Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigations and Modeling

Week 2-3

MODULE 1
Problem Solving and Mathematics
Education
Learning Objective: At the end of the module, the pre-service teacher
will be able to:
1. articulate a definition of problem solving;
2. discuss the concept of problem solving in Mathematics;
3. outline the steps in problem solving from personal
practice vis a vis those outlined by Polya and others; and
4. explain the significance of problem solving in
mathematics education.

Requirements : Graphic Organizers

Accomplished Self Check

Content : Unit I: Problem Solving and Mathematics Education

A. Introduction to Problem-Solving in Mathematics
 Definition and Process
 Problem Solving and the Conceptual Framework of the
K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum
 Factors Affecting Problem Solving
 Lessons from Research Studies on Implementing
Problem Solving
B. George Polya’s four phases of Problem-Solving in
Mathematics.

Time Allotment : 2 weeks

Introduction
Mathematical problem solving has long been seen as an important aspect of
mathematics, the teaching of mathematics, and the learning of mathematics. It has infused
mathematics curricula around the world with calls for the teaching of problem solving as

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 Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigations and Modeling

well as the teaching of mathematics through problem solving. And as such, it has been of
interest to mathematics education researchers for as long as our field has existed.
Our educational system attempts to differentiate between lower-order cognitive
(thinking) skills and higher-order cognitive (thinking) skills. In recent years there has been
increased emphasis on higher-order skills. In very brief summary, we want students to
learn some facts, but we also want them to learn to think and solve problems using the
facts.
Often the "thinking" that we want students to do is to recognize, pose, and solve
complex, challenging problems. Thus, one of the goals of education is to help students to
get better at posing, representing, and solving problem. A few schools actually offer
specific courses on problem solving. For the most part, however, students learn about
problem solving through instruction in courses that have a strong focus on a specific
content area. Every teacher teaches problem solving within the specific subject matter
areas of their curriculum.
Everyone must have felt at least once in his or her life how wonderful it would be
if we could solve a problem at hand preferably without much difficulty or even with
some difficulties. Unfortunately the problem solving is an art at this point and there are
no universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically one must explore
possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across a right path to a
solution. Thus generally speaking, there is guessing and hence an element of luck involved
in problem solving. However, in general, as one gains experience in solving problems,
one develops one's own techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible. Thus
the guessing is not an arbitrary guessing but an educated one.
In this chapter we are going to learn a framework for problem solving and get a glimpse
of strategies that are often used by experts.

A. Introduction to Problem-Solving in Mathematics

What is Problem Solving?

Problem Solving is about solving problems. And we’ll restrict ourselves to thinking
about mathematical problems here even though Problem Solving in school has a wider
goal. When you think about it, the whole aim of education is to equip studens to solve
problems. But Problem Solving also contributes to mathematics itself. It is part of one
whole area of the subject that, until fairly recently, has largely passed unnoticed in schools
around the world. Mathematics consists of skills and processes. The skills are things that
we are all familiar with. These include the basic arithmetical processes and the algorithms
that go with them. They include algebra in all its levels as well as sophisticated areas such
as the calculus. This is the side of the subject that is largely represented in the Strands of
Number, Algebra, Statistics, Geometry and Measurement.

On the other hand, the processes of mathematics are the ways of using the skills creatively
in new situations. Problem Solving is a mathematical process. As such it is to be found in
the Strand of Mathematical Processes along with Logic and Reasoning, and
Communication. This is the side of mathematics that enables us to use the skills in a wide
variety of situations.

