PanAm Jet Transition Course

Jet
Transition
Student Guide
PAN AM International Flight Academy
JET TRANSITION COURSE
Student Guide
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBJECT PAGE
The Airline Life & Flight Physiology ...................................................................................................................... 1
The Basic Airline Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Turbine Aircraft World ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Basic Aerodynamics ..................................................................................................................................... 20
High Altitude/High Speed Aerodynamics................................................................................................................ 22
The Turbine Engine .......................................................................................................................................... 27
Basic Jet Airplane Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 32
The Automated Flight Deck ..................................................................................................................................... 34
C.R.M .......................................................................................................................................... 42
Simulator Training .......................................................................................................................................... 86
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The Airline Life & Flight Physiology

Airline Training
Training in the airlines is nothing compared to what flight students have been accustomed to up to this point. Regardless of
where they started and/or finished their initial pilot training, an airline’s demand, schedules, and complexity far exceeds
those imposed by any individual instructor, FBO flight school, or FAR 141 flight academy.
The primary reason for this demanding and strict format of training is to reduce the amount of time a “new hire” pilot
spends unproductive. The cost of training flight deck crews is two fold; first a pilot in training cannot operate any flight
equipment for revenue, and second there is the cost of ground school and simulator training. In other words, an airline must
invest the money on a pilot’s training in order to fly an aircraft and produce revenue. It is important to note that the biggest
expense to airlines, after fuel, is their pilots.
Besides the airlines necessities, new hire training programs also need to meet the requirements imposed by the local
aviation authority, i.e. FAA, CAA, JAA, DGCA, etc. Furthermore, these authorities should also observe the guidelines
specified by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Therefore; training programs have been adequately
organized in order to meet two needs; safety, and efficiency.
Departing from this concept, an air carrier’s training program includes this basic format;
1. Basic Indoctrination (1 to 2 weeks)

i. Final paperwork is completed
ii. Drug tests are done
iii. Manuals are Introduced (AOM, and FOM)
iv. Seniority is Assigned
v. Review of FOM starts
2. Aircraft Specific Ground School (64 Hours)

i. Aircraft Systems: By Lecture, or CBT, or combination of lecture and CBT
ii. Review and Examination (written test, and oral)
iii. System Integration Training SIT, or Cockpit Procedures Training CPT
3. Simulator Training (20-24 Hours)

i. 7 training sessions of two hours each
ii. Check Ride
iii. Line Oriented Flight Training LOFT
4. Initial Operational Experience (IOE)

i. 25 hours with a Check airman flying the line
ii. Additional training may be required
Flight Physiology and Aeromedical Factors (Slides 10-18)
The most common effects in a pilot’s body when flying at high rates of speed, and/or high altitudes, are:
• Vision: night flight, illusions

• Spatial Disorientation
• Hypoxia
• ADM (Aeronautical Decision Making)
Of the four, we will look into, perhaps the most critical of them all, Hypoxia.
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Hypoxia
In general terms, hypoxia is a condition in which the body as a whole or a region of the body is deprived of adequate
oxygen supply; or, the lack of sufficient oxygen in the body to the point where function is impaired.
There are four types of Hypoxia:
1. Hypoxic
2. Hypemic
3. Stagnant
4. Histotoxic
We will define more in detail Hypoxic Hypoxia, since it relates more to high altitude flying.
Hypoxic Hypoxia is defined as: a result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs. A blocked airway or a reduction in
partial pressure (high altitude above 10,000 feet) causes lungs to be deprived of oxygen. In other words, you cannot absorb
adequate oxygen.
Some of the Symptoms of Hypoxic Hypoxia are:
• Headache
• Decrease Reaction Time
• Impaired Judgment
• Euphoria
• Visual Impairment
• Drowsiness
• Lightheaded or Dizziness
• Tingling in Fingers or Toes
• Numbness
• Blue Fingernails and Lips
• Limp Muscles
To prevent this condition manufacturers of transport category aircraft, have build a method to pressurize the cabin of
airplanes. In most cases, this pressurization allows for the passenger cabin to be kept at altitudes between Sea Level and
8,000 feet. However; as we know sometimes these systems may fail, therefore, corrective actions must be taken in order to
avoid human losses due to lack of oxygen.
The first corrective action is the provision of an alternate source of oxygen, usually delivered by oxygen generators through
breathing masks. The second corrective action is the initiation of a descent to a lower altitude in order to reduce the cabin’s
level, and increase the pressure of oxygen.
Both of these actions must be taken almost simultaneously in order to avoid loss of consciousness due to lack of oxygen
within a body’s blood stream. As altitude increases above 10,000 ft, our brain’s Effective Performance Time (EPT) is
reduced greatly. Please observe the following chart for approximate EPT’s:

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Other Aeromedical Factors
Other factors that may affect a pilot’s body are:
• Dry Cabin Air: Cabin humidity is set in accordance to the aircraft’s cabin pressure, therefore, at 8,000
feet cabin humidity will also be low, creating a dry environment. As a passenger, this problem may not be
of great impact, however, as a crew member, your body will experience the effects of dry air, since you
will be exposed to it more often. To correct this deficiency it is recommended to drink 8 ounces of water
every hour.
• Blood Clots: This condition is most common in flights that have duration of more than three hours;
however, physicians declare that it may occur to any person whose body is stagnant in one position
regardless of the amount of time. It is recommended that you stand up and stretch your body often.
• Germs in close Quarters: One of the “physiological threats” within an aircraft is the possibility of
acquiring viral diseases brought in by crew members, or passengers. Air within an airplane is recycled
constantly, and it flows throughout the cabin, therefore, germs within the cabin air are common. To avoid
contamination within the flight deck, keep items clean, and avoid flying when sick.
• Odd Schedules: Work schedules within the aviation industry are far different than those of any other
profession. Many times you will be flying across time zones making it even more difficult for your body
and mind to adjust to a normal physiological schedule. When people are waking up, you may be just
going to bed; lunch time in London is breakfast in Miami.
In short, it is recommended that, as a crew member, you develop healthy eating and exercising habits, this will keep you
away from sicknesses and/or diseases, which in turn will keep you away from the cockpit.

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The Basic Airline Structure

An Airline’s Structure
In most countries around the world, an airline must be issued two types of certificate. The first one is commonly called a
“fitness” certificate, which is usually issued by the Department of Transportation, or the Office of Revenue. This certificate
basically establishes the company’s financial ability to conduct business. The Operational certificate, in the other hand, is
usually issued by a country’s aeronautical authority, such as, FAA, JAA, or DGCA. This certificate is only issued once the
airline has proven to the authorities its operational viability. The process by which an airline is awarded such a certificate is
a lengthy one. The requirements covered by such a process, include things such as, flight crew training, and aircraft
maintenance programs, among others.
An airline’s operational core is managed by these five individuals: Director of Operations, Director of Maintenance,
Director of Dispatch, Chief Pilot, and the Director of Maintenance. These five managers are responsible for proving, to the
aeronautical authorities, the company’s safe and efficient procedures. Once these are met, a company will receive the
Certificate of Operations. This certificate will be in “good standing”, as long as, the operational procedures under which it
was awarded are followed by every person involved in the operation of the airline, i.e. pilots, flight attendants, mechanics,
ramp agents, etc.
In order to supervise an airline’s safe operations, inspectors are assigned, by the aeronautical authority, to oversee the day
to day flying of an airline. These inspectors are: the Principal Operations Inspector (POI), and the Principal Maintenance
Inspector (PMI). As their titles denote, the PMI is in charge of overseeing the maintenance aspects of an airline, including
maintenance programs, STC’s, AD’s, etc. On the other hand, the POI is in charge of the overall supervision of an airline’s
operations, including maintenance.
The POI and PMI are a liaison between an aeronautical authority and the airline. They communicate directly with the
Director of Operations, in order to maintain a company’s Certificate of Operations in good standing, or “flight status.”
• Director of Operations (DO): Responsible and has authority to change all areas/phases of the Flight Department
to ensure the highest levels of safety and efficiency.
• Director of Safety: Responsible for ensuring the safety and security of every aspect of the companies business,
including and not limited to the operation of every revenue flight.
• Director of Maintenance: Responsible and has authority to change all areas/phases of the Maintenance
Department to ensure the highest levels of safety and efficiency.
• Director of Dispatch: Responsible for overseeing the proper planning and dispatching of each flight in
accordance with local/int’l. regulations, and company policies, including proper Weather, Metars, TAF’s,
Alternate Requirements, Weight & Balance, etc.
• Chief Pilot: He provides leadership and management, is the general leader of the pilot group, and general manager
of operations & procedures, acts as VP of Operations, when assigned, and is Responsible for the distribution of
company required publications (FOM, AOM, Jeppesen).
• Fleet Managers: As an assistant to the Chief Pilot, carriers appoint Fleet Managers. These individuals assist the
Chief Pilot in the day to day issues of a carrier’s pilot group. Fleet Managers are usually appointed by equipment
type, meaning that if a company has three types of aircraft on their flight line, there would be three fleet managers.
Flight Deck Crew
Most companies around the world will first hire you as a First Officer or F/O. With time experience, and following the
proper seniority list, you will one day become a Captain. Depending on the airline’s minimum requirements, a pilot must
posses a minimum amount of Pilot In Command (PIC) flight hours before upgrading from F/O to Captain. In addition to

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these airline imposed minimum criteria, an aviation authority, also has minimum requirements before a pilot can operate an
aircraft as a PIC.
Captain Requirements
Depending on the Aeronautical Information Publication’s (AIP) jurisdiction under which the carrier is registered, the
regulations to be a captain may differ. However, the most common requirements to be captain of a jet, or an airplane that
weighs more than 12,500 pounds, are outlined as follows:
• Pass a practical flight test, called a type rating ride;

• This check can be conducted by any designated examiner who is qualified in the type of aircraft you are flying;
• The initial training could to be conducted in the airplane, or in an approved simulator (Category “C” or “D”);
• If flight training is conducted in a category “B” simulator, then the check ride must be done in the aircraft;
• If a pilot does not posses a previous type rating on any aircraft, then he must perform three take of and landings in
the same category and type of aircraft he is perusing his type, this commonly known as the “bounces”, and an
aviation inspector must be present.
Captain Responsibilities
• Act as PIC;
• Directly Responsible & final authority as to the safe operation of the aircraft;
• Safety of customers crew and cargo;
• Compliance with AIP’s, Ops Specs, FOM;
• Economics schedule and comfort;
• Be familiar with Navaids, Instrument Approaches, noise abatement procedures, prohibited/restricted areas;
• Act as the Inflight Security Coordinator (ISC)
Just like a Captain, the First Officer must also meet certain minimum flight training requirements before operating a large
category aircraft. A First officer must be familiar and knowledgeable in the following areas
• Systems of the aircraft

• Performance specifications and limitations
• Normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures
• Flight manual
• Placards and markings
Additionally a First officer must have also performed the following maneuvers;
• 3 takeoffs and landings in the last 90 days

• Engine-out procedures
• Single engine maneuvers as a PF
A practical test will also be necessary for a First Officer to receive his/her type rating, however, this type rating may be
limited to Second In Command (SIC) privileges only. Should this be the case, then it will be specified in the limitations
section of your certificate.
As a final requirement for both pilots, a Crew Resource Management (CRM) course is also required before performing the
duties of Flight Crew on revenue flights.
First Officer Responsibilities
• Act as SIC
• Perform duties per manuals/profiles and Captain.
• Be familiar with weather, route, and all factors of flight.
• Operate A/C &/or assist as directed by Captain.
• Assume PIC duties if Captain becomes incapacitated

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Flight Dispatchers
Flight Dispatchers are an essential resource in the operation formula of an airline. They are nothing like the individual, up
to this point, you informally talk to at your flight school or academy, who’s only job was to hand you over the keys to your
airplane, and perhaps the logbook and headsets. In an airline a dispatcher not only is the first one to know about specifics
on your flight (passenger load, fuel load, cargo, etc.), but he/she is the one who is responsible for properly filing your flight.
The responsibility of a Dispatcher is such, that local aeronautical authorities also demand training for this individuals. A
dispatchers training includes subjects such as; weather, weight & balance, basic aircraft performance, and regulations. They
must also perform written and practical tests before receiving their Dispatcher’s Certificate.
To aeronautical authorities, the Captain and Dispatcher are jointly responsible for assuring that flight operations are
conducted safely and in accordance with local and international regulations, as well as, applicable Ops Specs, ICAO, and
any other applicable condition, or regulation that may be pertinent for a particular flight.
The Flight Operations Manual (FOM)
This manual is held by all airlines despite the location of registry and or operations. In this book you will find every single
policy and procedure that flight deck crews must comply with. The FOM is a detailed explanation of “How” a crew will
operate within the guidelines of the Ops Specs.
The most common chapters encountered in the FOM are: Company Organization and Policies, Duties and Responsibilities,
Scheduling, Flight Operations, Cold Weather Operations, International Operations, and Emergencies. The FOM also
includes the Operational Specifications or Ops Specs. Here you will find the specific authorizations granted to the airline by
the enforcing aeronautical administration, i.e. FAA, CAA, DGCA, etc.
FOM Basics
The following paragraphs will discuss the most common topics of the FOM. Since this is not a formal “basic indoc”, we
will swiftly review each subject.
The first and second chapters of a typical FOM expose information on a company’s organization and policies, as well as,
the duties and responsibilities of each member. Since these topics were already reviewed when looking at an airline’s
structure, we will jump directly to the third chapter of the FOM, which is Scheduling.
Scheduling in an airline goes beyond the simple task of assigning crews to an airplane and operate it in a particular series of
flights for a specified amount of time. In fact, the scheduling department of an airline can be considered as an essential part
of the nervous system of an airline, since it is here were a flight begins, and ends. Before a flight can be manned to be
operated, a scheduler must cross-check a series of legalities regarding crew members in order to assign them to a particular
flight. Among many, a scheduler must check these main legalities:
• Completion of Training (Ground School, Simulator, IOE);

• Proficiency Checks;
• Line Checks (Captains only);
• Medical Certificates;
• Medical Status; and
• Flight and Duty Time Status
Flight and Duty Time status is the most important legality a scheduler must check in a crew in order to asses it’s availability
status, and be able to assign them to a flight. Each country’s AIP will determine the limitations of flight time, and duty time
for specific type of operations, and as we have learned so far, a carrier’s FOM will further explain these limitations.
Therefore, a scheduler’s task is to meet the FOM’s criteria when scheduling a crew to a flight.

