MERGED GENERAL-BIOLOGY Q3 LP-1-11 Final

SMILE
(SIMPLIFIED MODULE INTENDED FOR LEARNING ENCOUNTERS )
Learner’s Packet
Name: _________________________________________ Grade Level: ________
Strand/ Section: _________________________________ Date: ______________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP1)
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS:
Human population is vulnerably susceptible to problems such as scarcity of food as

well as health and environmental issues. As the population increases and so the demand for
food and other resources. The environment’s resources are depleted faster than it
replenishes itself to cope with people’s needs, lest the pollution as offshoot affecting the
variety of living organisms. At present, humans are plagued with the emergence of CoVid-19
which results to the deaths of millions of people around the world, not to mention other
communicable diseases such as AIDS, TB and others as well as non-communicable
diseases that continuously take death to all of human lives.
With this, extensive efforts in Biotechnology are being made to address these problems on
food scarcity, health issues and environmental concerns. Genetic engineering strategies,
such as recombinant DNA technology, gene therapy, and gene modification are widely used.
In agriculture, GMO practices can be used to produce “designer” crops; which have more
nutrients; crops that grow quicker and larger, more resistant to pesticides, diseases, and
drought; produce more yield and use less fertilizer; and with shelf life extended/spoilage
resistance.
Moreover, genetic engineering plays significant role in the production of medicines which
improves health conditions. Microorganisms and plant-based substances are now being
manipulated to produce large number of useful drugs, vaccines, enzymes and hormones at
low costs
Recombinant DNA technology has tremendous scope in energy production and resolves
environmental issues. Through this technology, it is now possible to bioengineer energy
crops or biofuels that grow rapidly to yield huge biomass that used as fuel or can be
processed into oils, alcohols, diesel, or other energy products. The waste from these can be
converted into methane/bioethanol.
Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms or derivatives especially cells and
bacteria for production of various products for the benefits of human beings. It is a
combination of various technologies, applied together to living cells, including not only
biology, but also subjects like mathematics, physics, chemistry and engineering. It is used to
1
modify the genetic structure in animals and plants to improve them in desired way for getting
beneficial products (Naz, 2015).
Genetic Engineering also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the

direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies
used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and
across species’ boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. It utilizes recombinant
DNA (rDNA) technology that is used to cut a known DNA sequence from one organism and
introduce it into another organism thereby altering the genotype (hence the phenotype) of
the recipient. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) contains DNA molecules from two different
species. The process of introducing the foreign gene into another organism (or vector) is
also called cloning.
Genetic Engineering Technique

The process begins similarly for any organism being modified (see Figure 1).
1. Identify a new trait of interest from an organism.
2. Isolate the genetic trait of interest from the DNA of an organism.
http://www.cas.miamioh.edu/mbiws/geneticengineering/Images/stepslabelss.JPG
Figure 1 Genetic engineering used in insulin production
3. Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA by using a restriction enzyme (Figure 2).
These enzymes search for specific nucleotide sequences where they will “cut” the DNA by
breaking the bonds at this location.
2
4. Insert the new gene to an existing organism’s DNA. This may be achieved through a
number of different processes. The modified organism must then be able to grow and
replicate with its newly engineered genetic makeup.
https://useruploads.socratic.org/fYm3JZKSnuKmfnmmvBEx_recombinant_DNA_.jpg
Figure 2 The function of a restriction enzyme or endonuclease
To get the DNA

fragment into a bacterial
cell in a form that will be
copied or expressed, the
fragment is first inserted
into a plasmid. A plasmid
(also called a vector in this
context) is a small circular
DNA molecule that
replicates independently of
the chromosomal DNA in
bacteria. In cloning, the
plasmid molecules can be
used to provide a “vehicle”
in which to insert a desired
DNA fragment. Modified
plasmids are
usually reintroduced
into a bacterial host for
replication. As the bacteria
divide, they copy their own
DNA (including the
plasmids). The inserted
DNA fragment is copied
along with the rest of the
bacterial DNA.
https://www.api.simply.science/images/content/biology/genetics/DNA_technology_and_applications/img212.jpg
Figure 3 Gene cloning using bacteria
3
LEARNING COMPETENCY WITH CODE:
MELC: Outline the steps involved in Genetic Engineering

CG LC/ Code: STEM_BIO11/12-III a-b-6
Objectives:
1. Identify the processes/techniques involved in genetic engineering;
2. sequence the steps involved in genetic engineering; and 3.
discuss the pros and cons of genetic engineering.
ACTIVITIES/ EXERCISES:
ACTIVITY 1: Think BIOTECH
INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Read each incomplete statement and complete

them by filling in the blanks with the correct answer/s.
1. The direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology to produce

improved or novel organisms is called ____________________.
2. The “designer” crops can be produced by applying ________________.
3. The process of using living organisms or derivatives especially cells and bacteria for
production of various products for benefiting human beings is termed _______________.
4. The __________________ is used to cut a known DNA sequence from one organism
and introduce it into another organism thereby altering the genotype (hence the
phenotype) of the recipient.
5. A ____________ also called a vector is a small circular DNA molecule that replicates
independently of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria.
6. The process of introducing the foreign gene into another organism (or vector) is also
called _____________.
7. A gene expressing the interesting trait may be removed from the rest of the DNA by
using a/an _______________.
8. ______________ contains DNA molecules from two different species.
9. In cloning, the _____________ molecules can be used to provide a “vehicle” in which to
insert a desired DNA fragment.
10. Modified plasmids are usually reintroduced into a _________________ for replication.
4
ACTIVITY 2: Take an Arranged Match
INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Guided by the illustrations under
COLUMN A, match the order and description of each stage in genetic engineering under
COLUMN B. Write only the letter of the correct answer on the space provided before each
number.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
_____1. A. Step 4: The pieces of DNA that have
matching shapes or chemistry join together to
make a complete plasmid (ring of DNA)
B. Step 3: The donor DNA and the

plasmid DNA are mixed with an enzyme (a
molecule that will cause a reaction).
_____2.
C. Step 1: A gene is picked that controls a

trait in which scientists are interested.
_____3.
D. Step 5: The plasmids containing the
new gene are mixed with other bacterial cells.
_____4.
E. Step 7: The genetically engineered

bacteria are grown in large amounts.
_____5. F. Step 2: Scientists isolate plasmid DNA

(a ring of DNA in a bacterial cell) from
bacteria.
_____6. G. Step 6: Colonies of bacteria that

contain the chosen gene or who can produce
the desirable product are identified and
separated.
_____7.
5
ACTIVITY 3: LET’S LEVEL UP! A Pro or a Con?
INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Perform each of the following tasks.
1. Research on the pros and cons of genetic engineering. Write your findings in the table
below.
Pros Cons
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
2. Write an essay expressing your opinion on Genetic Engineering. Note: Support your
opinion with facts and include the issue of biosafety. Be guided by the rubric for scoring
your work
Rubrics for Scoring
Activity 3 A Pro or a Con?

Rubrics: Essay/ Writing Activity
Criteria Descriptive Rating
Needs Satisfactory Very Outstanding

Improveme Satisfactory
nt
1 2 3 4
Content and The topic There is one There is one There is one clear,
Focus and main topic. Main clear, well well focused topic.
ideas are ideas are focused topic. Main ideas are clear
not clear somewhat Main ideas are and are well
clear clear but are not supported by
well supported detailed and
by detailed accurate information.
information
6
Organizatio There is no The The introduction The introduction is
n clear introduction states the main inviting, states the
introduction, states the topic and main topic, and
structure, or main topic. A provides an provides an overview
conclusion conclusion is overview of the of the paper.
included. paper. A Information is
conclusion is relevant and
included. presented in a
logical order. The
conclusion is strong.
Conventions makes makes makes few makes no errors in

numerous several errors in grammar, and
errors in errors in grammar, and spelling.
grammar, grammar, spelling.
and spelling. and spelling.
TOTAL
REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS:
Self-Learning Module (SLM)
General Biology 2- Lesson 1: Genetic Engineering. Quarter 1-Module 1. ADM Department of

Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro City
De Vera, R. (2020). General Biology 2- Quarter 3 LP 1: Genetic Engineering. Department of
Education – Albay Division Internet Sources:
Oliveira, C. et.al (2017). Principles of Genetic Engineering. Foundations of Biotechnology and

Bioengineering 2017, Pages 81-127 Elsevier B.V. Accessed November 5, 2021
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444636683000044#!
Crosby, J. (2017). GMO Pros and Cons. Accessed August 13, 2021
https://www.slideshare.net/JeanaCrosby/gmo-pros-and-cons
Naz, Z. (2015). Introduction to Biotechnology. Institute of Molecular Biology and

Biotechnology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. Accessed November
7, 2021
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284169166_Introduction_to_Biotechnology
Patra, S. (2015). Human, Social, and Environmental Impacts of Human Genetic Engineering.
J Biomedical Sci. 2015, 4:2. doi:10.4172/2254-609X.100014. Accessed
November 5, 2021
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303718653_Human_Social_and_Environmental_I
mpacts_of_Genetic_Engineering
The Pros and Cons of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). (2014, August 24).
Accessed August 13, 2021 https://www.google.com/search?q=pro+and+con+
activitvity+for+GMO&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPH939PH939&oq=pro+and+con+activitvity+for
+GMO&aqs=chrome..69i57j33i10i160.12736j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
7
The Process of Genetic Engineering. Accessed November 5,
2021 http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Untitled2.png
The Ethics of Genetic Engineering. Accessed November 6, 2021

https://biologyigcse.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/0/7/15070316/537141.png?342
Using genetic engineering to put human insulin genes into bacteria. Accessed November 6,
2021 https://biology-igcse.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/0/7/15070316/4252798.gif?422
Various Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering. Accessed December 3, 2021

https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/pros-and-cons-of-genetic-engineering.php
https://www.britannica.com/science/recombinant-DNA-technology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering#mw-head
Image Sources:
http://www.cas.miamioh.edu/mbiws/geneticengineering/Images/stepslabelss.JPG
https://useruploads.socratic.org/fYm3JZKSnuKmfnmmvBEx_recombinant_DNA_.jpg
https://www.api.simply.science/images/content/biology/genetics/DNA_technology_and_appli
cations/img212.jpg
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: ANALIZA D. VARGAS Team

Leader/Content Editor: ROCHELLE L. DE VERA
Language Editor: EUGENE R. MIÑAS
Layout Artist: JOSELITO A. CONSULTA Education
Program Supervisor: JADE O. ALBERTO, EdD Name:
___________________________________ Grade Level:
____________
8
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
Strand/Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP2)
In research, medicine, agriculture, and industry, genetic engineering is employed for

a variety of applications. The method is significant because it allows for the synthesis of
numerous copies of genes as well as the insertion of foreign genes into other species to
confer new characteristics such as antibiotic resistance or a different color. Re-engineering
microbial cells to manufacture foreign proteins was one of the first applications of the
technology. This allowed for the mass production of human proteins on a never-before-seen
scale at a low cost, paving the path for further in-depth research into protein function and
therapeutic applications.
It was through this mechanism that host bacteria were able to acquire new genes
and, as a result, new activities such as antibiotic resistance. The vial shown in the
photograph from Wellcome Library, London, contains human insulin which is one of the first
therapeutic proteins that was genetically cloned.
Retrieved from https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/assets/images/science/pages/rdna.jpg
The discovery in the 1960s by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber and American
biochemist Stuart Linn that bacteria could protect themselves from virus attack by producing
endonucleases, also known as restriction enzymes, that could seek out a single DNA
sequence in a virus and cut it precisely in one place, was another important tool for creating
recombinant DNA. This technique stopped viruses from replicating, resulting in the death of
virally infected bacteria. Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan of Harvard University
discovered and purified the first restriction enzyme, Escherichia coli K, in 1968.
The important applications of rDNA technology can be classified into the following:
(1) Medicine/Health; (2) Agriculture and Environment; (3) Industry
9
1. Applications of rDNA technology in Medicine/Health
Bacterial and viral research has resulted to methods for manipulating and
recombining DNA in unique and repeatable ways, as well as amplification of these
recombined molecules millions of times. The recombinant DNA molecules can be used
in a variety of ways in medicine and human biology once they have been correctly
recognized.
a. Production of Antibiotics: Penicillium and Streptomyces fungi are used for mass
production of famous antibiotics penicillin and streptomycin. Genetically efficient
strains of these fungi have been developed to greatly increase the yield of these
antibiotics.
b. Production of Hormone Insulin: Insulin, a

hormone, used by diabetics, is usually extracted
from pancreas of cows and pigs. This insulin is
slightly different in structure from human insulin.
As a result, it leads to allergic reactions in about
5% patients. Human gene for insulin production
has been incorporated into bacterial DNA and
such genetically engineered bacteria are used for
large scale production of insulin. This insulin does
not cause allergy.
c.Production of Vaccines: Vaccines elicit an immunological response in the animal

host,
which detects infectious pathogens and
rDNA technology, the promise Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/7/4/122/htm of
improved vaccines for animal husbandry and companion animals is becoming a
reality.
d.Gene Therapy: Gene therapy is an

advanced technique with therapeutic
potential in health services. The first
successful report in field of gene
therapy to treat a genetic disease
provided a more secure direction
toward curing the deadliest genetic
diseases (Cavazannacalvo, M. et al.,
2000). This strategy shows good
response in providing treatment for
adenosine deaminasedeficiency
(ADA-SCID), which is a
primary immunodeficiency
10
Production of Vaccine
vaccines must do so
without producing
disease. Scientists have
developed live
genetically modified Retrieved from
organisms,
-
recombinant https://www.nih.gov/sites/default/files/styles/featured_media_breakpointlarge/public/news-events/news-releases/2019/20191002-sickle-
lethal vaccines, and cell.jpg?itok=jtuTpFwX&timestamp=1570018155

gene tic vaccines that do
not cause disease but
generate a powerful
e. immune
Investigation of Drug Metabolism:
response using Investigation of Drug Metabolism
Complex system
recombinant DNAof
drug metabolizing
technologies. Through
enzymes involved in the drug
metabolism is crucial to be
investigated for the proper
efficacy and effects of drugs.
Recombinant DNA
approaches have recently
contributed its role
through heterologous
expression, where the
enzyme’s genetic information
is expressed in vitro or in vivo,
through the transfer of gene.
Retrieved from https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-

S2211383519304800 -gr2.jpg
Production of Interferon
f. Production of Interferon:
Interferon’s are virus-induced proteins
produced by virus-infected cells.
Interferon are antiviral in action and
act as first line of defense against
viruses causing serious infections,
including breast cancer and
lymph nodes malignancy.
Natural interferon is
produced in very small quality from
human blood cells. It is thus very
costly also. It is now possible to
produce interferon by
recombinant DNA technology at
much cheaper rate.
Retrieved from https://www.hkjpaed.org/figure/1996;1;105-118 fig1.gif
g. Solution of Disputed Parentage: Disputed cases of parentage can now be solved

most accurately by recombinant technology than by blood tests.
h. Production of Enzymes: Some useful enzymes can also be produced by

recombinant DNA technique. For instance, enzyme urikinase, which is used to dissolve
blood clots, has been produced by genetically engineered microorganisms.
11
Retrieved from https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0958166920301890-gr1.jpg
2. Applications of rDNA technology in Agriculture and Environment
Food is a basic need, and the need for it will continue to rise as the world's
population grows. Classical breeding programs have made significant contributions to
the improvement of numerous crops, and molecular genetics, which now serves as the
foundation for genetic engineering research, has given crop improvement a new
direction.
Schematic Representation of Phytoremediation Strategies

a. Phytoremediation and
Plant Resistance Development:
Genetic engineering has been widely
used for the detection and
absorption of contaminants in
drinking water and other samples.
Fine-tuning enzymatic activity and
knockout engineering together
enhance the plant responses to toxic
metals. Phytochelatin synthase, a
heavy metal binding
peptide synthesizing enzyme,
revealed a way to enhance tolerance
against heavy metals through
enzymatic activity attenuation.
Recombinant DNA technology
has proven to be effective in getting Retrieved from
https://www.intechopen.com/media/chapter/4635
5/media/im
rid of arsenic particles that are age1.jpeg
considered as serious contaminants
in soil.
b. Pest Resistance Genetic Engineering of Crops for Insect Resistance
Technology: Genetic
engineering of crops for insect
resistance is the introduction of
12
specific DNA sequences into crop plants to enhance their resistance to insect
pests. The DNA sequences used usually encode proteins with insecticidal
activity, so that in plants which contain introduced DNA, an insecticidal protein is
present.
c. Disease Resistance Technology: Modern molecular biological

techniques are allowing deeper insights into plant-
pathogen interactions than ever before. Cellculture technology provides
a powerful set of tools to produce disease-resistant plant genotypes. The
unravelling of plant defense mechanisms and the cloning of resistance genes are
now opening new avenues for the genetic engineering of crop
plants with enhanced resistance to diseases. Dozens of field tests of genetically
engineered plants with novel Retrieved from https://www.intechopen.com/media/chapter/46355/med
resistance properties have already ia/image1.jpeg
been conducted. The comprehensive
illustration of different strategies, integrating conventional and advanced breeding
technologies to develop novel ornamental cultivars which possess enhanced
fungal disease resistance traits is shown in the picture on the next page.
d. Biofortification and Stress Tolerance Technology:

