Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Creative Writing Historical
Creative Writing Historical
Non Fiction
ONWARD BOUND
THE FIRST FIFTY YEARS OF OUTWARD BOUND
AUSTRALIA
Helen Klaebe
Exegesis written component
Abstract
Onward Bound: — the first 50 years of Outward Bound Australia traces the
founding and development of this unique, Australian, non-profit, non-
government organisation from its earnest beginnings to its formidable position
today where it attracts some 5,000 participants a year to its courses.
The project included interviewing hundreds of people and scouring archives and
public records to piece together a picture of how and why Outward Bound
Australia (OBA) developed — recording its challenges and achievements along
the way. How to capture the collective spirit of such community-minded, social
pioneers of post war Australia was a challenging dilemma.
A mediated oral history approach was used among past and present OBA
founders, staff and participants, to gather stories about their history. This use of
oral history (in a historical book) was a way of cementing the known recorded
facts and adding colour to the formal historical outline, while also giving
credence to the text through the use of 'real' people's stories.
I knew that to research and unite the social post war history of an iconic
Australian organisation was an important task. I found that to capture the
collective spirits of the people involved, creating a historical biography from a
collection of interviews, inclusive of many different viewpoints, was even more
important.
.
A note about the following text
Reading order
This exegesis explains the journey taken, to condense and entwine many types of
research into a factually accurate, yet interesting read — rather than a simple
series of archived documents. It traces my journey to understand the enormity of
the task I had undertaken and the lessons I learned along the way. For this
reason, I suggest the manuscript is read first, followed by this accompanying
text.
Sources
As well as scholarly sources, I have made extensive use of an oral history
collection of interviews I produced as a primary resource for this project. Other
sources included meeting minutes, newsletters and annual reports from the last
50 years. A detailed list of sources follows this exegesis.
Contents
During World War 2, Holt was alarmed by the regular sinking of merchant ships
by German torpedoes in the Atlantic Sea. While thousands of merchant sailors
had died in such sinkings, he believed hundreds of these deaths could be
prevented, because that the survival rate of older sailors in lifeboats was much
better than that of younger sailors. Believing the older men were able to draw on
personal life experiences and inner resources to survive, Holt turned to Kurt
Hahn, a noted academic and educationalist and founder of Gordonstoun School,
for help. Hahn believed that young men needed the opportunity to develop their
own physical, emotional and psychological being to equip them for unforseen
challenges their lives might bring. With financial support from Holt, Hahn
founded the first Outward Bound School in the UK at Aberdovey, to educate the
young sailors of the Blue Funnel Line to better handle the hardships they might
face. This experiential education opportunity was offered to any boy between the
ages 16 and 25 years. The courses originally were 28 day courses and included
boys from all walks of life.
Much has changed since the earlier courses, but the principles of Outward Bound
Australia remain the same — to provide an opportunity for all Australians to
reach their potential, both physically and mentally, in a controlled, and therefore
safe, environment. Since 1956, over 250,000 Australians have completed an
Outward Bound course, assisted by over 2,000 staff. My book, Onward Bound:
The first fifty years of Outward Bound Australia, completed as the creative
component of an MA in Creative Writing at QUT, is the story of those past 50
years.
Chapter 1
The Challenge
The problem
After hearing me review a book on ABC local radio, the CEO of OBA Australia,
Tim Medhurst, contacted me and expressed an interest in hearing my ideas of
how to capture their history for their forthcoming 50-year anniversary. A couple
of key founding members of OBA had died in recent years and there was a
general concern that this important social history was being lost. I was asked to
devise a way to intercept this conundrum.
By including testimonies from past and present staff and participants, I aimed to
weave together a story about the kind of people who gave to, and benefited from,
this organisation.
Instead of another chronological coffee table book highlighting their many great
achievements, OBA were keen to use the opportunity to be daring and strive for
something different and inspirational that would celebrate both the triumphs the
tears and the triumphs that have made the organisation what it is today.
The difficulties
The major obstacles to this project were always going to be ethical issues.
Coupled with this dilemma were consensus issues. The organisation has had
over 250,000 participants and past staff number more than 2,000.
Synopsis of proposals:
Various formats were investigated and recommended on their merit:
• A coffee-table hard cover book, with glossy action pictures and limited
written text. This would be just the bare facts with a time line, similar to
many memorabilia/anniversary publications.
• A book of stories from people involved in OBA. Limited pictures, hard or
paperback.
• A combination of the two. Probably in new size paperback
One: gather an oral history from the key people targeted by the OBA committee.
(The interviews to be transcribed at a later date when funds were available)
Two: Write the manuscript in a creative historical nonfiction manner that is both
innovative and different from other styles of organizational histories — almost as
a biography/memoir of an organisation, to give it wide appeal for both the OBA
community as well as the wider Australian and international community. I would
also document the journey and processes as part of my research MA.
Three: Publish the book (when funds are available). Collate the oral history
transcripts for the National Library of Australia, or some other such archive.
This style of creatively historical nonfiction aims to weave the sterile dates and
facts of Outward Bound’s history with the social or humanist stance of the
people involved over this 50 years period of contemporary Australian history.
My aim was also to write a book which was credible and accurate, yet also of
popular interest. To do this I intended to marry academic research to a social,
historical philosophy, translating a selection of recalled stories to give a human
picture to the facts they accompany. In such a strategy, reader is free to
hermeneutically interpret these stories about the social history of Outward Bound
community within the context of the official historical facts.
Research strategies
Oral History
The aim of the oral history was to embark on a collection of short stories that
would explore the history of OBA within Australian society. These stories would
be formatted into a collection of written creative non fiction short stories which
would weave around the historical/factual backbone of the book. Bones alone
are dry and lifeless. I see these narratives as flesh, which give the history a life,
or at least a human face.
Research
Trying to narrow and refine the research and collating of existing archival
materials on OBA’s history was the first task. While archival material was
available, it consists of over 200 boxes, full to the brim, shoved on top of each
other in a damp and mouldy storage room. I decided this was too large a task to
1
The list was devised from the OBA Board to include key people involved for long periods
throughout the 50 years. From that list, I was able to add names as I deemed necessary to ensure
a representative coverage of events.
begin and one I did not want to get bogged down with, as a great deal of the
historical information could be traced in other ways.