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Although it may differ country to country, and airline to airline, the most common flight and duty time limitations are as
follows:
Flight Time Duty Time
• 8 Hours within a 24 hour period

• 30 Hours during any 7 consecutive days • 16 hours within a 24 hour period
• 100 hours during any calendar month
• 1000 during any calendar year
Once a crew is assigned to a flight, the operational “legalities” become the crew’s responsibility; therefore, pilots must be
familiar with the company’s Flight Operations policies, as they are explained in the FOM.
First, crews must make sure that they have in their possession the following manuals:
• FOM;
• AOM; and
• Airways Manuals (Jeppesen)
Also crews must have readily available the following personal items:
• License
• Medical (First Class)
• Passport
• Company ID
• Extra Glasses (if required)
• Restricted Radio Operator License (if required)
In addition to the previously mentioned “personal” items, a crew must ascertain that the “trip envelope” includes all the
required paperwork for the flight. These are:
• Dispatch Release: Document that must contain specific information about the flight such as: the identification
number of the aircraft, trip number, departure airport, intermediate stops, destination airport, and alternates,
statement of type of operations (VFR, IFR, etc), minimum fuel, pertinent weather forecasts for the route, notams,
and a signed release by the Dispatcher and Captain, including the time of the release.
• Flight Plan: Document that includes, but is not limited to, each waypoint to be flown over, including distances,
ETA’s, Altitudes or FL’s, fuel consumption at each waypoint, as well as, the alternate route.
• AC Performance Data: Document that details the aircraft’s specific performance data for take off, climb, cruise
and landing under current conditions.
• Weight and Balance: Document that details the aircraft’s BOW, Payload, ZFW, TOW, and LDW.
• Cargo Manifest: Documents that details the weight and location of any payload carried as cargo, and not passenger
baggage.
• Hazmat Documents: Document that details the kind of material, weight, location and special handling of the cargo.
Most passenger airlines do not accept this type of payload.
On of the key pieces of information included within the dispatch release is the weather forecast. The forecast is essential
since it will determine whether or not an alternate airport is needed. In the airlines, the condition under which this
determination is made remains the same (1-2-3 rule); however, the weather criteria, as well as, minimum approach
specification requirements for an alternate airport, do change.

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FAR Part 91.167, where the weather requirements for designating an alternate airport are; 800-2 for non-precision
approach, and 600-2 for a precision approach, does not hold true for large transport category aircraft under an airline’s
certificate. In this case, we test the weather minimums by two methods:
Method 1
• At airports where at least One Navigational Facility providing a straight in precision or non-precision approach to
one runway. The weather forecast must show that one hour before and after the ETA, the ceiling and visibility
must be:
o Ceiling: 400ft. plus the published HAT; and

o Visibility: 1 s.m. plus the required published visibility of the approach.
Method 2
• At airports where at least Two Navigational Facilities, each with a straight in precision or non-precision approach
to two suitable runways. The weather forecast must show that one hour before and after the ETA, the ceiling and
visibility must be:
o Ceiling: 200ft plus the published HAT

o Visibility: ½ s.m. plus the required visibility of the approach
The reason the alternate minimum criteria is lower, is because aircraft operating under an airline certificate are considered
to have more precise navigational instruments, as well as, key system back-ups. It is important to note that the
aforementioned methods are applicable to operators who are certified for Category I approaches only.
So far we have seen one kind of alternate requirement. In addition to a destination alternate, airline operators are also
allowed to file a Takeoff alternate. This is necessary when the weather conditions at takeoff are below the landings
minimums.
According to most AIP’s, takeoff alternates must be within certain range depending on the number of engines an aircraft
has. For example, FAA FAR 121.617 states that for an aircraft that has 2 engines, a takeoff alternate should not be more
than one hour from the departure airport at normal speed in still air with one engine inoperative. Consequently, for an
aircraft with 3 or more engines, a takeoff alternate should not be more than two hours from the departure airport, also
considering normal speed in still air, and one engine inoperative.
For the first case, a 2 engine aircraft in still air and one engine inoperative translates to approximately 250 NM, while a 3 or
more engine aircraft under the same performance conditions, a takeoff alternate should not be more than 400 NM from the
departure airport.
In addition to these guidelines, and encompassing both type of alternate airports, dispatchers must file the “Nearest
Suitable Airport” as an alternate. The definition of “Nearest Suitable Airport” is defined as; an airport that can handle the
size and type of aircraft you are in. In other words, should you need to divert, upon landing at the alternate, this airport must
have all the facilities to handle the needs for your aircraft (fuel, power plant, etc.), as well as, your passengers.
Checklist Usage
Checklists were created so that an aircraft can be operated by a pilot safely. Running a checklist is a good habit to have,
however; even this task can become a “tedious” event, and can rapidly be relinquished to complacency. Because of their
redundancy, “Normal checklists” are often dropped in this category, and crews begging to “read” out of memory,
increasing the potential for a mistake. Checklists:
• Ensure proper configuration of aircraft; checklists are a

• Basis for procedural standardization; and are
• A collection of task lists
In addition, Normal checklists:
• Verify aircraft configuration;

• Provide a sequential framework;
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• Allow for cross-checking;

• Dictate crew duties;
• Enhance the team concept; are a
• Quality control tool;
• Reduce reliance on memory; and
• Helps prevent exceeding aircraft limitations
Checklists are of two types:
• Call-do-response (“cookbook”): typically used by military airmen, and not common in the airlines,
except when running a Supplementary, Abnormal, or Emergency Checklist.
• Challenge-Verification-Response: Typically used by the airlines under normal conditions, and is
followed by a flow pattern. Once a checklist is complete, the pilot-not-flying must advise the pilot-
flying and announce ". . . Checklist complete."
Remember, checklists were created to eliminate errors of omission in the cockpit. Involving the flight crew and revising
an entire checklist will result in a safer and more efficient cockpit.
Briefings
A crew briefing is not limited to reviewing an instrument approach procedure, or detailing aspects of the flight to the flight
attendants. In fact, the cockpit crew briefing is an important tool for improving safety during any critical phase of flight. In
a somewhat modified form, it's of use to the single-pilot flight operation as well.
In the simplest terms, your crew briefing is the verbalization of your plan for executing a critical phase of your flight. Given
a normal transport flight ops profile, most would agree takeoffs and departures, as well as descents and arrivals, constitute
critical flight segments. For the novice briefer, verbalizing the elements of these two major events is an excellent beginning.
As you would expect, you will not easily brief something you have not planned. Also one must avoid becoming too
ritualistic or institutionalized with their crew briefing. Conducting appropriate and meaningful briefing enhances individual
as well as crew performance. It is a learned art born of practice in identifying the key elements of every departure and
arrival conveyed with clarity and brevity.
In it’s simplest form, a flight crew briefing should include the minimum following information:
• Departure Briefing:
ATIS
Clearance
Taxi Route
Runway
Flap Setting
Power Setting
Departure Procedure
Engine Out
Any Questions??
• Arrival Briefing:
ATIS
STAR
Approach Plate (Briefing strip)
Runway Specifics
Taxi Route
Gate
Any Questions??

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• A Brief Example
Departure Brief: If you anticipate radar vectors to intercept a course, it is important to brief the published minimum
sector altitude (MSA). In the absence of radar vectors to final, your briefing must be expanded to include depicted
transitions, procedure turns, arcs or other published routings and the associated minimum altitudes.
"Let's plan on runway three five for takeoff. We're cleared via the McCoy two and the Colliers Transition. We'll use
our standard takeoff and departure climb profile. With these rain showers and wet runway, I prefer to use full power for
takeoff. We'll maintain the assigned heading and climb to cross the Orlando one one five at or above 2600 and the zero
niner zero at or above 3000. Our initial altitude is 5000 and that's set in the altitude alerter. I've got Orlando tuned and
three three eight in my window. You're tuned to Orlando and please monitor those radials. We should have no problem
meeting the crossing restrictions. Let's stay with the number one comm for ATC and our squawk is set on 3531.
"As far as emergencies go, if something happens prior to V1, I'll stop the aircraft, you call the tower and I’ll get on the
PA after we've stopped. Beyond V1, we go. I'll continue to fly. Let's not do anything in a hurry. I'll call for the
checklists and let's stick with our procedures. If possible, I’ll use the autopilot and get in the loop ASAP. Any time you
have a question about anything we're doing or not doing, please ask. Any questions? Comments?
• A Brief Example
Arrival Brief: If you anticipate radar vectors to intercept a course, it is important to brief the final approach fix altitude
(FAF). In the absence of radar vectors to final, your briefing must be expanded to include depicted transitions,
procedure turns, arcs or other published routings and the associated minimum altitudes.
"Let's plan on the Pueblo two six right ILS and the glideslope is out of service. The effective date on my chart is March
5th. The MSA's are 7700 to the northwest and 7100 to the southeast of Aruba with an airport elevation of forty seven
twenty six. Since we're cleared via Huner and the 10 DME arc, let's keep both nav radios on Pueblo and tune the ADF
to Aruba. Once we're on the arc, I’ll descend to 7000. As we near the Pueblo zero eight niner radial tune and identify
my nav radio on one zero eight point three and I’ll set two fifty seven in my window. Call me passing the zero eight
niner on your CDI and once I’ve turned to intercept the localizer, come on over on your nav radio and we'll switch the
RMI's to ADF. Established on the localizer, I’ll descend to the final approach fix altitude of 6600. Our minimums are
five thousand sixty feet and one and a quarter mile. Let's time the approach for two minutes and forty five seconds and
call me two minutes and five seconds after we pass Aruba.
"The missed approach is a climb to 7000 direct to Mertz. If we go around, tune Mertz on the ADF. Let's keep approach
flaps and I’ll use a hundred and sixty knots max. We'll plan on a teardrop entry to that holding pattern.
"Runway two six right has hirls, reils and VASI on the left side. That's not much in the way of lighting. We'll likely see
the reils first. That runway is over ten thousand feet long and 150 feet wide. Any questions? Suggestions?
The Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
A minimum equipment list (MEL) provides for the operation of an aircraft in airworthy conditions, although certain
instruments or equipment are inoperative. It lists the instruments and equipment that may be inoperative without
jeopardizing the safety of the aircraft. It is developed for a specific aircraft and type of operation and is approved by the
appropriate authority (the FAA for civil registered aircraft in the United States, EASA for civil registered aircraft in
Europe, etc). It also includes procedures for flight crews to follow when securing or deactivating inoperative
instruments or equipment.
When an aircraft is manufactured, the manufacturer submits a proposed master minimum equipment list (PMMEL) to
the Flight Operations Evaluation Board (FOEB). The FOEB reviews the PMMEL and once approved it becomes a
master minimum equipment list (MMEL). The MMEL is then distributed to all the Flight Standards District Offices
(FSDO). The MMEL becomes an MEL once it is accepted by the owner/operator of an aircraft following the
appropriate procedure.
The PIC of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft. It is the
PIC's responsibility to assure that the inoperative equipment is allowed for in the MEL. However, this authority does
not allow the PIC to operate an aircraft with an inoperative item requiring maintenance that has not been approved for
return to service.

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Before a qualified crewmember operates the aircraft with an inoperative item he shall:
1) Determine that the inoperative item is an MEL authorized inoperative item.
2) Determine that the inoperative item will not affect safety of flight.
3) Determine that any required alternate equipment is operative.
4) Review the aircraft maintenance record to assure that the proper write ups and sign offs have
been accomplished.
5) Notify the Director of Maintenance at the earliest opportunity of any inoperative item. This
notification will allow him to program and initiate procedures to assure timely corrective action is
accomplished.
The following persons are authorized to approve an aircraft to continue operations with inoperative items in
accordance with the MEL:
1) The Pilot in Command.
2) The mechanic assigned to perform maintenance on the aircraft who has been delegated authority
to approve an aircraft for Return to Service.
3) The Director of Maintenance.
Rectification Interval Categories
The maximum time an aircraft may be operated between the deferral of an inoperative item and its
rectification will be specified in the MEL. Non-safety related equipment such as reading lights and
entertainment units need not be listed. However, if they are listed, they must include a rectification
interval category.
The Rectification Interval Categories are defined as follows:
Category A
No standard interval is specified, however, items in this category shall be rectified in accordance with the conditions
stated in the MMEL. Whenever the time interval is specified in calendar days, it shall start at 00:01 on the calendar
day following the day of discovery.
Category B
Items in this category shall be rectified within three consecutive calendar days, excluding the day of discovery.
Category C
Items in this category shall be rectified within 10 consecutive calendar days, excluding the day of discovery
Category D
Items in this category shall be rectified within 120 consecutive calendar days, excluding the day of discovery.
In addition to observing the appropriate rectification interval, the PIC must also observe that the proper Maintenance
(M) and/or Operational (O) procedure was followed prior to accepting an aircraft with a differed maintenance item or
DMI.

