tracks
clamping the pipe, either top-and-bottom, or side located. The tensioners control the
movement of the pipe, maintaining a set tension on the pipe string. The pipe is supported aft
of the firing line by the stinger, which is an open lattice gantry extending beyond the stern of
the vessel, sloping downwards. The stinger contains a number of sets of support rollers
adjusted and positioned to support the pipe in the area known as the "overbend". This is the
area of greatest stress on the pipe, and the area most vulnerable to buckling damage. The
tension on the pipe helps to reduce the likelihood of pipe buckle at this point. The pipe takes
up a catenary profile, or "sagbend" between the end of the stinger and the seabed. The set
tension is to ensure a smooth transition from the unsupported sagbend to the touchdown point
on the seabed. If tension is lost, then damage will occur at the touchdown area, and the pipe
will have to be recovered for repair. It can be seen that pipe tension is an all-important factor
in the lay operation.

Es esencial mantener la tensión en la tubería. En el extremo posterior de la línea de disparo, la

tubería está controlada por varios tensores de tubería. Estos consisten en conjuntos de orugas
de oruga que sujetan la tubería, ya sea de arriba a abajo o lateralmente. Los tensores controlan
el movimiento de la tubería, manteniendo una tensión establecida en la cuerda de la tubería.
El tubo es soportado por la línea de tiro por el aguijón, que es un pórtico de celosía abierto
que se extiende más allá de la popa del barco, inclinándose hacia abajo. El aguijón contiene
una serie de juegos de rodillos de soporte ajustados y posicionados para soportar la tubería en
el área conocida como "curvatura". Esta es el área de mayor estrés en la tubería, y el área más
vulnerable al daño por pandeo. La tensión en la tubería ayuda a reducir la probabilidad de
hebilla en este punto. La tubería toma un perfil de catenaria, o "sagbend", entre el extremo del
aguijón y el fondo marino. La tensión establecida es para garantizar una transición suave
desde la curvatura sin soporte al punto de toma de contacto en el fondo marino. Si se pierde la
tensión, se producirán daños en el área de toma de contacto y la tubería deberá recuperarse
para su reparación. Se puede ver que la tensión de la tubería es un factor muy importante en la
operación de colocación.

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Pipe tension values are communicated to the DP system by means of loadcells incorporated in
the tensioners. The DP system is continually working with this external force, using thruster
power to maintain tension. In adverse sea states, the tensioners are working hard to maintain
tensions on the pipe string within set criteria, and the DP system must also play its part in this
tension control.

Los valores de tensión de la tubería se comunican al sistema DP por medio de células de carga
incorporadas en los tensores. El sistema DP trabaja continuamente con esta fuerza externa,
utilizando la potencia del propulsor para mantener la tensión. En estados marítimos adversos,
los tensores están trabajando duro para mantener las tensiones en la cadena de la tubería
dentro de los criterios establecidos, y el sistema DP también debe desempeñar su papel en este
control de tensión.

A pipe laying operation may begin with a lay-down adjacent to a fixed platform. It may
happen that the pipeline end is simply being laid down within a specified 'box' or area on the
seabed, or it might be necessary to carry out a pull-in to a J-tube or similar. If the operation
involves a J-tube pull-in, the J-tube will have already been installed on the platform, and a
pull-in wire will be rigged through it. A pull-in winch will be fitted on the platform to handle
the job. The vessel will position itself in the correct location, lined up with and the correct
distance from the J-tube. The end of the pipe is fitted with a pull-head, to which can be
shackled the pull-wire, which is passed across from the platform by messenger or crane hook.
The platform pull-in winch takes the load onto the pipe tensioners, and the pipe end moves
out from the vessel down to the J-tube. Once the mating is complete, the vessel can start to
move ahead, laying pipe as she goes.

