BSEM 35 (MA’AM MOJICA)
M O D U L E 1 Problem Solving and Mathematics
Education
A. Introduction to Problem-Solving in Mathematics
What is Problem Solving?
Mathematics consists of skills and processes. Problem
Solving is a mathematical process. It is part of the
Strand of Mathematical Processes along with Logic and
Reasoning, and Communication. This is the side of
mathematics that enables us to use the skills in a wide
variety of situations.
Problem solving is the process of designing and
carrying out a set of steps to reach a goal. Usually the
term problem is used to refer to a situation where it is
not immediately obvious how to reach the goal. The
exact same situation can be a problem for one person
and not a problem at all for another.
But how do we do Problem Solving?
There appear to be four basic steps. Pólya enunciated
these in 1945 but all of them were known and used
well before then. And we mean well before then. The
Ancient Greek mathematicians like Euclid and
Pythagoras certainly knew how it was done.
Pólya’s four stages of problem solving are listed below.
Four Stages of Problem Solving
1. Understand and explore the problem;
2. Find a strategy;
3. Use the strategy to solve the problem;
4. Look back and reflect on the solution.
Although we have listed the Four Stages of Problem
Solving in order, for difficult problems it may not be
possible to simply move through them consecutively to
produce an answer. It is frequently the case that
children move backwards and forwards between and
across the steps. Another way of looking at the
Problem Solving process is what might be called the
scientific approach.
K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum
Conceptual Framework
The framework is supported by the following learning
principles and theories:
 Experiential and Situated Learning
Experiential learning as advocated by David Kolb
is learning that occurs by making sense of direct
everyday experiences. Situated learning, theorized by
Lave and Wenger,is learning in the same context on
which concepts and theories are applied. Knowledge
results from the combination of grasping and
transforming experience.
 Reflective Learning
Reflective Learning is when students are able to
think about their experiences and process these
allowing them to make sense and meaning of their
experiences. Reflective Learning refers to learning that
is facilitated by reflective thinking, rather than just
experiencing them in the context of real-life situations.
 Constructivism
Constructivism is the theory that argues that
knowledge is constructed when a learner is able to
draw ideas from his own experiences and connect
them to new ideas that are connect in a way that only
he could have previously been able to make sense of.
 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning puts premium on active
learning achieved by working with fellow learners as
they all engage in a shared task.
 Discovery and;
 Inquiry-based Learning
Discovery and Inquiry-based learning (Bruner,
1961) support the idea that students learn when they
make use of personal experiences to discover facts,
relationships and concepts.
Factors Affecting Problem Solving
An effective solution of a problem is dependent upon a
number of factors. These include:
- Nature of the problem
A mathematical problem is a procedure, which
requires you to discover which information is given, to
rank the given points, to find what the problem asks
you to do and then solve it. The correct answer matters
a lot since in the future, students will be asked to take
mathematics exams, for which they have to achieve a
high mark.
- Degree of difference between the initial and the goal
state
In such situations problem space is more
disorganized and the operator is required to take more
steps to reach to the solution.
- Functional fixedness
Functional fixedness is the inability to realize that
something known to have a particular use may also be
used to perform other functions. When one is faced
with a new problem, functional fixedness blocks one’s
ability to use old tools in novel ways.
B. George Polya’s four phases of Problem-Solving in
Mathematics
George Polya, known as the father of modern problem
solving, did extensive studies and wrote numerous
mathematical papers and three books about problem
solving. I'm going to show you his method of problem
solving to help step you through these problems.
Polya created his famous four-step process for problem
solving, which is used all over to aid people in problem
solving:
Step 1: Understand the problem
If you are unclear as to what needs to be solved, then
you are probably going to get the wrong results. In
order to show an understanding of the problem, you
need to read the problem carefully. Some people jump
the gun and start solving the problem before they have
read the whole problem.
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate)
When you devise a plan (translate), you come up with
a way to solve the problem. Setting up an equation,
drawing a diagram, and making a chart are all ways
you can go about solving your problem. In this tutorial,
we will be setting up equations for each problem and
translating them into an equation.
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve)
The next step, carry out the plan (solve), is big. This is
where you solve the equation you came up with in
your 'devise a plan' step.
Step 4: Look back
In problem solving it is good to look back (check and
interpret). Basically, check to see if you used all your
information and that the answer makes sense. If your
answer does check out, make sure that you write your
final answer with the correct labeling.