Another way of collecting stories was through OBA’s newsletter and connected
websites, by calling past students (over 18) or past instructors to ‘share their
story’ about their OB experience.
Even though I had access to the details of people who have been on OB courses,
or been instructors over the last 50 years, I did not think it ethically correct of me
to access this information. Instead, by asking for responses, individuals were
given an opportunity to participate if they wished. This also disallowed bias on
my behalf in who I chose. The problem associated with this method was the time
it took to collect the information required.
Writing a book on the OBA story, synthesizing the historical facts with a human
reflection of that time and space, that is a ‘good read’, is of paramount
importance to make producing the work it a financially viable proposition for the
Board to produce, thus ensuring its publication.
The question had was how would the gathered research and get categorised
within the context of a written history? Not easily, because of the many sub
groups of OBA that needed to be included. As my research grew, the web I was
spinning became more intrinsically interlocking until it started to conceptualise
the characteristics of OBA. I had to characterise my research and see where it
intersected and overlapped.
I came up with four main headings
-Education
-Institution
-Training facility
-Community membership
To take a holistic point of view, I had to first break up the organisation into
sections.
Still encompasses:
-the legacy of Kurt Hahn the educator
- Greek philosophy
-Ongoing research into experiential education
As community member:
-Country Fire Service (CFS)
-State Emergency Service (SES
Initial annotated literature survey
Boldt, Joshua L. (1981) Outward Bound USA, New York: William Morrow and
company, Inc.
-Learning through experience in Adventure-Based Education from conception in
the USA.
Godfrey, Robert (1980) Outward Bound- schools of the possible, New York:
Anchor Press.
-Reflects on the educational style and success of OB. Focuses on the USA.
Lavin, Martin (1996) Kurt Hahn's schools and legacy, Wilmington, Delaware:
The Middle Atlantic press, Inc.
-Lavin investigates the legacies of Kurt Hahn including: OB, Moray county
badge scheme, Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme, Gordonstoun, Salem and
World League Universities.
James, D (1957) Outward Bound,1st edition, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
Ltd
-A collection of edited articles by the founders of OB UK. Contains interesting
background information to the history of the OB style of education.
Websites
-Hawkesbury Tourism (2003) The Hawkesbury River is steeped in history.
Available URL: http://www.hawesburyriver.org.au/History.htm
(accessed: 9.4.03)
-Features a section on the OBA memorial situated on Barr Island in
remembrance to the two instructors from Fisherman’s Point who drowned in an
OBA accident in 1963.
Oral histories are accounts of human behaviour based upon memories that
have been encoded through perceptual processes, coloured by the biases
of culture, the vagaries of emotion and the distortion of time and the
liability of researchers blind to the zeitgeist (biases) within which they
work. The conceptual tools and methods of experimental psychology do
not and cannot inform all aspects of the study of history or for that matter,
of the study of human behaviour. Indeed, experimental psychologists and
historians alike continue to raise far more questions about human nature
than they provide answers, or even partial truths. (Barker, 1994)
This project involved me in collecting and then interpreting the words used (and
my text generated) by participants to communicate their stories about OBA and
related phenomenon.
I used oral history as a methodology to interview past and present OBA founders,
staff and participants about matters related to their history over the first 50 years
of operation. Oral history techniques logically seemed the preferred approach for
this project, as a way of cementing known recorded facts and adding colour to
the formal historical timeline plus verifying and contextualising the ‘real’
people’s stories gathered in the interviews. This mediated oral history was also
exploratory, aiming to progressively unveil the unquantified phenomena of OBA
and its affect and position within the Australian community and culture.
To explain what is involved in this type of social research and to justify oral
history as a plausible methodology for this project, it is important to reflect on
why oral history is relevant. Its philosophical justification as a credible social
science, the ethical elements and procedures involved, the ordered technical
knowledge, the art of interviewing and data collection practices are all important
factors in this process. The progression of examining these topics in relation to
oral history practices served as a checklist to its credible usefulness as my project
methodology.
2
Appendix 12- Summary Bibliography of OBA theory and research
and whose environment is completely foreign to the Aboriginals who devised
them." He goes on to say "there is poetry in their stories — poetry that is difficult
to capture in another language — it is a problem I have faced in retelling legends
of not only Aboriginals, but those of other races and cultures.” (Reed, 1999)
Even if (as in my case) the interviewer was of the same culture as the people
interviewed, our differences (in gender, age, ability, socio economic position or
multi cultural ancestry) were still large, and so I felt it was inappropriate for me
to presume I could speak on their behalf.
Another example of where oral history has been used extensively for the last two
thousand years is the Bible — where conversations or stories have been recorded
as first hand observations recalled by the Disciples or, in the case of the Old
Testament, passed down as stories from generation to generation before being
recorded. The Koran and other religious texts have been constructed in the same
fashion. Ancient Greek philosophers also valued the art of passing on knowledge
or shared thought through oration; knowledge that began as an oral history. In
fact, all non literate societies through history have passed down their traditions
and beliefs using oral history methodology. Literate cultures, on the other hand,
like modern western culture, has had its formal, official history primarily
recorded by the educated minority, giving little voice to the everyday person.
Oral history draws on an intuitive, yet understated wisdom to recall and interpret.
Such a participatory type of research was a plausible methodology to use with
OBA as I was looking to bridge the gap between individual and collective
memory. The epistemological approach as taken in oral history procedures thus
becomes a necessity for credible outcomes.
Oral traditions are documents of the present, because they are told in the
present. Yet they embody a message from the past, so they are
expressions of the past at the same time. They are the representation of
the past in the present. (Vansina, 1985)
Vansini suggests that the historian of the collective and oral histories must
understand the importance of reflecting the traditions of both past and present,
“in the same breath.”(Vansina, 1985) To do this, my project needed to forge a
new interpretation of past events, an interpretation which fused both OBA’s
memory and its history.