Una operación de colocación de tuberías puede comenzar con una colocación adyacente a una
plataforma fija. Puede suceder que el extremo de la tubería simplemente se esté colocando
dentro de una 'caja' o área específica en el fondo del mar, o puede ser necesario llevar a cabo
un arrastre a un tubo en J o similar. Si la operación involucra un tubo en J, el tubo J ya habrá
sido instalado en la plataforma y se colocará un cable de arrastre a través de él. Se instalará un
cabrestante en la plataforma para manejar el trabajo. La embarcación se posicionará en la
ubicación correcta, alineada y a la distancia correcta del tubo en J. El extremo de la tubería
está equipado con una cabeza de arrastre, a la que se puede encadenar el cable de arrastre, que
pasa a través de la plataforma mediante un mensajero o un gancho de grúa. El cabrestante de
arrastre de la plataforma lleva la carga a los tensores de la tubería, y el extremo de la tubería
sale del recipiente hacia el tubo en J. Una vez que se completa el apareamiento, la
embarcación puede comenzar a avanzar, colocando la tubería a medida que avanza.

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During the pipe laying operation, the vessel will be moving ahead under DP control in steps
equal to the joint length, often 24 metres. It is vital that these moves are conducted precisely,
rapidly, and with no overshoot and consequent back-up. The DPO must be provided with
effective position reference at all times. Some of the surface and sub-sea references are not
suitable due to the distances travelled by the vessel, and the limited ranges available. Dual
DGPS is a common facility, backed up by two Taut Wires.

Durante la operación de colocación de la tubería, la embarcación avanzará bajo control DP en

pasos iguales a la longitud de la junta, a menudo 24 metros. Es vital que estos movimientos se
realicen con precisión, rapidez y sin sobreimpulso y consecuente respaldo. El DPO debe
contar con una referencia de posición efectiva en todo momento. Algunas de las referencias
de superficie y submarinas no son adecuadas debido a las distancias recorridas por la
embarcación y los rangos limitados disponibles. El DGPS dual es una instalación común,
respaldada por dos cables tensos.

If it should be necessary to abandon the lay operation due to adverse weather, then the
procedure is to use the A & R (Abandonment & Recovery) winch. A temporary lay-down
head is welded to the end of the pipe, and to this is attached the A & R wire. This is passed
down the stinger maintaining tension with the A & R winch just as if it was pipe being laid.
The end of the pipe may be laid on the seabed, and the A & R wire slacked off. The vessel
may then weathervane and ride out the storm with the A & R wire still attached but kept
slack, or alternatively the wire may be buoyed-off. When the weather abates, the procedure is
reversed, the pipe recovered to the stinger, tensioners re-engaged. The lay-down head can be
burnt off and the lay operations continue.

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Si fuera necesario abandonar la operación de colocación debido a condiciones climáticas

adversas, entonces el procedimiento es utilizar el cabrestante A & R (Abandono y
recuperación). Una cabeza de colocación temporal está soldada al extremo de la tubería, y a
esto se une el cable A y R. Esto se pasa por el aguijón manteniendo la tensión con el
cabrestante A y R como si se estuviera colocando una tubería. El extremo de la tubería puede
colocarse en el fondo del mar y el cable A & R se aflojó. La embarcación puede luego veleta
y salir de la tormenta con el cable A & R todavía conectado pero mantenido flojo, o
alternativamente, el cable puede ser flotado. Cuando el clima disminuye, el procedimiento se
invierte, la tubería se recupera al aguijón y los tensores se vuelven a enganchar. El cabezal de
colocación puede quemarse y las operaciones de colocación continúan.

If the water depth is great, unacceptable stresses and strain levels are imposed on the pipe
during the overbend stage. This can be avoided by using the J-lay technique. In J-lay
operations, the stinger is configured as a tower, angled between the vertical, and up to 20
degrees from the vertical. Pipe lengths are pre-jointed into triple or quadruple joints before
being raised to the vertical for welding onto the pipe string.

Si la profundidad del agua es grande, se imponen tensiones y niveles de deformación

inaceptables en la tubería durante la etapa de curvatura excesiva. Esto puede evitarse
utilizando la técnica J-lay. En operaciones J-lay, el aguijón se configura como una torre, en
ángulo entre la vertical y hasta 20 grados desde la vertical. Las longitudes de las tuberías se
unen previamente en juntas triples o cuádruples antes de elevarse a la vertical para soldar en
la cadena de la tubería.