Biofortification of crops generally refers to their
production with enhanced nutritional value. This can be
achieved either by using conventional selective
breeding or through genetic engineering.
Biofortification differs from fortification because it aims
to make plant foods naturally more nutritive rather than
adding nutrient supplements to the foods during food
processing. Genetic engineering is an alternative
because of its potential to improve abiotic stress
tolerance more rapidly. The techniques for gene
transformation of Retrieved from
crop plants have been applied for identification of https://i0.wp.com/sustainable-
securegenes responsible for drought resistance and food-blog.com/wptheir transfer.
e. Herbicide Tolerance
Technology:
Herbicide tolerant
(HT) crops
offer farmers a
vital tool in fighting
weeds and are
compatible with no-
till methods, which
help preserve topsoil.
They give farmers
the flexibility to
apply herbicides
only when needed, to
control total
input of
herbicides and to use
herbicides with
13
preferred environmental characteristics.
Retrieved from
https://www.intechopen.com/media/chapter/56288/media/F1.png
3. Applications of rDNA
technology in Industry
In industries, recombinant DNA technique will help in the production of chemical

compounds of commercial importance, improvement of existing fermentation
processes and production of proteins from wastes. This can be achieved by
developing more efficient strains of microorganisms.
a. Improvement of
Fermentation
Process:
Fermentation is a
type of
biotechnology that
uses
microorganisms to
create a chemical
change that can
produce food
additives and animal
feed. Fermentation
can offer a number of
benefits for food
producers —
including
sustainability,
Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/ijms/ijms-22-07956/article_deploy/html/images/
ijmshealth and 22-07956-g002.png
product performance.
b. Production of Protein from Wastes

One area of increasing interest is the production of functional proteins from
processing residues derived from agricultural crops, including fruits, vegetables
and seeds. There is considerable interest in looking at ways of adding value to
these residues, including the production of more sustainable functional proteins
for the food industry.
At the end of this learning activity sheet, the students should be able to:
MELC: Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA.
14
ACTIVITY 1. 1 : Let’s Warm Up!
INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Identify the potential applications of

recombinant DNA in crop improvement by matching the applications in column A
with their meanings in Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer in a separate
sheet of paper.
COLUMN B
COLUMN A
APPLICATIONS IN CROP MEANING/DEFINITION
IMPROVEMENT
1. Development of
Transgenic Plants A. The desirable genes can be transferred even from
2. Development of Root lower organisms to higher organisms.
Nodules in Cereal Crops B. Resistance to diseases, insects and pests,
herbicides, drought; metal toxicity tolerance; induction
of male sterility for plant breeding purpose; and
improvement of quality can be achieved.
3. Development of C4 Plants C. Improvement in yield can be achieved by improving
the photosynthetic efficiency of crop plants.
D. Production of interferon by recombinant DNA
4. Genetic Modified Foods technology at much cheaper rate.
(GMF) E. Recombinant DNA has increased the overall
5. Distant Hybridization production of crops, as well as decreased the
amounts of herbicides and insecticides used by
farmers.
F. Through genetic engineering techniques, the bacterial
genes responsible for nitrogen fixation may now be
transferred to cereal crops making it capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen as well.
ACTIVITY 1.2: Choose Me!

INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Identify the industrial and medicinal
applications of recombinant DNA being described in each item. You can choose your
answer inside the box. Write the correct answer in each item in a separate sheet of paper.
15
a. The protein can be made in large numbers by doing this recombinant DNA
application to the altered organism in bioreactors which eventually purify the
protein.
b. Using recombinant DNA technology, new DNA sequences can be created which is
put into a host cell, where it is expressed into the so-called recombinant protein.
c. Transfer of antigen coding genes to disease causing bacteria which such
antibodies provide protection against the infection by the same bacteria or virus.
d. Genetically engineered microbes produce urokinase which is used to break blood
clots.
e. Replacing the defective genes responsible for hereditary diseases (e.g.,
hemophilia, phenylketonuria, alkaptonuria) with normal genes.
ACTIVITY 3: LET’S LEVEL UP! Let’s Do This!
INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Research about Genetically Modified food

(example tomatoes, golden rice, corn, others) and design an infographic about your
chosen GM food. Use a separate sheet of paper for your infographic.
Kumar, S. Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology: 3 Applications. Biology Discussion.

https://www.biologydiscussion.com/dna/recombinant-dna-technology/applications-
ofrecombinant-dna-technology-3-applications/15650
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14545696/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5178364/
RUBRICS FOR SCORING INFOGRAPHICS

Category 4 3 2 1 Your
score
Main Idea The topic and Topic and main Topic is given but Topic and/or
messages of the ideas are clear. main ideas are main ideas are
(weight x2) infographic are clear unclear or absent or very
and easily lacking. unclear.
understood
Details Details (including Detail is added to More is needed Very little detail is
labels) support the support each for provided for the
main idea without main idea with understanding. main ideas and
distracting with minimal clutter. Some are understanding is
clutter. distracting. limited.
Content - At least 4 accurate 3 accurate facts 2 accurate facts Fewer than 2

Accuracy facts/concepts are are displaye are displayed. accurate facts
displayed in the are displayed.
(weight x2) infographic
16
Graphics - The graphics used Most graphics All graphics Graphics do not
Relevance represent represent the relate to the topic relate to the
but do not topic.
information information represent

appropriately. appropriately. appropriately.
Graphics - Color, shape, size, Color, shape, Color, shape, Color, shape,
Visual and arrangement of size, and size, and size, and
graphics contribute arrangement are arrangement are arrangement are
meaning to the eye catching and present but do distracting or
overall message. contribute some not add to the misleading.
meaning. information.
Design/layout The design/layout is Is attractive in Is acceptably Is distractingly

neat, clear, and terms of design, attractive though messy,
visually appealing. layout and it may be a bit unattractive, or
neatness. messy. very poorly
designed.
Mechanics Capitalization and There is 1 error There are 2 More than 2

punctuation are in capitalization errors in errors in
correct throughout. or punctuation. capitalization or capitalization or
punctuation. punctuation.
Grammar There are no There is 1 There are 2 There are more

grammatical grammatical grammatical than 2
mistakes. mistake. mistakes. grammatical
mistakes.
Image and info Credit/citations

Credits (0 or 1 provided for all
pt.) images and
research
information.
Total /45
Adapted from https://www.teachersfirst.com/iste/infographics/sampleinforubric.doc
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: JEANNIE ROSE HILOTIN

Team Leader/Content Editor: ROCHELLE L. DE VERA
Layout Artist: JOSELITO A. CONSULTA
Education Program Supervisor: JADE O. ALBERTO, EdD
17
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
Name: ___________________________________ Grade Level: _____________
Strand/ Section: ______________________________ Date: ___________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP3)
LEARNING THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Because of its usefulness for communicating about events in Earth's history, it is important
that all students studying geology, paleontology, and evolutionary biology commit the
geological time scale to memory. This is most easily done by breaking the time scale into its
component parts: eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
Eons
The eon is the broadest category of geological time. Earth's history is characterized by four
eons; in order from oldest to youngest, these are the Hadeon, Archean, Proterozoic, and
Phanerozoic. Collectively, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic are sometimes informally
referred to as the "Precambrian." (The Cambrian period defines the beginning of the
Phanerozoic eon; so, all rocks older than the Cambrian are Precambrian in age.)
We live during the Phanerozoic, which means "visible life." This is the interval of geological
time characterized by abundant, complex fossilized remains. Being the youngest eon of
time, it is also very well represented by rock at Earth's surface. Because of these two
18
factors, most paleontologists and geologists study fossils and rocks from the Phanerozoic
eon. Note in the figure below the absolute ages of the boundaries separating each eon of
time.
Left: the four eons of geological time. Right: the "Precambrian" eons (Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic)
represent 88% of geological time. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
You have already learned that the Earth is 4.54 billion years old. The Phanerozoic eon
began 541 million years ago (or, 0.541 billion years ago). Thus, the Phanerozoic eon
represents a paltry 12% of Earth's history! Instead, most of Earth's history is represented by
the three Precambrian eons. These older eons tell the story of Earth's beginning, life's origin,
and the rise of complex life.
The Hadean and Archean are difficult eons to study, however, because they are exposed in
very limited places on Earth's surface. (Since they are the oldest eons, rocks that are
Hadean and Archean in age are often buried far below younger rocks at Earth's surface.)
Proterozoic rocks--which span nearly 2 billion years (42% of Earth's history) --are much
more accessible, but, until recently, have received significantly less attention from
paleontologists than rocks from the younger, fossil-rich Phanerozoic eon. That is slowly
beginning to change, however, as more clues about the origins of complex life begin to be
revealed from Proterozoic-aged rocks.
Eras
Eons of geological time are subdivided into eras, which are the second-longest units of
geological time. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and Cenozoic.
The three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. This work is licensed under a Creative
Most of our knowledge of the fossil record comes from the three eras of the Phanerozoic
eon. The Paleozoic ("old life") era is characterized by trilobites, the first four-limbed
vertebrates, and the origin of land plants. The Mesozoic ("middle life") era represents the
"age of dinosaurs," though also is noteworthy for the first appearances of mammals and
flowering plants. Finally, the Cenozoic ("new life") era is sometimes called the "age of
mammals" and is the era during which we live today.
As temporal points of reference, it is worth memorizing the ages of the boundaries that
separate the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. Long before geologists knew these absolute
19
age dates, they realized that the boundaries represent important events in the history of life:
mass extinctions. For example, many fossils that are commonly found in the youngest
Paleozoic rocks are not found in overlying Mesozoic rocks. Similarly, dinosaur fossils found
in the youngest Mesozoic rocks are never again found in the overlying Cenozoic rocks.
Paleontologists and geologists used these mass extinction events to define these (and
other) boundaries within the Phanerozoic portion of the geological time scale. It is therefore
no coincidence that some of the major boundaries coincide with mass extinction events!
Periods
Just as eons are subdivided into eras, eras are subdivided into units of time called periods.
The most well-known of all geological periods is the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era (the
movie Jurassic Park, of course, has something to do with that).
The Paleozoic era is divided into six periods. From oldest to youngest, these are the
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. Note that in the
United States, the Carboniferous is divided into two separate periods: the Mississippian and
the Pennsylvanian.
The seven periods of the Paleozoic era. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. This work is licensed under a Creative
The Mesozoic era is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.
The three periods of the Mesozoic era. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. This work is licensed under a Creative
Finally, the Cenozoic era is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and
Quaternary.
The three periods of the Cenozoic era. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. This work is licensed under a Creative
20
Epochs and Ages
Periods of geological time are subdivided into epochs. In turn, epochs are divided into even
narrower units of time called ages. For the sake of simplicity, only the epochs of the
Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods are shown on the time scale at the top of this
page. It is important to note, however, that all of the periods of the Phanerozoic era are
subdivided into the epochs and ages.
The Paleogene period is divided into--from oldest to youngest--the Paleocene, Eocene, and
Oligocene epochs. The Neogene is divided into the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. Finally,
the Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Some geologists now
think that--since humans are having such a notable impact on the Earth and its life--a new,
youngest epoch should be added to the Quaternary: the Anthropocene. There is still
considerable discussion in the geological community about whether this epoch should be
added, as well as debate about what characteristics should define its beginning.
Epochs of the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. This work is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The Geological Time Scale

Now that you have learned about the hierarchical components of the geological time scale-
eons, eras, periods, and epochs--consider again how all of these parts fit together. Note that
some boundaries (those that follow horizontal lines on the time scale) are equivalent in age.
For example, the Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary is equivalent to the Cretaceous-Paleogene
boundary (both have an age of 66 Ma). Similarly, the Paleogene-Neogene boundary is
equivalent to the Oligocene-Miocene boundary. Study the table below to know more about
the geologic time and correlating geologic events on a worldwide scale.
21
MELC: Describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally
accepted dates and sequence of the geologic time scale and; characteristics of major
groups of organisms present during these time periods.
CG LC/ Code: STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8
ACTIVITY 1: WHAT TIME WAS IT?

The standard clock keeps time in a circle so it is a circular timeline. The hands of the
clock let us know the passing of seconds, minutes or hours. The numbers divide the
clock into intervals-five-minute intervals or hour intervals. This is clock for telling time.
The clock of eras uses the analogy of circular clock to represent the development of
our planet in geologic time.
INSTRUCTION: Compete the data table below using the scale of one hour
equivalent to 375,000,000 years passing. Determine the equivalent clock time of the
indicated eras as shown in the sample. Put on colors also to the clock of eras to
mark off each era.
22
1 hour= 375,000,000 years
Era Years Clock Time

Hadean 700,000,00 1 hour 52 minutes
Archaean 1,300,000,000
Proterozoic 1,957,000,000
Paleozoic 295,000,000
Mesozoic 183,000,000
Cenozoic 65,000,000
ACTIVITY 2: STORIES FROM THE GEOLOGIC TIME

INSTRUCTION: Earth has a long, complex history tracked by the geologists using
special techniques and skill that lead the creation of geologic time scale. Each major time
period has stories to tell.
Below is the table which resembles the geologic time scale. Track earth’s different
geologic and evolutionary stories by filling-in the table with the information provided
below. Your clue in order to know the correct placement is the indicated date after each
event. You can simply copy the phrases and write on the spaces of the geologic timeline
below.
Eras Geological events Evolutionary events
Cenozoic (65 million years

ago to present)
Mesozoic (245 to 65
million years ago)
Paleozoic (540 to 245
million years ago)
Precambrian (4.6 billion
years to 540 million years
ago)
23
Evolutionary Events
First evidence of life (3,850 ma) Arthropods on land (420 ma)
Photosynthesizing bacteria (3,700 ma) First insects (407 ma)
Oldest fossils (3,500 ma) First amphibian vertebrates (375
ma)
First Eukaryotes (2,700 ma) First dinosaurs (220 mya)
Ediacaran Fauna (600 ma) Early mammals (220 mya)
The Cambrian Explosion (530 ma) First birds (150 ma)
First land plants and fish (480 ma) First flowering plants (130 ma)
Geologic Events
Formation of the great oceans (4,200 ma) Pangaea supercontinent breaks up (200
ma)
Oxygen Levels reach 3% of the Continents near present-day positions (40
ma)
Atmosphere (1.9 ma) Initiation of Seafloor Spreading of South
Protective Ozone in place (600 ma) China Sea (32 ma)
Gondwana forms (500 ma) Initiation of the Philippine Fault (4 ma)
Oxygen nears present day concentration Global ice ages begin (2 ma) (400 ma)
Formation of Pangaea supercontinent (280 ma)
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. What does the geologic time scale indicate about the change in life forms over time?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. What is the relationship of geologic time scale to the evolution?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. What is the importance of geological time scale?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 3: LET’S CHECK!