Historians, as all individuals, can reshape memories to make new sense out of
past experiences. This has also become evident in my own interviewing, as
participants recalled, and then reflected upon, certain events. Many of my
interviewees commented to me, “I have not thought about that in over 20 years,”
and then went on to recall an event in significant detail. Afterwards they were
sometimes overwhelmed by the strength of their feelings and needed time to be
able to debrief, or make sense of their responses within the context of their own
present. Ritchie found this: “Like historians, individuals reinterpret their
historical memories and recast earlier judgments. Memories may mellow over
time.” (Ritchie, 1994)
This protocol was strictly adhered to for all participants, including those who
responded by letter, phone or email, so as to ensure honesty and openness for all
concerned. Permission for the project was also sought, and granted, by the QUT
Ethics Committee. The ethical, legal and technical methodology used in
collecting the oral history of OBA also needed to be of a standard suitable for the
3
Appendix 1- open questions short
4
Appendix 2- open questions
5
Appendix 3- information sheet
6
Appendix 4- consent form
7
Appendix 5- OBA support letter
ultimate donation of my tapes and other records to the State Library of
Queensland. (The project is also registered as an ongoing oral history project
with the National Library of Australia)
How the brain retains and continually alters memory is also of great significance
to the interviewer. The three main ways the brain recalls memory depends on
‘primacy’ (early events in our life), ‘recency’ (recent events), or by ‘anchoring’
(where an event is remembered by other cues). How (and when) the interviewer
chooses particular words or phases can prompt what will be remembered by the
interviewee. (Barker, 1994) An example of this is to ask a question about the
smell of a primary school classroom, a prompt which, for most adults, results in
an inundation of memory about their childhood. During an interview, I often
used photographs as prompts, which was most successful. Interviews at the
national base at Tharwa were often conducted after I had an initial ‘walk round’
with the interviewee, around the grounds while we became acquainted before
beginning the formal interview process. One interviewee mentioned the smell of
the equipment shed taking him back to the time he worked there.
The observation that no one sees the world in exactly the same way can raise
questions about the interviewees’ truthfulness and their perception of reality. In
the same way, the researcher can skew the interview by the specific word
prompting they may use. (Barker, 1994) This type of bias can also influence the
memory. Barker suggests the researcher must “recognise the cultural milieu at
the time a memory was formed,” to be able to judge whether the memory is
valid. (Barker, 1994)
During each interview for this project, I needed to consider and make note of:
whether each participant was a credible witness; if the information they were
sharing was their own first-hand knowledge; what biases may be present (or have
been present) that could shape their original perception of an event; and how
each person felt now about events that took place in the past. (Ritchie, 1994)
8
Appendix six- Technical procedure sheet
interviews were fully transcribed, so as to be easily accessible to the community
which had given of their time and memories so generously9.
Humans elect to engage and contribute practically toward their complex world.
We do this through the search for authenticity and our collaboration with each
other. (Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 1996) This theory rang true for OBA, whose
ethos is centred on its commitment to all people in the community — making an
9
Appendix seven- Sample of transcript
oral history of ‘all the people’ involved with OBA a most appropriate primary
methodology to employ to capture their collective spirit. The project’s written
text (a book length manuscript) uses the oral history as a connecting value:
connecting old with the young, the academic/ institutional with the broader
outside world, and as the formal connector in the interpretation of their history.
Archival history research methodologies and how they relate to my research
project
Locating the formal outline of the history of OBA was not difficult, but filling in
the detail in the manner previously described was extremely time-consuming.
This was because of two main reasons, the desire for accuracy and housekeeping
factors.
Accuracy
I wanted to create a timeline of important names, dates and facts about the
organisation so as to pinpoint a good cross section of interviewees. To do this
with any accuracy, I had to scour the Board and Sub-Committee meeting minutes
to find ‘clues’ to the importance of what was recorded. Any significant event or
conversation at these meetings was summarised by me and collated into
‘Endnote’.
I was acutely aware that as so many people had been involved with OBA, there
may not be many who had been involved for all of the 50 years. I found this
theory to be correct once the interviewing began and this recognition of
fragmentation paradoxically gave me a deep, underlying continuity to the story
that the individual voices could not do alone.
My other concern was to ensure that if I was questioned over facts used in the
manuscript, I could refer to my referencing to confirm any statement I had made.
A great deal of the organisation’s history collected thus far had relied on ‘hear
say’ and tall stories that had passed from staff member to staff member. The
latter, tall stories had often been passed on so many times that they had become
legends and mythic in their construction. I spent many evenings discussing the
theory and practice of recalling memory with a practising psychiatrist, looking
for ways to accurately prompt an interviewee without tainting the oral history
process by my line of approach.
Again, the timeline summary notes from the meeting minutes proved not only
useful, but effective. For example: It was noted in the meeting minutes on March
24, 1982, that, “the committee sees it as imperative that a historian be appointed
to capture the history.” By reading that short statement, Sir Frederick Chilton, an
interviewee in his 97th year was able to fill in the context in to which it was
written.
Housekeeping
The same procedure was followed with every newsletter and annual report,
newspaper clipping or letter, to build up my primary collection of easily traced
and summarised formal archival record. As a result, there is a collection of data
that is academically sound and electronically available that can be the foundation
for any future historical research, writings, film, websites or television
documentary. Some of the people interviewed were quite remarkable
Australians individually, so any formal documentation about aspects of their
lives, like their OBA involvement, may well be of interest to other researchers in
the future.
What inspired me to take on this extra workload was a footnote I found while
researching at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. One of the OBA
female groups in the early 1960s was called Bullwinkel — after Captain Vivian
Bullwinkel. AO. MBE. ARRC, the only surviving nursing sister from the Banka
Island massacre during WWII. A 1997 film, Paradise Road, directed by Bruce
Beresford has traced her story. Researchers for the film noted that the only
recorded account of an interview with Vivian Bullwinkel immediately after the
massacre, was conducted while interned briefly in the same POW camp as OBA
founder, Adrian Curlewis (later Sir Adrian), in his capacity as senior officer.
Only by applying rigor to how research is collected, collated and stored can we
be assured that it can have multiple purposes in the future.
Chapter 4
The Journey
It is good to have an end to journey toward;
but it is the journey that matters, in the end.
Ursula K. Le Guin
The exponential nature of the project was a factor I did not count on for, my
responsibilities grew with each person I visited. I also found that dealing with
many elderly folk required a level of formality. One could not ‘pop in’ for a few
questions, or indeed informally ‘chat’ on the telephone about an integral part of
someone’s life thirty or forty years ago with out some explanation and pre-
discussion.