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Configuration Deviation List (CDL)
The CDL is a listing of non-structural external parts that may be missing but the airplane remains airworthy. It is
contained in an approved airplane flight manual (AFM) appendix. To qualify an item onto the CDL, a restrictive set of
conditions must be met. This was done to assure that the list remained small and purposeful. In other words, a CDL
contains limitations on secondary airframe, and engine parts that may be missing or inoperative. These items have been
provided either by the aircraft’s manufacturer, appropriate aeronautical authority, or the operator’s GMM.
● Remember! Any item that has been written in the aircraft’s logbook and has being signed off according to either
maintenance manual must be PLACARDED in clear view of the flight deck crew

Student Guide
The Turbine Aircraft World

What Can You Expect
● Power: Stunning rates of acceleration and climb performances. Unlike the piston airplanes, jet airplanes are
powered by engines that can produce immense amounts of thrust. As an example, a Boeing 737-300 series aircraft
is powered by two CFM 56-3 engines, each producing approximately 20,000 pounds of thrust, which in turn
translates to approximately 25,000 HP!
HP= (Thrust*TAS)/325
● Increased Tempo: Everything happens fast. The sensitivity of the A/C increases. As a result of this increased
power, speed also increases, therefore, you will reach a set destination, waypoint, fix, VOR, etc., faster. As a rule
of thumb, a typical jet airplane cruising at MACH .80 will travel 8 miles per minute. Also during an approach, a jet
aircraft will be flying at an average of 140 Knots, this means that not only are you covering ground faster, but the
sensitivity of the controls are also increased.
● Speed: Increase in power means increase in speed, plus increase tempo, leads to increase of awareness in speed
control. Up to this point you may have been filing IFR flight plans without DP’s and STAR’s, due to the fact that
your aircraft’s performance may not be able to comply with some of the initial restrictions the DP’s and STAR’s
have. When flying a complex jet, DP’s and STAR’s become an important aspect of your flying technique, and
what before seemed impossible to achieve in a piston airplane, in a jet is easy to reach, and if your are not careful,
you may also exceed the limitations, therefore, special attention needs to be placed in your airplane’s speed
control.
● Finesse Your Flying Technique: Be assertive and smooth. Flying at this level of aviation requires more than just
knowledge, but it requires proper technique. Remember that airlines are in the business of making profits by
transporting individuals, and/or goods, therefore, they require professionals with high operational sense. In
addition, the airspace structure, procedures and regulations, require pilots to operate under safe and efficient
parameters. Therefore, finessing your flying skills is a must. Some of these techniques are, but are not limited to:
standard rate turns, maintaining proper speeds, executing approaches properly, proper ground handling during taxi,
to name a few.
General Rules and Techniques
• Power Setting: Power setting in jet airplanes is similar to setting power on a piston aircraft, in the sense that you
must observe tachometer limitations, i.e. red line. However, in a jet airplane besides observing a red line, we must
also observe temperature limitations. We will learn more about jet engines and its limitations later on. For now we
must know that power setting in a jet is limited by the indication of two main engine instruments, the N1 (engine’s
rotating tachometer), or EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio). N1 and EPR will limit an engine's maximum available
thrust depending on two main factors; OAT, and Field Elevation. It is also important to know that some engine
manufacturers do not use an EPR instrument as a primary source of power setting, therefore, leaving an N1
indicator as the primary instrument, this is the case of later models, which are powered by two GE engines.
• Ground Control: Steering in this type of airplanes is accomplished by two methods. First through the rudder
pedals, this gives us approximately 7° of turn in the nose wheel. Second, on the left hand side of the captain’s left
knee there is a steering wheel, or “tiller”, which allows for the nose wheel to steer up to 75° left or right. As the
aircraft’s speed increases during the takeoff roll, steering is accomplished by the rudder pedals, and aero
dynamical steering will become more effective, therefore, pedal input forces should decrease in order to avoid loss
of control on the ground, or excessive bank inputs once we become airborne. Remember, be assertive and smooth.
• Pitch Attitude: The takeoff technique is similar to the one learned during your initial flight training. Once you
achieve a rotation speed, or Vr, you will pull on the control column at a rate of +/- 3° per second pitch up. You
will initially bring the nose of the aircraft to a 9° nose up attitude. Once you leave the ground effect, you will
continue to pitch up at the same rate previously discussed, until achieving the proper “initial climb speed” or V2
plus 15 Knots. This attitude may be around 15° nose up. You will hold this attitude until reaching the proper
“acceleration altitude” or 1,000 ft. AGL. At this point we will lower the pitch to approximately 10º, in order to
increase airspeed and proceed with the takeoff climb profile.

Student Guide
NOTE: The takeoff profile will be reviewed in full later in the presentation
Climb
Steeper Gradients: Once again, the amount of thrust output these aircraft have, make for steeper gradients during
climb. Even at maximum takeoff weight, it is normal to have rates of 3,000 ft. per minute during takeoff, and an average of
1,500 ft. per minute during the rest of the climb up to cruise level.
• Speed Limitations: Because of the increment in climb rate, complying with climb gradients on DP’s may
not be such a challenge, however, on the other hand, altitude constraints, on the departure, may become a
problem, if a pilot does not plan accordingly for the extra boost jet engines provide. Some of the
constraints to be encountered during climb are:
o Class Airspace Speed Limits: Class B, C, D, etc.
o A/C Specific: Flaps, Slats, Gear, etc.
o MEL/CDL Limit
• Increase Performance: As we all know, density altitude has a direct effect on aircraft performance,
however, in jet airplanes is not as critically diminishing as in reciprocating ones. Therefore, this type of
airplanes can operate in a diversity of airfields; high altitude, short runways, obstacle clearance, to name a
few. It is no wonder why we have seen an increment of jet aircrafts been used world wide at all levels of
aviation, even at the regional and commuter one, where turboprops were popular.
Slowing Down
Slowing down in a jet aircraft can be difficult, even more so if it is required by ATC to “go down, and slow down”
at the same time. The main reasons for this apparent “flaw” in design, is the absence of propeller drag when the
engines are at idle. Because of the nature in design of jet engines, when at idle, their forward thrust output can be
as high as 40% of N1. In order to avoid missing altitude constraints, a pilot must carefully plan the descent. As an
assistant to this problems, manufacturers have installed “spoilers” or “speed brakes.” These are secondary flight
controls that “kill” lift, and induce drag, hence, increasing descent rates.
Cruise
• KIAS to MACH: Limiting speeds for turbine aircraft are, in many ways, similar to those of piston-
engine driven ones. However, there are some interesting variations at the higher end of the speed range.
Jet airplanes do not have a red line associated with their maximum operating speed Vne, neither there is a
yellow line for an associated Vno. Instead, jet airplanes have limiting indications for Vmo, which is a
maximum operating speed displayed in KIAS, and Mmo, which is the maximum operating speed
expressed in MACH number.
Vmo is a structural limit designed to prevent airframe damage from excess dynamic pressure, while Mmo
is designed to prevent shock wave damage as the aircraft approaches the speed of sound. Later in the
module it will be explained why the reason for these two speeds. For now, it will be said that due to the
compressibility of the air as an airplane increases its speed nearing the speed of sound, it must convert
from KIAS to MACH. The point to which am referring is commonly called the “change over point.”
Even though this change in speeds varies with altitude, this particular event usually occurs between the
altitudes of 24,000 and 26,000 feet.
Because aircrafts are designed to operate at such high altitudes and speeds, manufacturers have
configured airspeed indicators with a red and white striped “needle”, referred as the “barber pole” , in
order to indicate Vmo, or Mmo. In EFIS, and New Generation (NG) airplanes, this indication is
represented by a vertical , red and black line, displayed at the top of the “speed tape.”

Student Guide
Another great variation experienced by piston engine pilots, when they transition to jet airplanes, is the
one that occurs between TAS and G/S. Because of the higher cruising altitudes, wind velocity can reach
speeds greater than 150 Knots due to the encounter of the jet stream. This effect can have a great impact
on aircraft range, depending on whether is a tailwind, or a headwind what it is encountered.
As a jet turbine powered aircraft increases its speed at lower altitudes, an inertia is built. The higher and
faster it goes, the penalties of drag versus thrust are reduced, therefore, the amount of thrust required to
maintain a constant speed, will decrease. This “inherited” or “accidental” advantage of jet engines, results
in less fuel consumption, hence, making jet aircraft more efficient. In short, the higher an airplane can be
dispatched, assuming favorable winds and appropriate weights, the more efficient it will operate.
Operating at high altitudes implicates operating under “new” airspace limitations, such as, Reduce
Vertical Separation Minimums or RVSM. RVSM is defined as the airspace that starts at FL290, and it
extends up to FL410 inclusive. In order to operate within this area, operators must posses a letter of
authorization, as well as, have their aircraft and pilots certified to operate under RVSM regulations.
Another advantage of being able to fly at such levels, is the possibility to avoid weather patterns that most
of the time impose limitations to low flying aircraft. As an essential part of the complexity in the systems
that can be found in jet powered airplanes, is the inclusion of a weather radar. Thanks to this essential
technological equipment, crews are able to deviate and avoid thunderstorms, high rising clouds, and other
weather phenomena, that may impose a threat to the flight. It is common to deviate from thunderstorms
several miles off the normal route, and then reestablished the track further down the airway. The proper
utilization of this equipment is essential for an efficient and safe flight.
Another difference to be observed in the operation of a jet powered aircraft to that of a piston one, is the
choice of cruise power. When operating a piston engine airplane, and on a cross country flight, a pilot
will choose to lean the mixture for a more efficient trip. Crews of jet turbine airplanes perform this task as
well, however, they do not always end up choosing a “lean” mixture for efficiency. Some times, usually
during short trips, crews may choose a faster speed in order to reach their destination quicker. On other
occasions, during long trips, crews may choose to use a lower thrust in order to increase fuel efficiency.
This is the reason why airlines have, as part of their operations department, the office of engineering and
flight planning. The individuals who work here, usually aeronautical engineers, plan and develop specific
routes and performance procedures, in order to maximize an airplanes efficiency.
Descents
When planning a descent, a pilot should always try to fly a path that is, as close as possible to a 3º glide path, just
like any approach to landing. For this, a rule of thumb should be applied. First, one should calculate the Top of
Descent or T/D by taking the difference in altitude to be lost, then multiplying this number by 3, and then dividing
the result by 1,000. This will give you a distance from the point at which you must cross at a given altitude.
Second, a rate of descent is calculated by multiplying the G/S times 5.
If the crossing restriction is located prior to the active waypoint, or reference DME, the calculated T/D should be
added the difference in distance between the reference fix DME and the actual crossing restriction. If the crossing
restriction is, in the other hand, beyond the active waypoint, or reference DME, this distance should be subtracted
from the calculated T/D and the reference DME point.
If this is not confusing enough, should a speed restriction also be necessary to comply with an ATC request, a rule
of thumb of 5 miles should be added to any calculated top of T/D.
In most cases, this complex descent calculation is performed by the FMS, nonetheless, it is recommended that
pilots know this rule of thumb in order to execute an accurate and safe approach, should any of the onboard flight
management systems become inoperative.
Just like when on a DP, there are also speed restrictions to comply with during the descent and approach to land,
such as; arrival procedures, crossing restrictions on the approach, MEL/CDL, and holding restrictions, to name a
few.

Student Guide
Proper Trim Use
Unlike most piston aircraft, jets have electric trim switches in stead of trim wheels. In addition, in turbine powered
airplanes, the trim system will trim the entire elevator surface, not just a trim tab like we see in most piston
airplanes such as the Cessna models 152, 172, or Piper models PA-28-, PA-32, to name a few. Because of this
design, one must be cautious when trimming.
Remember that when we trim, we trim to maintain a desire pitch at a set speed. For example; when we climb
during takeoff, we will try to achieve a climb attitude, while at the same time we should maintain a proper climb
speed. If no trimming action is performed, the control column will feel “heavy” as the airplane will want to gain
speed by lowering the nose, however, we will not allowed for that by pulling back on the yoke, therefore, the
pressure on the control column will increase. To ease the pressure and attain better control of the speed and climb
attitude, trim is required.
The principles of trim use in jets are the same as in piston aircraft. Until you become familiar with the flying
aspects of any new aircraft, a proper trim technique calls for small applications at a time.
A Good Planning Pilot
By now it is obvious; to the casual observer or listener in this case, that planning is a major part of flying jets.
From the takeoff to the approach, and landing, a good planning pilot should have his jet under a stabilized
approach, this includes the following:
1. Full Landing Configuration:

i. Flaps for Landing
ii. Gear Down
iii. Landing Checklist Completed
2. Constant Airspeed:
i. Appropriate airspeed to maintain a 3° glide until landing
3. Controlled Rate of Descent:
i. On G/S if on a ILS Approach
ii. On Glide Path if on a non-precision, or visual approach
4. Engines Spooled Up:
i. Thrust should be adequate in order to maintain speed and glide during the final
approach
The above conditions should be attained by 1000’ft. AGL when on an instrument approach, or by 500’ft. when on
a visual approach. Many airlines, however, will keep 1000’ft., regardless of the type of approach, as their limiting
parameter to have the aircraft “in the slot” or stabilized.
Performance and Profiles
Next few subjects will deal with the performance considerations a pilot must take for a successful flight. This
discussion will start where all flights start, at the takeoff. Before discussing actual flight performance, we will look
into some of the terms related to takeoff, and the profiles of various climb segments.
First we will talk about the minimum field length required for takeoff, which should be one the first considerations
a pilot should take and it varies with weight, temperature, altitude, wind, and runway. These are the criteria used in
certification tests of the aircraft. Not considering runway conditions, or an inoperative anti-skid, the minimum
runway length required for takeoff will be the longest of the following distances;