M O D U L E 2 Mathematical Investigations and
Modeling
Closed Versus Open-ended Problems
Closed problems involves identifying and recording all
aspects of the deviation from the norm, from which
you can begin to deduce the possible causes. A
preliminary definition of a closed problem might be,
for example, 'quality control has detected a 15%
increase in rejects of component A during the past
week'. This type of definition is of little help in locating
the cause of such a problem, but it's a starting point for
making a detailed description of the situation.
An open-ended problem is defined in terms of goals.
Write the objectives as a statement of what you want
to achieve by solving the problem. The definition needs
to be precise, to give aid and direction to your search
for solutions, but at the same time identify all the
possible goals which would contribute your overall
objective.
**Open-ended problems are related to a need or desire
to improve upon the current situation and there is an
inevitable risk that you may fail to benefit, or even
change the situation for the worse. Many of the
techniques described for defining open-ended
problems can be applied to defining closed problems
once their cause (the obstacle) has been identified.
Problem Posing
Problem posing has a special importance in the study
of mathematics; it is of a central importance in the
discipline of mathematics and in the nature of
mathematical thinking.
What is Problem Posing?
- Dunker described problem posing in mathematics as
the generation of a new problem or the formulation of
a given problem. (Dunker, 1945).
- Silver described problem posing as it is refers to both
the generation of new problems and the
re-formulation of given problems, posing can occur
before, during or after the solution of a problem (Silver,
1993).
- Stoyanova has defined mathematical problem posing
as the process by which, on the basis of concrete
situations, meaningful mathematical problems are
formulated (Stoyanova, 1996).
Skills in Problem Posing
1) Use problem-solving strategies to investigate and
solve the posed problems.
2) Formulate problems from every day and
mathematical situations.
3) Use a proper approach for posing problems up to
the mathematical situations.
4) Recognize relationships among different topics in
mathematics.
5) Generalize solutions and strategies to new problem
situations.
6) Pose complex problems as well as simple problems.
7) Use different subjects' applications in posing
mathematical problems.
8) The ability of generating questions to improve
problem posing strategies like: How can I finish the
problem? Can I pose another questions? How many
solutions can I find?
How are Problem-Posing Skills Related to Problem-
Solving Skills?
Silver and Cai found that students’ problem solving
performance was highly correlated with their
problem- posing performance. Compared to less
successful problem solvers, good problem solvers
generated more, and more complex, mathematical
problems.
Benefits of Problem Posing
 It frees learners from the one-answer syndrome.
 It enables learners to view common things in
uncommon ways.
 It legitimizes asking questions.
 It fosters the predicting, conjecturing, and testing
of hypotheses.
 It builds a spirit of adventure, intellectual
excitement, and class unity.
 It demonstrates the spiraling nature of inquiry
learning. No problem is really solved.
 It develops a sense of personal ownership and
responsibility for mathematical investigations.
Ways to Change a Problem
Some ways to change a problem to create new
problems:
 Change the numbers.
 Change the geometry.
 Change the operation.
 Change the objects under study.
 Remove a condition, or add new conditions.
 Remove or add context.
 Repeat a process.
Silver and cai (2005) identified three criteria that are
commonly applicable to most problem posing tasks:
1. Quantity - refers to the number of correct responses
generated from the problem posing task.
2. Originality - is also another feature of responses that
can possibly be used as a criterion to measure students’
creativity.
3. Complexity - refers to the cognitive demands of the
task. It can be categorized as low, moderate, or high.
LOW COMPLEXITY
MODERATE COMLEXITY
HIGH COMPLEXITY
What is Mathematical Investigation?
Mathematical investigation is the sustained exploration
of a mathematical situation and provides an
opportunity for the development of
independent\mathematical thinking. It is these
thinking processes which enable an individual to learn
more mathematics, apply mathematics in other
disciplines and solve mathematical (and
non-mathematic) problems.
Mathematical investigations can be a useful tool when
teaching mathematics, including teaching mathematics
to very young students (Diezmann, et al., 2001). They
can be used to encourage curiosity, debate and
communication and often address a range of outcomes
and link different subject areas.
The students will experience the following
mathematical processes which are the emphasis of
mathematical investigation:
 systematic exploration of the given situation.
 formulating problems and conjectures.
 attempting to provide mathematical justifications
for the conjectures.
A mathematical investigation is typically defined as an
investigation that involves a collection of mathematical
and problem solving based issues. Such issues
generally have multiple uses and purposes. They are
typically open-ended in their content. There are
generally more than one possible solution, and use
more than one method in solving the issue at hand.
What is Mathematical Modeling?