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Seabed Tractors and Trenching Operations

Trenchers are used for carrying out pipeline bury operations. One such is the "Digging
Donald" operated by the vessel "Trenchsetter". This vehicle weighs around 140 tonnes,
depending upon how it is configured, and is handled by a gantry over the stern of the
"Trenchsetter". A typical operation involves burying a pipeline previously laid. The pipeline
may be a 20" diameter rigid steel pipe, required to be buried to a depth of 1.5 metres. The
"Trenchsetter" will position herself with her stern over the pipeline, heading 90º across the
pipeline direction. The trencher is prepared and deployed over the stern and lowered to just
above the seabed. Trencher deployment is aided by heave-compensation on the handling
system. The trencher carries cameras, lights and sonar facilities, and can be rotated on its
suspension hooks. Once the trencher is correctly lined up with the pipeline, the position may
be accurately adjusted by extending or retracting the trencher gantry.

Tractores del fondo marino y operaciones de excavación de zanjas

Las zanjadoras se utilizan para llevar a cabo operaciones de enterramiento de tuberías. Uno de
ellos es el "Digging Donald" operado por el buque "Trenchsetter". Este vehículo pesa
alrededor de 140 toneladas, dependiendo de cómo esté configurado, y es manejado por un
pórtico sobre la popa del "Trenchsetter". Una operación típica implica enterrar una tubería
previamente instalada. La tubería puede ser una tubería rígida de acero de 20 "de diámetro,
que debe enterrarse a una profundidad de 1.5 metros. El" Trenchsetter "se posicionará con su
popa sobre la tubería, dirigiéndose 90º a través de la dirección de la tubería. La zanjadora está
preparada y desplegada. sobre la popa y bajado justo por encima del fondo del mar. El
despliegue de la zanjadora se ve favorecido por la compensación del sistema de manejo. La
zanjadora lleva cámaras, luces e instalaciones de sonar, y se puede girar sobre sus ganchos de
suspensión. con la tubería, la posición puede ajustarse con precisión al extender o retraer el
pórtico de la zanjadora

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When location has been confirmed, the trencher is lowered onto the seabed over the pipeline.
The weight of the trencher remains mostly on the gantry, being controlled by heave-
compensation gear on the gantry. Only about 40 tonnes of the weight should rest on the
seabed. The position reference of the vessel is now transferred to the Trim-Cube sensors on
the trencher support wires, which remain vertical. The position of the vessel is now being
controlled by the movements of the trencher, with the Trim-cube feeding back wire angle data
to the DP system. The DP, in turn, is correcting the position of the vessel in order to keep the
trencher wires vertical. The DP system would be configured with the centre-of-rotation
located on the trencher. Heading can thus be adjusted according to the environment or any
other constraints.

Cuando se ha confirmado la ubicación, la zanjadora se baja al fondo del mar sobre la tubería.
El peso de la zanjadora permanece principalmente en el pórtico, siendo controlado por un
equipo de compensación de tiro en el pórtico. Solo unas 40 toneladas de peso deberían
descansar sobre el fondo del mar. La referencia de posición de la embarcación ahora se
transfiere a los sensores Trim-Cube en los cables de soporte de la zanjadora, que permanecen
verticales. La posición de la embarcación ahora está siendo controlada por los movimientos
de la zanjadora, con el Trim-cube retroalimentando los datos del ángulo del alambre al
sistema DP. El DP, a su vez, está corrigiendo la posición de la embarcación para mantener
verticales los cables de la zanjadora. El sistema DP se configuraría con el centro de rotación
ubicado en la zanjadora. El rumbo se puede ajustar de acuerdo con el entorno o cualquier otra
restricción

A typical operation of this type would have the trencher vehicle configured for trenching for a
run of one or two kilometres, after which the vehicle would be recovered and reconfigured
with back-hoe blades for a second pass over the same ground to complete the bury operation.
The handling frame that carries the trencher can also be configured to install protection
mattresses, and to lift and clear boulders from the seabed prior to mattress installation.

Una operación típica de este tipo tendría el vehículo zanjadora configurado para zanjear en
una carrera de uno o dos kilómetros, después de lo cual el vehículo sería recuperado y
reconfigurado con cuchillas de azada trasera para un segundo paso sobre el mismo terreno
para completar la operación de enterramiento. . El marco de manejo que lleva la zanjadora
también se puede configurar para instalar colchones de protección y para levantar y despejar
rocas del fondo marino antes de la instalación del colchón.