Student Guide
1. Takeoff Distance With an Engine Failure-The distance required to accelerate to V1 with all
engines operating normally, experience the loss of an engine, and continue to accelerate on the
remaining engines to Vr, at which time rotation is commenced to each a height of 35’ft. above
the runway at V2.
2. Accelerate/Stop Distance-The distance required to accelerate to the decision speed V1 with all
engines running normally, experience the loss of an engine at V1, retard the operating engines,
and bring the airplane to a full stop.
3. All-engine Takeoff Runway Length-115% of the distance from brake release to the point where
35’ft. height above the runway is reached, with all engines operating normally at takeoff thrust.
Once a minimum runway length has been determined, a pilot should calculate the required takeoff and initial
climb speeds, commonly referred as the V speeds. Just like light piston airplanes, large transport category aircraft
also fly by certain V speeds, however, they are not always referred to as Vx, and Vy. The reason for this difference
is because the weight variations in large aircraft at takeoff are great.
For example a Cessna 152’s TOW varies between 1300 to 1700 pounds. Despite the difference, the Vx/Vy’s
remain constant. On the other hand, a 737-300’s TOW can range between 80,000 to 130,000 pounds, therefore a
constant Vx or Vy is not feasible. Neither is feasible, nor safe, for pilots to memorize different “Vx or Vy’s” for
different weights, therefore, engineers developed names such as V1, Vr, V2, V3, etc.
Definitions
V1—Critical Engine Failure Speed or Decision Speed:
•Engine failure below this speed should result
in an aborted takeoff
•Above this speed, the takeoff should be continued
VR—Speed at which the rotation of the airplane is initiated to takeoff attitude:
•VR cannot be less than V1 or less than 1.05 x VMCA

(minimum control speed in the air)
•VR must also allow for the acceleration to V2 at the 35-foot

height at the end of the runway after an engine failure at V1
V2—Takeoff Safety Speed:
•This is the speed that must be attained at the 35-foot height at the end of the required
runway distance
•V2 is essentially the best single-engine angle of climb speed for the airplane
Flying the Profile
1. Ensure the engines are developing takeoff power before you release the brakes:
•Any distance traveled before reaching takeoff power must be deducted from the runway available
2. Accelerate to V1 (often referred to as takeoff decision speed):
•If an engine fails before V1, stop in the remaining runway
•If an engine fails at V1, you may either stop or continue
•If an engine fails after V1, continue the takeoff

Student Guide
3. Continue to accelerate on the remaining engine to rotation speed (referred to as VR).
4. At rotation speed, rotate at the prescribed rate for your aircraft to the prescribed nose-up pitch angle:
•When you achieve a positive rate of climb, retract your landing gear
•Properly followed, this procedure should have the airplane at: ºA height of at least 35 feet at the
departure end of the runway
•The segment from where you are at V1 until you have the gear up at 35 feet, and V2 is referred to as the
“first segment”
•The only climb requirement during the first segment is a positive rate of climb ºThe speed for best angle
of climb with one engine inoperative
•This speed is referred to as V2.
5. Climb at V2 until you reach the appropriate Acceleration Altitude (1000 AGL):
•The climb segment from 35 feet until the EOAA is referred to as the “second segment”
•The second segment climb angle requirement is often the limiting factor in the takeoff weight of an
airplane
6. Once you reach the EOAA (1,000ft.), accelerate to a speed that allows you to clean the wing by raising the
flaps/slats (V3):
•This clean-up and acceleration segment is called the “third segment”
7. Continue the climb at V3 speed until you reach 3,000 feet AGL (if EO):
•The climb segment from the point where you have the wing clean and are at the best one-engine-
operative rate of climb speed to the point where you reach 3,000 feet AGL is referred to as the “final
segment”
•The speed for the final segment climb is referred to as VENR (Velocity, Enroute, or VFS Velocity, Final
Segment)
8. Return for landing.
Just like on takeoff, considerations of field length should also be considered for landing. The criteria under which
a landing field length is considered is determined as follows;
1.Weight limited by the runway available for landing:
•The regulations describe the landing profile as the distance required from a point 50 feet above the
runway threshold, through the flare to touchdown, and then stopping using the maximum stopping
capability on a dry runway surface
•Certified landing length requirements are computed for speed brakes deployed and maximum wheel
braking
•Reverse thrust is not used in establishing the certified FAR landing distances
2.Weight limited by approach climb (the ability to climb on one engine with flaps in the approach configuration)
3.Weight limited by landing climb (the ability to climb on both engines with the flaps in landing configuration)
4.Maximum approved structural landing weight

Student Guide
Basic Aerodynamics
We live in a world that is defined by three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. Objects move within this domain in
two ways. An object translates, or changes location, from one point to another. And an object rotates, or changes its
attitude. In general, the motion of any object involves both translation and rotation. The translations are in direct response
to external forces. The rotations are in direct response to external torques or moments (twisting forces).
The motion of an aircraft is particularly complex because the rotations and translations are coupled together; a rotation
affects the magnitude and direction of the forces which affect translations. To understand and describe the motion of an
aircraft, we usually try to break down the complex problem into a series of easier problems. We can, for instance, assume
that the aircraft translates from one point to another as if all the mass of the aircraft were collected into a single point called
the center of gravity. We can describe the motion of the center of gravity by using Newton's laws of motion. There are four
forces acting on the aircraft; the lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Depending on the relative magnitudes and directions of these
forces, the aircraft will climb (increase in altitude), dive (decrease in altitude), or bank (roll to one side). The magnitude of
the aerodynamic forces depends on the attitude of the aircraft during the translations. The attitude depends on the rotations
about the center of gravity when the aircraft is trimmed
Sir Isaac Newton first presented his three laws of motion in the "Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis" in 1686.
His first law states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change
its state by the action of an external force. When an external force F is applied, the object is accelerated a in the direction of
the force with a magnitude directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass m of the object. This is
a restatement of Newton's second law of motion:
a=F/m
Weight
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth. The magnitude of the weight depends on the mass of
all the airplane parts, plus the amount of fuel, plus any payload on board (people, baggage, freight, etc.). The weight is
distributed throughout the airplane. But we can often think of it as collected and acting through a single point called the
center of gravity. In flight, the airplane rotates about the center of gravity.
Flying encompasses two major problems; overcoming the weight of an object by some opposing force, and controlling the
object in flight. Both of these problems are related to the object's weight and the location of the center of gravity. During a
flight, an airplane's weight constantly changes as the aircraft consumes fuel. The distribution of the weight and the center of
gravity also changes. So the pilot must constantly adjust the controls to keep the airplane balanced, or trimmed.
Lift
To overcome the weight force, airplanes generate an opposing force called lift. Lift is generated by the motion of the
airplane through the air and is an aerodynamic force. "Aero" stands for the air, and "dynamic" denotes motion. Lift is
directed perpendicular to the flight direction. The magnitude of the lift depends on several factors including the shape,
size, and velocity of the aircraft. As with weight, each part of the aircraft contributes to the aircraft lift force. Most of the lift
is generated by the wings. Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the center of pressure. The center of pressure is
defined just like the center of gravity, but using the pressure distribution around the body instead of the weight distribution.
The distribution of lift around the aircraft is important for solving the control problem. Aerodynamic surfaces are used to
control the aircraft in roll, pitch, and yaw.
Drag
As the airplane moves through the air, there is another aerodynamic force present. The air resists the motion of the aircraft
and the resistance force is called drag. Drag is directed along and opposed to the flight direction. Like lift, there are many
factors that affect the magnitude of the drag force including the shape of the aircraft, the "stickiness" of the air, and the
velocity of the aircraft. Like lift, we collect all of the individual components' drags and combine them into a single aircraft
drag magnitude. And like lift, drag acts through the aircraft center of pressure.
Thrust
To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to generate a force called thrust. The direction of the thrust force
depends on how the engines are attached to the aircraft. In the figure shown above, two turbine engines are located under
the wings, parallel to the body, with thrust acting along the body centerline. On some aircraft, such as the Harrier, the thrust

Student Guide
direction can be varied to help the airplane take off in a very short distance. The magnitude of the thrust depends on many
factors associated with the propulsion system including the type of engine, the number of engines, and the throttle setting.
For jet engines, it is often confusing to remember that aircraft thrust is a reaction to the hot gas rushing out of the nozzle.
The hot gas goes out the back, but the thrust pushes towards the front. Action <--> reaction is explained by Newton's Third
Law of Motion.
The motion of the airplane through the air depends on the relative strength and direction of the forces shown above. If the
forces are balanced, the aircraft cruises at constant velocity. If the forces are unbalance, the aircraft accelerates in the
direction of the largest force.
Note that the job of the engine is just to overcome the drag of the airplane, not to lift the airplane. A 1 million pound
airliner has 4 engines that produce a grand total of 200,000 of thrust. The wings are doing the lifting, not the engines. In
fact, there are some aircraft, called gliders that have no engines at all, but fly just fine. Some external source of power has to
be applied to initiate the motion necessary for the wings to produce lift. But during flight, the weight is opposed by both lift
and drag. Paper airplanes are the most obvious example, but there are many kinds of gliders. Some gliders are piloted and
are towed aloft by a powered aircraft, then cut free to glide for long distances before landing. During reentry and landing,
the Space Shuttle is a glider; the rocket engines are used only to loft the Shuttle into space.
When two solid objects interact in a mechanical process, forces are transmitted, or applied, at the point of contact. But
when a solid object interacts with a fluid, things are more difficult to describe because the fluid can change its shape. For a
solid body immersed in a fluid, the "point of contact" is every point on the surface of the body. The fluid can flow around
the body and maintain physical contact at all points. The transmission, or application, of mechanical forces between a solid
body and a fluid occurs at every point on the surface of the body. And the transmission occurs through the fluid pressure.
Definitions of Lift and Drag
Since the fluid is in motion, we can define a flow direction along the motion. The component of the net force perpendicular
(or normal) to the flow direction is called the lift; the component of the net force along the flow direction is called the drag.
These are definitions. In reality, there is a single, net, integrated force caused by the pressure variations along a body. This
aerodynamic force acts through the average location of the pressure variation which is called the center of pressure.
Velocity Distribution
For an ideal fluid with no boundary layers, the surface of an object is a streamline. If the velocity is low, and no energy is
added to the flow, we can use Bernoulli's equation along a streamline to determine the pressure distribution for a known
velocity distribution. If boundary layers are present, things are a little more confusing, since the external flow responds to
the edge of the boundary layer and the pressure on the surface is imposed from the edge of the boundary layer. If the
boundary layer separates from the surface, it gets even more confusing. How do we determine the velocity distribution
around a body? Specifying the velocity is the source of error in two of the more popular incorrect theories of lift. To
correctly determine the velocity distribution, we have to solve equations expressing a conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy for the fluid passing the object. In some cases, we can solve simplified versions of the equations to determine
the velocity.
Summary
To summarize, for any object immersed in a fluid, the mechanical forces are transmitted at every point on the surface of the
body. The forces are transmitted through the pressure, which acts perpendicular to the surface. The net force can be found
by integrating (or summing) the pressure times the area around the entire surface. For a moving flow, the pressure will vary
from point to point because the velocity varies from point to point. For some simple flow problems, we can determine the
pressure distribution (and the net force) if we know the velocity distribution by using Bernoulli's equation.