Mathematics is often called "the language of the
universe". With mathematics, we can describe and
make predictions about the behavior of things around
us. Models describe our beliefs about how the world
functions. In mathematical modelling, we translate
those beliefs into the language of mathematics.
Mathematical models use the language of mathematics
to very effectively describe, understand and evaluate
systems.
**Haines and Crouch (2007) characterize
mathematical modeling as a cyclical process in which
real-life problems are translated into mathematical
language, solved within a symbolic system, and the
solutions tested back within the real-life system.
**According to Verschaffel, Greer, and De Corte (2002),
mathematical modeling is a process in which real life
situations and relations in these situations are
expressed by using mathematics.
**Lesh and Doerr (2003a) describe mathematical
modeling as a process in which existing conceptual
systems and models are used to create and develop
new models in new contexts.
In simplest terms, a mathematical model is an
abstraction or simplification that allows us to
summarize (describe) a system. Once you have a
mathematical model you have a list of inputs and a list
of outputs and some sort of definite algorithm that tells
you what the outputs will be given the inputs.
Model and Mathematical Model
- According to Lesh and Doerr (2003a), a model
consists of both conceptual systems in learners’ minds
and the external notation systems of these systems
(e.g., ideas, representations, rules, and materials). A
model is used to understand and interpret complex
systems in nature.
- Lehrer and Schauble (2003) describe a model as an
attempt to construct an analogy between an unfamiliar
system and a previously known or familiar system.
Accordingly, people make sense of real-life situations
and interpret them by using models.
- Lehrer and Schauble (2007) describe this process as
model based thinking and emphasize its
developmental nature. They also characterize the
levels of model based thinking as hierarchical.
What are the objectives of mathematical modeling?
Forecasting the future, preventing an unwanted future,
understanding various 'natural' and 'unnatural'
phenomena are some possibilities expressed in very
mathematical terms.
Benefits of building and using mathematical models:
 Ability to predict system behavior
 A clear idea of the important inputs and outputs
 Ability to analyze anomalous behavior by
comparing it to the modelpredicted behavior
What is a Good Model?
Building good models is an art. Nevertheless, we can
state seven criteria for good models.
 A good model has a clearly specified object of
modeling, that is, it is clear what thing the model
describes.
 A good model has a clearly specified purpose and
(ideally) contributes to the realization of that
purpose.
 A good model is traceable: each structural element What is conjecture?
of a model either (1) corresponds to an aspect of Something believe to be true based on observations. It
the object of modelling, or (2) encodes some is like your opinion about something that you noticed
implicit domain knowledge, or (3) encodes some or even an educated guess.
additional assumption. A conclusion made by using inductive reasoning, it can
 A good model is truthful: relevant properties of the be true or false.
model should also carry over to (hold for) the What is inductive reasoning?
object of modelling. This is the type of reasoning that reaches conclusion
 A good model is simple (but not too simple). Avoid based on patterns.
ugly encodings. Preferably, the model uses stable, Reasoning that uses a number of specific examples to
well-defined and well-understood concepts and arrive at a conclusion.
semantics.
 A good model is extensible and reusable, that is, it
has been designed to evolve and be used beyond
its original purpose.
 A good model has been designed and encoded for
interoperability and sharing of semantics.

M O D U L E 3 Problem Solving Heuristics

What is Heuristic?
According to wiki heuristic technique, or a heuristic
originated from Ancient Greek heurískō, which means
“I find or discover”, it is any approach to problem
solving or self-discovery that employs a practical
method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, or
rational, but is nevertheless sufficient for reaching an
immediate, short-term goal or approximation. Where
finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical,
heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process
of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be
mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making
a decision.
**Heuristic techniques are not a formal
problem-solving model as such, but can be used as an
approach to problem solving, where solutions are not
expected to produce a perfect or optimal solution.
**Heuristics are usually mental shortcuts that help
with the thinking processes in problem solving. We
have either learnt these techniques – usually
informally, or they are hard wired for survival. We
often use them automatically to solve a problem.
**Relying only heuristics to solve a problem works
well as a quick fix or when the alternative solution is
impractical – it may cost too much, be unusable in the
current environment, or be a long-term project.
What is a pattern?
Pattern in nature are visible regularities found in the
natural world. These patterns persist in different
context and can be modelled mathematically. With
patterns we can learn to predict the future.
A pattern is a series or sequence that repeats. You can
observe patterns - things like colors, shapes, actions, or
other sequences that repeat - everywhere. Math
patterns are sequences that repeat based on a rule, and
a rule is a set way to calculate or solve a problem.