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Problem solving consists of moving from a given initial situation to a desired goal
situation. That is, problem solving is the process of designing and carrying out a set of
steps to reach a goal. Usually the term problem is used to refer to a situation where it is
not immediately obvious how to reach the goal. The exact same situation can be a
problem for one person and not a problem (perhaps just a simple activity or routine
exercise) for another person
Before we get too far into the discussion of Problem Solving, it is worth pointing
out that we find it useful to distinguish between the three words "method", "answer" and
"solution". By "method" we mean the means used to get an answer. This will generally
involve one or more Problem Solving Strategies. On the other hand, we use "answer" to
mean a number, quantity or some other entity that the problem is asking for. Finally, a
"solution" is the whole process of solving a problem, including the method of obtaining
an answer and the answer itself.

method + answer = solution

But how do we do Problem Solving? There appear to be four basic steps. Pólya
enunciated these in 1945 but all of them were known and used well before then. And we
mean well before then. The Ancient Greek mathematicians like Euclid and Pythagoras
certainly knew how it was done.

Pólya’s four stages of problem solving are listed below.

Four Stages of Problem Solving

1. Understand and explore the problem;
2. Find a strategy;
3. Use the strategy to solve the problem;
4. Look back and reflect on the solution.

Although we have listed the Four Stages of Problem Solving in order, for difficult
problems it may not be possible to simply move through them consecutively to produce
an answer. It is frequently the case that children move backwards and forwards between
and across the steps.

Another way of looking at the Problem Solving process is what might be called
the scientific approach. Here the problem is given and initially the idea is to experiment
with it or explore it in order to get some feeling as to how to proceed. After a while it is
hoped that the solver is able to make a conjecture or guess what the answer might be. If
the conjecture is true it might be possible to prove or justify it. In that case the looking
back process sets in and an effort is made to generalize or extend the problem. In this case
you have essentially chosen a new problem and so the whole process starts over again.
Sometimes, the conjecture is wrong and so a counter-example is found. This is an
example that contradicts the conjecture. In that case another conjecture is sought and you
have to look for a proof or another counterexample.

Some problems are too hard so it is necessary to give up. Now you may give up
so that you can take a rest, in which case it is a ‘for now’ giving up. Actually this is a good
problem solving strategy. Often when you give up for a while your subconscious takes
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over and comes up with a good idea that you can follow. On the other hand, some
problems are so hard that you eventually have to give up ‘for ever’. There have been
many difficult problems throughout history that mathematicians have had to give up on.

That then is a rough overview of what Problem Solving is all about. For simple
problems the four stage Pólya method and the scientific method can be followed through
without any difficulty. But when the problem is hard it often takes a lot of to-ing and fro-
ing before the problem is finally solved – if it ever is!

K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

 Elementary Math covers basic concepts and ideas, skills and processes on number
sense – geometry, measurement, patterns and algebra, probability and statistics as
enlist, using appropriate technology in critical thinking, reasoning, communicating,
making connections, representations and decisions in real life.
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 MATHEMATICS is a subject that pervades life at any age, in any circumstance.

Thus its value goes beyond the classroom and the school. Mathematics as a school
subject, must be learned comprehensively and with much depth.

 The twin goals of Mathematics in the basic education levels, K to 10 are Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving. We adopt the definition of critical thinking by
Scriven and Paul (1987)Critical Thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of
actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or
evaluating information gathered from, or generated by observation, experience,
reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

 On the other hand, we define Problem Solving in Mathematics using Polya’s (1945
& 1962) definition: MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING is finding a way
around a difficulty, around an obstacle, and finding a solution to a problem that is
unknown. These two goals are to be achieved with an organized and rigorous
curriculum content, a well-defined set of high-level skills and processes, desirable
values and attitudes, and appropriate tools, recognizing as well the different
contexts of Filipino learners.

 There are five content areas in the curriculum, as adopted from the framework
prepared by MATHED &SEI (2010):• Numbers and Number Sense•
Measurement• Geometry• Patterns and Algebra• Probability and Statistics

 The specific skills and processes to be developed are:• Knowing and

Understanding• Estimating• Computing and Solving• Visualizing and Modelling•
Representing and Communicating• Conjecturing• Reasoning• Proving and
Decision-Making• Applying and Connecting

 The following values and attitudes are to be honed as well: •Accuracy •Creativity
•Objectivity •Perseverance •Productivity

 We recognize that the use of appropriate tools is needed in teaching Mathematics.