Student Guide
High Altitude and High Speed Aerodynamics

In recent years, a number of corporate jet airplanes have been involved in catastrophic loss of control during high-
altitude/high-speed flight. A significant causal factor in these accidents may well have been a lack of knowledge by the
pilot regarding critical aspects of high-altitude, MACH flight.
a. Maximum operating altitudes of general aviation turbojet airplanes now reach 51,000 feet. It is, therefore, logical to
expect these types of accidents to continue unless pilots learn to respect the more critical aspects of high-altitude, high-
speed flight and gain as much knowledge as possible about the specific make and model of aircraft to be flown and its
unique limitations.
b. From the pilot's viewpoint, MACH is the ratio of the aircraft's true airspeed to the local speed of sound. At sea level, on a
standard day (59° F/15° C) the speed of sound equals approximately 660 Kts or 1,120 feet per second. MACH 0.75 at sea
level is equivalent to a TAS of approximately 498 Kts (0.75 x 660 Kts) or 840 feet per second. The temperature of the
atmosphere normally decreases with an increase in altitude. The speed of sound is directly related only to temperature. The
result is a decrease in the speed of sound up to about 36,000 feet.
c. The sleek design of some turbojet airplanes has caused some operators to ignore critical airspeed and MACH limitations.
There are known cases in which corporate turbojet airplanes have been modified by disabling the airspeed and MACH
warning systems to permit intentional excursions beyond the FAA certificated VMO/MMO limit for the specific airplane.
Such action may critically jeopardize the safety of the airplane by setting the stage for potentially hazardous occurrences.
d. The compulsion to go faster may result in the onset of aerodynamic flutter, which in itself can be disastrous, excessive G-
loading in maneuvering, and induced flow separation over the ailerons and elevators. This may be closely followed by the
physical loss of a control surface, an aileron buzz or snatch, coupled with yet another dangerous phenomenon called
MACH tuck, leading to catastrophic loss of the airplane and the persons onboard.
e. MACH-tuck is caused principally by two basic factors:
(1) Shock wave-induced flow separation, which normally begins near the wing root, causes a decrease in the down wash
velocity over the elevator and produces a tendency for the aircraft to nose down. Printed from Summit Aviation's
Computerized Aviation Reference Library, 7/15/2005 Page 24
(2) Aftward movement of the center of pressure, which tends to unbalance the equilibrium of the aircraft in relation to its
center of gravity (CG) in subsonic flight.
f. The airplane's CG is now farther ahead of the aircraft's aerodynamic center than it was in slower flight. This dramatically
increases the tendency of the airplane to pitch more nose down.
g. Pressure disturbances in the air caused by an airfoil in high-altitude/high-speed flight result from molecular collisions.
These molecular collisions are the result of air that moves over an airfoil faster than the air it is overtaking can dissipate.
When the disturbance reaches a point at which its propagation achieves the local speed of sound, MACH 1 is attained. One
hundred percent (100%) of the speed of sound at MSL with a temperature of 15° C is 760 statute or 660 NM per hour. This
speed is affected by temperature of the atmosphere at altitude. Thus, optimum thrust fuel, and range considerations are
significant factors in the design of most general aviation turbine powered airplanes which cruise at some percentage of
MACH 1.
h. Because of the critical aspects of high-altitude/high-MACH flight, most turbojet airplanes capable of operating in the
MACH speed ranges are designed with some form of trim and autopilot MACH compensating device (stick puller) to alert
the pilot to inadvertent excursions beyond its certificated MMO. This stick puller should never be disabled during normal
flight operations in the aircraft.
i. If for any reason there is a malfunction that requires disabling the stick puller, the aircraft must be operated at speeds well
below MMO as prescribed in the applicable AFM procedures for the aircraft.
j. An airplane's IAS decreases in relation to TAS as altitude increases. As the IAS decreases with altitude, it progressively
merges with the low-speed buffet boundary where prestall buffet occurs for the airplane at a load factor of 1.0 G. The point
where high-speed MACH, IAS, and low-speed buffet boundary IAS merge is the airplane's absolute or aerodynamic
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ceiling. Once an aircraft has reached its aerodynamic ceiling, which is higher than the altitude limit stipulated in the AFM,
the aircraft can neither be made to go faster without activating the design stick puller at MACH limit nor can it be made to
go slower without activating the stick shaker or pusher. This critical area of the aircraft's flight envelope is known as coffin
corner.
k. MACH buffet occurs as a result of supersonic airflow on the wing. Stall buffet occurs at angles of attack that produce
airflow disturbances (burbling) over the upper surface of the wing which decreases lift. As density altitude increases, the
angle of attack that is required to produce an airflow disturbance over the top of the wing is reduced until a density altitude
is reached where MACH buffet and stall buffet converge (described in paragraph 5n as coffin corner). When this
phenomenon is encountered, serious consequences may result causing loss of control of the aircraft.
l. Increasing either gross weight or load factor (G factor) will increase the low-speed buffet and decrease MACH buffet
speeds. A typical turbojet airplane flying at 51,000 feet altitude at 1.0 G may encounter MACH buffet slightly above the
airplane's MMO (0.82 MACH) and low speed buffet at 0.60 MACH. However, only 1.4 G (an increase of only 0.4 G) may
bring on buffet at the optimum speed of 0.73 MACH and any change in airspeed, bank angle, or gust loading may reduce
this straight and level flight 1.4 G protection to no protection. Consequently, a maximum cruising flight altitude must be
selected which will allow sufficient buffet margin for the maneuvering necessary and for gust conditions likely to be
encountered. Therefore, it is important for pilots to be familiar with the use of charts showing cruise maneuvering and
buffet limits. Flight crews operating airplanes at high speeds must be adequately trained to operate them safely. This
training cannot be complete until pilots are thoroughly educated in the critical aspect of aerodynamic factors described
herein pertinent to MACH flight at high altitudes. Printed from Summit Aviation's Computerized Aviation Reference
Library, 7/15/2005 Page 25
202. AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS AND PERFORMANCE. Pilots who operate aircraft at high speeds and high altitudes
are concerned with the forces affecting aircraft performance caused by the interaction of air on the aircraft. With an
understanding of these forces, the pilot will have a sound basis for predicting how the aircraft will respond to control inputs.
The importance of these aerodynamic forces and their direct application to performance and execution of aircraft
maneuvers and procedures at altitude will be evident. The basic aerodynamics definitions that apply to high-altitude flight
are contained in paragraph 3, Definitions.
a. Wing Design.
(1) The wing of an airplane is an airfoil or aircraft surface designed to obtain the desired reaction from the air through
which it moves. The profile of an aircraft wing is an excellent example of an efficient airfoil. The difference in curvature
between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing generates a lifting force. Air passing over the upper wing surface moves
at a higher velocity than the air passing beneath the wing because of the greater distance it must travel over the upper
surface. This increased velocity results in a decrease in pressure on the upper surface. The pressure differential created
between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing lifts the wing upward in the direction of the lowered pressure. This lifting
force is known as induced lift. Induced lift may be increased, within limits, by:
(a) Increasing the angle of attack of the wing or changing the shape of the airfoil, changing the geometry, e.g., aspect ratio.
(b) Increasing the wing area.
(c) Increasing the free-stream velocity.
(d) A change in air density.
(2) The pilot may have only varying degrees of control over these factors. Thus, the pilot must keep firmly in mind that an
aircraft will obey the laws of physics just as precisely at its high-speed limits as it does during a slower routine flight, and
that regardless of wing shape or design, MACH range flight requires precise control of a high volume of potential energy
without exceeding the critical MACH number or MACH crit.
(3) MACH crit is important to high-speed aerodynamics because it is the speed at which the flow of air over a specific
airfoil design reaches MACH 1, but the most important effect is formation of a shock wave and drag divergence.
(4) Sweeping the wings of an airplane is one method used by aircraft designers to delay the adverse effects of high MACH
flight and bring about economical cruise with an increase in the critical MACH number. Sweep allows a faster airfoil speed
before critical MACH is reached when compared to an equal straight wing. This occurs because the airflow now travels
over a different cross section (camber) of the airfoil. This new cross section has less effective camber which results in a
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reduced acceleration of airflow over the wing, thus allowing a higher speed before critical MACH is reached. Sweep may
be designed either forward or rearward; the overall effect is the same. However, rearward sweep appears to be somewhat
more desirable, since it has rapidly presented fewer problems to manufacturers of models of general aviation aircraft in
terms of unwanted design side effects. In effect, the wing is flying slower than the airspeed indicator indicates and,
similarly, it is developing less drag than the airspeed indicator would suggest. Since less drag is being developed for a given
indicated airspeed, less thrust is required to sustain the aircraft at cruise flight.
(5) There is a penalty, however, on the low-speed end of the spectrum. Sweeping the wings of an aircraft increases the
landing/stall speed which, in turn, means higher touchdown speed. Proportionally longer runway requirements and more
tire and brake wear as opposed to a straight-wing design. A well-stabilized approach with precise control of critical "V"
speeds is necessary. In other words, to achieve a safe margin airspeed on the wing that will not result in a stalled condition
with the wingtips stalling prior to the rest of the wing and possibly rolling uncontrollably to the right or left, the swept-wing
aircraft must be flown at a higher actual airspeed than a straight wing aircraft.
(6) Drag curves are approximately the reverse of the lift curves, in that a rapid increase in drag component may be expected
with an increase of angle of attack with the swept wing; the amount being directly related to the degree of sweep or
reduction of aspect ratio.
(7) The extension of trailing edge flaps and leading edge devices may, in effect, further reduce the aspect ratio of the swept
wing by increasing the wing chord. This interplay of forces should be well understood by the pilot of the swept-wing
aircraft, since raising the nose of the aircraft to compensate for a mild undershoot during a landing approach at normal
approach speeds will produce little lift, but may instead lead to a rapid decay in airspeed, thus critically compromising the
margin of safety
(8) Another method of increasing the critical MACH number of an aircraft wing is through the use of a high-speed laminar
airflow airfoil in which a small leading edge radius is combined with a reduced thickness ratio. This type of wing design is
more tapered with its maximum thickness further aft, thus distributing pressures and boundary layer air more evenly along
the chord of the wing. This tends to reduce the local flow velocities at high MACH numbers and improve aircraft control
qualities.
(9) Several modern straight-wing, turbojet aircraft make use of the design method described in subparagraph (4). To delay
the onset of MACH buzz and obtain a higher MMO, these aircraft designs may incorporate the use of both vortex
generators and small triangular upper wing strips as boundary layer energizers. Both systems seem to work equally well,
although the boundary layer energizers generally produce less drag. Vortex generators are small vanes affixed to the upper
wing surface, extending approximately 1 to 2 inches in height. This arrangement permits these vanes to protrude through
the boundary layer air. The vortex generators deflect the higher energy airstream downward over the trailing edge of the
wing and accelerate the boundary layer aft of the shock wave. This tends to delay shock-induced flow separation of the
boundary layer air which causes aileron buzz, and thus permits a higher MMO. The lift characteristics of straight-wing and
swept-wing airplanes related to changes in angle of attack are more favorable for swept-wing airplanes. An increase in the
angle of attack of the straight-wing airplane produces a substantial and constantly increasing lift vector up to its maximum
coefficient of lift and, soon thereafter, flow separation (stall) occurs with a rapid deterioration of lift.
(10) By contrast, the swept wing produces a much more gradual buildup of lift with no well-defined maximum coefficient,
the ability to fly well beyond this point, and no pronounced stall break. The lift curve of the short, low-aspect ratio (short
span, long chord) wing used on present-day military fighter aircraft compares favorably with that of the swept wing, and
that of other wing designs which may be even more shallow and gentle in profile.
(11) Regardless of the method used to increase the critical MACH number, airflow over the wing is normally smooth.
However, as airspeed increases, the smooth flow becomes disturbed. The speed at which this disturbance is usually
encountered is determined by the shape of the wing and the degree of sweep.
(12) When the aircraft accelerates, the airflow over the surface of the wing also accelerates until, at some point on the wing,
it becomes sonic. The indicated airspeed at which this occurs is the critical MACH number (MACH crit) for that wing.
b. Jet Engine Efficiency.
(1) The efficiency of the jet engine at high altitudes is the primary reason for operating in the high-altitude environment.
The specific fuel consumption of jet engines decreases as the outside air temperature decreases for constant revolutions per
minute (RPM) and TAS. Thus, by flying at a high altitude, the pilot is able to operate at flight levels where fuel economy is

Student Guide
best and with the most advantageous cruise speed. For efficiency, jet aircraft are typically operated at high altitudes where
cruise is usually very close to RPM or exhaust gas temperature limits. At high altitudes, little excess thrust may be available
for maneuvering. Therefore, it is often impossible for the jet aircraft to climb and turn simultaneously, and all maneuvering
must be accomplished within the limits of available thrust and without sacrificing stability and controllability.
(2) Compressibility also is a significant factor in high-altitude flight. The low temperatures that make jet engines more
efficient at high altitudes also decrease the speed of sound. Thus, for a given TAS, the MACH number will be significantly
higher at high altitude than at sea level. This compressibility effect due to supersonic airflow will be encountered at slower
speeds at high altitude than at low altitude.
c. Controllability Factors.
(1) Static stability is the inherent flight characteristic of an aircraft to return to equilibrium after being disturbed by an
unbalanced force or movement.
(2) Controllability is the ability of an aircraft to respond positively to control surface displacement, and to achieve the
desired condition of flight.
(3) At high-flight altitudes, aircraft stability and control may be greatly reduced. Thus, while high-altitude flight may result
in high TAS and high MACH numbers, calibrated airspeed is much slower because of reduced air density. This reduction in
density means that the angle of attack must be increased to maintain the same coefficient of lift with increased altitude.
Consequently, jet aircraft operating at high altitudes and high MACH numbers may simultaneously experience problems
associated with slow-speed flight such as Dutch roll, adverse yaw, and stall. In addition, the reduced air density reduces
aerodynamic damping, overall stability, and control of the aircraft in flight.
(a) Dutch roll is a coupled oscillation in roll and yaw that becomes objectionable when roll, or lateral stability is reduced in
comparison with yaw or directional stability. A stability augmentation system is required to be installed on the aircraft to
dampen the Dutch roll tendency when it is determined to be objectionable, or when it adversely affects control stability
requirements for certification. The yaw damper is a gyro-operated autocontrol system installed to provide rudder input and
aid in canceling out yaw tendencies such as those in Dutch roll.
(b) Adverse yaw is a phenomenon in which the airplane heading changes in a direction opposite to that commanded by a
roll control input. It is the result of unequal lift and drag characteristics of the down-going and up-going wings. The
phenomena are alleviated by tailoring the control design by use of spoilers, yaw dampers, and interconnected rudder and
aileron systems.
(4) Supersonic flow over the wing is responsible for:
(a) The formation of shock waves on the wing which result in drag rise.
(b) An aft shift in the center of lift resulting in a nose down pitching moment called MACH tuck.
(c) Airflow separation behind the shock waves resulting in MACH buffet.
(5) Swept wing and airfoil design alone, with boundary layer energizers such as the vortex generators described earlier, has
reduced the hazardous effect of the problems described above. However, these problems are still encountered to some
extent by the modern turbojet airplane in high-altitude flight.
(6) In general, this discussion has been confined to normal level, unaccelerated 1.0 G-flight, when turning or maneuvering
about the pitch axis; however, acceleration of G-forces can occur while maintaining a constant airspeed. As G-forces
increase, both the aircraft's aerodynamic weight and angle of attack increase. The margin over low-speed stall buffet
decreases, as well as the margin below MACH buffet, because of the increased velocity of the air over the wing resulting
from the higher angle of attack. This, in effect, could lower the aerodynamic ceiling for a given gross-weight. Increased G-
loading can also occur in non-maneuvering flight because of atmospheric turbulence or the lack of fine-touch skill by the
pilot. Pilots flying at high altitudes in areas where turbulence may be expected must carefully consider acceptable safety
margins necessary to accommodate the sudden and unexpected vertical accelerations which may be encountered with little
or no warning. How wide is the safety margin between low-speed and high-speed buffet boundaries for an altitude and
weight in a 30° bank? The answer may be easily determined by reference to the Cruise Maneuver/Buffet Limit Chart for a
particular aircraft. For example, in a typical jet aircraft, the 1.0 G buffet-free margin at FL 350 is 135 Kts; at FL 450 this