If OBA had been an emotive, life changing part of their life (which was more
often than not the case) then the memory recall could be a cathartic episode, yet
surprisingly every person I interviewed was satisfied by the close of our
interview. Many spoke of ‘getting things of their chest’ or feeling like ‘a weight
had been lifted from their shoulders’ while I became laden with this information,
and emotion, as the custodial keeper of their history. I felt an enormous
responsibility to reflect a true and honest, yet balanced account, to make the
project and their involvement in it worthwhile.
Finding middle ground
Not everyone remembered events in the same way, and my research into the
theory of memory recall was crucial to understanding both why this was so and
how to contend with this vital issue. Like any incident in life, the same story
could be told in many different ways.
To find middle ground, I would cross-reference the points agreed and those not
agreed, check the archival summaries I had created and investigate the
relationship between the people involved. In all cases, I favoured information
that was first hand and not hearsay. If I was still unconvinced, I searched out
other people involved who may not have been interested in being interviewed,
but were happy to answer specific questions about specific events.
The Tallangatta tragedy was a difficult and emotional chapter to write. Not only
because seven young men lost their lives, but because, even forty years later, I
could feel the pain of those who were there and affected by it. Newspaper
clippings from six different newspapers all differed in the facts they reported. I
resorted to writing separate timelines of events — according to each newspaper
article — cross referencing these with the coroner’s reports and OBA meeting
minutes, before approaching first hand witnesses to complete the puzzle in a
detective-like manner.
Each decade of OBA’s history had its main characters, and a decade by decade
account emerged quite naturally. The challenge was then to find others who had
specific knowledge about specific events to enhance a particular story, or to add
another dimension and as I could feel the stories deepening as more layers
accrued. I felt enormous satisfaction when I felt the voices were talking to each
other as if they were in the same room reminiscing together. While this seemed
an easy enough task in the beginning, I did not know that the orchestration skills
required to interview people in different places and times and weave them
together later as if they were interviewed as a group.
One of the key solutions was to ensure the questioning ran in a very similar
format, chronologically, with very similar standardised questioning.
Ethical issues
Ethical issues were of paramount importance from the start. Long before I was
concerned about the issues which concern the QUT Ethics Committee, I was
concerned about the notion of slander.
There is not a workplace situation that does not involve human feelings and
emotions. OBA was no different and because many of the staff lived as well as
worked together, these human traits were even more intense. Some ex-staff and
supporters I contacted expressed the opinion that they were not interested in
visiting a place in their memory that had been difficult and damaging to them
personally, and I went to great lengths to respect their wishes. By the same token,
I also cut any slanderous comments from the interviews, particularly if the
person about whom they were concerned refused to take part in the project.
On return, I made any required changes to the original transcript, and the only
copy I kept was the amended copy. As these transcripts were used by me and
10
Appendix 8 -sample letter to accompany transcript to interviewee
woven into the archival story, and indeed other peoples’ stories, I then had a
further obligation to check with the other participants that they were happy with
the context in which their words sat. To achieve this, each chapter was sent to
each person whom was ‘speaking’ in they chapter concerned, accompanied with
a letter of instruction.11 The letter also clearly stated that no reply from them
would signal their acceptance of the transcripts as they stood. This gave the
interviewee the opportunity to see how their ‘words’ sat with the words of others,
some of whom they had not spoken to or seen in decades. These chapters were
then posted or emailed back to me with amendments.12
Keeping track of all these who I had emailed and who had replied and tracking
their changes was a logistical nightmare, but pivotal to the book becoming truly
owned by the participants, as I believe all history should be. By empowering the
participants to take ownership of their history and their stories, the book becomes
more intimate and more meaningful to the reader, both now, and in the future to
those researching from a social context.
11
Appendix 9 -sample letter to accompany chapters to interviewee
12
Appendix 10 -sample of returned edited chapter from interviewee
Consensus and Creativity
While the manuscript I have created is large, it was not edited further for two
reasons. The project was primarily intended to be history-rich and secondly as a
social history. It may (or may not) be published for a mass market audience and
if it is, then the decision to edit for that market can be carried out at that time. To
cut it for that purpose now would be to lose the opportunity to keep on accessible
record as much of OBA’s history as possible, making it more desirable to edit for
many other media in the future including radio, television, film, Internet and
book.
The working title was originally ‘More than you think,’ from the ancient Greek
poet, Pindar, who said, “Grow into what you are,’ which was adapted by Kurt
Hahn into, ‘You are more than what you think.’ This is one of Outward Bound’s
mottos. In conclusion, I discovered a great deal more in OBA, and in myself,
during this epic journey, than I had foreseen at the outset.
Partnerships
This project would not have been possible without the partnership forged
between QUT CIRAC, OBA and myself as the researcher. The importance of
supporting such arrangements can not be overstated as I feel the contribution of
this historical research makes to our culture and society as a whole goes well
beyond the boundaries of OBA, or in fact any organisation, as it also
encompasses the social history of a slice of Australian time. Non profit
organisations in particular are worthy of support in this manner, as by their very
nature the people working in them are often tireless volunteers for the social
good of the wider community.
The paper in Appendix 11, Partnerships with an oral historian, was presented by
me at the International Oral History Association (IOHA) conference in June
2004 in Rome, Italy, and encompasses a lot of what has already been articulated,
but from the particular point of view of this partnership.
The next IOHA conference will be held in Sydney in 2006, which will also
highlight the importance of this type of historical writing.
A partnership between a non profit organisation and a tertiary institution does not
mean a project can not also be profitable. On the contrary, OBA as an
organisation has the opportunity to use the manuscript to fashion a highly
saleable book to the general public and raise funds for their organisation. At the
same time, QUT will have another successfully published MA student, and the
kudos which will attract other potential post graduate students. Both
organisations benefit from the public exposure they will gain from having a
mainstream publication in the marketplace.
Appendices
Open Questions
Name:
Address:
Phone:
Email:
Date:
What was your role with the organisation? (please add in date/dates
as a student and/or staff member)
Any stories from that past that evoke memories that are:
sad, happy, inspirational and funny?
Appendix 2
Open Questions
Name:
Address:
Phone:
Email:
Date:
What was your role with the organisation? (please add in date as a
student, and or staff member)
Any stories from that past that evoke memories that are:
sad, happy, inspirational and funny?