INSTRUCTION: Answer the questions in the spaces provided.
1. Explain the relationships among eons, eras, epochs, and periods of the geologic time
scale.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. How did scientists account for fossils and other geological evidence as they developed
the geologic time scale?
24
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Match the description with the appropriate subdivision of the geologic time scale. Use
each term once.
Description Term
____ Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic A. Paleozoic
____ Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous B. Cenozoic
____ Tertiary and Quaternary C. Precambrian
____Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian D. Mesozoic, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian
REFERENCES FOR L EARNERS:
SLM Sources
Bernaldez, M. (2021). STEM - General Biology 2 Grade 12 Quarter 3: Week 2 - Module 2:
Evolution and Origin of Diversity First Edition. Department of Education – La Union
Schools Division Office.
Online Sources https://www.sheffield.k12.oh.us/Downloads/Geologic%20Time
%20WS.pdf https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/geological-time/geological-time-
scale/
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: MA. SHARLYN A. NAVIA
25
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
Name: _________________________________________ Grade Level: _____________
Strand/ Section: _________________________________ Date: ___________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP4)
Populations evolve, but individual organisms do not. A population is an

interbreeding group of individuals of one species in a given geographic area at the same
time. A population evolves because the population contains the collection of genes called
the gene pool. As changes in the gene pool occur, a population evolves. Evolution is
happening right here, right now!
Evolution doesn't mean that these populations are marching towards some final state
of perfection. Evolution means “descent with modification”. “Descent” means inheritance
while modification refers to changes in traits from generation to generation. Evolution
therefore means that a population is changing its genetic makeup over generations.
What causes populations to evolve? When a population is in Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium (HWE) for a gene, it is not evolving, and allele frequencies will stay the same
across generations.
What is the difference between allele and genotype frequency?

• Allele frequency is the fraction of all the gene
copies in a population that a particular allele
makes up. For instance, to get the frequency of
allele A in the population below, we count up all
the A alleles. We find 12 of them (out of the 40
total alleles in the population). This gives us an
allele frequency of 12/40 = 0.3.
• Genotype frequency is the fraction of individuals

in that population that have a particular genotype.
For instance, to get the frequency of the genotype
AA in the population above, we count up all the AA
individuals. We find two beetles of this genotype
out of 20 beetles in the population. This gives us a
genotype frequency of 2/20 = 0.1
26
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is a null model of the relationship between allele and
genotype frequencies, both within and between generations. In order for a population to
be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, or a non-evolving state, it must meet five major
assumptions:
1. No mutation. No new alleles are generated by mutation, nor are genes duplicated or
deleted.
2. Random mating. Organisms mate randomly with each other, with no preference for
particular genotypes.
3. No gene flow. Neither individuals nor their gametes (e.g., windborne pollen) enter or
exit the population.
4. No finite population size (genetic drift). The population should be effectively
infinite (large) in size.
5. No natural selection. All alleles confer equal fitness (make organisms equally likely
to survive and reproduce).
Mechanisms of evolution
Violations of different Hardy-Weinberg assumptions correspond to mechanisms of
evolution. There are several key mechanisms that cause a population to exhibit a change in
allele frequency from one generation to the next. These are evolution by: mutation,
nonrandom mating, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, and genetic recombination.
Each mechanism of evolution can be characterized by how it affects fitness, adaptation, the
average phenotype of a trait in population, and the genetic diversity of the population.
1. Mutation. Evolution by mutation occurs whenever a mistake in the DNA occurs in

the genome- heritable complete set of genetic information an organism requires to
function that generates variation and can be passed on to the next generation.
Mutation is the raw stuff of evolution because it creates a new heritable phenotype,
irrespective of fitness or adaptation. It should be noted that mutation is the ultimate
source of genetic variation in all population.
Image source: https://www.khanacademy.org/
Although mutation is the original source of all genetic variation mutation rate for
most organisms is pretty low. So, the impact of brand-new mutations on allele
frequencies from one generation to the next is usually not large. Nevertheless,
mutation combined with one of the other mechanisms of evolution can be a powerful
mechanism of evolution.
2. Non-random Mating. Selecting a mate at

random is a pretty risky idea because half of
your offspring’s genes come from your mate.
Non-random mating can occur
when individuals prefer mates with
27
particular superior physical characteristics or by preference of
individuals to mate with individuals similar to themselves. Non-random
mating is a more common approach in real
https://www.chegg.com/learn/biology/introduction populations: think about male birds being
to-biology/nonrandom-mating
selected as mates by females who choose
males for their vivid coloration or beautiful and complex birdsong. If individuals
nonrandomly mate with other individuals in the population, choices can drive
evolution within a population. In animals, non-random mating can change allele
frequencies as the choice of mates is often an important part of behavior. Many
plants self-pollinate, which is also a form of non-random mating (inbreeding).
3. Gene flow. Another mechanism of evolution may occur during the movement of
genes into and out of a population due to migration of organisms or their gametes.
For example, animals may be driven off from a herd forcing them to migrate to a new
population, thereby bringing new genes to a gene pool. Gene flow tends to increase
the similarity between remaining populations of the same species because it makes
gene pools more similar to one another.
During the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s, many American servicemen
had children with Vietnamese women. Most of the servicemen returned to the United
States after the war. However, they left copies of their genes behind in their offspring.
In this way, they changed the allele frequencies in the Vietnamese gene pool. Was
the gene pool of the American population also affected? Why or why not?
4. Non-infinite population size (genetic drift). Genetic drift involves random

fluctuations in the frequencies of alleles from generation to generation due to chance
events. Genetic drift can cause traits to be dominant or disappear from a population.
The effects of genetic drift are most pronounced in small populations.
Examples of Genetic Drift
28
a. The Founder Effect. Small population that branches off from a larger one may
or may not be genetically representative of the larger population from which it
was derived. This reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is
descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors is known as
the “founder effect.”
Amishchildwith Ellis Van Creveldsyndrome,is a

recessive condition whose symptoms include
dwarfism, extra fingers andtoes (polydactyly),
abnormalities of nails and teeth, and a hole
between the upper two chambers of the heart.
Image source:https://learn-biology.com/ap-
biology/module -20-population-genetics/genetic
-
drift-the-founder-effect-and-population-
bottlenecks/
b. Population Bottleneck occurs when a

population undergoes an event in which a
significant percentage of a population or
species is killed or otherwise prevented
from reproducing.
Ex. cheetahs
Image source: https://dragonflyissuesinevolution13.fandom.com/wiki/Bottleneck_Effect
Because genetic drift acts more quickly to reduce genetic variation in small
populations, undergoing a bottleneck can reduce a populations’ genetic variation by a
29
lot, even if the bottleneck doesn’t last for very many generations. The event may
eliminate alleles entirely or also cause other alleles to be over-represented in a gene
pool.
5. Natural selection. Finally, the most famous mechanism of evolution! Natural

selection occurs when one allele (or combination of alleles of different genes) makes
an organism more or less fit, that is, able to survive and reproduce in a given
environment. If an allele reduces fitness, its frequency will tend to drop from one
generation to the next.
Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who proposed the theory of biological
evolution by natural selection. Darwin defined evolution as "descent with
modification," the idea that species change over time, give rise to new species, and
share a common ancestor.
The mechanism that Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection.
Because resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor
survival and reproduction will tend to leave more offspring than their peers, causing the
traits to increase in frequency over generations.
Natural selection causes populations to become adapted, or increasingly
wellsuited, to their environments over time. Natural selection depends on the
environment and requires existing heritable variation in a group.
Darwin's concept of natural selection was based on several key observations:
• Traits are often heritable. In living

organisms, many characteristics
are inherited, or passed from
parent to offspring. (Darwin knew
this was the case, even though he
did not know that traits were
inherited via genes.)
30
• More offspring are
produced than can
survive. Organisms are
capable of producing more
offspring than their
environments can
support. Thus, there is
competition for limited resources in
each generation.
• Offspring vary in their heritable

traits. The offspring in any
generation will be slightly different etc.), and
from one another in their traits
(color, size, shape, many of these
features will be heritable.
Based on these simple observations, Darwin concluded the following:

• In a population, some individuals will have inherited traits that
help them survive and reproduce (given the conditions of the
environment, such as the predators and food sources present).
The individuals with the helpful traits will leave more offspring in
the next generation than their peers since the traits make them
more effective at surviving and reproducing.
• Because the helpful traits are heritable, and because organisms
with these traits leave more offspring, the traits will tend to
become more common (present in a larger fraction of the
population) in the next generation.
• Over generations, the population will become adapted to its
environment (as individuals with traits helpful in that environment
have consistently greater reproductive success than their peers)
How natural selection can work

To make natural selection more concrete, let's consider a simplified,
hypothetical example. In this example, a group of mice with heritable variation in fur
color (black vs. tan) has just moved into a new area where the rocks are black. This
environment features hawks, which like to eat mice and can see the tan ones more
easily than the black ones against the black rock.
Because the hawks can see and catch the tan mice more easily, a relatively
large fraction of the tan mice are eaten, while a much smaller fraction of the black
mice are eaten. If we look at the ratio of black mice to tan mice in the surviving ("not-
eaten") group, it will be higher than in the starting population.
31
Schematic based on similar schematic in Reece et al. ^44start superscript, 4, end superscript. Hawk outline traced
from " Black and white line art drawing of Swainson hawk bird in flight," by Kerris Paul (public domain).
Fur color is a heritable trait (one that can be passed from parent to child). So,
the increased fraction of black mice in the surviving group means an increased
fraction of black baby mice in the next generation. After several generations of
selection, the population might be made up almost entirely of black mice. This
change in the heritable features of the population is an example of evolution.
Key points about natural selection

• Natural selection depends on the environment
Natural selection doesn't favor traits that are somehow inherently superior.
Instead, it favors traits that are beneficial (that is, help an organism survive and
reproduce more effectively than its peers) in a specific environment. Traits that are
helpful in one environment might actually be harmful in another.
• Natural selection acts on existing heritable variation
Natural selection needs some starting material, and that starting material is
heritable variation. For natural selection to act on a feature, there must already be
variation (differences among individuals) for that feature. Also, the differences have
to be heritable, determined by the organisms' genes.
• Heritable variation comes from random mutations
The original source of the new gene variants that produce new heritable traits,
such as fur colors, is random mutation (changes in DNA sequence). Random
mutations that are passed on to offspring typically occur in the germline, or sperm
and egg cell lineage, of organisms. Sexual reproduction "mixes and matches" gene
variants to make more variation.
6. Artificial Selection. Artificial selection is the identification by humans of desirable traits

in plants and animals, and the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in
future generations. Artificial selection works the same way as natural selection, except
that with artificial selection it is human interference, that makes decisions on which
individuals reproduce.
32
A prime example of artificial selection is dog breeding. Although it was traced that all
dogs are descendants of the wolf, the use of artificial selection has allowed humans to
dramatically alter the dogs, phenotype. Dogs have been bred for various desired
characteristics, leading to the creation of a wide range of dogs, from the tiny Chihuahua
to the massive Great Dane. Desirable or fashionable traits of dogs nowadays are
product of artificial selection.
There are three different types of breeds that exist:
• Purebred comes from a lineage of the same breed and that has never mated with
another breed. For example, a purebred German shepherd is all German shepherd
and nothing else.
• A cross-breed is an offspring of two different types of purebreds. A purebred
german shepherd mated with a purebred husky resulting to half german shepherd,
half husky.
• Mixed-breeds are a combination of multiple breeds, where their parents were not
purebreds. One advantage to choosing cross-breeds and mixed-breeds over
purebred dogs is that harmful genetic mutations that tend to frequently occur in
certain lineages can be covered up, or “bred out”, by the genetic background of the
other dog breed(s) in the individual.
In agriculture, artificial selection has long been used to produce animals and crops
with desirable traits. Artificial selection has increased carrots’ beta carotene content by
50% since 1970 (Thomson et al., Genetic Literacy Project, 2016). Artificial selection
appeals to humans since it is faster than natural selection and allows humans to mold
organisms to their needs.
7. Genetic Recombination. Genetic recombination refers to the rearrangement of DNA

sequences by the breakage and rejoining of chromosomes or chromosome segments
which is a programmed feature of meiosis in most sexual organisms, where it ensures
the proper segregation of chromosomes. Recombination also serves as a mechanism to
repair some types of potentially lethal damage to chromosomes. This allows
nonfunctional (less functional) alleles to be cleared from a population.)
Meiotic recombination is an
example of a reaction that involves
DNA sequences that are paired and
homologous over very extended
lengths. This type of process, which
is illustrated in Figure 5, is termed
as homologous recombination.
Each participating chromosome
receives information comparable to
what it donates to the other partner
which is termed as reciprocal. The
event shown in Figure 7 is also
designated as a crossover, since all
the information on both sides of the
effective break has been
Simplified diagram of a meiotic

recombination event. exchanged. Recombination during meiosis generates new
Image source: https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/3-s2.0-
B9780123749840006276-f00627-01-
9780123749840.jpg combinations of alleles in the offspring.
33
Gene conversion is a form of
homologous recombination that is
nonreciprocal. This is recognized by the
recovery of unequal numbers of the parental
markers at a particular locus, and a simple
example is shown in Figure 6 . Conversion
events can be accompanied by a crossover,
or not (as shown in Figure 8). In the latter
case, conversion looks like a very localized
double crossover, but it is nonreciprocal and
is likely the result of a single event.
Homologous recombination can

occur between homologous chromosomes or Illustration of a gene conversion event sister
chromatids in mitotic cells. https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/3-s2.0-
Recombination that involves very limited or no B9780123749840006276-f00627-02-9780123749840.jpg homology
between the interacting DNA sequences is termed illegitimate or non-homologous
recombination.
MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY WITH CODE:
MELC: Explain the mechanisms that produce change in the population from
generation to generation (eg. artificial selection, natural selection, genetic
drift, mutation, and recombination).
Specifically, the learners are expected to:

1. Describe the mechanisms of evolution: selection, mutation, genetic drift, and
gene flow and recombination.
2. Explain how each mechanism can influence the allele frequencies of a population
3. recognize the consequences of each mechanism of evolution in terms of fitness,
adaptation, average phenotype, and genetic
ACTIVITY 1: A. Say it with a picture

INSTRUCTION: Determine what type of mechanism of evolution each picture
represents.
34
1.
4.
2.
3. 5.
B. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of your answer then write it on your paper.
1. Members of the same species which are capable of interbreeding is best described as
a(n):
a. Community c. population
b. Ecosystem d. biosphere
2. The total aggregate of alleles in a population is referred to as:
a. the gene pool c. the allelic frequency
b. the genotypic frequency d. the genetic structure
3. Which of the following is not a requirement for the maintenance of Hardy–Weinberg
equilibrium?
a. large population size b. non-random migration
b. absence of mutation d. no natural selection
4. Which of the following is a likely result of genetic drift?
a. Gene fixation b. Introduction of new alleles
b. Natural selection d. Gene flow
5. How do mutations most directly contribute to natural selection?
a. They change the base sequence of DNA within a gene.
35
b. They create new alleles that may be more suitable for a given environment.
c. They increase the variation within a population.
ACTIVITY 2: Critical thinking

Instruction: Read the following paragraph and answer the questions that follow.
(Adapted from the University of California, Los Angeles Life Sciences 1 Demonstration Manual 2010)
1. A characteristic which is influenced by genes and passed from parents to offspring is

called heritable. Over many generations heritable adaptive characteristics become
more common in a population. This process is called evolution by natural selection.
Evolution by natural selection takes place over many, many generations.
Evolution by natural selection leads to adaptation within a population. The term
evolution by natural selection does not refer to individuals changing, only to changes in
the frequency of adaptive characteristics in the population as a whole. For example, for
the mice that lived in the beach area with tan sand, none of the mice had a change in the
color of their fur; however, due to natural selection, tan fur was more common for the
pups than for the mother mice.
In summary, a heritable characteristic that helps an animal or plant to have more
offspring which survive to reproduce will tend to become more common in a population as
a result of evolution by natural selection.
Question:
• Explain why a characteristic which helps an animal to live longer will generally tend to
become more common in the population as a result of evolution by natural selection.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe what is happening
in figures 1-3. Is the
population of mice different in
figure 3 than in figure 1?
Explain why. Questions:
• Describe what is
happening in figure 3
• Is the population of mice
different in figure 3 than in
figure 1? Explain why.
3. Living things that are well adapted to their environment survive and reproduce. Those
that are not well adapted don’t survive and reproduce. An adaptation is any
characteristic that increases fitness, which is defined as the ability to survive and
reproduce.
Question:
What characteristic of the mice is an adaptation that increased their fitness?
Scoring Rubrics for Activity
Characteristics Exception Very Satisfactory Needs Poor

al Satisfactory (6 points) Improveme (-3 points)
nt
(10 points) (8 points)
(4 points)
1.Answers the questions in
cohesive and coherent manner by
36
citing some examples related to
the concept being discussed.
There is none grammatical,
spelling and punctuation errors.
2. Workmanship. Handwriting is
clear
and the output is presented neatly
and organized.
TOTAL
ACTIVITY 3: LET’S LEVEL UP!