Student Guide
speed is reduced to a mere 26 Kts. Thus, the safety margin in airspeed spread diminishes rapidly as the aircraft climbs and
leaves little room for safety in the event of an air turbulence encounter or accidental thunderstorm penetration.
(7) If a thunderstorm cannot be avoided, follow high-altitude thunderstorm penetration procedures and avoid over-action of
thrust levers. When excessive airspeed buildup occurs, pilots may wish to use speed brakes. The use of aerodynamic speed
brakes, when they are part of the lateral control system, may change the roll rate any time there is a lateral control input.
(8) For detailed information concerning the operation of specific turbojet aircraft, refer to the aircraft's AFM.
Fixed Aerodynamic Surfaces
These surfaces have appeared as “quick fixes” to aircraft performance without the need to change an aircraft’s aerodynamic
design. One driving parameter of these “add-on” surfaces has been fuel savings. Some of these surfaces are:
Winglets: These are small vertical devices mounted on the wingtip. The purpose of this device, is to disrupt the flow of
high pressure air from under the wing, to the low pressure air over the wing. By restricting this flow, the effective span of
the wing is improved, hence lift is improved.
Tailets: These surfaces are mounted on the horizontal stabilizer, and are designed to provide additional directional stability,
when at high angles of attack and low airspeeds. These devices are used more often on T-tail airplanes.
Vortex Generators: These surfaces may be mounted on the wing, tail, elevator, or engine pylon. There are designed to re-
energize the flow or air over the surface in order to avoid separation from the surface at high airspeeds.
Wing Fences: These are fin-like vertical fences, mounted on top of the wing in order to control flow. On sweptback
airplanes, these are located about two thirds down the wing, and they prevent airflow from drifting toward the tip of the
wing. On straight wing type airplanes these fences direct the flow of air towards the trailing edge flaps.
Vortilons: Usually these fixes are mounted on the underside of the wing. Their primary purpose is to re-energize the flow
of air under the wing. Incidentally, many engine pylons serve a dual purpose; to attach the engine to the wing, and serve as
vortilon.
Stabilons: located near the tail of the airplane in order to assist in pitch control.
Ventral Fins: Located under aft portion of the aircraft. Their primary purpose is to assist in high speed and low speed
directional stability.

Student Guide
The Turbine Engine

The exquisite sound of a piston engine, such as that of a P-51, DC-3, or C-130 still is music to a pilot’s ears, and like
everything in life; nothing lasts for ever. In today’s aviation industry, jet powered airplanes have become the norm in
transport category aircraft, of course with some exceptions, airlines of all types including regional and national carriers
operate with jet powered aircraft.
In their early attempts at flight human kind soon learned that the human body was totally inadequate as a propulsion device.
They also learned that heavier-than-air aircraft would need power to attain and sustain flight. Early efforts to develop a
satisfactory engine included rocket, steam, jet, and reciprocating engines, but it was the reciprocating engine that first
pushed the Wright brothers aloft. Today's Army aircraft are propelled by gas turbine and reciprocating engines. While the
technology which led to these engines is relatively new, the idea is not.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
The Aeolipile
Hero, an Egyptian scientist from Alexandria, developed the first "jet engine" about the year 100 BC. Known as the
"aeolipile", it consisted of a boiler, two hollow bent tubes mounted to a sphere, and the sphere. Steam coming from the
boiler entered through the two hollow tubes supporting the sphere. The steam then exited through the bent tubes on the
sphere, causing it to spin. Hero is said to have used this invention to pull-open temple doors.
The Chimney Jack
Leonardo Da Vinci designed a device called the "chimney jack" around the year 1500 AD. The chimney jack was used to
turn a roasting skewer. This reaction-type turbine worked on the principle of heat raising gases from the roasting tire. As
the hot air rose, it passed through fanlike blades that turned the roast through a series of gears.
Rockets
With the discovery of gunpowder around 1000 AD the Chinese, probably accidentally through a defective firecracker
developed the rocket. Rockets were used as early as 1232 by the Mongols to create fear among enemy troops. A Chinese
scholar, Wan Hu attempted to propel his sled with rockets. He became the first martyr in humankind's attempts to fly.
Rockets were used in the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. The Germans used V-2 rockets in World War II The most
noted use of rockets is to launch space vehicles.
Branca's Stamping Mill
In 1629 an Italian engineer, Giovanni Branca, was probably the first to invent an actual impulse turbine. This device, a
stamping mill, was generated by a steam-powered turbine. A jet nozzle directed steam onto a horizontally mounted turbine
wheel, which then turned an arrangement of gears that operated his mill.
The Steam Wagon
In 1687 Isaac Newton attempted to put his newly formulated laws of motion to the test with his "steam wagon". He tried to
propel the wagon by directing steam through a nozzle pointed rearward Steam was produced by a boiler mounted on the
wagon. Due to lack of power from the steam, this vehicle didn't operate.
The First Gas Turbine
In 1791 John Barber, an Englishman. was the first to patent a design that used the thermodynamic cycle of the modem gas
turbine. His design contained the basics of the modem gas turbine it had a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a
turbine. The main difference in his design was that the turbine was equipped with a chain-driven reciprocating type of
compressor. He intended its use for jet propulsion.

Student Guide
MODERN AVIATION
English
In January 1930 an Englishman, Frank Whittle, submitted a patent application for a gas turbine for jet propulsion. It wasn't
until the summer of 1939 that the Air Ministry awarded Power Jets Ltd a contract to design a flight engine. In May 1941 the
Whittle W1 engine made its first flight mounted in the Gloster Model E28/39 aircraft. This airplane would later achieve a
speed of 370 MPH in level flight with 1000 pounds of thrust.
German
The Germans, Hans von Ohain and Max Hahn, students at Gottingen, seemingly unaware of Whittle's work patented a jet
propulsion engine in 1936. Ernst Heinkel Aircraft Company adapted their ideas and flew the second aircraft engine of this
development in an HE-178 aircraft on August 27, 1939. This was the first true jet-propelled aircraft. The engine, known as
the Heinkel HES-36, developed 1100 pounds of thrust and hurled the HE-178 to speeds of over 400 MPH. This engine used
a centrifugal flow compressor. Later development produced a more advanced turbine engine that used an axial flow
compressor. This turbine was used to power the ME262 jet fighter to 500 MPH. These planes were introduced in the
closing stages of World War II. The more modern engine features of blade cooling, ice prevention, and the variable-area
exhaust nozzle were incorporated into the ME262 aircraft engine. On September 30, 1929, using a modified glider and Opel
rockets, the Germans were the first to achieve flight using a reaction engine.
Italian
An Italian, Secundo Campiri of the Caproni Company, developed a turbine engine that used a 900-HP reciprocating engine
to drive its three-stage compressor. This turbine was installed in the Caproni-Campiri CC-2, but it only achieved a
disappointing 205 MPH. In August 1940 the CC-2 made its first flight, with the whole project ending just eight years later.
American
With the help of the British, America entered the jet propulsion field in September 1941. The W. lX engine, a complete set
of plans for the W.2B engine, and a group of Power Jets engineers were flown to the United States from Britain. A contract
was awarded General Electric Corporation to develop an American version of The W.IX. One year later (October 1942) the
Bell XP-59A, fitted with two General Electric l-A engines (rated at 1300 pounds of thrust each) made this country's first jet
propulsion flight.
Although General Electric introduced America to jet propulsion with its modified Whittle design, Westinghouse
Corporation gave America its own gas turbine engine. The Westinghouse engine included an axial compressor and an
annular combustion chamber. These two Westinghouse designs (axial compressor and annular combustion chamber) or
variations thereof are still being used in turbine engines.
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
First Law
Newton's first law states a body in a state of rest remains at rest; a body in motion tends to remain in motion at a constant
speed and in a straight line unless acted upon by some external force.
The first part of this law is evident from everyday experience for instance, a book placed on a table stays on the table. The
second part of the law is more difficult to visualize. It states that if a body is set in motion and left to itself, it virtually keeps
on moving without the action of any further force. The statement is correct; the body would continue to move without any
reduction in velocity if no force acted upon it. However, experience shows that a retarding force (friction) is always present.
A block of wood thrown to slide along a cement-paved road comes to rest after sliding only a short distance because the
friction is great; along a waxed floor it would slide farther because the friction is less, along a sheet of ice it would slide
much farther because the fiction is much less. From examples like these it is theorized that if friction were eliminated
entirely, a body once set in motion on a level surface would continue to move indefinitely with undiminished velocity.
Second Law
Newton's second law states: an unbalance of forces on a body produces or tends to produce an acceleration in the direction
of the greater force; the acceleration is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

Student Guide
The meaning of the second law is illustrated by the example of two identical boxes being moved across a floor. If more
force is applied to one box than to the other, the one subjected to the greater force will have greater acceleration. Or if a full
box and an empty one are drawn across the floor with exactly equal forces, the empty box has the greater acceleration. In
general, the greater the unbalanced force and the smaller the mass, the greater the acceleration.
Third Law
Newton's third law states: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction; the two actions are directed along the
same straight line. In this statement the term "action" means the force that one body exerts on a second, and "reaction"
means the force that the second body exerts on the first. That is, if body A exerts a force on body B, then B must exert an
equal and opposite force on A. Note that action and reaction, though equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, never
neutralize or cancel each other for they always act on different objects.
The recoil of a rifle demonstrates this law of action-reaction. The gunpowder in a charge is ignited by the ignition cap,
combustion takes place, and the bullet is rapidly accelerated from the rifle. As a result of this action, the rifle is accelerated
rearward against the shoulder of the person firing it. The recoil felt by the person is the reaction to the action which ejected
the bullet.
The principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon . When inflated with the stem sealed, pressure is exerted
equally on all internal surfaces.
Since the force of this internal pressure is balanced, there is no tendency for the balloon to move. If the stem is released, the
balloon will move in a direction away from the escaping jet of air. Although the flight of the balloon may appear erratic, it
is moving in a direction away from the open stem at all times.
The balloon moves because of an unbalanced condition existing in it. The jet of air does not have to push against the
outside atmosphere it could function better in a vacuum. When the stem area of the balloon is released, a convergent nozzle
is created. As the airflows through this area, velocity is increased accompanied by a decrease in air pressure. In addition, an
area of the balloon's skin against which the internal forces had been pushing removed. On the opposite internal surface of
the balloon, an equal area of skin still remains. The higher internal pressure acting on this area moves the balloon in a
direction away from the open stem. The flight of the balloon will be of short duration, though, due to the amount of air
contained within it. If a source of pressurized air were provided, it would be possible to sustain the balloon's flight.
THE BRAYTON CYCLE
The "Brayton cycle" is the name given to the thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine engine to produce thrust. This is a
varying-volume, constant-pressure cycle of events and is commonly called the "constant-pressure cycle" or "open cycle." A
more recent term is "continuous-combustion cycle."
The four continuous and constant events are: intake, compression, expansion (includes power), and exhaust. These cycles
will be discussed as they apply to a gas turbine engine.
In the intake cycle air enters at ambient pressure and in a constant volume and leaves at an increased pressure and decreased
volume. In the compressor section air is received from the intake at increased pressure slightly above ambient and slightly
decreased volume. Air enters the compressor where it is compressed, leaving with a large increase in pressure and decrease
in volume. This is caused by the mechanical action of the compressor. The next step (expansion) takes place in the
combustion chamber by burning fuel, which expands the air. Pressure remains relatively constant, but a marked increase in
volume takes place. The expanding gases move rearward through the turbine assembly and are converted from velocity
energy to mechanical energy by the turbine.
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
Bernoulli's theorem states: when a gas or fluid is flowing through a convergent duet (as in nozzle stator vanes or venturi),
its speed will increase and its temperature and pressure will decrease. If this area is a divergent duct (as in a diffuser or rotor
blade), its speed will slow, and its temperature and pressure will increase. The total energy in a flowing gas is made up of
static and dynamic temperatures and pressures. A nozzle or a diffuser does not change the total energy level but rather
changes one form of energy to another. By varying the area of a pipe, velocity can be changed into pressure and pressure
into velocity. A turbine engine is just such a pipe, with areas where air pressure and velocity are constantly being changed
to achieve desired results.