The aim
Outcome
Part one of this project is the collection of the oral history. Part
two is a compilation of stories into a publishable manuscript.
These two parts are being conducted as part of Ms Helen Klaebe’s
Master of Creative Writing studies. The publication/ added
pictures etc. is part three, and is an option to OBA in
conjunction with Ms. Klaebe at a later date.
The oral history will be the public record and recognition of OB
Australia.
The book will be a marketable product recognising the human
face of OBA.
Expected benefits
Your involvement in this project will not directly benefit you.
However it is hoped that this project will capture a piece of
important, post war, contemporary Australian history , while also
benefiting the OBA organisation itself, as a testimony of how a
non profit non government organisation can change and grow and
stay relevant in the new 21st century.
Confidentiality
The information given by interviewees during this project may or
may not be used by Ms. Klaebe to be used in the writing of this
book for publication, the collection of this oral history could be
kept as public record in a State and or National Library and as a
collection piece of OBA. The information may also be used by
Ms.Klaebe or OBA for further articles in publications such as
broadsheet newspapers, organisational newsletters, magazines.
The project may be discussed on radio. This would be purely for
promotional benefit for the project.
Voluntary participation
Participants are advised that their participation is voluntary.
Individual’s participation in the research, the collection of data for
a QUT purpose, and the subsequent use / publication of this data,
requires consent. Your decision whether to participate in this
project is voluntary, and you can withdraw at any time without
comment or penalty. You decision will in no way impact upon
your relationship with QUT or OBA.
Concerns / complaints
CONSENT FORM
Name
Signature
Date / /
Appendix 5
Hi! As you may be aware 2006 will be the 50th anniversary of Outward Bound’s
operations in Australia. In the lead up to this time the Board of Outward Bound
Australia (OBA) have decided to collect and compile an oral history of our first
50 years.
The Board have asked Helen Klaebe, who is doing her Masters of Creative
Writing Studies at the Queensland University of Technology, to collect this
information. Helen will be collating this information into a publishable
manuscript.
With this information OBA would then be looking to publish a significant book
on the proud past, present and future of OBA.
Helen will be interviewing a broad range of past and present staff, participants,
board members and supporters. This letter is to ask for your involvement in this
project. Helen will be contacting you as your name has been given to her by the
Board.
If you have any queries about this project please contact me on either 0417
068682 or timm@outwardbound.com.au
Yours sincerely,
Tim Medhurst
Board member
Outward Bound Australia
Appendix 6
Check list for recording
Equipment
• Minidisk player/recorder
• External microphone and stand
• Headphones
• Power plug
• Line in cable for cassette recorder
• Cassette recorder
• Minidisks
• Tapes
Setting up
• RHS- phantom button on
• Plug microphone into Left mic. Line
• LHS digital out –off
• Plug line in into left hand line out plug
• Other end into mic plug of cassette recorder
• Make sure tape counter is on 0000
• Speed control in the middle
• Mic sense on low
• VOR- off
• Tape in and rew.
• Press play/rec and pause
• Plug electricity into minidisk recorder through DC in plug (LHS)
On top of minidisk recorder (from L to R)
• SP/LP- on SP
• Mono
• Stereo-middle
• Obd-dec. 0- which is to the far left
• Source- mic.
• Limiter- manual –which means you need to adjust the knobs at
the front yourself
• Flat- in the middle
• Analog. (not digital)
• LSR- off
To record
• Do a sound check to get the levels reading between 12 and 6.
• Erase sound check by selecting ‘All erase’ with the edit buttons
• Select enter- it will repeat the command
• Select enter again
To start
• Press record
• Release the record button on the tape player
If you need to stop to turn over the tape during the interview
• Press stop on the disc recorder and when you restart, say eg.-
side two, tape 1 of Sir Fredrick interview, or whoever.
Date: 17.2.03
Reference: 2
Ron Hatchett (RH)
Helen Klaebe (HK)
No. of Tapes: One
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SIDE A OF TAPE
HK: Can you tell me about how you first became involved
the person that was the link between the two was Fred
involved.
then?
11 August 2003
Mr Ron Hatchett
17 Carranya Road
Riverview, NSW 2066
Dear Ron
Once again let me thankyou very much for your valuable contribution to the
historical collection for Outward Bound Australia. I recognise that the time
and energy you gave was generous and informative.
Please read through the transcript when you have a spare moment. If there
are any parts of the record that you feel have been transcribed incorrectly,
please do not hesitate to let me know. If I don’t hear from you, I can
assume that you are happy with the translation and I can proceed in collating
it with the others for the collection.
The first time people read a transcript of their own conversation, they are
sometimes concerned about the grammar and the lack of coherence in parts
etc. Be assured. This is very normal in the case of transcripts. The written
word rarely does complete justice to the content and essence of natural
conversation. I felt similar when I read the transcripts of the first oral
history interviews I conducted and few years ago. I am now comfortable,
that real conversation should show apparent discontinuities of thought and
speech.
Thankyou again for your participation. The manuscript of the 50 year history
of Outward Bound is progressing well and should be complete by May 2004.
Excerpts from the oral history transcript collection will appear in the
manuscript, so I will stay in touch to keep you informed.
Helen Klaebe
Dear
You will see the same instructions each time as I will send the same to every one...
Please read through the chapters and check you are happy with the quotes etc. I have
marked in Red, if there are questions I still wants answered- you will be able to work out
who can respond.
I have verified facts with other sources so you really have to just read and let me know if
your happy.
Please feel free to open the doc and make changes in a different colour or font, or even
at the bottom of each chapter and email it back. Alternatively, if you do not feel
comfortable with the computer, then call me and I will 'type in changes as we talk'. (ph:
07 3870 0165- leave a message if I don't answer)
I do need your comments ASAP (within a week, otherwise I will assume you are happy
with the chapter and have no alterations).
Pease feel free to make alternative suggestions for chapter name also.
Kind Regards
Helen
Appendix 10
And so, the OBA story began in a meeting at the Australia Hotel,
Sydney, in February 1956. Commander T.G. ‘Tommy’ Bedwell,
an Englishman and an earlier Director of OB UK, was visiting
Australia on business. Now considered “an elder statesman who
had done so much for the UK Trust,” Bedwell was then keen to
spread his enthusiasm for OB and discuss the possibilities of a
school in Australia and had been asked by HRH Prince Philip,
world Patron of OB and keen Kurt Hahn supporter, to represent
him on what was a fact finding mission. Bedwell was introduced
to Curlewis by Rear Admiral H.J. Buchanan, an Australian
Bedwell had known through their careers in the Navy.