These include:• Manipulative objects• Measuring devices• Calculators and
computers• Smartphones and tablet Pcs• And the Internet

 We define context as a locale, situation or set of conditions of Filipino learners

that may influence their study and the use of Mathematics to develop critical
thinking and problem solving skills. Contexts refer to beliefs, environment,
language and culture that include traditions and practices, and learner’s prior
knowledge and experiences.

 The framework is supported by the following learning principles and theories:

Experiential and Situated Learning
Reflective Learning
Constructivism
Cooperative Learning
Discovery and;

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Inquiry-based Learning

 The Mathematics curriculum is grounded in these theories.

 Experiential learning as advocated by David Kolb is learning that occurs by making

sense of direct everyday experiences. Experiential learning theory defines learning
as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming
experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 41). Situated learning, theorized by Lave and Wenger,
is learning in the same context on which concepts and theories are applied.

 Reflective Learning refers to learning that is facilitated by reflective thinking. It is

not enough that learners encounter real-life situations. Deeper learning occurs
when learners are able to think about their experiences and process these allowing
them the opportunity to make sense and meaning of their experiences.
Constructivism is the theory that argues that knowledge is constructed when
learner is able to draw ideas from his own experiences and connects them to new
ideas that are connect.

 Cooperative Learning puts premium on active learning achieved by working with

fellow learners as they all engage in a shared task.

 The Mathematics curriculum allows the students to learn by asking relevant

questions and discovering new ideas.

 Discovery and Inquiry-based learning (Bruner, 1961) support the idea that students
learn when they make use of personal experiences to discover facts, relationships
and concepts.

Factors Affecting Problem Solving

An effective solution of a problem is dependent upon a number of factors. These include:

Nature of the problem: A mathematical problem is a procedure, which requires you to

discover which information is given, to rank the given points, to find what the problem
asks you to do and then solve it. The given information should be clear and accurate so
that all the student understand what has to be done. Problem solving is the achievement
of a goal, either set by the problem solver or by others. Teaching via problem solving can
be feasible only if student know the mathematical, procedures.
Otherwise, if students do not know how to solve procedural exercises, they will be very
disappointed and they will not have the motivation to try and solve more difficult
problems. Both finding a problem’s solution and the journey towards the solution are
important. The correct answer matters a lot since in the future, students will be asked to
take mathematics exams, for which they have to achieve a high mark. If the steps they
follow are correct but still the answer is wrong, then they will not attain a good grade.

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Degree of difference between the initial and the goal state: In such situations problem
space is more disorganized and the operator is required to take more steps to reach to the
solution.

Functional fixedness: Functional fixedness is the inability to realize that something known
to have a particular use may also be used to perform other functions. When one is faced
with a new problem, functional fixedness blocks one’s ability to use old tools in novel
ways.

Lessons from Research Studies on Implementing Problem Solving

Please click and the links below:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312412455_Developing_problem-
solving_skills_in_mathematics_a_lesson_study

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452301116300062

http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/emt725/PSsyn/PSsyn.html

B. George Polya’s four phases of Problem-Solving in Mathematics

Whether you like it or not, whether you are going to be a mother, father, teacher,
computer programmer, scientist, researcher, business owner, coach, mathematician,
manager, doctor, lawyer, banker (the list can go on and on), problem solving is
everywhere. Some people think that you either can do it or you can't. Contrary to that
belief, it can be a learned trade. Even the best athletes and musicians had some coaching
along the way and lots of practice. That's what it also takes to be good at problem
solving.

George Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive studies and
wrote numerous mathematical papers and three books about problem solving. I'm going
to show you his method of problem solving to help step you through these problems.

As mentioned above, I use Polya’s four steps to problem solving to show students how to
solve word problems. Just note that your math teacher or math book may word it a little
differently, but you will see it all basically means the same thing.
If you follow these steps, it will help you become more successful in the world of
problem solving.