Instruction: Make either (infographic, concept map, collage (digital or non-digital)
or an artwork (eg. poster art) (digital or non-digital) illustrating mutation of the Novel
Corona Virus resulting its variants that impacted the whole world today.
Notes:
• Use ½ Cartolina for collage making and poster art.
• Use a 1 whole cartolina for infographic or concept map
Scoring sheet and Rubrics for Activity 3. Show the World
POINTS
Exceptional (10 pts)
Very satisfactory (8
CATEGORY CHARACTERISTICS pts)
Satisfactory (6 pts)
Needs Improvement
4 points
Graphics – Several of the graphics used on the
Originality poster reflect an exceptional degree of
creativity in their creation and/or display
Graphics – All graphics are related to the topic and
Relevance make it easier to understand
Attractiveness The masterpiece is exceptionally
attractive in terms of design, layout, and
neatness.
Writing Mechanics Capitalization, spelling, grammar, and
(For Concept Map/ punctuation are correct throughout the
Infographics HPS poster
20 pts))
37
Originality of Poster depicts an important and original
Message message in a novel, creative manner
(for Collage and
Poster Art Work
only)
Persuasiveness of Poster conveys a clear and important
the message message in a powerful and persuasive
(for Collage and manner
Poster Art Work
only)
TOTAL POINTS Highest Possible Score
Collage Making 50 points
Poster Art Work 50 points
Digital and Non- Digital Poster 50 points
Books:
Hoefnagels, M.(2019).General Biology(Book I and II)(2nd ed.).McGraw-Hill Education
Internet Sources:
Gregogy, R. (2009). Understanding natural Selection: essential concepts and

common misconception Https://Evolution-
Outreach.Biomedcentral.Com/Articles/10.1007/S12052-009-0128-1.
Ridley, M. (n.d.). Evolution - A-Z - Random sampling.

www.Blackwellpublishing.Com. Retrieved January 31, 2022, from
https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/az/Random_sampling.asp
Evolution (module 1). (n.d.). Https://Bioprinciples.Biosci.Gatech.Edu. Retrieved

January 28, 2022, from https://bioprinciples.biosci.gatech.edu/module-
1evolution/neutral-mechanisms-of-evolution/
38
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: MARGIE R. LLENO

Name: ______________________________________ Grade Level : ______________
Strand/ Section: ______________________________ Date: _____________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP5)
39
Where does biodiversity come from? The answer is simple- from evolution. But what is
evolution? How does it result in biodiversity?
The basic idea of biological evolution is that populations
and species of organisms change over time. Today, when we
think of evolution, we are likely to link this idea with one specific
person: the British naturalist Charles Darwin.
SMILE
)
(SIMPLIFIED MODULE INTENDED FOR LEARNING ENCOUNTERS
Learner’s Packet
Note however that in the mid-nineteenth century, the actual mechanism for evolution
was independently conceived of and described by two naturalists: Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russel Wallace. Importantly, each naturalist spent time exploring the natural world on
expeditions to the tropics. From 1831 to 1836, Darwin traveled around the world on H.M.S.
Beagle, including stops in South America, Australia, and the southern tip of Africa. Wallace
traveled to Brazil to collect insects in the Amazon rainforest from 1848 to
Figure 1. Voyage of the Beagle. This map shows the route of Darwin’s 5-year voyage on the HMS
Beagle
1852 source: and to the Malay Archipelago from 1854
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/09%3A_Biological_Evol
ution/9.2%3A_Darwin_Wallace_and_the_Theory_of_Evolution_by_Natural_Selection
40
to 1862. Darwin’s journey, like Wallace’s later journeys to the Malay Archipelago, included
stops at several island chains, the last being the Galápagos Islands, west of Ecuador. On
these islands, Darwin observed species of
organisms on different islands that were clearly
similar yet had distinct differences. For
example, the ground finches inhabiting the
Galápagos Islands comprised several species
with a unique beak shape (Figure 2).
Wallace and Darwin both observed
similar patterns in other organisms, and they
independently developed the same explanation
for how and why such changes could take
place. Darwin called this mechanism natural
selection. Natural selection, also known as
“survival of the fittest,” is the more prolific
reproduction of individuals with favorable traits
that survive environmental change because of
those traits; this leads to evolutionary change.
Figure 2. Darwin observed that beak shape varies
Darwin proposed that species can among finch species. He postulated that the beak of change
over time, that new species come from an ancestral species had adapted over time to equip pre-
existing species, and that all species share the finches to acquire different food sources.
a common ancestor. Hence, different species did not arise independently, but they derived
from preexisting species. In this model, each species has
Figure 3. Modern-day species appear at the top of the chart, while the ancestors from which they arose are shown
lower in the chart. Image credit: "Darwin's tree of life," by Charles Darwin. Photograph by A. Kouprianov, public
domain.
its own unique set of heritable (genetic) differences from the common ancestor, which have
accumulated gradually over very long time periods. Repeated branching events, in which
new species split off from a common ancestor, produce a multi-level "tree" that links all living
organisms.
41
Figure 4. Descent with modification. Organisms descended from an ancestor that lived in the remote past
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/16148213/
Darwin didn’t use “evolution” but rather “descent with modification” which refer to the
process in which groups of organisms change in their heritable traits over generations.
Today, we call it evolution. Darwin's sketch above (fig 3 & 4) illustrates his idea, showing
how one species can branch into two over time, and how this process can repeat multiple
times in the "family tree" of a group of related species.
The mechanism that Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection. His concept
of natural selection was based on several key observations:
• Traits are often heritable. In living organisms, many characteristics are inherited, or
passed from parent to offspring. (Darwin knew this was the case, even though he did
not know that traits were inherited via genes.)
• More offspring are produced than can survive. Organisms are capable of
producing more offspring than their environments can support. Thus, there is
competition for limited resources in each generation.
42
• Offspring vary in their heritable traits. The offspring in any generation will be
slightly different from one another in their traits (color, size, shape, etc.), and many of
these features will be heritable.
Based on these simple observations, Darwin concluded the following:

• In a population, some individuals will have inherited traits that help them survive and
reproduce (given the conditions of the environment, such as the predators and food
sources present). The individuals with the helpful traits will leave more offspring in the
next generation than their peers, since the traits make them more effective at
surviving and reproducing.
• Because the helpful traits are heritable, and because organisms with these traits
leave more offspring, the traits will tend to become more common (present in a larger
fraction of the population) in the next generation.
• Over generations, the population will become adapted to its environment (as
individuals with traits helpful in that environment have consistently greater
reproductive success than their peers).
MELC: Show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce
the organismal diversity observed today
ACTIVITY 1: THE BEETLES!
43
DIRECTIONS: Compare these two examples of change in the beetle populations.
Answer the questions that follow and write your answers on your answer sheet.
1. Which is not an example of evolution?

2. Which example illustrates descent with modification or a change in gene
frequency over time?
EXAMPLE 1. Beetles on a diet

Imagine a year or two of drought in which there are few plants that
these beetles can eat.
All the beetles have the same chances of survival and reproduction, but because of food
restrictions, the beetles in the population are a little smaller than the preceding generation of
beetles.
EXAMPLE 2. Beetles of a different color

Most of the beetles in the population (say 90%) have the genes for bright green coloration
and a few of them (10%) have a gene that makes them more brown.
Some number of generations later, things have changed: brown beetles are more common
than they used to be and make up 70% of the population.
44
ACTIVITY 2: LET’S EXPLORE FURTHER!
DIRECTIONS: Read the comparison of the Oldfield mice living in the southeastern United
States and Santa Rosa Island and answer the guide questions in a one-half sheet of paper.
The Coat color in Oldfield mice
Oldfield mice live in the southeastern United States and generally have dark fur. In
contrast, a subspecies of Oldfield mice, P. p. leucocephalus, lives on the white sand dunes
of Santa Rosa Island on the Gulf Coast of Florida and has nearly white fur.
Oldfield mice in Southeastern United States Oldfield mice in southeastern Santa Rosa Island
Source: researchgate.net Source: researchgate.net
Questions:
1. What will happen if the Oldfield mice with dark fur in the southeastern United States
move/live on white sand dunes in Santa Rosa Island?
2. Why do you think oldfield mice living in white sand dunes of Santa Rosa Island have
white fur?
ACTIVITY 3: LET’S DO THIS!
DIRECTIONS:
• Read the short story inside the box and answer the questions on a one-half sheet
of paper.
Liza immigrated to Boston from Kenya when she was a child. She initially found the winters
to be intolerably cold. After graduation, she took a
job as a bike messenger which forced her to spend many hours outside. She’s now so
comfortable in winter that she often only needs a sweater and hat,
45
even on the coldest of days. When Wangari has children of her own, would you expect
that they would be as comfortable in the cold as their mother is?
Why or why not?
Bishop B, Anderson C (1990). Student conceptions of natural selection and its role in
evolution. J Res Sci Teach 27, 415-427. Google Scholar
Darwin and Descent with Modification. Retrieved from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-darwin-and-
descentwith-modification/.
Darwin Evolution and Natural Selection. Retrieved from:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/natural-selectionap/
a/darwin-evolution-natural-selection?modal=1
Gaston, K. J. and Spicer, J. I. (2004). Biodiversity: an introduction, 2nd edition. Blackwell

Publishing, Oxford, UK.
Ruse, M., and Travis, J., 2009. Evolution: The First Four Billion Years. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA.
“Short story”. Retrieved from:https://massasoit.instructure.com/courses/71451/files/1539693/

download?wrap=1
“The Beetles” Descent with modification - Understanding Evolution. Retrieved from:
https://evolution.berkeley.edu
Scoring Rubric for Open Response Questions
Score Criteria
4 (Advanced) • All parts of the question are correctly answered
• An explanation stating the logic behind the answer is provided
with each answer
• Complete sentences are used
• Each question is restated in the answer
• Proper scientific terminology is used in all parts of answer
3 (Proficient) • All parts of the question are correctly answered
• No explanation of the answers is given
• The question is fully restated in most of the answers
• Some scientific terms are used
2 (Needs • Some parts of the question are correctly answered
Improvement) • Some parts of the question are partially correct
• The question is not restated in most answers
46
• Very few scientific terms are used
1 (Failing) • One part of the question is correctly answered
• It is unclear what is meant by many of the answers
• Sentences are incomplete
• No scientific terms are used
0 • No parts of the question are answered
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/Writer: SALLY T. DADEA

Language Editor: EUGENE MIÑAS
47
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
Name: ________________________________________ Grade Level: _______________
Strand/ Section: ________________________________ Date: ____________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP6)
There are many different theories which explain how different life forms exist. For
centuries, people believed that the various species of plants and animals were unchanged
from the time of their creation - fixity of species (creationism). It was only until the
evolutionary concepts emerged that these century-old beliefs were transformed.
In biology, the theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related
and gradually change over time. Ask, "Who developed the concept of evolution?" and most
people will probably answer "Charles Darwin". But, while Darwin amassed a huge body of
evidence for the fact of evolution and, more importantly, provided a mechanism - his theory
of natural selection - by which it could proceed, the idea of evolution has been around much
longer.
Precursors to The Theory of Evolution
Pre-Renaissance Thought
The Ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander (611-547 B.C.) and the Roman
philosopher Lucretius (99-55 B.C.) coined the concept that all living things were related and
that they had changed over time. Other ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, set
the stage for two model of existence – Essentialism and the Great Chain of Being. Plato was
the first to come up with essentialism wherein the ideal entity (including the human), against
which perceived entity was compared and contrasted. Aristotle also accepted the idea of a
perfect universe, but did not accept the dichotomy that Plato posited. Rather, he developed
his Scala Naturae, or Ladder of Life, to explain his concept of the advancement of living
things from inanimate matter to plants, then animals and finally man. This concept of man as
the "crown of creation" still plagues modern evolutionary biologists.
Post-Aristotlean "scientists" were constrained by the prevailing thought patterns of

the Middle Ages - the inerrancy of the biblical book of Genesis and the special creation of
the world in a literal six days of the 24-hour variety. Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland
(15811656) calculated the age of the earth based on the genealogies from Adam and Eve
listed in the biblical book of Genesis, working backward from the crucifixion. According to
Ussher's calculations, the earth was formed on October 22, 4004 B.C. Ussher's ideas were
readily accepted, in part because they posed no threat to the social order of the times;
comfortable ideas that would not upset the linked applecart of church and state.
48
17th Century
It wasn’t until the seventeenth century that John Ray (1627–1705), a minister
educated at Cambridge University, developed the concept of species. He was the first
person to recognize that groups of plants and animals could be distinguished from other
groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce offspring. He placed such
groups of reproductively isolated organisms into a single category, which he called the
species. Ray also recognized that species frequently shared similarities with other species,
and he grouped these together in a second level of classification he called the genus (pl.,
genera). He was the first to use the labels genus and species in this way, and they’re the
terms we still use today.
18th Century
Ray's ideas on taxonomy were picked up and extended by the better-known Carolus
Linnaeus (1707 - 1778). Linnaeus is best known for developing a method of classifying
plants and animals. In his famous work, Systema Naturae (Systems of Nature), first
published in 1735, he standardized Ray’s use of genus and species terminology and
established the system of binomial nomenclature. He also added two more categories:
class and order. Linnaeus’ four-level system became the basis for taxonomy, the system of
classification we continue to use today.
Another of Linnaeus’ innovations was to include humans in his classification of
animals, placing them in the genus Homo and species sapiens. Including humans in this
scheme was controversial because it defied contemporary thought that humans, made in
God’s image, should be considered unique and separate from the animal kingdom.
Linnaeus also believed in fixity of species, although in later years, faced with
mounting evidence to the contrary, he came to question it. Indeed, fixity was being
challenged on many fronts, especially in France, where voices were being raised in favor of
a universe based on change—and, more to the point, in favor of a biological relationship
between similar species based on descent from a common ancestor.
In the middle to late 1700's, Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon recognized the
dynamic relationship between the external environment and living forms. In his Natural
History, first published in 1749, he repeatedly stressed the importance of change in the
universe and in the changing nature of species.
Buffon believed that when groups of organisms migrated to new areas, they were
gradually altered as a result of adaptation to a somewhat different environment. Buffon’s
recognition of the external environment as an agent of change in species was an important
innovation; however, he rejected the idea that one species could give rise to another.
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802; grandfather of Charles Darwin) a British physician and
poet in the late 1700's, proposed that life had changed over time. His writings on both botany
and zoology contained many comments that suggested the possibility of common descent
based on changes undergone by animals during development, artificial selection by humans,
and the presence of vestigial organs. However, this Darwin offered no mechanism to explain
evolutionary descent.
Neither Buffon nor Erasmus Darwin attempted to explain the
evolutionary process. The first scientist to do this was a French
naturalist named Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). Lamarck,
like Buffon, suggested a dynamic relationship between species and
the environment such that if the external environment changed, an
animal’s activity patterns would also change to accommodate the
new circumstances. This would result in the increased or decreased
use of certain body parts, and consequently, those body parts
49
would be modified. According to Lamarck, because the alteration would make the animal
better suited to its habitat, the new trait would be passed on to its offspring. This theory is
known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics, or the usedisuse theory.
The Lamarckian view is that today's giraffe's have long necks because their
ancestors progressively gained longer necks due to stretching to reach food higher and
higher in trees. Thus, according to this theory, a trait acquired by an animal during its lifetime
can be passed on to offspring. Today we know that this explanation is wrong, because only
those traits that are influenced by genetic information contained within sex cells (eggs and
sperm) can be inherited.
Source: https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/36939/could-life-have-evolved-as-described-by-lamarcks-theory-
ofevolution-instead-o
Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), the most vehement opponent of Lamarck, was a