James Buchanan:
13
CBE- Commander, Order of British Empire- Instituted in 1917, this Order
rewarded prominent citizens (military or civil) for distinguished services
rendered of a non-combatant nature. (Helen only note: Adrian Curlewis
was also made a CBE but presumably in the civil division of the Order
- there was KBE, CBE, OBE and MBE - all have since been replaced
here by the Order of Australia series AK, AC, AO, AM and OAM)
DSO -Distinguished Service Order - Instituted in 1886, the DSO rewarded
officers of the armed forces for distinguishing themselves in active service
against the enemy. (Helen only comment - my copy of the DSO Statute
requires recipient to be a commissioned officer but has no stipulation
as to rank - it was customary for the DSO to be restricted to more
senior officers, with the DSC (cross) and DSM (medal) to junior
officers and non-commissioned personnel respectively)
14
Admiral Buchanan was on loan service to Royal Navy (RN) from 1938 to
1941 and then served with the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) from that point
on. During WWII both RN and RAN ships were under the command of Lord
Mountbatten. (Suggestion - maybe more accurate to say "During
WWII RAN ships were often deployed under British command")
harbour, in charge of co-ordinating the historic
evacuation of 336,000 British troops into ships and boats
(under constant air attack) as Hitler's Wehrmacht overran
France and Belgium. He was probably the last allied
serviceman to leave Dunkirk, being evacuated in a motor
torpedo boat as the Germans finally reached and
captured the harbour. Subsequently he was decorated
(DSO) and given another Destroyer to command, until in
1941, Mr Curtin — then Australian Prime Minister, recalled
all Australian defence personnel to Australia as Singapore
fell, and so our family returned to Melbourne.
James Buchanan:
It was undoubtedly in those two years, 1955-57, as the
local Sydney Admiral, that Dad came in contact with
Judge Curlewis. I think their outlook had much in
common, and Mum was a close friend of Lady Curlewis
even long after dad died of cancer in March 1965, aged
only 63.
Sir Adrian:
Sir Adrian:
On November 24, 1956, the first OBA course was held. Fifty
boys aged between 16-18 years attended the 26-day course, at
a cost of ₤30 each. This fee was either paid for by the boy’s
employee, or they were sponsored privately — usually by their
own family.
In fact, Sir Spencer, having been knighted earlier that year and
also a retired Member of the UK Parliament, ensured his visit
would be newsworthy. He arrived ten days before the inaugural
course began and stayed till near its completion, also visiting
the Melbourne Olympics while in Australia (ACp48)
Sir Spencer:
Twenty five school boys and twenty five boys from
factories and offices came and took part in sailing,
athletics, water skiing and expeditions in the bush. They
learnt self defence, first aid and bush craft. They each
described to their contemporaries the life or work from
which they came.
15
1913–80: US track star. Owens won four gold medals in the 100metre,
200 metre, broad-jump and 400 metre relay at the 1936 Olympic Games in
Berlin, which upset Hitler's theories of Aryan superiority. After 1955 he
became involved with the Illinois youth commission.
16
1929-2003: UK athlete. Brasher won Britain's first Olympic athletics title
for 20 years, in the steeplechase for the 1956 Olympics
Items in bold are for your own information rather than
inclusion.
You will see that I have researched Buck's war history a
little more closely - I hope it hangs together OK.
Best regards James
Appendix 11
Partnerships with an Oral Historian
Presented by Helen Klaebe for the IOHA conference in Rome, Italy, June, 2004.
This essay outlines the chief approach and associated methods used to unite a
mediated oral history of the organisation, Outward Bound Australia (OBA),
which involved collecting and interpreting the words used and text generated by
participants to communicate their stories about OBA and related phenomenon.
(Buchanan, 2003)
Kurt Hahn the educator and founder of Outward Bound and other experiential
education institutions such as Duke of Edinburgh Awards and United World
Colleges(Lavin, 1996; Stetson) was also passionate about ancient Greek
philosophers, who also valued the art of passing on knowledge or shared thought
through oration — knowledge that began as an oral history. Hahn’s theory of
outdoor education has been investigated and expanded worldwide in the last 70
years with mottos such as, “You are more than you think”, “to strive, to serve
and not to yield” and “your disability is your opportunity.”
My task as a creative non fiction writer was to construct a book manuscript that
encompassed the history and stories from a cross section of contemporary post
WWII Australians that have been involved with OBA over the last 50 years as
founders, instructors and participants. It inquires into this non profit non
governmental organisation’s methodology and observes its relevance to
Australians today, still attracting 5000 participants a year to courses.
A mediated oral history approach was used to facilitate dialogue amongst past
and present OBA founders, staff and participants and researcher about matters
related to their history spanning the first 50 years of operation. Oral history
techniques demonstrated to be the preferred approach as a way of cementing
known recorded facts and adding colour to the formal historical timeline, while
giving credence to ‘real’ people’s stories. This mediated oral history was also
exploratory — aiming to progressively unveil the unquantified phenomena of
OBA and its affect and position within the Australian post war community and
culture.
An initial oral history collection had been commissioned by the OBA committee
as a stopgap measure to ensure founders’ unrecorded historical memory was not
lost. In fact, research uncovered from meeting minutes revealed that the task of
recording history accurately had been a concern, yet not acted on, nearly 20 years
prior. (OBA Annual report 1989/90, 1990) By producing a book from the oral
history collection, the stories would be easily accessible to everyone interested,
within or outside the Outward Bound community.
OBA is an organisation of people more concerned with the ‘doing’ than the
recording of milestones in a formal historical manner. Much documentation has
been written dedicated to the psychological and physical effects of their outdoor
education style but little effort has been given to documenting the history of the
institution itself. (Neill, 2003)OBA, like Outward Bound International and other
organisations around the world, have a regular turn over of staff, committee and
board members. The formal history may be recorded in the meeting minutes, but
this does not tell the whole story of an organization. The personal interpretation
of events can colour a very black and white picture.