Polya created his famous four-step process for problem solving, which is used all over to
aid people in problem solving:

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem. If you are unclear as
to what needs to be solved, then you are probably going to get the wrong results. In
order to show an understanding of the problem, you, of course, need to read the
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problem carefully. Sounds simple enough, but some people jump the gun and try to start
solving the problem before they have read the whole problem. Once the problem is
read, you need to list all the components and data that are involved. This is where you
will be assigning your variable.

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

When you devise a plan (translate), you come up with a way to solve the
problem. Setting up an equation, drawing a diagram, and making a chart are all ways
that you can go about solving your problem. In this tutorial, we will be setting up
equations for each problem. You will translate them in an equation.

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

The next step, carry out the plan (solve), is big. This is where you solve the
equation you came up with in your 'devise a plan' step.

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

You may be familiar with the expression 'don't look back'. In problem solving it is
good to look back (check and interpret). Basically, check to see if you used all your
information and that the answer makes sense. If your answer does check out, make sure
that you write your final answer with the correct labeling.

 Example 1: Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that number.
Find the number.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

Since we are looking for a number, we will let

x = a number

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

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*Remove ( ) by using dist. prop.

*Get all the x terms on one side

*Inv. of sub. 2 is add 2

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you take twice the difference of 6 and 1, that is the same as 4 more
than 6, so this does check.

FINAL ANSWER: The number is 6.

Percent Problems

Whenever you are working with a percent problem, you need to make sure you write
your percent in decimal form. You do this by moving the decimal place of the percent
two to the left. For example, 32% in decimal form is .32

When you are wanting to find the percentage of some number, remember that ‘of ’
represents multiplication - so you would multiply the percent (in decimal form) times the
number you are taking the percent of.

 Example 2: Find 45% of 125.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

We are looking for a number that is 45% of 125, we will let

x = the value we are looking for

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

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*Multiply

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

56.25 is 45% of 125.

FINAL ANSWER: The number is 56.25.

Rectangle Problem

The following formula will come in handy for solving example 6:

Perimeter of a Rectangle = 2(length) + 2(width)

 Example 3: In a blueprint of a rectangular room, the length is 1 inch

more than 3 times the width. Find the dimensions if the perimeter is to
be 26 inches.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

We are looking for the length and width of the rectangle. Since length
can be written in terms of width, we will let

w = width

length is 1 inch more than 3 times the width:

1 + 3w = length

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

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*Remove ( ) by using dist. prop.

*Combine like terms

*Inv. of add. 2 is sub. 2

*Inv. of mult. by 8 is div. by 8

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If width is 3, then length, which is 1 inch more than 3 times the width
would have to be 10. The perimeter of a rectangle with width of 3
inches and length of 10 inches does come out to be 26.

FINAL ANSWER: Width is 3 inches. Length is 10 inches.

Supplementary and Complementary angles

Supplementary angles sum up to be 180 degrees.

Complimentary angles sum up to be 90 degrees.

 Example 4: Find the measure of each angle in the figure below. Note
that since the angles make up a straight line, they are supplementary to
each other.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are already given in the figure that

x = one angle

5x = other angle

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

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 Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigations and Modeling

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Combine like terms

*Inv. of mult. by 6 is div. by 6

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If x is 30, then 5x = 5(30) = 150. 150 and 30 do add up to be 180, so

they are supplementary angles.

FINAL ANSWER: The two angles are 30 degrees and 150 degrees.

Consecutive Integers

Consecutive integers are integers that follow one another in order.

For example, 5, 6, and 7 are three consecutive integers.

If we let x represent the first integer, how would we represent the second
consecutive integer in terms of x? Well if we look at 5, 6, and 7 - note that 6
is one more than 5, the first integer.

In general, we could represent the second consecutive integer by x + 1. And

what about the third consecutive integer.

Well, note how 7 is 2 more than 5. In general, we could represent the third
consecutive integer as x + 2.

Consecutive EVEN integers are even integers that follow one another in order.

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For example, 4, 6, and 8 are three consecutive even integers.

If we let x represent the first EVEN integer, how would we represent the
second consecutive even integer in terms of x? Note that 6 is two more than
4, the first even integer.