French vertebrate paleontologist who introduced the concept of extinction to explain the
disappearance of animals represented by fossils. He suggested a variation of a theory
known as catastrophism.
Catastrophism was the belief that the earth’s geological features are the results of
sudden, worldwide cataclysmic events like the Noah flood. Accordingly, fossils show that
50
animal and plant species are destroyed time and again by deluges and other natural
cataclysms, and that new species evolve only after that.
In 1798, Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), an English clergyman and economist, wrote
An Essay on the Principle of Population, which inspired both Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace in their separate discoveries of natural selection.
Malthus believed that unless people exercised restraint in the number of children
they had, the inevitable shortfall of food in the face of spiraling population growth would
doom mankind to a ceaseless struggle for existence. Out of that unforgiving battle, some
would survive, and many would not, as famine, disease, and war put a ceiling on the growth
in population.
These ideas galvanized
Darwin's thinking about the
struggles for survival in the wild,
where restraint is unknown.
Before reading Malthus, Darwin
had thought that living things
reproduced just enough
individuals to keep populations
stable. But now he came to
realize that, as in human society,
populations bred beyond their
means, leaving survivors and
losers in the effort to
Source: https://www.econ.cam.ac.uk/news/new-malthusianism exist.
James Hutton (1726 - 1797) made a significant contribution to the understanding of

the geological processes that shaped the Earth. He thought the surface of the earth was an
ever-changing environment and “the past history of our globe must be explained by what can
be seen to be happening now.” This theory was called “uniformitarianism,” which was later
catch-phrased as “the present is the key to the past.”
Further, he argues that members of species vary, and that when the environment
changes over time, those individuals best adapted to the new environment will survive, while
those poorly adapted will perish. Thus, a process of natural selection (Hutton did not use this
term) inevitably leads to change within species over time.
Charles Lyell (1797–1875), argued that geological forces like erosion and
sedimentation other than unique natural catastrophes like biblical floods and violent storms
shaped the Earth, which are uniform over time. This theory, called uniformitarianism was
first defined by Scottish geologist James Hutton, and later solidified with Lyell's work,
Principles of Geology.
Darwin shared Lyell’s view that the present unlocks the key to the past. Darwin
regarded the process of evolution as a form of “biological uniformitarianism.” Darwin, along
with Alfred Wallace, pressed the theory that evolution happens gradually through random
inherited variations in populations of organisms leading to natural selection and survival of
the fittest.
The Discovery of Natural Selection
The idea (given voice by Lamarck) that species could change over time was not
immediately acceptable to many: the lack of a mechanism hampered the acceptance of the
idea as did its implications regarding the biblical views of creation. Charles Darwin and
Alfred Wallace both worked independently of each other, traveled extensively, and
51
eventually developed similar ideas about the change in life over time as well as a
mechanism for that change: natural selection.
Charles Darwin, former divinity student, former medical student, secured (through
the intercession of his professor) an unpaid position as ship's naturalist on the H.M.S.
Beagle. The voyage would provide Darwin a unique opportunity to study adaptation and
gather a great deal of proof he would later incorporate into the theory of evolution. Darwin
spent much time ashore collecting plant, animal and fossil specimens, as well as making
extensive geological observations. On his return to England in 1836, Darwin began (with the
assistance of numerous specialists) to catalog his collections and ponder the seeming "fit" of
organisms to their mode of existence. He eventually settled on four main points of the
theory.
1. Adaptation: all organisms adapt to their environments.
2. Variation: all organisms are variable in their traits.
3. Over-reproduction: all organisms tend to reproduce beyond their environment's
capacity to support them (this is based on the work of Thomas Malthus, who
studied how populations of organisms tended to grow geometrically until they
encountered a limit on their population size).
4. Since not all organisms are equally well adapted to their environment, some will
survive and reproduce better than others -- this is known as natural selection.
Sometimes this is also referred to as "survival of the fittest". In reality this merely
deals with the reproductive success of the organisms, not solely their relative
strength or speed.
Unlike the upper-class Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) came from a
different social class. Wallace spent many years in South America, publishing salvaged
notes in Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro in 1853. In 1854, Wallace left England to
study the natural history of Indonesia, where he contracted Malaria. During a fever Wallace
managed to write down his ideas on natural selection.
In 1858, Charles Darwin received a letter from Wallace, in which Darwin's as-
yetunpublished theory of evolution and adaptation was precisely detailed. Darwin and his
colleagues arranged for Wallace's paper to be read at the July 1, 1858 meeting of the
Linnean Society, along with a letter on the same subject by Darwin. (Click here for an
excellent site covering Darwin and Wallace's paper). Wallace's paper, published in 1858,
was the first to define the role of natural selection in species formation. Darwin rushed to
finish his major treatise, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, which
remains one of the most influential books ever written. To be correct, we need to mention
that both Darwin and Wallace developed the theory, although Darwin's major work was not
published until 1859. While there have been some changes to the theory since 1859, most
notably the incorporation of genetics and DNA into what is termed the "Modern Synthesis"
during the 1940's, most scientists today accept evolution as the guiding theory on which
modern biology is based.
Careful field observations of organisms and their environment led both Darwin and
Wallace to the role of natural selection in formation of species. They also utilized the works
of Charles Lyell (geology) and Thomas Malthus. Malthus' ideas were first published in 1798,
and noted that the human population was capable of doubling every 25 years. Population
would soon outstrip the food supply, leading to starvation, famine and war, which would
reduce the population. Wallace and Darwin adapted Malthus' ideas about how scarce
resources could affect populations.
The Wallace-Darwin Theory
1. Individuals in a population have variable levels of agility, size, ability to obtain food,
and different successes in reproducing.
52
2. Left unchecked, populations tend to expand exponentially, leading to a scarcity of
resources.
3. In the struggle for existence, some individuals are more successful than others,
allowing them to survive and reproduce.
4. Those organisms best able to survive and reproduce will leave more offspring than
those unsuccessful individuals.
5. Over time there will be heritable changes in phenotype (and genotype) of a species,
resulting in a transformation of the original species into a new species similar to, but
distinct from, its parent species.
The Modern Synthesis
A major problem for Darwin lays in the apparent lack of a mechanism by which
features could be inherited. Gregor Mendel had developed his theory of heredity at much
the same time as Darwin was grappling with the theory of evolution by natural selection.
However, although Mendel published his findings, it seems that Darwin never read the
paper. In fact, the significance of Mendel's work wasn't properly grasped until early in the
20th century.
The "rediscovery" of Mendel's research led to the understanding of how various
characteristics, coded for in an individual's DNA, could be passed on to successive
generations. However, both Mendel and the early geneticists recognized only the classic
"either/or" states of discrete characteristics. It seemed there was no way to explain how
natural selection could operate on more subtle variations within a population.
It took the development of population genetics to reconcile Mendelism and Darwinism.
As the name suggests, population genetics examines genetic variation within populations, not
individuals, and allows an understanding of the relationship between this variation and natural
selection.
The modern synthesis, a "comprehensive theory of evolution" (Campbell & Reece,
2002), was developed in the 1940s. It brings together information from the fields of
population genetics, paleontology, taxonomy, biogeography, and molecular biology. It
emphasizes the importance of populations as the units of evolution, the central role of
natural selection as the most important mechanism of evolution, and the idea of gradualism
to explain how large changes can evolve as an accumulation of small changes occurring
over long periods of time" (Campbell & Reece, 2002: 446). While modern evolutionary
biology may see healthy debate over some of the assumptions made by the modern
synthesis, the underlying tenets of evolution set out by Charles Darwin remain secure.
MELC: Trace the development of evolutionary thought.

In this lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify early theories and models of evolution;
2. create a timeline of events showing the significant contributions of various
theorists to the development of evolutionary thought, and;
3. appreciate the importance of evolutionary theories in understanding the origin
and diversity of life.
53
ACTIVITY 1: THAT’S MY THOUGHT!
INSTRUCTIONS: In each item, identify the theory/model being described and name
its proponent. Choose your answers from the word box below.
Theories/Models
Essentialism Principle of Population Evolution by changing varieties
Evolution by changing varieties Catastrophism Use-Disuse Theory
Ladder of Life Uniformitarianism Evolution by Natural Selection
Taxonomy
Proponents
Thomas Malthus Plato Alfred Russell Wallace John Ray
Georges Cuvier Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Carolus Linnaeus
Charles Lyell Charles Darwin Aristotle
Theory/Model Proponent
1. This recognizes that groups of
plants and animals could be
distinguished from other
groups by their ability to mate
with one another and produce
offspring.
2. The ideal reality against which
the perceived entity is
compared and contrasted.
3. The idea that populations
increase geometrically whilst
food production only
increases arithmetically so
there must be population
crashes.
4. The view that the earth’s
geological landscape is the
result of violent cataclysmic
events.
5. The tendency of varieties to
depart indefinitely from the
original type or parent
54
species.
6. The theory that the earth’s
features are the result of
longterm processes that
continue to operate in the
present as they did in the
past.
7. According to this theory, a trait
acquired by an animal during
its lifetime can be passed on
to offspring.
8. The process whereby
organisms better adapted to
their environment tend to
survive and reduce more
offspring.
9. Concept of the advancement of
living things from inanimate
matter to plants, then animals
and finally man.
10. The description,
identification, nomenclature
and classification of
organisms.
ACTIVITY 2: EVOLUTIONARY TIMELINE

INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: On a long bond paper, lay out your own
timeline of how the theory of evolution developed and cite the significant events that
occurred and the personalities involved. Answer the guide questions that follow. Please be
guided with the scoring rubric.
Guide Questions:
1. How did religion affect the early views and beliefs in the origin of life forms?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. The inclusion of humans in Linnaeus’ classification of animals sparked controversy

during his time. Why is that so?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the opposing concept of catastrophism and uniformitarianism.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
55
___________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 3: CRITICAL READING
INSTRUCTIONS: Read these passages from the text and answer the questions that follow.
On the Origin of Species

Charles Darwin (1859)
When on board H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain
facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological
relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed
to me to throw some light on the origin of species—that mystery of mysteries, as it
has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred
to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by
patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have
any bearing on it. After five years work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject,
and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the
conclusions, which then seemed to me probable; from that period to the present day I
have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on
these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to
a decision.
My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years
to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this
Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr. Wallace, who is now
studying the natural history of the Malay Archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly
the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent
to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir Charles
Lyell, who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the
Journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr. Hooker, who both knew of my work—the
latter having read my sketch of 1844—honored me by thinking it advisable to publish,
with Mr. Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts.
In considering the Origin of Species, it is quite conceivable that a naturalist,
reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations,
their geographical distribution, geological succession, and other such facts, might
concluded that each species had not been independently created, but had
descended, like varieties, from other species. Nevertheless, such a conclusion, even
if well founded, would be unsatisfactory, until it could be shown how the innumerable
species inhabiting this world have been modified, so as to acquire that perfection of
structure and coadaptation which most justly excites our admiration. Naturalists
continually refer to external conditions, such as climate, food, etc., as the only
possible cause of variation. In one very limited sense, as we shall hereafter see, this
may be true; but it is preposterous to attribute to mere external conditions, the
structure, for instance, of the woodpecker, with its feet, tail, beak, and tongue, so
admirable adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees. In the case of the
mistletoe, which draws its nourishment from certain trees, which has seeds that must
be transported by certain birds, and which has flowers with separate sexes
absolutely requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one flower to
the other, it is equally preposterous to account for the structure of this parasite, with
its relations to several distinct organic beings, by the effects of external conditions, or
of habit, or of the volition of the plant itself.
The author of the 'Vestiges of Creation' would, I presume, say that, after a
certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker,
56
and some plant to the mistletoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we
now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves
the case of the coadaptation of organic beings to each other and to their physical
condition of life, untouched and unexplained.
It is, therefore, of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means
of modification and coadaptation. At the commencement of my observations it
seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of
cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem. Nor
have I been disappointed; in this and in all other perplexing cases I have invariable
found that our knowledge, imperfect though it be, of variation under domestication,
afforded the best and safest clue. I may venture to express my conviction of the high
value of such studies, although they have been very commonly neglected by
naturalists.
No one ought to feel surprise at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard
to the origin of species and varieties, if he makes due allowance for our profound
ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us.
Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why
another allied species has a narrow range and is rare? Yet these relations are of the
highest importance, for they determine the present welfare, and, as I believe, the
future success and modification of every inhabitant of this world. Still less do we
know of the mutual relations of the innumerable inhabitants of the world during the
many past geological epochs in its history. Although much remains obscure, and will
long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and
dispassionate judgment of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists
entertain, and which I formerly entertained—namely, that each species has been
independently created—is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not
immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal
descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the
acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species.
Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not
exclusive means of modification.
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
London, 1859
Guide Questions:
1. What led Darwin to formulate his ideas about the origin of species?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. What did Darwin propose as the origin of species?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. How did Darwin attempt to determine how modifications of a species are
accomplished?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Evolutionary Timeline
RUBRIC FOR SCORING
57
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Included events Most of the Some events Many major
are important and included events included are trivial, events are
Quality of interesting. No are important or and major events excluded, and too
content major details are interesting. One or are missing. many trivial events
excluded. two major events are included.
may be missing.
The timeline The timeline The timeline The timeline
contains at least contains at least contains at least 5 contains fewer
Quantity of 8–10 events 6–7 events related events related to than 5 events.
facts related to the topic to the topic being the topic being
being studied. studied. studied.
Facts are accurate Facts are accurate Facts are accurate Facts are often
for all events for almost all for inaccurate for
Accuracy of reported on the events reported events reported
most (75%) of the
content timeline. on the timeline. events reported on the timeline.
on the timeline.
Sequence of Events are placed Almost all events Most (75%) of the Most events are
content in proper order. are placed in events are placed Incorrectly placed
proper order. in proper order. on the timeline.
An accurate, An accurate, An accurate date Dates are
complete date has complete date has has been included inaccurate or
Dates been included for been included for for almost every missing for several
each event. almost every event. events.
event.
Events are clearly Events are Events are not Events are
described using described well, but described well and described using
Sentence accurate and vivid language is often vague language or
language is
fluency language. Sometimes vague vague or inaccurate
or inaccurate. inaccurate. information.
Punctuation, Punctuation, Punctuation, There are many
spelling and spelling and spelling, and punctuation,
capitalization are capitalization are capitalization are spelling, and
Mechanics correct mostly correct. mostly correct, but capitalization
throughout. with minimal errors.
errors.
Critical Reading
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Correctly Correctly Partially identifies Does not
identifies main identifies main main idea. correctly identify
idea. idea. Correctly Partially identifies main idea. Does
Reads with not correctly
Distinguishes key identifies key key points.
comprehensio identify key
points from minor points.
n details. Recognizes points.
Recognizes relationships
relationships
between main between main
idea/supporting idea/supporting
points Illustrates points.
main idea with
example or quote
from reading.
58
Identifies Identifies Partially identifies Does not identify
audience/purpos audience/purpos audience/purpose audience/purpos
e for reading. e for reading. for reading. e for reading.
Determines Determines Partially Does not
validity of source. validity of source. determines determine validity
Identifies Identifies validity of source. of source.
Partially identifies Does not identify
presence/absenc presence/absenc
Thinks presence/absenc presence/absenc
e of evidence. e of evidence.
e of evidence. e of evidence.
critically about Formulates Formulates
the appropriate appropriate
questions about questions about
text/reading
the reading. the reading.
Identifies Identifies
different
different
perspectives.
perspectives and
strengths/
weaknesses of
perspectives
Connects reading Connects reading Partially connects Does not connect
to prior to prior reading to prior reading to prior
knowledge/ knowledge/ knowledge/ knowledge/
experience. experience. Experience. Experience.
Applies Applies Partially/incorrectl Does not apply
Applies knowledge from knowledge from y applies knowledge from
knowledge reading reading to knowledge from reading to
gained from to assignments assignments or reading to assignments or
or real life real-life assignments or real life
reading
situations. situations. real life situations.
situations.
Formulates new
insights based on
application of
knowledge.
Printed and Digital Resources:

Bureau of Secondary Education. Project EASE (Effective Alternative Secondary
Education). Biology - Module 15: Evolution, Department of Education DepED
Complex, Meralco Avenue, Pasig City
Castilho, R. The Development of Evolutionary Theory. Heredity and Evolution Chapter 2.
Internet Resources:
History of Evolution Lectures Summary - BIO 201 - Fundamentals of -
StuDhttps://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/stony-brook-university/
fundamentalsof-biology-organisms-to-ecosystems/history-of-evolution-
lecturessummary/1104906ocu
Chapter 6: Activities for Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science | Teaching
About Evolution and the Nature of Science | The National Academies Press
59
(www.nap.edu)
Development of Evolutionary Theory retrieved from
https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookEVOLI.html
The Development of Evolutionary Thought - Evolution and Natural Selection -
EVOLUTION AND ECOLOGY - CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGY retrieved from
https://schoolbag.info/biology/concepts/82.html
Development of Evolutionary Thought retrieved from
https://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/DevelopmentEvolThought.shtml
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: ROMNICK N. MAGDARAOG