Financing such a project is always a struggle within any non profit organisation,
yet the social consciousness of our society and how people interact within it is of
crucial historical significance in understanding who we are as a society now, in
the past and future. Working to overcome this problem then became the
challenge that was solved though an organisational and tertiary partnership.
The validity and appropriateness of mediated oral history research was explored
and analysed. History has shown that before the development of writing, all
history was oral. (Moss, 1988) In his book about aboriginal myths and fables,
Reed, an anthropologist, concedes there are problems converting the oral stories
of one culture into the formal writing or another. (Reed, 1999) As the
interviewer, and of the same culture as the people I interviewed, our differences,
in gender, age, ability, socio economic position and multi cultural ancestry could
never all mirror my own and so was deemed inappropriate for me to presume I
could speak on their behalf — their stories however, could speak for themselves.
Until the interviewing process begins, the interviewer has no idea of the richness
of the material interviewees will share. The interviewer thus needs to be aware
“of the peculiarities of memory, imaginative in their methods of dealing with it,
conscious to its limitations and open to its abundant treasures.” (Ritchie, 1994)
No one sees the world in exactly the same way, an observation which can raise
questions about the interviewees’ truthfulness and their perception of reality.
During each interview for this project, I needed to mentally consider and make
note of: whether each participant was a credible witness, if the information they
were sharing was their own first-hand knowledge, what biases may be present (or
have been present), that could shape their original perception of an event, and
how they feel now about events that took place in the past.(Barker, 1994)
Oral traditions are documents of the present, because they are told in the
present. Yet they embody a message from the past, so they are expressions of the
past at the same time. They are the representation of the past in the present.
(Vansina, 1985)
Vansini suggests that the historian of the collective and oral histories must
understand the importance of reflecting the traditions of both past and present,
“in the same breath.” (Vansina, 1985) To do this, my project needed to forge a
new interpretation of past events which fuses both OBA’s memory and its
history.
In the same way as an actor on stage does not know what is happening elsewhere
around that stage, the main characters within an organisation cannot always
identify whole events that occur even when they are involved in them. To
overcome this, I targeted many people from different standpoints within the same
timeframe, so I could piece together the puzzle of history from a variety of
perspectives.
Historians, like all individuals, can reshape memories to make new sense out of
past experiences. (Ritchie, 1994) This became evident whilst interviewing as
participants would recall, and then reflect on certain events. Familiar comments
like, “I have not thought about that in over 20 years,” and then recall in amazing
detail. Afterwards they are often overwhelmed by the strength of their feelings
and need time to be able to debrief, or make sense of their responses to these
earlier events within the context of today’s society. Historians and individuals
can both benefit from hindsight.
“Like historians, individuals reinterpret their historical memories and recast
earlier judgments. Memories may mellow over time” (Ritchie, 1994)
Humans elect to engage and contribute practically toward their complex world.
We do this through the search for authenticity and our collaboration with each
other. This, so far, rings true with a global organisation such as Outward Bound,
which has an ethos centred around its commitment to all people in the
community; making an oral history of ‘all the people’ involved with OBA a most
appropriate methodology in attempting to capture their collective spirit.
The project’s written text (a book length manuscript) uses the oral history as a
connecting value — connecting old with the young, the academic/ institutional
with the broader global outside world, and as the formal connection in the
interpretation of their history.
Bibliography
Moss, W. (1988). Oral History- What is it and where did it come from?
Retrieved 19.3.2003, 2003, from
http://www3.baylor.edu/Oral_History/pmp%20webpage/2%20PMP%Sec
tion%20I.pdf
Neill, J. (2003). What the research really says. Retrieved 18.1.04, 2004, from
/www.outwardbound.com.au/pages/ao_research_archive.html
Reed, A. W. (1999). Aboriginal Myths, Legends and Fables. Sydney: Reed New
Holland.
This bibliography has been broken into two sections; the first section contains all
resources for this MA, besides those from the OBA Research Library, which
follows in the second section.
Personal Communication
Personal communication includes significant interviews conducted by emails or
letters with me where consent had been approved in writing by the participant.
The participant’s listed here also had the same opportunity to scrutinise the final
use of there contribution. Small contributions were also recorded but are not
included in this bibliography.
Section One
Quoteland Retrieved
fromhttp://www.quoteland.com/topic.asp?CATEGORY_ID=232
Willing and Able (1989) Stars Canberra: NRS. Adaminaby Snowy Scheme
Collection (2003) Retrieved 18.1.04, from
http://www.adaminaby.com/collection/index.html
Jesse Owens (n.d.) Retrieved 27.4.04, from
http://www.slider.com/Enc/O/Ori/OwensJe.htm
Dolan, D. (2003) "Oral History and Heritage work", Oral History Association of
Australia, no.25, pp.1-5.
Dyson, W. (19.1.03) "Interview with Helen Klaebe," OBA oral history collection
(audio recording)
Elliott, J. (1970) "More than we think," paper presented to the OBA Foundation
Conference, Sydney,
Elliott, J. (17.2.03) "Interview with Helen Klaebe," OBA oral history collection
(audio recording)
Horne, J. (2003) "Oral History as Modern Personal Papers: in defence of the long
interview", Oral History Association of Australia, no.25, pp.28-30.
James, D. (1957) Outward Bound, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
Klaebe, H. "Interview with Peter Robinson (St Francis Xavier College)," (email)
Reed, A. W. (1999) Aboriginal Myths, Legends and Fables, Sydney: Reed New
Holland.
Riches, G. (17.2.03) "Interview with Helen Klaebe," OBA oral history collection
(audio recording)
Ritches, A. (3.4.03) "Interview with Helen Klaebe," OBA oral history collection
(audio recording)
Swap, W., Leonard, D., Shields, M. and Abrams, L. (2001) "Using mentoring
and Storytelling to Transfer Knowledge in the Workplace", Journal of
Management Information Systems, vol.18, no.No. 1, pp.95-114.
Sydney Morning Herald (1958) "£25, 000 Appeal to Help Youths," Sydney
Morning Herald, (19.11.58),
Tharwa Primary School (1989) Tharwa- a living history, Canberra: ACT Schools
Authority.
The Sun Herald (1956) "Check to Child Delinquency- School will be tough," The
Sun Herald, (1.7.56),
Wincer, G. (16.2.03) "Interview with Helen Klaebe," OBA oral history collection
(audio recording)
Wood, J. (2003) "Between Two Worlds: meta narrative and creative history",
Oral History Association of Australia, vol.25, 44-49.