In general, we could represent the second consecutive EVEN integer by x + 2.

And what about the third consecutive even integer? Well, note how 8 is 4
more than 4. In general, we could represent the third consecutive EVEN
integer as x + 4.

Consecutive ODD integers are odd integers that follow one another in order.

For example, 5, 7, and 9 are three consecutive odd integers.

If we let x represent the first ODD integer, how would we represent the
second consecutive odd integer in terms of x? Note that 7 is two more than
5, the first odd integer.

In general, we could represent the second consecutive ODD integer by x + 2.

And what about the third consecutive odd integer? Well, note how 9 is 4
more than 5. In general, we could represent the third consecutive ODD
integer as x + 4.

Note that a common misconception is that because we want an odd number

that we should not be adding a 2 which is an even number. Keep in mind
that x is representing an ODD number and that the next odd number is 2
away, just like 7 is 2 away form 5, so we need to add 2 to the first odd
number to get to the second consecutive odd number.

 Example 5: The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. Find the integers.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

We are looking for 3 consecutive integers, we will let

x = 1st consecutive integer

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 Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigations and Modeling

x + 1 = 2nd consecutive integer

x + 2 = 3rd consecutive integer

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Combine like terms

*Inv. of add 3 is sub. 3

*Inv. of mult. by 3 is div. by 3

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

The sum of 85, 86 and 87 does check to be 258.

FINAL ANSWER: The three consecutive integers are 85, 86, and 87.

Business Problem: Breaking Even

In a business related problem, the cost equation, C is the cost of manufacturing a

product.

In the revenue equation, R is the amount of money the manufacturer makes on

a product.

If a manufacturer wants to know how many items must be sold to break even,
that can be found by setting the cost equal to the revenue.

Example 6: The cost C to produce x number of cd’s is C = 50 + 5x. The cd’s

are sold wholesale for $15 each, so revenue R is given by R = 15x. Find how
many cd’s the manufacturer needs to produce and sell to break even.

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Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

We are looking for the number of cd’s needed to be sold to break

even, we will let

x = the number of cd’s

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Get all x terms on one side

*Inv. of mult. by 10 is div. by 10

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

When x is 5 the cost and the revenue both equal 75.

FINAL ANSWER: 5 cd’s.

Self Check
“Math works just like anything else, if you want to get good at it, then you need to
practice it. In fact there is no such thing as too much practice.”

Solve the following word problems. Applying the Polya’s Four Phases of Problem Solving.

1. A rectangular garden has a width that is 8 feet less than twice the length. Find the
dimensions if the perimeter is 20 feet.

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2. A local furniture store is having a terrific sale. They are marking down every price
45%. If the couch you have our eye on is $440 after the markdown, what was the
original price? How much would you save if you bought it at this sale?

3. Complimentary angles sum up to be 90 degrees. Find the measure of each angle in the
figure below. Note that since the angles make up a right angle, they are complementary
to each other.

4. The sum of 3 consecutive odd integers is 57. Find the integers.

5. The cost C to produce x numbers of VCR’s is C = 1000 + 100x. The VCR’s are sold
wholesale for $150 each, so the revenue is given by R = 150x. Find how many VCR’s
the manufacturer needs to produce and sell to break even.

DO THIS!
OBA 1 . Create an online Graphic Organizer showing a Flow Chart of the Problem
Solving Steps with annotations to be submitted on or before October 7, 2022.

OBA 2. Create an online Graphic Organizer showing your Personal Problem

Solving Framework (process and factors) to be submitted on or before October 12,
2022.

References:
 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-40730-2_1#Abs1
 https://www.cs.odu.edu/~toida/nerzic/content/problem_solving/problem_solving
.html
 https://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/dave/Article%26Presentations/problem-
solving.htm#Introduction
 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-40730-2_1
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 Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigations and Modeling

 https://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/mps/math/mathlab/int_algebra/int_alg_t
ut8_probsol.htm
 https://www.scribd.com/doc/147082962/K-12-Mathematics-Curriculum-Guide-
Complete

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