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Rockdumping Operations
A small fleet of vessels exists for the purpose of dumping rock on the seabed for a variety of
purposes. They range from large bulk-carrier style vessels, able to carry out precision bury
operations using fall pipes, to smaller deck-loading vessels mainly used for erosion
rectification projects.

The commonest types of vessels are the fall pipe rock dumping vessels. Of mini bulk-carrier
construction, they are fitted with self-unloading hopper and conveyor facilities. A fall pipe
derrick is located on the vessel, fed with stone from a hopper. At the bottom end of the fall
pipe is an ROV built into the fall pipe structure. The ROV has an aperture through the middle,
through which the rock falls, onto the seabed. The ROV is heave-compensated, and is
motorised with thrusters enabling precision positional control. Facilities contained aboard the
ROV may include optical TV cameras, sidescan sonar, lights, and seabed pipe tracker unit,
acoustic transponder and responders, and depth meters.

For a linear operation, such as the protection of a specified length of pipeline, a three-pass
sequence may be adopted. The vessel tracks along a line allowing a rock lay-down alongside
the pipeline. At the end of that pass, the vessel will be traversed a few metres to the other side
of the pipeline; she will then backtrack to the "start" position, laying down rock on the
opposite side of the pipeline to the previous pass. The third pass will be centred over the
pipeline to fill in between the previous two passes. This should completely cover the pipeline.
A comprehensive survey spread of tracking and recording equipment allows the whole
operation to be monitored and controlled from the ROV Control and Survey shack.

Obviously, the vessel will be under the control of the DP system during all rock dumping
operations. A commonly used feature is the Auto Track function, allowing the vessel to track
accurately along a line defined from pre-set way points. The Track Offset facility allows the
DPO the ability to adjust the tracking by any desired amount to allow for any mismatch
between the listed co-ordinates of the pipeline target and its actual position. The ROV can be
offset itself a limited distance from the vertical, depending on the water depth.

Another function for vessels of this type is to carry out bury operations for pipeline
crossovers, or to bury a pipeline prior to the installation of a crossing line.

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Dredging Operations
Most new dredgers, of whatever type or function, will feature DP capability, the precision
positioning available from DP is an insurance against expensive mistakes. Most dredgers are
of the trailing suction type, and the vessel will move along parallel tracks. The tracks must be
close together in order to provide continuity, but overlap between tracks must be minimised.

In a DP system optimised for dredger operations, the system's functions measure the dredging
forces, suction pipe elevation and azimuth, and automatically compensates for the draghead
forces. In addition, the DP system handles failure in draghead force measurements in order to
avoid loss of positional control and subsequent damage to the dragheads.

The Draghead Position Control function, in combination with the Low Speed Auto Track
function allows the operator to specify precisely the track followed by the draghead.
Effectively, this places the vessel Centre of Rotation on the draghead, even though the
position of the draghead may not be fixed relative to the hull. Sensors attached to the suction
pipes provide the system with angular data allowing the determination of the position of the
draghead relative to the vessel at all times. Tension measurements allow the dredging forces
to be directly compensated by the DP system. The tension measurements allow the DP to
calculate the horizontal force, its direction and turning moment. This is to prevent any
possibility of astern movement of the dragheads, which would result in damage.

Dedicated display pages on the DP system allow the DPO to monitor all vital information
such as draghead speed and forces, vessel speed, heading, position and cross-track error
relative to the way points.

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Diving Operations
There are three modes of underwater diving operation.

Up to a depth of 50m the technique is "air diving", i.e. the diver's breathing gas is compressed
air. The diver may be deployed from a basket over the side of the vessel, or from a wet-bell,
or from a mini-bell. The latter two methods represent increased safety to the diver in the most
hazardous diving zone.
Below 50m the diver must be deployed from a diving bell and his breathing gas will be a
helium/oxygen mix (Heliox). The diving bell maintains the diver at the pressure of the
working depth, and mates with a hyperbaric complex on board the vessel. The divers live in
this hyperbaric chamber, also maintained at the pressure of the working depth, for up to 28
days, travelling "to work" in the diving bell. This technique is known as "saturation diving".