Content Editor/Team Leader: ROCHELLE L. DE VERA
Layout Artist: Language Editor:

JOSELITOEUGENE R. MIŇAS A. CONSULTA
60
Name: ________________________________________ Grade Level: _____________
Strand/ Section: ________________________________ Date: ____________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (Q3_LP7-

8)
Evolution is a key unifying principle in biology. As Theodosius Dobzhansky once said,

“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” But what, exactly, are the
features of biology that make more sense through the lens of evolution? To put it another
way, what are the evidence or traces that show evolution has taken place in the past and is
still happening today?
Before we look at the evidence, let's make sure we are on the same page about what
evolution is. Broadly speaking, evolution is a change in the genetic makeup (and often, the
heritable features) of a population over time. Biologists sometimes define two types of
evolution based on scale:
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
1. Macroevolution, which refers to large-scale changes that occur over extended
time periods, such as the formation of new species and groups.
2. Microevolution, which refers to small-scale changes that affect just one or a few
genes and happen in populations over shorter timescales.
Microevolution and macroevolution aren’t really two different processes. They’re the
same process – evolution – occurring on different timescales. Microevolutionary processes
occurring over thousands or millions of years can add up to large-scale changes that define
new species or groups.
Determining the existence of evolutionary relationship between and among
organisms is crucial in tracing the ancestor they descended from. Scientists have exhausted
all means to provide list of evidence to support their claims that all species of organisms,
61
both the extinct and extant ones, came from single, common ancestor. In this learning
packet, we will explore the different evidence of evolution and how they can be used to infer
evolutionary relationships.
When Charles Darwin first proposed the idea that all new species descend from an
ancestor, he performed an exhaustive amount of research to provide as much evidence as
possible. Today, the major pieces of evidence for this theory can be broken down into the
fossil record, embryology, molecular biology, geographic distribution and comparative
anatomy.
1. Evidence from Paleontology: Fossil Records

Fossils are remains of ancient organisms trapped in rocks, tar pits, frozen in ice or
embedded in amber. The activities and behavior of ancient life forms also left behind fossil
traces (such as footprints, dungs, gastric stones, nests and burrows) which scientists can
study. Fossils are important evidence for evolution because they show that life on earth was
once different from life found on earth today. Fossils show a progression of evolution.
Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the
morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and
extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. This approach is
most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. The
resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions
of years.
2. Evidence from Embryology

Embryology, the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult
form also provides evidence of relatedness between now widely divergent groups of
organisms. Common structures are shared in the embryo stage and disappear by the time
the embryo reaches the juvenile or adult form. For example, all vertebrate embryos,
including humans, exhibit gill slits at some point in their early development. These disappear
in the adults of terrestrial groups but are maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such as
fish and some amphibians.
Image Source: https://sepetjian.wordpress.com/2011/10/29/does -ontogeny-recapitulate-phylogeny-refuting-embryological

%E2%80%9Cevidence%E2%80%9D-for-evolution/ Figure 1. Embryological
Evidence
3. Evidence from Molecular Biology

Many organisms have similar
molecules of life (RNA, DNA,
proteins) that suggest descent from
a common ancestor with
modifications. The near universality
of the genetic code reflects
62
evidence of common ancestry and relatedness and can be
inferred from the similarities in the DNA sequences between
and among organisms. The more similar the DNA sequence of two species, the
more recently they shared a
common ancestor and the more closely Image Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4656878/ related
they are in evolutionary terms.
4. Evidence from Geographic Distribution: Biogeography
Organisms usually arise in areas where similar forms already exist. Similar
organisms may also be found in different locations which could mean that the two places
were previously connected.
Image Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2019.00588/full

Figure 2. Classification and distribution of camel species.
5. Evidence from Comparative Anatomy

▪ Homologous Structures. Structures with the same set of bones that
presumably evolved from a common ancestor. They appear different and may
have varied functions. An example of homologous structures are the limbs of
humans, cats, whales, and bats. Regardless of whether it is an arm, leg,
flipper or wing,
these
structures are built
upon the same
bone
structure.
Image Source: https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-advanced-concepts/section/10.22/
63
Figure 3. The similar construction of these appendages indicates that these
organisms share a common ancestor.
▪ Analogous Structures. Structures that perform the same function but have
very different embryological development or set of structures like bones.
Analogous structures are similar structures in unrelated organisms. These
structures are similar because they do the same job, not because they share
common ancestry.
Image Source: http://shszoology.blogspot.com/2016/03/animals-with-analogous-structures-from.html
Figure 4. Animals with analogous structures.
▪ Vestigial Structures. Structures or attributes that have lost most of its

ancestral function in more recent species. Changes to the environment
have rendered these organs redundant and so over time they have lost
their functionality
Image Source: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/51-evidence-for-evolution/

otherevidence.html
Figure 5. Vestigial structure in whales.
64
MELC: Explain and infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence
of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein sequences, homology, and
embryology).
CG LC/ Code: STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-12-13
Objectives:
1. Identify the different evidences of evolution
2. Explain how similarities and differences suggest evolutionary relationships
3. Explain how each evidence supports evolution.
ACTIVITY 1: EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS

INSTRUCTIONS: In the table below is a series of skulls and front leg fossils of
organisms believed to be ancestors of the modern-day horse. Analyze the structures and
answer the questions that follow. Write your answers on you answer sheet.
Image Source: http://www.iq.poquoson.org
1. What similarities can you observe from each of the skulls? From these similarities,
do you think that they are all related species?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. How would you describe the change/s that happened in skull anatomy of the horse
in terms of its size?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Are there any changes that occurred in the leg anatomy of the modern-day horse
as compared to the dawn horse? Justify your answer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
65
ACTIVITY 2: EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYOLOGY
INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Take a look at the embryos of six
species below. Analyze each of them and answer the questions that follow. Write your
answers on you answer sheet.
Image Source: http://www.starlarvae.org

Hypothesize which embryo is from each of the following organisms:
SPECIES EMBRYO
Human
Chicken
Rabbit
Tortoise
Salamander
Fish
ACTIVITY 3: EVIDENCE FROM MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

INSTRUCTIONS: Below is a list of the amino acids in part of a cytochrome protein
molecule for seven (7) different organisms. For each-human
non organism,encircle any
amino acids that are different than the human sequence.
1. Comparing the differences you found in the table, which organism do you think
is most closely related to humans? How did you say so?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Does lesser number of differences in amino acid sequence suggest that
organisms are related or not? Explain your answer.
66
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 4: EVIDENCE FROM GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: In the illustration provided below are
different species of salamander inhabiting different areas. Analyze each of them and answer
the questions that follow.
Image Source:
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/ranges_map.jpg
1. How would you describe the different species of salamander? Are they similar
or different?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What could be the reason/s why organisms may appear similar and different
from each other?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Does the environment inhabited by the organisms has something to do with
their similarities and differences? Explain.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 5: EVIDENCE FROM COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
67
Part A. INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Shown on the right are skeletal
structure of the limbs of six (6) animals: human, crocodile, whale, cat, bird, and bat. Analyze
each structure and answer the questions that follow.
For each animal, indicate what type of movement each limb is responsible for and compare
the skeletal structure of each limb to the human arm in terms of function.
Animal Primary Functions Comparison to Human Arm in Function

1. Human -------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Whale
3. Cat
4. Bat
5. Bird
6. Crocodile
7. Are the structures shown homologous or analogous? Justify your answer.

________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Part B
Instructions: Compare the anatomy of the butterfly, bird and two species of fish below and
identify their similarities and differences.
68
Organisms Similarities Differences
1. Butterfly
and Bird
2. Cave Fish
and
Minnow
3. Are the structures shown homologous or analogous? Justify your answer.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Open-ended questions’ rubric for Scoring

Needs
Excellent Good Satisfactory
Improvement
(4 Points) (3 Points) (2Points)
(1 Point)
Complete Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates
understanding of substantial some limited
Science scientific understanding of understanding of understanding of
Concepts concepts is scientific scientific scientific
evident. concepts. concepts. concepts.
The information
The information is logically Evidence of
Coherence and The response
is completely organized and organization is
Organization of lacks logical
logical and generally present, but is not
Ideas organization.
coherent. arranged wholly logical.
coherently.
Almost all The activities are
All activities are Some of the
activities are accomplished for
Completion completed and accomplished activities are
the sake of
exemplary done. productively. accomplished.
compliance.
69
Timeliness of Submitted as Submitted 1 day Submitted 2 or
No submission
Submission scheduled later more days later
Internet Sources
Commission on Higher Education. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School
General Biology 2. Pages 92-108
Evidence for Evolution. (n.d.). Khan Academy.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/evolution -and-
naturalselection/a/lines-of-evidence-for-evolution
Coker Class: Enh Biology, Academy. (n.d.). Evidence of Evolution. [PDF File].
https://resources.finalsite.net/images/v1588954530/tracyk12caus/r3a8mnbj52vpu0du9
st5/CokerEnhBiologyAcadWeek4and5distancelearningEvolution2020.pdf
Image Sources
https://sepetjian.wordpress.com/2011/10/29/does-ontogeny-recapitulate-phylogeny-
refutingembryological-%E2%80%9Cevidence%E2%80%9D-for-evolution/
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2019.00588/full
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-advanced-concepts/section/10.22/
http://shszoology.blogspot.com/2016/03/animals-with-analogous-structures-from.html
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/51-evidence-
forevolution/other-evidence.html http://www.iq.poquoson.org http://www.starlarvae.org
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/ranges_map.jpg
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4656878/
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: JOSETTE B. PEÑARUBIA

Team/Content Editor: ROCHELLE L. DE VERA
Name: ______________________________________ Grade

Level: ______________
Strand/Section: ______________________________ Date: _____________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP9)
70
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
Consider an elephant. Make a mental image of it. To someone who has never seen
one, how would you describe it? Take a moment to think about it. Is it the same as in the
image below?
Retrieved from
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/animal/elephant.htm
Almost certainly, your mental image was visual, similar to the image. Humans place a
premium on features that can be seen with their eyes since they rely heavily on their vision.
There's no reason why an elephant, or any other organism, couldn't be described through
touch, smell, and sound as well. Consider an elephant once more, but this time in terms of
non-visual characteristics.
Biologists, unsurprisingly, classify species into various categories based on degrees
of apparent similarity and difference that they can see. The notion is that the closer the
biological relationship, the greater the degree of physical likeness. Researchers begin their
classification of an unknown organism by looking for anatomical traits that appear to serve
the same purpose as those present in other species. The next stage is to determine whether
the similarities are attributable to a shared ancestor or an independent evolutionary
development. If the latter is true, the two species are likely to be closely related and should
be categorized in the same or similar biological groups.
71
Homologies
Homologies are anatomical traits of distinct creatures that have a similar look or
function because they were inherited from a common ancestor who also possessed them.
For example, a bear's forelimb, a bird's wing, and your
arm all have the same functional sorts of bones as our
common reptilian ancestor. As a result, these bones have
the same structure. The greater the homologies between
two organisms, the more likely they have a close genetic
link. Nonhomologous structural similarities between
species are also possible. The common progenitor did not
have the same anatomical structures as its descendants
in these circumstances. Instead, the similarities are
attributable to various evolutionary lineages'
independent development. Homoplasies are
the term for such deceptive
resemblance. Parallelism, convergence, or chance can all lead to homoplastic formations.
Parallelism
After divergence from a common ancestor that did Retrieved from
not have the trait but did have an initial anatomical https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/
anima l/animal_2.htm
component that led to it, parallelism, or parallel evolution,
is a similar evolutionary development in distinct species lines. Some South American and
African monkeys, for example, evolved high body sizes independently of one another. Their
shared progenitor was a considerably smaller monkey that resembled the later descendant
species in appearance. During the previous 30 million years, nature appears to have
selected for larger monkey bodies on both continents.
Convergence
The development of a comparable anatomical characteristic in several species’ lines after
divergence from a common ancestor that lacked the original trait that led to it is known as
convergent evolution or convergence. In contrast to parallelism, the common ancestor is
frequently further back in time. North American wolves and Tasmanian wolves (thylacines)
have similar appearances and predatory habits, for example. The former, like humans, is a
placental mammal, whereas the latter, like kangaroos, is an Australian marsupial. Their
common progenitor lived 125 million years ago, during the dinosaur era, and was
considerably different from these descendants today. Other Australian marsupials, in fact,
are outstanding examples of convergent evolution with placental animals from other parts of
the world.
Retrieved from https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/animal/animal_2.htm
Parallelism and convergence are hypothesized to be caused by various species

lines being subjected to the same natural selection pressures over lengthy periods of time.
72
Analogies
Anatomical traits that have the same form or function in multiple species with no
known common origin are called analogies. The wings of a bird and a butterfly, for example,
are homologous structures because their shape and function are outwardly similar. Both of
these very different species lines came up with essentially the identical solution to the
challenge of getting off the ground. On the inside, though, their wings are extremely different.
Bird wings contain an interior skeleton made up of bones, but butterfly wings lack any bones
and rely on fluid pressure to keep them stiff. Homologies or homoplasies may cause
analogies, but the common ancestor, if any, is unknown.
Problems in Classifying Organisms
1. Species Are Always Changing

The act of listing features that distinguish one species from another gives the
impression that the species and their distinguishing qualities are set and eternal. We must
always remember that they were the result of evolutionary processes that took place not just
in the distant past, but also in the present and can be expected to continue to produce new
forms in the future. As a result, they are essentially just a point along an evolutionary line
that has been arbitrarily defined.
2. Diversity
It is also important to realize that most species are physically and genetically diverse.
Many are far more varied than humans. When you think of an animal, such as the jaguar
shown on the right, and describe it in terms of its specific traits (fur color patterns, body
shape, etc.), it is natural to generalize and to think of all jaguars that way. To do so,
however, is to ignore the reality of diversity in nature.
73
Retrieved from
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/animal/animal_2.htm
3. Classifying Newly Discovered Organism

Another problem in classifying a
newly discovered organism is
in determining the specific
characteristics that actually distinguish it
from all other types of organisms. There
is always a lively debate among
researchers over defining new species
because it is not obvious what are the
most important traits. There are two
schools of thought in resolving this
dilemma. The first defines new species
based on minor differences between LUMPERS VS. SPLITTERS OF FOSSILS
organisms. This is the splitter approach. ENCOURAGE “NEW” SPECIES
The second tends to ignore minor
differences and to emphasize major
similarities. This lumper approach Retrieved from https://www.evolutionisamyth.com/wpresults in
fewer species being defined. content/uploads/2019/09/lumper-vs-splitter.jpg Ideally, this dispute
could be settled by
breeding experiments--if two organisms can mate and produce fertile offspring, they are
probably members of the same species. However, we must be careful because members of
very closely related species can sometimes produce offspring together, and a small fraction
of those may be fertile. This is the case with mules, which are the product of mating
between female horses and male donkeys. About one out of 10,000 mules is fertile. Does
this mean that horses and donkeys are in the same species? Whatever the answer may be,
it is clear that species are not absolutely distinct entities, though by naming them, we
implicitly convey the idea that they are.
4. Breeding Experiments
Breeding experiments are rarely
undertaken to determine
species boundaries because of
the practical difficulties. It is time
consuming and wild animals do not
74
always cooperate. Using this kind of reproductive data for defining species from the fossil
record is impossible since we cannot go back in time to observe interspecies breeding
patterns and results. Likewise, we cannot carry out a breeding experiment
between ourselves and our ancestors from a million years ago. Comparisons of DNA
sequences are now becoming more commonly used as an aid in distinguishing species. If
two
animals share a great many DNA Retrieved from
sequences, it is likely that they are at https://slidetodoc.com/
presentation_image_h2/47bd064a
least closely related. Unfortunately, this 6444f7f3c7db8157285cbce1/image-2.jpg
usually does not conclusively tell us that
they are members of the same species. Therefore, we are still left with morphological
characteristics as the most commonly used criteria for identifying species differences.
5. The Linnaean Scheme for Classification of Living