Student Guide
To state this principle simply: the convergent duct increases velocity and decreases pressure. The divergent duet can be
associated with the compressor where the air is slowing and pressurizing. In the combustion area the opposite is true. There,
the velocity is increasing and the pressure is decreasing.
BOYLE'S LAW
This law states that if the temperature of a confined gas is not changed, the pressure will increase in direct relationship to a
decrease in volume. The opposite is also true — the pressure will decrease as the volume is increased. A simple
demonstration of how this works may be made with a toy balloon. If you squeeze the balloon, its volume is reduced, and
the pressure of air inside the balloon is increased. If you squeeze hard enough, the pressure will burst the balloon.
CHARLES' LAW
This law states that if a gas under constant pressure is so confined that it may expand, an increase in the temperature will
cause an increase in volume. If you hold the inflated balloon over a stove, the increase in temperature will cause the air to
expand and, if the heat is sufficiently great, the balloon will burst. Thus, the heat of combustion expands the air available
within the combustion chamber of a gas turbine engine.
PRESSURE AND VELOCITY
Air is normally thought of in relation to its temperature, pressure, and volume. Within a gas turbine engine the air is put
into motion and another factor must be considered, velocity. Consider a constant airflow through a duct. As long as the duct
cross-sectional area remain unchanged, air will continue to flow at the same rate (disregard frictional loss). If the cross-
sectional area of the duet should become smaller (convergent area), the airflow must increase velocity if it is to continue to
flow the same number of pounds per second of airflow (Bernoulli's Principle). In order to obtain the necessary velocity
energy to accomplish this, the air must give up some pressure and temperature energy (law of conservation of energy). The
net result of flow through this restriction would be a decrease in pressure and temperature and an increase in velocity. The
opposite would be true if air were to flow from a smaller into a larger duct (divergent area); velocity would then decrease,
and pressure and temperature would increase. The throat of an automobile carburetor is a good example of the effect of
airflow through a restriction (venturi); even on the hottest day the center portion of the carburetor feels cool. Convergent
and divergent areas are used throughout a gas turbine engine to control pressure and velocity of the air-gas stream as it
flows through the engine.
The major components of a jet engine are similar across the major different types of engines, although not all engine types
have all components. The major parts include:
Cold Section:
Air intake (Inlet) — For subsonic aircraft, the air intake to a jet engine consists essentially of an opening which is designed
to minimize drag. The air reaching the compressor of a normal jet engine must be travelling below the speed of sound, even
for supersonic aircraft, to allow smooth flow through compressor and turbine blades. At supersonic flight speeds,
shockwaves form in the intake system, these help compress the air, but also there is some inevitable reduction in the
recovered pressure at inlet to the compressor. Some supersonic intakes use devices, such as a cone or a ramp, to increase
pressure recovery.
Compressor or Fan — The compressor is made up of stages. Each stage consists of vanes which rotate, and stators which
remain stationary. As air is drawn deeper through the compressor, its heat and pressure increases. Energy is derived from
the turbine, passed along the shaft.
Bypass ducts — Much of the thrust of essentially all modern jet engines comes from air from the front compressor that
bypasses the combustion chamber and gas turbine section that leads directly to the nozzle or afterburner (where fitted).
Shaft — The shaft connects the turbine to the compressor, and runs most of the length of the engine. There may be as many
as three concentric shafts, rotating at independent speeds, with as many sets of turbines and compressors. Other services,
like a bleed of cool air, may also run down the shaft.
Diffuser section: - This section is a divergent duct that utilizes Bernoulli's principle to decrease the velocity of the
compressed air to allow for easier ignition. And, at the same time, continuing to increase the air pressure before it enters the
combustion chamber.

Student Guide
Combustor or Can or Flame holders or Combustion Chamber — This is a chamber where fuel is continuously burned
in the compressed air.
A blade with internal cooling as applied in the high-pressure turbine
Turbine — The turbine is a series of bladed discs that act like a windmill, gaining energy from the hot gases leaving the
combustor. Some of this energy is used to drive the compressor, and in some turbine engines (ie turboprop, turboshaft or
turbofan engines), energy is extracted by additional turbine discs and used to drive devices such as propellers, bypass fans
or helicopter rotors. One type, a free turbine, is configured such that the turbine disc driving the compressor rotates
independently of the discs that power the external components. Relatively cool air, bled from the compressor, may be used
to cool the turbine blades and vanes, to prevent them from melting.
Afterburner or reheat (chiefly UK) — (mainly military) Produces extra thrust by burning extra fuel, usually inefficiently,
to significantly raise Nozzle Entry Temperature at the exhaust. Owing to a larger volume flow (i.e. lower density) at exit
from the afterburner, an increased nozzle flow area is required, to maintain satisfactory engine matching, when the
afterburner is alight.
Exhaust or Nozzle — Hot gases leaving the engine exhaust to atmospheric pressure via a nozzle, the objective being to
produce a high velocity jet. In most cases, the nozzle is convergent and of fixed flow area.
Supersonic nozzle — If the Nozzle Pressure Ratio (Nozzle Entry Pressure/Ambient Pressure) is very high, to maximize
thrust it may be worthwhile, despite the additional weight, to fit a convergent-divergent (de Laval) nozzle. As the name
suggests, initially this type of nozzle is convergent, but beyond the throat (smallest flow area), the flow area starts to
increase to form the divergent portion. The expansion to atmospheric pressure and supersonic gas velocity continues
downstream of the throat, whereas in a convergent nozzle the expansion beyond sonic velocity occurs externally, in the
exhaust plume. The former process is more efficient than the latter.
The various components named above have constraints on how they are put together to generate the most efficiency or
performance. The performance and efficiency of an engine can never be taken in isolation; for example fuel/distance
efficiency of a supersonic jet engine maximizes at about mach 2, whereas the drag for the vehicle carrying it is increasing
as a square law and has much extra drag in the transonic region. The highest fuel efficiency for the overall vehicle is thus
typically at Mach ~0.85.
For the engine optimization for its intended use, important here is air intake design, overall size, number of compressor
stages (sets of blades), fuel type, number of exhaust stages, metallurgy of components, amount of bypass air used, where
the bypass air is introduced, and many other factors. For instance, let us consider design of the air intake.
Common types
There are two types of jet engine that are seen commonly today, the turbofan which is used on almost all commercial
airliners, and rocket engines which are used for spaceflight and other terrestrial uses such as ejector seats, flares, fireworks
etc.
Turbofan
Most modern jet engines are actually turbofans, where the low pressure compressor acts as a fan, supplying supercharged
air not only to the engine core, but to a bypass duct. The bypass airflow either passes to a separate 'cold nozzle' or mixes
with low pressure turbine exhaust gases, before expanding through a 'mixed flow nozzle'.
Turbofans are used for airliners because they give an exhaust speed that is better matched for subsonic airliners. At
airliners' flight speed, conventional turbojet engines generate an exhaust that ends up traveling very fast backwards, and this
wastes energy. By emitting the exhaust so that it ends up traveling more slowly, better fuel consumption is achieved as well
as higher thrust at low speeds. In addition, the lower exhaust speed gives much lower noise.
In the 1960s there was little difference between civil and military jet engines, apart from the use of afterburning in some
(supersonic) applications. Civil turbofans today have a low exhaust speed (low specific thrust -net thrust divided by
airflow) to keep jet noise to a minimum and to improve fuel efficiency. Consequently the bypass ratio (bypass flow divided
by core flow) is relatively high (ratios from 4:1 up to 8:1 are common). Only a single fan stage is required, because a low
specific thrust implies a low fan pressure ratio.

Student Guide
Basic Jet Airplane Systems

For this module, any jet airplane can be used as the base aircraft in order to learn the different systems involved in a jet
transport category airplane. Because this is not a complete ground school, each class will briefly cover a system’s main
components and normal operation. The main purpose of this training is to expose pilots to the complex design and
operation of these aircrafts, as well as, prepare them for the simulator training of this jet transition program.
The following aircraft systems will be presented by using the C-Pat computer based training:
Aircraft General
¾ Aircraft Overview
¾ Dimensions
¾ Flight Compartment
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
¾ APU Introduction
¾ Normal Operations
Electrical System
¾ Electrical Introduction
¾ AC Distribution
¾ DC Distribution
Pneumatic System
¾ Introduction
¾ Pneumatic Valves
¾ Air Conditioning Introduction
¾ Pack system operation
¾ Pressurization Introduction
Hydraulic System
¾ Introduction
¾ Landing Gear
¾ Brakes
Flight Controls
¾ Introduction
Power Plant
¾ Introduction
¾ Ignition and Starters
¾ Thrust Reverser
Student Guide
Fire Protection and Detection
¾ Introduction
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
¾ Introduction
Ice and Rain protection
¾ Introduction
Fuel System
¾ Introduction
Automatic Flight Direction System (AFDS)
¾ Introduction
Flight Management System (FMS)
¾ Introduction
¾ Pre-Flight

Student Guide
The Automated Flight Deck
Introduction
CRM in highly automated aircraft presents special challenges, in particular in terms of situation awareness of the status of
the aircraft. Many researchers and practitioners have looked at training for modern automated aircraft, in particular Mica
Endsley, in the context of situation awareness of automation modes. The following text has been adapted from ICAO
Digest 05 (Automation) Chapter 3.
Training for Automation
Pilot training is very important and it is also very expensive. There is no argument regarding its importance, but there is not
always agreement on the kind and amount of training required to enable pilots to operate new and different aircraft safely
and efficiently.
The controversy regarding the effect of automation on training is an entirely separate issue. Some claim that automation
requires additional skills, while others propose that automation reduces training costs and also reduces the level of
traditional flying skills required in older (conventional flight deck) aircraft; in contrast, others propose that one of the
greatest misconceptions about automation is that it reduces training requirements. Notwithstanding these conflicting
opinions, there is little doubt about the importance of training.
The interface between transport aircraft and the pilots who operate them is of great importance, as are the interfaces
between the pilot and the manufacturer, procedures, Standard Operating Procedures and company operating philosophies.
This Appendix identifies some issues that have been raised regarding training in advanced flight deck technology aircraft.
One controversial issue already mentioned has been the changing role of the flight crew in automated flight deck aircraft. It
comprises at least two basic questions:
• Is the pilot a control operator, a systems manager, or both?

• If a difference exists, is it in the pilot's role, or in the elements of that role?
Analysis suggests that the primary role of the transport pilot has not changed at all: since the goal is (as it has always been)
to complete the planned flight safely and efficiently and with a maximum of passenger comfort, the role is to achieve that
goal- to fly safely and efficiently from point A to point B. The functions still include monitoring, planning, and making
decisions in reference to the operations, and the tasks are those traditionally performed (communicating, navigating and
operating).
The question is how best to train pilots for advanced technology aircraft.
The consensus seems to indicate that, as a general approach, automation should take a greater role in maintaining basic
stability and control of the aircraft. Higher-level functions, such as flight planning/pre-planning, system status management
and decision-making, should be performed primarily by humans with the help of automation. Training should reflect the
increased emphasis on the pilot's decision making,
Knowledge of systems, monitoring, and crew co-ordination. One point is clear, however: automation has not reduced the
need for the basic airmanship skills and knowledge which have always been required of airline pilots. The importance of
those fundamentals should be emphasized in the early phases of training, and general aircraft instruction should always
precede detailed instruction in automatic features.
The training should be sensitive to the varying needs of a pilot population that differs widely in areas such as total flight
experience, corporate experience, recency of last transition training, computer literacy, etc.

Student Guide
Assessment of training requirements
One of the lessons learned regarding advanced technology aircraft is that assessment of training requirements should be
made when a new aircraft type is designed.
Determination of the general training requirements needed to enable pilots to operate new equipment safely and efficiently
should be considered an integral part of the design process. These requirements need not be -and probably should not be –
very detailed. They should clearly indicate what the designer of the system believes the pilot should know in order to
operate that system safely and efficiently.
The next occasion to do this would be when the new type is introduced. This gives an opportunity to introduce operational
changes, but any inefficient practices existing at the time of introduction will tend to endure. This is the time to appreciate
and understand the manufacturers' design and operating intents, since they heavily influence training and operational issues.
Those responsible for the introduction of new types, or charged with the responsibility of training development, should
possess more background information with regard to the basic design philosophy than was needed in the past. This is
important since most of the existing training programs for new technology aircraft were originally developed for
conventional aircraft.
Adequacy of training requirements
Careful considerations should be given to the adequacy of the transition training program. The complexity of many of the
systems may require a higher level of initial understanding and operational skill than was required with previous aircraft.
The basic question is: do pilots, after completing their transition training, have sufficient skills, knowledge and
understanding to operate these aircraft safely and efficiently?
Although some believe that the traditional high level of manual skills will be required to a lesser extent, greater demands
are placed on intellectual or mental skills due to the complexity of the systems and the environment in which they are
operated. There is also evidence that routine operation of automatic modes may not provide adequate training opportunities.
Flight deck observations have shown that pilots use only a few of the features available to them, because of incomplete
knowledge about how to use other features. This says much about the inadequacy of the training and the complexity of the
systems and modes.
Depth of training
The depth of training should ensure that pilots thoroughly understand systems interdependencies. This understanding may
no longer be intuitively obvious even to highly experienced pilots. Training must provide more specific information about
systems than was previously required when systems interdependencies were much less pronounced. The following
examples, proposed by Jean-Jacques Speyer, with Airbus Industrie, illustrate this point:
“The link between A320 nose wheel steering and the Air Data Inertial Reference System (ADIRS) would have been
impossible to achieve in previous design generations. Yet, the conceptual advantage -nose wheel
steering sensitivity as a function of aircraft speed -is quite straightforward.
As with most automation concepts, however, the benefits are often counterbalanced by an increased need for an in-depth
operational understanding which may not be intuitive. A pilot experiencing difficulties with nose wheel steering may need
to work through the operation of the steering, the ADIRS and their interactions in order to understand and cope with the
anomaly. Similarly, the advantage of linking both pressurization computers with both Flight Management and Guidance
Computers (FMGCs) and all three ADIRs on the A320 is that planned and actual flight profiles can be continuously
compared for adequate pressurization control in any phase of flight.
However, the pilot is then placed in the position of having to understand the interactive system functioning in order to
exercise the ultimate accountability function.”
Training time devoted to aircraft operation with the automated system(s) failed would increase pilot confidence in taking
manual control early and effectively.