The bell is usually deployed through the moonpool, an open well in the centre of the vessel. A
typical "bell run" would consist of three divers (two swimmers and a bell-man) operating for
an eight hour shift. The swimmers are provided with all gas, hot water for heating, and
communications through umbilicals connected to the bell and ultimately to the vessel.
Emergency supplies of breathing gas are carried on the bell, and each diver has a bale-out
bottle on his back - for dire emergencies only. The bell-man remains in the bell to tend to the
swimmer’s umbilical and to assist in an emergency.

At present the practical limit for bell diving is about 400 - 450m. At greater depths than this,
ROV or a diver in an Atmospheric Diving Suit (ADS) must do the work. Atmospheric Diving
Suits are used to place a diver in very deep water. The suit is a pressure vessel, with air at
atmospheric pressure inside. The diver is able to operate claws, manipulators, tooling etc., to
carry out a wide variety of operations. He is not subjected to the pressure of the working
depth so has no breathing gas and decompression problems. Several different types of ADS

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are in use; some, like the "Newt Suit" have legs so the diver can walk, others are fitted with
thrusters allowing the diver to "fly".

Each diving operation is under the control of a dive supervisor, operating from the dive
control cabin. The dive supervisor has all the communications and bell control to his
fingertips, and he is able to start or stop a dive at any time. The safety of the divers is his
responsibility. The dive supervisor for each shift is under the overall control of the Dive
Superintendent. There will be a dive status/alert system in force, with green, flashing amber
and flashing red status' and alarms. Green status is 'normal'; dive able to proceed. Flashing
Amber alarm indicates a degraded status; divers to return to the bell and obtain a seal.
Flashing Red alarm indicates a dive emergency status resulting from a vessel loss of position;
divers to return to the bell and be recovered to the surface.

Before engaging in diving operations from a DP vessel, the DPO must ensure that all his
systems are functioning correctly with full redundancy available in all areas. The vessel must
be stabilised on her location, and must have had at least 30 minutes to settle and build the
mathematical model into the system. All pre- DP and pre-dive checklists must be complete
and the status board marked up. Warnings should be promulgated in the vessel and on the
platform to inform that diving operations are taking place. In many cases the diving operation
will need to comply with the permit-to-work system. The bridge team need to appraise
themselves of the number of divers in the water, their location, depth and work situation,
particularly whether they are working on an open seabed or in a tightly constricted site, also
the number of the emergency transponder on the bell, and that on the ROV.

All diving operations are hazardous but some more so than others. Shallow water air diving
from DP vessels is particularly difficult; the proximity of the thrusters, the amount of noise
from thrusters and the strength of tide all providing problems which must be overcome. One
requirement of the air-diving set-up, from a DP vessel, is that the amount of umbilical the
diver may be given, measured from the tending point (basket or bell) must be no more than
5m less than the distance to the nearest thrusters. This is to ensure that the diver cannot be
drawn into a thruster.

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Diving is particularly hazardous in the vicinity of underwater mooring lines and anchor
chains. A further hazard to divers working from DP vessels is the presence of the Taut Wire
position reference. It is possible for the diver to pass clear of the wire on his way out to the
worksite, and to return on the wrong side of it. This would prevent the diver from returning to
the bell. Usually this problem is averted by the deployment of the Taut Wire system on the
side of the vessel away from the worksite, but otherwise it may be possible to mark the wire
with a light-stick.

Another particularly hazardous technique is Habitat diving. A Habitat is a compartment

placed over a seabed operation, like an inverted shoebox. Gas is pumped into the habitat until
the interior is de-watered and dry. The divers enter the habitat, either by locking the bell
directly onto it, or from the water, accessing from underneath. However, the operation is
totally dependent upon the presence of the support vessel above.

Survey and ROV Support Operations

Vessels of this type may perform a multitude of tasks from hydrographic survey, wreck
investigation, underwater recovery, site survey pre-lay (pipe or cable), installation inspection
and maintenance. Although the task itself may indicate a relatively non-hazardous job, it must
be remembered that the location itself may imply considerable hazard. A location up-tide of a
fixed installation, or in the "blow-on" position may be unsuitable for a non-redundant vessel.

An ROV may be deployed direct from a gantry or ‘A’ frame at the side or stern of the vessel,
or from a Tether Management system incorporating a cage or garage. If deployment is
directly overside then great care must be taken to ensure that the umbilical does not foul the
thrusters or propellers. Communication with the vehicle will generally be via acoustic
responder, with the interrogation signal travelling down the umbilical. This is more secure
than using transponders, as the vehicle is usually acoustically noisy. At least one transponder
should be located on the vehicle in addition to the responder, in case the vehicle becomes lost
due to a parted umbilical.