Things
The Linnaean scheme for classification of
living things lumps organisms together based on
presumed homologies. The assumption is that
the more homologies two organisms share, the
closer they must be in terms of evolutionary
distance. Higher, more inclusive divisions of the
Linnaean system (e.g., phylum and class) are
created by including together closely related
clusters of the immediately lower divisions. The
result is a hierarchical system of classification
with the highest category consisting of all living
things. The lowest category consists of a single
species. Each of the categories above species
can have numerous subcategories. In the
example below, only two genera (plural of genus)
are listed per
family but there could be many more or only one. Retrieved from
https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/1872
2/f-
d%253A26573e88427358825f55f8a84e8fd2
0c1c4d1577148bcb05ca4a895d_IMAGE_TH
UMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_
POSTCARD_TINY.1?revision=1
Cladistics
Most researchers today take a cladistics approach to classification. This involves
making a distinction between derived and primitive traits when evaluating the importance of
homologies in determining placement of organisms within the Linnaean classification
system. Derived traits are those that have changed from the ancestral form and/or
function. An example is the foot of a modern horse. Its distant early mammal ancestor had
five digits. Most of the bones of these digits have been fused together in horses giving them
essentially only one toe with a hoof. In contrast, primates have retained the primitive
characteristic of having five digits on the ends of their hands and feet. Animals sharing a
great many homologies that were recently derived, rather than only ancestral, are more likely
to have a recent common ancestor. This assumption is the basis of cladistics.
75
At the end of this learning activity sheet, the students should be able to:
MELC: explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of
DNA sequences are used in classifying living things.
ACTIVITY 1: Let’s Warm Up!
Directions: Read the questions carefully and choose the letter of the correct answer. Write
the letter on the spaces provided in each item.
1. Humans mostly classify animals with their sense of:

A. Vision C. Hearing
B. Smelling D. Touch
2. _______________ are similar anatomical features in different species that do not

have a known common ancestor.
A. Analogies C. Heterogenous
B. Homologies D. Homologous
3. When two species both have similar anatomical structures that were inherited from
the same ancestor that also had them, the similarities are referred to as being:
A. Homologies C. Homologous
B. Analogies D. Heterogenous
4. The development of a comparable anatomical characteristic in several species’ lines

after divergence from a common ancestor that lacked the original trait that led to it.
A. Cladistics C. Hierarchical system
B. Convergence D. Linnaean Scheme
5. It is more accurate to define new species by:

A. Observing breeding patterns of living organisms.
B. Comparing the appearance of fossils.
C. Comparing the species’ physical appearance.
D. Observing ancestral patterns of living organisms.
ACTIVITY 2: Let’s Do This!
76
Direction: Try to arrange the following jumbled terms related to principles of classification.
The descriptions below will help you unlock this task. Write your answers on the spaces
provided.
Jumbled Letters Clue Your Answer
NNNLAAEI EEMCHS The more homologies two 1.

organisms share, the
closer they must be in
terms of evolutionary
distance.
AIISSCCTLD PPRCHOAA Making a distinction 2.
between derived and
primitive traits when
evaluating the importance
of homologies in
determining placement of
organisms within the
Linnaean classification
system.
EEIDDRV AISRTT Those that have changed 3.
from the ancestral form
and/or function. An
example is the foot of a
modern horse.
EEIDRBGN Rarely undertaken to 4.
EEEIXRPNMTS determine species
boundaries because of the
practical difficulties. It is
time consuming and wild
animals do not always
cooperate.
HMLGSOOOIE Anatomical traits of distinct 5.
creatures that have a
similar look or function
because they were
inherited from a common
ancestor who also
possessed them
ACTIVITY 3: Let’s Level Up!

Direction: Based from the background information presented above, create an
infographic about the principle of classification.
77
Internet Sources:
Retrieved from https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/General-
Biology2.pdf
Retrieved from https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/animal/quizzes/anaquiz2.htm
78
ACTIVITY 3: Let’s Level Up!
INFOGRAPHIC RUBRICS
Category 4 3 2 1 Your
score
Message The topic and Topic and Topic is given Topic

Clarity messages of main ideas but main ideas and/or
the are clear. are unclear or main ideas
(weight x4)
infographic lacking. are absent
are clear and or very
easily unclear.
understood;
Intended to
inform or
convince the
viewer.
Details Details Detail is More is Very little

(weight x2) (including added to needed for detail is
labels) support each understanding. provided
support the main idea Some are for the
main idea with minimal distracting. main ideas
without clutter. and
distracting understan
with clutter. ding is
limited.
Content - At least 4 3 accurate 2 accurate facts Fewer

Accuracy accurate facts are are displayed. than 2
facts/concepts displayed. accurate
(weight x2)
are displayed facts are
in the displayed.
infographic
Graphics - The graphics Most All graphics Graphics

Relevance used graphics relate to the do not
represent represent the topic but do relate to the
information information not represent topic.
appropriately. appropriately. appropriately.
Graphics - Color, shape, Color, shape, Color, shape, Color,

Visual size, and size, and size, and shape,
arrangement arrangement arrangement size, and
of graphics are eye are present arrangeme
contribute catching and but do not add nt are
meaning to contribute to the distracting
the overall some information. or
message. meaning misleading.
79
Design/layout The Is attractive Is acceptably Is
design/layout is in terms of attractive distractingly
neat, clear, and design, though it may messy,
visually layout and be a bit unattractive
appealing. neatness. messy. , or very
poorly
designed.
Mechanics Capitalization There is 1 There are 2 More than

and error in errors in 2 errors in
punctuation capitalization capitalization capitalizati
are correct or or punctuation. on or
throughout. punctuation. punctuatio
n.
Grammar There are no There is 1 There are 2 There are

grammatical grammatical grammatical more than
mistakes. mistake. mistakes. 2
grammatic
al mistakes.
Connection Synthesiz
to Discipline es
and Extends connection
Academic s to
Knowledge deepen
understan
(0 to 2 pt)
ding;
Draws
conclusion
s by
combining
examples,
facts, or
theories
from one or
more fields
of study or
perspectiv
e.
Image and info Credit/citat

Credits ions
provided for
(0 or 1 pt)
all
images and
research
informatio n.
Total
/55
Adapted from a templated offered by TeachersFirst.com © 2012 by
The Source for Learning, Inc. http://www.teachersfirst.com/iste/infographics).
80
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: JEANNIE ROSE HILOTIN

81
Name: _________________________________________ Grade Level:______________
Strand/ Section: _________________________________ Date: ____________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP10)
Why do biologists classify organisms? Billions of years of evolution on Earth have

resulted in a huge variety of different types of organisms. For more than two thousand
years, humans have been trying to organize and make sense of this incredible diversity of
life on Earth. Scientists have identified millions of different species of organisms.
Linnaean System of Classification
SMILE
(SIMPLIFIED MODULE INTENDED FOR LEARNING ENCOUNTERS)
Learner’s Packet
The most influential early classification
system was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. In
fact, all modern classification systems have their
roots in Linnaeus’ system. Linnaeus was a
Swedish botanist who lived during the 1700s. He
is known as the “father of taxonomy.”
Taxonomy is the
scientific classification, a branch of biology
that groups and names organisms based on
studies of their
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-carl-von-linn-carl
shared characteristics. Groups of organisms in carolus-linnaeus-carl-nilsson-linnus-23-may-1707-
taxonomy are called taxa (singular, taxon). Figure 1. Carolus Linnaeus. A Swedish naturalist and
Linnaeus tried to describe and classify the explorer who was the first to frame principles for defining
entire known natural world. In 1735, he natural genera and species of organisms and to create
a uniform system for naming them (binomial
published his classification system in a work nomenclature).
called Systema Naturae (“System of Nature”).
Figure 2 shows an updated version of Linnaeus’ original classification system. The
process of placing or grouping the organisms in different taxonomic groups is known as the
taxonomy hierarchy. These levels formed a structure similar to the ladder or pyramid. The
organisms are grouped in ascending to descending classification order and vice versa. The
highest level is considered to be the domain and the least one as species. The levels are
also called as taxonomic ranks. Each rank leads to other taxonomic ranks either in an
82
upward direction or downward. In the next section, we will go through the taxonomic ranks
in biological or scientific classification, building the taxonomy hierarchy.
• Domain is the highest (most general) rank of organisms. Linnaeus did invent
some of the taxonomic ranks, but he did not invent the domain rank, which is
relatively new. The term domain wasn’t used until 1990, over 250 years after
Linnaeus developed his classification system in 1735. The three domains of
life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota.
Eukaryota refers to
all the organisms living
on earth (but neither a
bacterium nor an
archaeon).
Nevertheless, th ey are
more related to Archaea
Domain.
Archaea include single -
celled organisms that are
evolutionarily close to
bacteria and make
habitats in mild or
extreme places.
Bacteria include all the
bacteria (single -celled
microorganisms) found
in a large number t han all
animals and plants on
the earth.
Figure 2 Linnaean Classification
System (Revised)
• Kingdom. Initially, there were two kingdoms: Animalia and Plantae., after
the development of the microscope and more research, more kingdoms were
added. In the past year, the number of kingdoms was five: Monera,
Animalia, Plantae, Protista, and Archaea. These Kingdoms were recently
raised to seven. Due to the inaccuracy of some Kingdoms such as Protista,
which include eukaryotic organisms that do not belong to other classes (i.e.,
they are not plants or animals), it led to new kingdoms — by splitting Protista
into Chromista and Protozoa. The current Kingdoms in taxonomy
classification are as follows:
1. Kingdom Animalia- multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that ingest food and
digest it with the help of particular organs; have no cell wall; and move from one
place to another.
2. Kingdom Plantae- multicellular, eukaryotic organisms capable of making their
food by the process called photosynthesis; existed long ago on the earth and are
more than 250,000 species; ability to produce oxygen shape the environment by
removing carbon dioxide.
3. Kingdom Monera- unicellular, although some types form clusters and colonies;
some produce their food through photosynthesis, and most are heterotrophs;
includes two different kinds of organisms, the cyanobacteria and bacteria.
4. Kingdom Fungi- have the absorptive nutritional mode, heterotrophs like animals;
eukaryotic, multicellular heterotrophs such mushrooms; most are decomposers;
other microorganisms included in fungi are molds and yeasts; the presence of
chitin in their cell walls separates them from other kingdoms; contains a wide
variety of taxa and ecologies, morphologies, and life cycle stages; the biodiversity
of kingdom fungi ranges from 2.2 million to 3.8 million.
5. Kingdom Chromista- includes eukaryotic organisms, both single-celled and
multicellular; have similar characteristics in terms of photosynthetic processing;
83
some examples of these eukaryotic organisms include diatoms, oomycetes, and
some algae containing chlorophyll in their plastids.
6. Kingdom Protozoa- single-celled eukaryotic organisms free-living for parasites,
meaning they feed on microorganisms, debris, and organic tissues (organic
matter); also considered one-celled animals because of the features similar to
animals like locomotion, no cell wall, and predatory features; they are given a
separate kingdom because they are single-celled eukaryotic organisms with
heterotrophic feeding characteristics.
7. Kingdom Archaea- unicellular prokaryotes microorganisms considered to be the
oldest organisms found on earth; do not contain a cell nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles; have different sizes and shapes; also contain
genes and metabolic pathways that make them similar to eukaryotes; take up the
energy in the form of sugars, ammonia, hydrogen gas, and metal ions from the
organic materials; some archaea use sunlight for energy purposes and fix carbon.
• Phylum (plural, phyla) - This taxon is a division of a kingdom. Phyla in the animal
kingdom include chordates (animals with an internal skeleton) and arthropods
(animals with an external skeleton).
• Class - This taxon is a division of a phylum. Classes in the chordate phylum include
mammals and birds.
• Order - This taxon is a division of a class. Orders in the mammal class include
rodents and primates.
• Family - This taxon is a division of an order. Families in the primate order include
hominids (apes and humans) and hylobatids (gibbons).
• Genus - This taxon is a division of a family. Genera in the hominid family include
Homo (humans) and Pan (chimpanzees).
• Species - This taxon is below the genus and the lowest taxon in Linnaeus’ system.
Species in the Pan genus include Pan troglodytes (common chimpanzees) and Pan
paniscus (pygmy chimpanzees).
Source: https://iowaagliteracy.wordpress.com/2020/02/26/science-101-plant-classification/
The Table below shows the classification of the human species. The table also lists
some of the physical traits that are the basis of the classification
Taxon Name Traits1
84
Kingdom Animal Organisms capable of moving on their own.
Phylum Chordate Animals with a notochord (flexible rod that supports the body).
Class Mammal Chordates with fur or hair and milk glands.
Order Primate Mammals with collar bones, grasping hands with fingers.
Family Hominid Primates with three-dimensional vision, relatively flat face.
Genus Homo Hominids with upright posture, large brain.
Species sapiens Members of the genus Homo with a high forehead, thin skull bones.
1
Only one or two traits per taxon are listed in the table as examples. Additional traits may
be needed to properly classify species (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy).
Binomial Nomenclature
The single greatest contribution that Linnaeus made to science is his method of
naming species. This method, called binomial nomenclature, gives each species a unique,
two-word name (also called a scientific or Latin name). Just like we have a first and last
name, organisms have a distinguishable two-word name as well. The two words in the
name are the genus name and the species name. For example, the human species is
uniquely identified by its genus and species names as Homo sapiens. No other species has
this name.
Both words in a scientific name are Latin words or words that have been given Latin
endings. The genus name is always written first and starts with an upper-case letter. The
species name is always written second and starts with a lower-case letter. Both names are
written in italics.
As another example, consider the group of organisms called Panthera. This is a
genus in the cat family. It consists of all large cats that are able to roar. Within the genus
Panthera, there are four different species that differ from one another in several ways. One
obvious way they differ is in the markings on their fur as shown in Figure 3 below, Panthera
leo (lion species) has solid-colored fur, Panthera tigris (tiger species) has striped fur, and
the other two Panthera species have fur with different types of spots.
85
Figure 3 Species in the Genus Panthera.
https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f -
d%3A079fbc6bf3b96eadcfb55b916181ec00c2481bfc92b4da0980b8b428%2BIMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY%2BIMAGE
_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1
All four species in the Panthera genus are similar, but each is a unique type of
organism, clearly identified by its combined genus and species name.
Why is Linnaeus’ method of naming organisms so important?