Worthy, L. (26.5.03) "Interview with Helen Klaebe," OBA oral history collection
(audio recording)
Old Tallangatta: The town that moved in the 50s (1998) Retrieved 7.4.04, from
http://www.tourisminternet.com.au/tallold.htm
Section Two
General
Hattie, J., Marsh, H.W., Neill, J.T. & Richards, G.E. (1997). Adventure
education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting
difference. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43-67.
Neill, J.T. (1997). Gender: How does it affect the outdoor education experience?
Paper presented to the 10th National Outdoor Education Conference, Sydney,
Australia, January 20-24.
Richards, G.E. (1975). Leadership and Outward Bound Bound. Outward Bound
Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Special Programs
Backhouse, M., Craig, D., Packer, J. (1978). A Review of the Outward Bound
Spring Board - Board Course for slow learners. Outward Bound Australia:
Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Hill, M.A. (1982). Pilot evaluation of an Outward Bound course experience for
Odyssey House residents. School of Psychology, University of NSW, Sydney,
Australia.
Marsh, H.W. & Richards, G.E. (1988). The Outward Bound Bridging Course for
low achieving high school males: Effect on academic achievement and
multidimensional self-concepts. Australian Journal of Psychology, 40, 281-298
Neill, J.T. (1996). Program for the vision impaired: Summary of pilot study.
Outward Bound Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Outward Bound Australia (c. 1988). Outward Bound and Troubled Youth: The
Treatment Outcomes Literature. Outward Bound Australia: Canberra, ACT,
Australia.
Richards, G.E. & Richards, M.F. (1981). Outward Bound Bridging Course
1981: An investigation and evaluation of an Outward Bound Remedial Program.
Outward Bound Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Management Programs
Barrett, J.D. (1990). A Research Evaluation of the Developmental Outcomes of
an
Outward Bound Management Training and Corporate Development Program.
Outward Bound Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.
School Programs
Craigie, S. (1996). The Effect of an Outward Bound experience on the Self-
Concept of Year Nine
and Ten Boys. Unpublished Honours Thesis, Faculty of Education,
University of Sydney,
Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Neill, J.T. (1994). The effect of Outward Bound High School Programs on
adolescents’ self-concept, mental health, and coping strategies. Unpublished
honours thesis, Division of Psychology, Australian National University,
Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Neill, J.T. (1997). Outdoor education in the schools: What can it achieve?
Paper presented to the 10th National Outdoor Education Conference, Sydney,
Australia, January 20-24.
Neill, J.T. & Heubeck, B. (1995). Abseil anxiety and confidence: A pilot study.
Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 1, 28-30.
Neill, J.T. & Heubeck, B. (1995). Insights into adolescents’ mental health
during Outward Bound programs. In Proceedings of the 1995 National Outdoor
Education Conference, 16-20 January, Gold Coast, Australia.
Neill, J.T. & Heubeck, B. (1997). Adolescent coping styles and outdoor
education: Searching for the mechanisms of change. Paper presented to the 1st
International Adventure Therapy Conference, July 1-5, Perth, Western Australia,
Australia.
Fry, S.K. (1992). The Effects of Personality Traits and Situational Variables on
Mood States Experienced During Outward Bound Standard Courses.
Unpublished Graduate Diploma Thesis, Division of Psychology, Australian
National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Fry, S.K. & Heubeck, B. (1998). The effects of personality and situational
variables on mood states during Outward Bound wilderness courses: An
exploration. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 649-659.
Marsh, H.W. & Richards, G.E. (1988). A test of bipolar and and androgyny
perspectives of masculinity and feminity: The effect of participation in an
Outward Bound program. Outward Bound Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Oakes, P.J., Haslam, A., Morrison, B.E. & Grace, D. (1995). Becoming an in-
group: Re-examining the impact of familiarity of perceptions of group
homogeneity. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 52-61.
Adult Programs
Scherl, L.M. (1982). Participants, their perceptions, expectations and reactions
towards an Outward Bound Adult Program: A preliminary study. Outward
Bound Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Scherl, L.M. (1986). Self in wilderness: Is personal control a viable notion for
understanding individual wilderness interaction? Paper presented to the 15th
Annual Meeting of Australian Social Psychologists, Queensland, May.
Other
Marsh, H.W. & Richards, G.E. (1987). The multidimensionality of the Rotter I-E
Scale and its higher order structure: An application of confirmatory factor
analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 22, 39-69.
Marsh, H.W. & Richards, G.E. (1986). The Rotter Locus of Control Scale: The
comparison of alternative response formats and implications for reliability,
validity and dimensionality. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 509-58.
Marsh, H.W. & Richards, G.E. (1988). Self-other agreement and self-other
discrepancies on multidimensional self-concept ratings. Australian Journal of
Psychology, 42, 31-45.
Marsh, H.W. & Richards, G.E. (1988). The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale:
Reliability, internal structure, and construct validity. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 55, 612-624.
Neill, J.T., Fabert, R. & Webb, S. (1994). Staff selection and training: Outward
Bound Australia. Outward Bound International Newsletter, 30, 4-5.
Neill, J.T. (1996). The adventures of Ulysses and the Outward Bound Motto.
Outward Bound Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Outward Bound Australia (1988). Australia Outward Bound School Survey of
Medical Incidents December 1986 - December 1987. Outward Bound Australia:
Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Richards, G.E. (1978). Challenge versus Safety. Paper presented to the 1st
National Conference in Outdoor Education, Victoria, Australia, May, 1978.
Richards, G.E. (1988). The Kurt Hahn Phenomenon. Outward Bound Australia:
Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Richards, G.E., Fry, S.K., Neill, J.T., Morrison, B.E. & Davis, H.L. (1993). An
analysis of the effects and desirability of inspirationa readings on an Outward
Bound course. Outward Bound Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Richards, G.E. & Neill, J.T. (1994). An introduction to the Life Effectiveness
Questionnaire (LEQ-G). Outward Bound Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Richards, G.E. & Pearse, L. (1988). A model for the selection, training and
development of outdoor educators. Paper presented to the 17th Australian
Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (ACHPER) National
Biennial Conference, Canberra, January.