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Shuttle Tanker and FPSO Loading Operations

Loading or shuttle tankers have made use of DP capabilities since 1981. The requirement
arises out of the problems associated with the export of crude oil from offshore fields. Many
fields export via pipelines but this option is an expensive one.

If circumstances do not allow the provision of a pipeline, then another export method must be
found. The commonest method is to provide a system of offshore storage for oil, and one or
more tankers to transport the oil to a destination. The problems arise when considering
loading arrangements in the more environmentally exposed locations in the North Sea and
elsewhere. In bad weather, a tanker moored to a buoy or tower arrangement will impose
heavy loads on the mooring lines and terminal structure. In a mooring system, the vessel
movements giving rise to problems are fishtailing, yawing, surfing and heave motions. With
the exception of the heave component, these vessel movements may be stabilised or
controlled by the use of DP techniques.

The installations, which need to support loading tanker loading, vary from field to field. Some
loading terminals consist of CALM buoys (Catenary Anchored Leg Moorings). Other
installations are Spar buoys, which are large floating tower structures moored by a spread of
mooring lines. Spar buoys usually carry a rotating turntable at the top to handle vessel
moorings and hose handling equipment. Another configuration is the Articulated Tower,
which is connected to a seabed located gravity base by means of a universal joint. Yet another
configuration is the rigid tower, which like the Spar and Articulated configurations, exports
through rotating turntable heads.

A facility which does not have any surface hardware shows greater levels of vessel safety than
the above arrangements. The UKOLS facility in the Statfjord field has a long loading hose
connected to a mid-water buoy. The buoy is positively buoyant and is moored at a fixed
depth, above a gravity base housing the Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM). Vessels using this
facility have no need for a mooring hawser; the only connections to the buoy consist of the
hose. Hawserless systems are common nowadays, being used in a variety of OLT
configurations. A more recent development is the Turret Loading system, where the loading
connections are located in a neutrally-buoyant turret. The turret is mated into a docking port
built into the forebody of the vessel, and carries the flow line connections to the vessel. Once
locked into position, the vessel is able to weathervane around the turret.

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Shuttle Tanker Arrangements

Broadly speaking, shuttle tanker operations may be divided into four groups; systems with
hawser moorings, hawserless systems, STL systems and those vessels configured to load
directly from FPSO installations (Floating Production, Storage and Loading vessels).

The earliest offshore loading arrangements feature hawser moorings as part of the system.
The hawser is regarded as an insurance against failure of the DP capability. The mooring
arrangement consists of a heavy mooring hawser, comprising a nylon grommet, secured to the
OLT at its standing end, with a short length of chain next to the stopper plug. The chain is
provided as an anti-chafe measure where the mooring runs through the fairlead or roller.
Located on the foredeck is the stopper with hydraulic, remotely controlled latching for the
hawser plug. Immediately abaft the stopper is the traction winch, which handles the heavy
messenger. The messenger is spooled onto a take-up storage drum after coming off the
traction winch. The messenger is streamed out from the OLT prior to the arrival of the vessel
by work boat, or by the previous tanker on the terminal laying it out in the required direction.
The messenger is buoyant, but is provided with buoys and lights for visibility. Recovery of
the messenger may be assisted by the work boat, or may be direct from the bow of the tanker.

Once the messenger has been recovered, the vessel is manoeuvred towards the OLT location,
picking up slack in the messenger all the time. During this stage the vessel control may be
under the DP system, or may still be in Manual control. If the DP system is being used at this
stage, then preparations will have been made beforehand, transferring control to the DP
console, acquiring thrusters and references and proving all correct by means of checklist
procedures.

Some vessels have all control elements located in the forebridge, with a transfer procedure
laid down for taking control forward from the main bridge. In other vessels, the DP system is
located in the main bridge. The DPO will select the correct OLT location in the DP system

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menu (“Select buoy”). This allows the DP system access to the details of the OLT being
approached. Each OLT has different criteria regarding position co-ordinates, position circle
and alarm limit specifications, Position reference availability and offset values, and movement
characteristics of the OLT.