Before Linnaeus introduced his method, naming practices were not standardized.
Some names were used to refer to more than one species. Conversely, the same species
often had more than one name.
For all these reasons, there was seldom a simple, fixed name by which a species
could always be identified. This led to a great deal of confusion and misunderstanding,
especially as more and more species were discovered. Linnaeus changed all that by giving
each species a unique and unchanging two-word name. Linnaeus’s method of naming
organisms was soon widely accepted and is still used today.
Dichotomous Key
A dichotomous key is a useful tool for the
identification of things not known to the observer, for
example, unfamiliar plant species. The typical
dichotomous key, as shown in the example below, is
made up of a series of descriptions, features or
characteristics, arranged in pairs (couplets) of
contrasting alternative choices (e.g., hairy vs. not
hairy, bigger than a breadbox vs. not bigger than a
breadbox, etc.). Each couplet is worked through
sequentially until the correct determination is made.
Examples of organism to identify: apple tree,
water-lily, fir tree, dandelion, astroturf, seaweed.
https://imagesvc.meredithcorp.io/v3/mm/ima ge?
url=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic.onecms.io%2Fw
86
1.a. found in water …………………………………………….………………… go to 2
1.b. found on land ……………………………………………………………….. go to 3
2.a. grows in salt water ……………………………………………………………seaweed
2.b. does not grow in salt water …………………………………………………..water-lily
3.a. a real plant .…………………………………………………………………….go to 4
3.b. not a real plant ..……………………………………………………………….astroturf
4.a. grows more than 50 m tall ……………………………………………………..fir tree
4.b. grows less than 5…………………………………………………………….… go to 5
5.a. produces yellow fl………………………………………………………………. dandelion
5.b. does not produce yellow flowers ……………………………………………… apple tree
Source:https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Botany/Red_Seal_Landscape_Horticulturist_Identify_Plants_and_Plant_Require
ments_I_(Nakano)/01%3A_Plant_Identification/1.11%3A_Introduction_to_Dichotomous_Keys
MELC: Identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to

other taxa.
CG LC/ Code: STEM_BIO11/12IIIh-j-15
Objectives:
1. describe the Linnaean system of classification;
2. classify organisms into a hierarchy; and
3. construct and use dichotomous keys for identification.
ACTIVITY 1: Taxonomic Hierarchy

INSTRUCTIONS: Match the taxa under COLUMN A with their description/s under
COLUMN B. Write only the letter of the correct answer on your answer sheet.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Family A. Also known as division for plants, is a group of organisms of

closely related class which resemble one another in certain
characters
2. Kingdom B. Group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals
capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding
3. Order C. Group of organisms of closely related sub-classes or order
which
resemble one another in certain characters
4. Genus D. Group of organisms of closely related genera which resemble
one another in certain characters
5. Class E. Group of organisms of closely related families which resemble
one another in certain characters
6. Phylum F. Group of organisms of closely related phyla which resemble
one
another in certain characters
7. Species G. Group of organisms of closely related species which
resemble one another in certain characters
87
ACTIVITY 2: Identify and Classify ME
INSTRUCTIONS: Choose two (2) different organisms (can be both animal or
both plant or an animal and a plant), then, classify each according to Linnaean system
(hierarchical classification). Include its scientific and common names, defining character/s
and the similarities between the organisms.
Organism 1 Organism 2
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species
Species
Name/Scientific
Name:
Common Name:
Distinct
Characteristic/s:
What do these organisms have in common?
ACTIVITY 3: My Dichotomous Key

INSTRUCTIONS: Perform each of the following tasks. Be guided by the rubrics
in rating your work.
A. Make your own dichotomous key in order to identify your favorite plants or
vegetables found in the garden, front/backyard of your house.
B. Briefly discuss/explain your work by answering the following guide questions:
1. What trait/s or character/s did you use to separate the plants/vegetables into
groups? Give an example to illustrate.
2. Notice the differences among the plants/vegetables. These differences set
them distinct from the others. Can you give an example to show this?
3. What is the importance of this tool in classifying the organisms?
88
REFERENCES FOR LEAR NERS:
Self-Learning Module (SLM)

General Biology 2- Lesson 1: Genetic Engineering. Quarter 1-Module 1. ADM Department
of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro City
Internet Sources:
More, H. (2020). Taxonomic Hierarchy. General Biology 2. Accessed January 17, 2022.
https://thefactfactor.com/facts/pure_science/biology/general-biology/taxonomichierarchy-
concept-of-species/8936/
https://biologydictionary.net/taxonomy/
https://studylib.net/doc/25475093/module---taxonomy
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse_biology_book_class_xi/section/1.3/
https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-objectives-of-biological-classification
https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Taxonomic-Rank-Graph.jpg
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Botany/Red_Seal_Landscape_Horticulturist_Identify_P
lants_and_Plant_Requirements_I_(Nakano)/01%3A_Plant_Identification/1.11%3A_Introducti
on_to_Dichotomous_Keys
https://www.acs.edu.au/info/wildlife/mammals/what-are-carnivores.aspx
https://www.britannica.com/animal/gray-wolf
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General
_Biology_(Boundless)/29%3A_Vertebrates/29.1%3A_Chordates/29.1A%3A_Characteristics
_of_Chordata
Image Sources:
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-carl-von-linn-carl-carolus-linnaeus-carl-nilsson-linnus-
23-may-1707-21228230.html https://cdn.britannica.com/78/103778-004-A67721FB.jpg
https://iowaagliteracy.wordpress.com/2020/02/26/science-101-plant-classification/
https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/fd%3A079fbc6bf3b96eadcfb55b916181ec
00c2481bfc92b4da0980b8b428%2BIMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY%2BIMAGE_
THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/taxonomy
https://imagesvc.meredithcorp.io/v3/mm/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic.onecms.
io%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F24%2F2020%2F01%2FGettyImages1176988236-
2000.jpg
Rubrics for Scoring
Activity 3 My Dichotomous Key

A.
Rubrics: Dichotomous Key
Needs Satisfactory Very Satisfactory Outstanding

Improvement
1 2 3 4
Without With few With most With complete

Content description made descriptions made description made description made
up of a series of up of a series of up of a series of up of a series of
features or features or features or features or
characteristics, characteristics, characteristics, characteristics,
arranged in pairs arranged in pairs arranged in pairs arranged in pairs
(couplets) of (couplets) of (couplets) of (couplets) of
contrasting contrasting contrasting contrasting
alternative alternative choices alternative alternative
89
choices. choices. choices.
None of the Some of the Most of the All of the couplets
Sequence couplets are couplets are couplets are (characteristic in
worked through worked through worked through pair of contrasting
sequentially. sequentially until sequentially until alternative
the correct the correct choices) worked
determination is determination is through
made. made. sequentially until
the correct
determination is
made.
Presentat None of the things Few of the things Most of the things All of the things
ion are considered are considered are considered are considered
and are reduced and are reduced and are reduced and are reduced
at each at each at each at each
successive step successive step in successive step successive step in
the key so that by in the key so that the key so that by
a process of by a process of a process of
elimination the elimination the elimination the
correct correct correct
determination is determination is determination is
made. made. made.
TOTAL
B.
Rubrics: Essay/ Writing Activity
Needs Satisfactory Very Outstanding

Improvement Satisfactory
1 2 3 4
Content and The topic and There is one There is one There is one clear,
Focus main ideas are topic. Main clear, well focused topic.
not clear ideas are wellfocused Main ideas are clear
somewhat topic. Main ideas and are well supported
clear are clear but are by detailed and
not well accurate information.
supported by
detailed
information
Organization There is no The The introduction The introduction is
clear introduction states the main inviting, states the
introduction, states the topic and main topic, and
structure, or main topic. A provides an provides an overview
conclusion conclusion is overview of the of the paper.
included. paper. A Information is relevant
conclusion is and presented in a
included. logical order. The
conclusion is strong.
Conventions makes makes makes few makes no errors in

numerous several errors in grammar, and
errors in errors in grammar, and spelling.
grammar, and grammar, spelling.
spelling. and spelling.
90
TOTAL
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: ANALIZA D. VARGAS

Team Leader/ Content Editor: ROCHELLE L. DE VERA
Name: _______________________________________ Grade

Level:______________
Strand/ Section: _______________________________ Date: ____________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Q3_LP11)
SMILE
Learner’s Packet
Do you remember the last time you had a family reunion and latest family picture
taken together? Basically, a family picture represents a family tree. Family trees show how
91
people are related to each other. Sometimes, family trees are used to show relationship
between individuals. Those who are closely related are located closer together than those
who are only distantly related. For instance, in a family tree, we can see that the siblings are
close together, indicating a close genetic relationship. But the siblings are far from their
great aunt, indicating a more distant genetic relationship. Family trees can also be used to
see ancestral connections. That is, we can see that all the people in the last generation
have the same greatgreat-grandparents in common.
Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history or pattern of descent of a group of
phylogeny. It is a
system of classifying
organisms that
considers
characteristics that
are “new evolutionary
innovations” or a new
trait that has
appeared due to
evolution. A
characteristic that
appears in recent part
of a lineage but not in
its ol der members is
organisms based on structural and DNA similarities and is one of the primary goals of
systematics. Phylogenetic systematics or cladistics, is that branch of systematics
concerned in inferring called a derived Source: https://studyres.com/doc/438942/aim-41-blank---manhasset-
schools characteristic.
Every organism is classified based on physical similarities and differences such as

anatomies, DNA, proteins, enzymes, etc. these characteristics can be used to create a
diagram called cladogram, or phylogenetic tree, a branching diagram that conceptually
represents the best estimate of phylogeny.
https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/fd%3A59fade366a7c04f3d313fbe7f124bb75bcdb63dfa0681703ca639781%2
BIMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY%2BIMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1
92
This phylogenetic tree shows how three hypothetical species are related to each
other through common ancestors.
One way to discover how groups of organisms are related to each other (phylogeny)
is to compare the anatomical structures (body organs and parts) of many different
organisms. Corresponding organs and other body parts that are alike in basic structure and
origin are said to be homologous structures (for example, the front legs of a horse, wings of
a bird, flippers of a whale, and the arms of a person are all homologous to each other).
When different organisms share a large number of homologous structures, it is considered
strong evidence that they are related to each other. When organisms are related to each
other, it means they must have had a common ancestor at some time in the past. If there
are specific modifications of those features shared by different groups of organisms, we say
that those features are
“shared derived characters”.
Different numbers of shared derived characters exist between different groups, we

can draw a diagram of branching lines which connect those groups, showing their different
degrees of relationship. These diagrams look like trees and are called "phylogenetic
trees" or "cladograms”.
The shared derived features of the homologous structures are shown on the
cladogram by solid square boxes along the branches, and common ancestors are shown by
open circles. The more derived structures two organisms share, the closer is their
evolutionary relationship
-- that is, the more recently their common ancestor lived. On the cladogram, close
relationships are shown by a recent fork from the supporting branch. The closer the fork in
the branch between two organisms, the closer is their relationship.
MELC: Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence
and procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships
STEM_BIO11/12lllh-j-16
After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. demonstrate how shared derived characters can be used to reveal degrees
of relationship; and
2. build cladograms to infer evolutionary relationship.
93
ACTIVITY 1: LET’S DO THIS

DIRECTIONS:
1. Given some groups of organisms and some of their distinguishing
characteristics, you will construct a cladogram, and properly interpret
and analyze that cladogram in terms of how it shows common ancestry
and degrees of evolutionary relationship.
2. Using your textbook and the explanations below, determine which of the
characteristics each animal has. In the Data Table provided, place an
"x" in the box if the animal has the characteristic.
Explanation of Characteristics:
set #1: Dorsal nerve cord (running along the back or "dorsal" body surface)
Notochord (a flexible but supporting cartilage-like rod running along the
back or "dorsal" surface)
set #2: Paired appendages (legs, arms, wings, fins, flippers, antennae) Vertebral
column ("backbone")
set #3: Paired legs
set #4: Amnion (a membrane that holds in the amniotic fluid surrounding the
embryo; may or may not be inside an eggshell)
set #5: Mammary glands (milk-secreting glands that nourish the young)
set #6: Placenta (structure attached to inside of uterus of mother, and

joined to the embryo by the umbilical cord; provides nourishment and
oxygen to the embryo)
set #7: Canine teeth short (same length as other teeth) Foramen magnum
forward (spinal cord opening, located forward, under skull)
Data Table: Animals

Rhes
Snap
Kang Lamp us Bullfr Huma
SETS TRAITS ping Tuna
aroo rey Monk og n
Turtle
ey
SET 1 Dorsal Nerve Cord
SET 2 Paired
Appendages
Vertebral Column
SET 3 Paired Legs
SET 4 Amnion (Amniotic
Sac)
SET 5 Mammary Glands
SET 6 Placenta
SET 7 Canine Teeth
short
94
Foramen magnum
fwd
Total of Xs -------
3. Using the Data Table (as a guide), draw a cladogram to illustrate the ancestry
of these animals. The diagram should reflect shared characteristics as time
proceeds. An example is shown below. Notice how the different animals are
all at the same time level (across the top) since they all live today.
Activity 2: LET’S ANALYZE!
Use the cladogram below to answer the following questions.
1.
a. What separates lampreys from tuna on this cladogram? ______________

b. What separates a salamander from a turtle? ______________
c. Which organism is most related to the leopard? ______________
d. Which organism’s DNA will differ the most from the leopard? ______________
Why? ___________________________________________________________
Use the cladogram below to answer the following questions
95
2.
a. What separates rabbits/primate from the crocodiles on this cladogram?

____________
b. Which organisms is most related to the rodents and rabbits? ___________
c. What 5 traits do the bird and its closest relative share?
________________ _________________ _______________
__________________ __________________
d. Which organism will have DNA most similar to the bird? _____________
Why? ___________________________________________________
e. Which organism’s DNA will differ the most from the bird? _______________
Why? ______________________________________________________
Taxonomic Classification and Phylogenetics Trees.

Trees.http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/zoology/cladogram/index.mhtml.17August
2015
Simpson, Michael G., 1953, Plant Systematics. San Diego California, USA. Elsevier
Academic Press
Cladogram and Phylogenetic Trees: Evolution Classifications.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/cladograms-and-phylogenic-trees-
evolutionclassifications.html.
96
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Author/ Writer: MARVI JOY A. LLABORE Team

Leader/Content Editor: ROCHELLE L. DE VERA
Layout Artist: JOSELITO A. CONSULTA Education
Program Supervisor: JADE O. ALBERTO, EdD
97

MERGED GENERAL-BIOLOGY Q3 LP-1-11 Final

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MERGED GENERAL-BIOLOGY Q3 LP-1-11 Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SMILE

(SIMPLIFIED MODULE INTENDED FOR LEARNING ENCOUNTERS )

Name: _________________________________________ Grade Level: ________

Strand/ Section: _________________________________ Date: ______________

BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS:

Human population is vulnerably susceptible to problems such as scarcity of food as

Genetic Engineering also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the

Genetic Engineering Technique

Figure 1 Genetic engineering used in insulin production

Figure 2 The function of a restriction enzyme or endonuclease

To get the DNA

MELC: Outline the steps involved in Genetic Engineering

ACTIVITY 1: Think BIOTECH

INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Read each incomplete statement and complete

1. The direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology to produce

B. Step 3: The donor DNA and the

C. Step 1: A gene is picked that controls a

E. Step 7: The genetically engineered

_____5. F. Step 2: Scientists isolate plasmid DNA

_____6. G. Step 6: Colonies of bacteria that

Rubrics for Scoring

Activity 3 A Pro or a Con?

Criteria Descriptive Rating

Needs Satisfactory Very Outstanding

Conventions makes makes makes few makes no errors in

REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS:

Self-Learning Module (SLM)

General Biology 2- Lesson 1: Genetic Engineering. Quarter 1-Module 1. ADM Department of

Oliveira, C. et.al (2017). Principles of Genetic Engineering. Foundations of Biotechnology and

Naz, Z. (2015). Introduction to Biotechnology. Institute of Molecular Biology and

The Ethics of Genetic Engineering. Accessed November 6, 2021

Various Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering. Accessed December 3, 2021

Author/ Writer: ANALIZA D. VARGAS Team

BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS:

In research, medicine, agriculture, and industry, genetic engineering is employed for

Retrieved from https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/assets/images/science/pages/rdna.jpg

b. Production of Hormone Insulin: Insulin, a

c.Production of Vaccines: Vaccines elicit an immunological response in the animal

d.Gene Therapy: Gene therapy is an

lethal vaccines, and cell.jpg?itok=jtuTpFwX&timestamp=1570018155

Retrieved from https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-

Retrieved from https://www.hkjpaed.org/figure/1996;1;105-118 fig1.gif

g. Solution of Disputed Parentage: Disputed cases of parentage can now be solved

h. Production of Enzymes: Some useful enzymes can also be produced by

2. Applications of rDNA technology in Agriculture and Environment

Schematic Representation of Phytoremediation Strategies

c. Disease Resistance Technology: Modern molecular biological

d. Biofortification and Stress Tolerance Technology:

In industries, recombinant DNA technique will help in the production of chemical

b. Production of Protein from Wastes

LEARNING COMPETENCY WITH CODE:

ACTIVITY 1. 1 : Let’s Warm Up!

INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Identify the potential applications of

ACTIVITY 1.2: Choose Me!

ACTIVITY 3: LET’S LEVEL UP! Let’s Do This!

INSTRUCTIONS/ GUIDE QUESTIONS: Research about Genetically Modified food

REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS:

Kumar, S. Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology: 3 Applications. Biology Discussion.

RUBRICS FOR SCORING INFOGRAPHICS

Content - At least 4 accurate 3 accurate facts 2 accurate facts Fewer than 2

information information represent

Design/layout The design/layout is Is attractive in Is acceptably Is distractingly

Mechanics Capitalization and There is 1 error There are 2 More than 2

Name: _________________________________ Grade Level:

Strand/ Section: ___________________ Date:

Name: _______________________ Grade Level: _

Strand/ Section: ____________ Date: _

Name: _____________________________ Grade Level: _

Strand/ Section: _______________ Date: _

Name: ________________________ Grade Level :

Strand/ Section: __________ Date: _