The vessel may be placed into DP control for the whole of the approach operation, using the "
Approach/Connect" mode. In this case the heading of the vessel is set to the Weathervane
function, and the DPO inputs the radius of the set point circle. This circle will be gradually
decreased in radius by the DPO, in steps to allow the vessel to approach the OLT under
control. The Set Point Circle is the locus of the bow reference point of the vessel. The
position on that circle that the vessel is being controlled towards is determined by the
weathervane heading, keeping the OLT location directly ahead. The speed of the vessel is
under the control of the DPO, so by using these facilities a totally controlled approach to the
OLT location may be made.

Once the hawser is latched into the stopper and the vessel is located onto the Set Point Circle
of the designated radius for that OLT location, the system may be transferred to the
"Wheatervane / Load" mode. In this mode, the position of the vessel is constrained to the
defined set point circle, on the calculated weathervane heading. Loadcells in the bow stopper
assembly measure the hawser tensions and feed this data back to the DP system for automatic
force compensation. This is an important function, since if these measurements were not
available, then hawser tension would be interpreted by the DP system as a current, which
would adversely affect the calculation of the weathervane heading. Any error in the
calculation of weathervane heading could lead to an unplanned breakaway from the OLT. The
same considerations apply to the wind sensor input to the DP system. If the wind values input
is significantly in error, due perhaps to wind shadow from the OLT itself, then the
weathervane heading may be incorrectly calculated.

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Once the hawser has been stoppered, the hose is connected. Usually, the hose is connected to

the end of the hawser, and is handled automatically by hydraulic actuators to locate it into and
secure it to the hose coupler.

The DPO may adjust the surge value of the vessel position by inputting a new value of Set
Point Circle radius. With the system in " Approach/Connect " mode, there is a preferred
radius, with a small amount of leeway for the DPO to make adjustment, i.e. Designated radius
44m, with a DPO input adjustment of 44 - 49m. In bad weather conditions, the separation
distance to the OLT may thus be increased marginally. Alternatively, the adjustment may be
by a function known as "Propeller Bias", in which the DPO is able to input plus or minus
values in tonnes, which are changes required to the hawser tension. The DP system will then
automatically adjust the surge (i.e. set point circle radius) in order to achieve the input tension
value.

The vessel must be ready to break off the operation at any time and get underway. To this
end, three emergency status are defined and alarmed; ESD1, 2 and 3. ESD stands for
Emergency Shutdown and Disconnection. The vessel and field operating handbooks will
specify the criteria under which any ESD status is raised, and the accompanying actions.
Often the OLT is unmanned, and the vessel initiates ESD functions by means of a simple
bridge-mounted selector switch. Local (on-board) controls carry out the necessary ESD
functions in the vessel, while off-vessel functions are carried out by telemetry control. In
general ESD1 results in the export pumping being stopped and key valves being closed in
readiness for a breakaway. ESD2 initiates the hose being uncoupled; also a drencher system
will envelop the bow area with water spray reducing the risk of explosion or fire from any
sparks that could be struck. ESD3 initiates the unlatching of the hawser. Vessels operating
without hawser connections will not have an ESD3 position on the switch.

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Hawserless OLT Arrangements

The installation described above is for a vessel using a mooring hawser. In fact, the hawser is
not only a redundant element, it provides added complications. Its tension values need to be
measured and directly compensated for. The function of the hawser is mainly that of
positioning insurance.

More modern OLT installations are designed as hawserless. The only physical connection to
the OLT is the hose, and this is kept slack at all times. This simplifies the business of
approach and connection, and the DP system does not have the complication of having to deal
with the external force represented by hawser tension

While on DP loading operations, the DPO will monitor the turntable azimuth and compare it
with the heading of the vessel. If there is significant misalignment, he can rotate the turntable
by telemetry, by using a "left/right" control in the bow house. If the misalignment exceeds 20º
then an automatic ESD is initiated.

Submerged Turret Loading Operations

A small number of DP-capable shuttle tankers are designed for DSL (Direct Shuttle Loading)
operations from a submerged turret. Fields configured for this type of operation includes the
Harding and Heidrun fields in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea.

In the Submerged Turret Loading system (STL), a submerged buoy is secured to the seabed
by means of a catenary mooring system. The buoy is connected to the loading pipeline from
the production platform, via the Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM) adjacent the buoy location on
the seabed. The buoy will be located by means of an acoustic transducer installed in the
forepart of the vessel, and a transponder on the buoy. These are linked to the HPR system
interfaced as position reference to the DP system on the bridge. Once the messenger and turret
wire have been recovered, the buoy will be raised up until it is locked into a mating cone in
the double bottom space forward. Once locked, the loading connections can be secured and
loadings commence. The vessel is able to rotate around the turret without placing any
positional loads on it. All position and heading control is from the DP system and the
thrusters/propeller.

Position reference is obtained from DGPS and LBL acoustics. The buoys are located by
means of USBL acoustics, as are the MLBEs (mooring line buoyancy elements) for
monitoring purposes.

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FPSO Unit Operation

Floating Production, Storage and Loading units (FPSOs) consist of a floating unit, either ship-
shape, or semisubmersible, containing all the facilities for producing crude oil, and sometimes
gas.

A number of FPSO units are of the monohull configuration, with Turret Mooring facilities.
With this arrangement, the FPSO is positioned by means of an array of anchors. The mooring
lines are handled by the turret, which is a large circular centre-section of the vessel's hull
located amidships or forward of amidships. The FPSO is thus able to weathervane around the
turret maintaining her heading into the weather conditions and sea state. Arrangements vary
from installation to installation. Some FPSOs rely totally on their mooring spread for
positioning, with heading control effected simply by allowing natural weathervaning. In a
number of FPSOs, however, a heading-assist function is provided by thrusters. An added
complication is the limited range of heading change available. It may be possible to allow
heading to change a maximum value (e.g. 270°) either side of the base heading. This is
especially the case where the FPSO is handling more than one riser.

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Loading Operations from FPSO Units

With any FPSO/loading tanker operation, the tanker will experience a more severe
positioning problem than with more conventional operations. A number of factors contribute
to this problem, not the least of which is the harsh environment on some of the more exposed
FPSO locations

In addition to problems associated with the environment, loading tankers will have other
difficulties in maintaining station on a moving target. The loading vessel must keep position
within a circle defined by the length of the loading hose. Most of the FPSO/tanker operations
are hawser-assisted.

The base position is the hose terminal point on the stern of the FPSO, and the tanker must
maintain position on a circle around this base position, with the expected minimum and
maximum warning and alarm criteria established. But, the stern of the FPSO is not a fixed
location. The mooring and positioning system in the FPSO allows a degree of movement,
especially in deep water. Further, the FPSO may be continually weathervaning, so the stern
may be moving laterally, relative to the tanker. The base location for this movement is the
turret axis, and since this is located forward of amidships, or even at the bow, the stern may
exhibit considerable and rapid movement. Surge and fishtail movements may result in up to
30m of movement in the reference position in the FPSO. The most critical stage is often when
an almost fully loaded shuttle tanker is working with an almost empty FPSO.

The vessel's positioning strategy will depend upon the characteristics of the FPSO
configuration. The set point position circle is set at a defined radius to suit the loading
arrangement. The set point circle is centred upon the reference position, which is the hose

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boom end on the FPSO. This position itself is subject to considerable movement, but the use
of a relative position reference should reduce problems in this area. The required position on
the set point circle is determined by the heading of the vessel. This heading may be a
calculated weathervane heading, calculated by the DP system in the tanker without reference
to the FPSO, or it may be the FPSO heading obtained by means of telemetry. In the latter case
the two vessels should maintain the same heading at all times. Further limitations arise due to
the maximum allowable angular offsets between the alignment of the hose and the
heading/position of the tanker.

For positioning, vessels of this type will use a relative GPS (DARPS) position reference as the
prime positioning aid, yielding position information reduced to range/bearing data from the
FPSO terminal location. The other preferred position reference is Artemis, with an Artemis
fixed station located on the FPSO, the mobile station located on the tanker. A weak link
identified in these arrangements relates to the FPSO gyro. This heading data is transmitted to
the tanker via the DARPS uhf link, meaning that the operation of the DARPS and input
heading are both reliant upon the one uhf link; if this link is lost the whole positioning
strategy is jeopardised.

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