Student Guide
Value and applicability of part-task trainers
It must also be remembered that “surface” competence during the normal operation of a new system may well differ
considerably from “real” competence which can withstand high stress and high workload. To withstand such pressures,
skills need to be over learned.
This is basic knowledge which does not seem to be always applied in practice. In order to obtain the necessary intensive
hands-on training, the value and applicability of part-task trainers has been recognized. These devices include a high-
fidelity simulation of a particular system (or even the actual piece of equipment) which allows the student to concentrate on
it without the extra load and distractions which might be imposed by a full flight simulator.
They are less elaborate, and can range from large photographs which emulate the flight deck around the simulated system,
to sophisticated desk-top computer-assisted training (CAT) devices. Part-task trainers can be highly cost-effective in
developing the skills required for efficient system operation. The major drawback of some of these devices - as presently
designed - appears to be a lack of functional realism (e.g. at a given point of any exercise, there may be only one allowed
sequence of responses, whereas in the real system much more freedom is available).
The use of home computers to fulfill training requirements and for voluntary self instruction should be explored. There is
potential for misuse here, but there is also a considerable potential for fulfilling the needs and desires of pilots, management
and authorities. Although implementation may be a particular challenge, experience indicates that some basic computer
literacy (i.e. being comfortable with an alphanumeric keyboard) will make transition to new technology flight decks easier.
Recency
The time elapsed since the last transition training is an important factor when considering pilots' needs. Flight guidance
systems and other automated systems are certainly more complex than in previous aircraft, yet it has been noted that quite
often some pilots making the transition to these aircraft had not been to ground school for periods as long as 15 years.
This may have contributed to the difficulties of some of these pilots, for whom transition training to new technology may
not always go smoothly and may involve higher than expected training costs. A lack of meaningful operating experience
(which can be quite different than total flight time) should be expected for the period immediately following training. One
way to solve this problem may be to expose the flight crews to highly realistic flight situations in high-fidelity simulators.
In many countries this is called LOFT (Line-Oriented Flight Training).
Because of the sophisticated equipment, the variety of situations that can be simulated, and the highly technical training
methods now available, it enables pilots to gain flight experience (in addition to training) that in some cases may be even
better than actual flight.
Specific training issues
Specific issues also related to transition training include the transition from electromechanical instruments to electronic
flight instrument systems; training for the loss of all the electronic displays (the aircraft would be controlled on standby
instruments which are essentially the same as those in previous generation aircraft, but the step down in data available is
much greater); and the use of the autopilot, flight management system and mode control panel.
The manner in which these systems allow the flight to be conducted enables the pilot to become detached from the
immediate state of the aircraft (position, speed, height, etc.) Crew procedures and training methods must ensure that no
automation complacency is fostered by this process, and that the pilot maintains a satisfactory level of situational
awareness. The training should be hands-on and line-oriented, and should stress sound practices.
Guidelines on the use of automation
Guidelines on the use of automation should be provided. They should indicate to the crew when to use automation, and,
more importantly, when not to use it. Even when guidelines are available (usually through company policy or standard
operating procedures), they reflect preferred practices in the context of particular operational environments. The existence
of such guidelines does not necessarily mean that they are universally applicable, nor is the purpose of this Appendix to
provide them.

Student Guide
Use of accident/ incident data
In line with the well established practice of programming wind-shear profiles as part of flight simulator training, it might be
worthwhile to explore the benefits of replaying incidents or accidents where automation has been considered a factor. The
flexibility of contemporary simulator-computer systems and the information available from safety reporting systems makes
this possible. Similarly, some contend that there is a need to include and review problems and incidents encountered in day-
to-day operations.
Need to monitor
The need to monitor should be constantly reinforced, both during training and proficiency checking. The vast literature on
vigilance shows, however, that humans are not uniformly effective monitors, and frequently miss system faults or wrong
setups. This trait is sometimes aggravated by operations in a low stimulus environment, such as that found in long-range,
“back-of-the-clock” operations. The possibility of more or different training has been raised as a remedy, although it seems
difficult to achieve consistent gains in this way. Some attention has been directed to placing more emphasis on creating the
sort of stimuli (displays, procedures, additional meaningful tasks) that enhance the pilot's ability to monitor them.
It is also a fact that pilots can do specific kinds of monitoring very well - for example, monitoring pilot flying performance
during an approach from outer marker to touchdown. Many believe, however, that the influence of systems design must be
investigated as an alternative to alleviate the problem.
• High-level SOPs that send an over-arching message that monitoring is a very important part of cockpit
duties.
Examples:
A. Change title of “Pilot Not Flying” (PNF) to “Pilot Monitoring” (PM).
B. The SOP document could explicitly state that monitoring is a primary responsibility of each crewmember.
Example:
Monitoring Responsibility
The PF will monitor/control the aircraft, regardless of the level of automation employed.
The PM will monitor the aircraft and actions of the PF.
Rational:
A. Several air carriers have made this change because they feel it is better to describe what that pilot should be
doing (monitoring) rather than what he/she is not doing (not flying).
B. Although some SOP documents do define monitoring responsibilities for the PF, this role is often not explicitly
defined for the PNF (PM). In many cases non-monitoring duties, such as company-required paperwork, PA
announcements, operating gear and flaps, are clearly spelled-out, but seldom are monitoring duties explicitly
defined for each pilot.
• SOPs to support monitoring during airport surface operations
Examples:
A. Both pilots will have taxi charts available. A flight crewmember—other than the pilot taxiing the aircraft—
should follow the aircraft’s progress on the airport diagram to ensure that the pilot taxiing the aircraft is
following the instructions received from ATC.
B. Both pilots will monitor taxi clearance. Captain will verbalize to FO any hold short instructions. FO will request
confirmation from Captain if not received.

Student Guide
C. When approaching an entrance to an active runway, both pilots will ensure compliance with hold short or
crossing clearance before continuing with non-monitoring tasks (e.g., FMS programming, Airborne
Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS), company radio calls, etc.).
Rational:
Pilot-caused runway incursions often involve misunderstanding, not hearing a clearance or spatial
disorientation. These SOPs are designed to do several things.
A. The requirement for both pilots to have taxi charts out ensures that the pilot who is not actively taxiing the
aircraft can truly back-up the pilot who is taxiing.
B. Requesting that both pilots monitor the taxi clearance and having the captain verbalize any hold short
instructions is a method to ensure that all pilots have the same understanding of the intended taxi plan.
C. The requirement to suspend non-monitoring tasks as the aircraft approaches an active runway allows both pilots
to monitor and verify that the aircraft stops short of the specified holding point.
• SOPs to support improved monitoring during vertical segments of flight
Examples:
A. PF should brief PM when or where delayed climb/descent will begin.
B. Perform non-essential duties/activities during lowest workload periods such as cruise altitude or level flight.
C. When able, brief the anticipated approach prior to top-of-descent.
D. During the last 1,000 feet of altitude change both pilots should focus on the relevant flight instruments to ensure
that the aircraft levels at the proper altitude. (When VMC one pilot should include scanning outside for traffic;
however, at least one pilot should focus on ensuring that the aircraft levels at the proper altitude.)
Rational:
A study on crew monitoring conducted by NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) revealed that three-
quarters of the monitoring errors in that study occurred while the aircraft was in a vertical phase of flight, i.e.,
climbing, descending or approach. These SOP statements ensure that proper attention can be devoted to
monitoring during vertical phases of flight.
A. The ASRS monitoring study highlighted that a number of altitude deviations occurred when crews were given
an altitude crossing restriction, but then failed to begin the descent in a timely manner. Briefing the anticipated
top-of-descent point not only promotes healthy CRM, but also allows the other pilot to “back up” the planned
descent point and ensure the descent begins at the proper point. Example: “We'll begin our descent at 80
DME.”
B. Studies likewise show that in order to minimize the chance of a monitoring error, crews should schedule
performance of non-essential duties/activities during the lowest workload periods, such as cruise altitude or
level flight.
C. Briefing the anticipated instrument approach prior to descent from cruise altitude allows greater attention to be
devoted to properly monitoring the descent because the crew is not having to divide attention between
reviewing the approach and monitoring the descent. It also allows greater attention to be devoted to the
contents of the approach briefing, which can increase situation awareness and understanding of the intended
plan for approach and landing.
D. Many altitude deviations occur because pilots are not properly monitoring the level off. This SOP statement is
to ensure that pilots concentrate on ensuring the aircraft levels at the proper altitude, instead of being distracted
by or performing non-monitoring tasks.

Student Guide
• SOPs to support improved monitoring of automation
Examples:
A. Before flight, the routing listed on the flight release must be cross-checked against the ATC clearance and the
FMS routing.
B. When making auto flight systems inputs, comply with the following items in the acronym CAMI:
Confirm FMS inputs with the other pilot when airborne

Activate the input
Monitor mode annunciations to ensure the auto flight system performs as desired
Intervene if necessary.
C. During high workload periods FMS inputs will be made by the PM, upon the request of PF. Examples of high
workload include when flying below 10,000 feet and when within 1000 feet of level off or Transition Altitude.
D. Pilots should include scanning of the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) as part of their normal instrument scan,
especially when automation changes occur (e.g., course changes, altitude level off, etc.).
Rational:
A. It is not unusual for the routing that is loaded in the FMS to be different from the routing assigned by ATC,
especially in those cases where the flight plan is uplinked directly into the FMS, or when an FMS stored
company route is used. Various studies have demonstrated that FMS programming errors made during preflight
are not likely to be caught by flight crews during flight. Therefore it is critical that these items be cross-checked
before takeoff.
B. The above-mentioned ASRS monitoring study found that 30 percent of the monitoring errors in that study’s
dataset occurred when a crewmember was programming a Flight Management System (FMS). Another NASA-
funded study showed that even experienced pilots of highly automated aircraft sometime fail to adequately
check the FMA to verify automation mode status. The acronym “CAMI” can be used to help emphasize cross-
checking of automation inputs, monitoring and mode awareness.
C. The statement concerning FMS inputs during high workload allows the PF to concentrate on flying
and monitoring by simply commanding FMS inputs during highly vulnerable times. Several ASRS
reports indicate problems with failure to level-off and failure to reset altimeters to proper settings.
Therefore, the definition of “high workload” should include those vulnerable phases.
D. Automated flight guidance systems can have mode reversions and can sometimes command actions that are not
anticipated by pilots. Therefore, pilots should include the FMA into their normal instrument scan. Special
attention should be given to periods of course changes, altitude level off, etc.)
Adequacy of differences training
The adequacy of “differences” training must be considered when a new aircraft is considered “common” with an older
aircraft. It is not unusual for some operators to have not only several different flight deck configurations for the same basic
airplane model, but also different computers and software.
When such a situation is coupled with mergers and fleet integration, the pilots can be exposed to quite different flight deck
arrangements in quick succession. Also, prolonged absence from advanced technology aircraft may result in a marked
diminution of skill. This has been demonstrated to have a greater impact on piloting proficiency than a similar absence from
the flight deck of an older technology aircraft.
This loss of proficiency is directly related to the operation of the flight guidance system.

Student Guide
Re-qualification training
Re-qualification training, when a pilot is returning to a less automated aircraft, must be very thorough. A major training
consideration should be deprogramming the pilot's expectations: for example, automatic altitude capture and level off, a
common feature of automated flight decks, may not be available on older technology aircraft.
Evidence from field studies in automation indicates that pilots are also concerned about the degradation in their cognitive
(mental) skills due to the ease of navigation and maintenance of situational awareness using electronic maps.
Management should be aware of the potential hazards of these reassignments.
Standardization and simplification
The need for standardization and simplification of all aspects of operation of two person crew automated aircraft should be
given a high priority. Standardization is one of the foundations of safety, and its importance has been accentuated by the
appearance of aircraft leasing organizations, airline mergers, consolidations, etc.
Flight crews may be faced with different names for the same item, different procedures to operate the same systems,
different symbology to display the same information, and all of this often under demanding conditions. Such problems may
also be due in part to the constant improvements in aircraft, their systems and flight deck symbology. Standardization of
symbology is receiving considerable and well deserved attention these days. Symbols should be intuitive and their
meanings consistent from one system design to the next. Standardization should be emphasized, and this emphasis should
be extended to flight operations and equipment manuals, operating procedures and checklists.
Operational procedures and checklists
Operational procedures and checklists should be carefully examined with particular attention to the workload required to
perform them. In their operation of two-person crew aircraft, many operators have not reflected the advances that have been
made in flight deck technology and in the understanding of flight crew behavior. Special training considerations should be
given to flight crew members making the transition to automated two-person crew airplanes from a three-person crew
airplane.
The use of Line-Oriented Flight Training as a tool to demonstrate heavy workload conditions is proposed in the following
paragraphs. More importantly, LOFT can be an ideal tool to identify workloads which are a product of inappropriate
policies or procedures, as considerable flight crew workload can be created by having to perform non operational tasks at
inappropriate times (calls for passenger connections, meal requirements, wheel chairs, etc.). This is not a new problem, but
it is more critical in the automated environment and with the proliferation of high density operations. (Some aspects of this
problem are being met on many of the new airplanes with separate communication facilities for the cabin crew.)
Tailoring of CRM and LOFT training
It has previously been assumed that Crew Resource Management (CRM) training programs are model-independent.
However, there is increasing evidence that at least some aspects of crew co-ordination and communication in the automated
flight decks are qualitatively different from the flight decks of older aircraft. Recent experiments suggest, for instance, that
there is a trend towards less verbal inter-pilot
Communication as the degree of flight deck automation increases. If this hypothesis can be confirmed through research,
then customized modules of CRM training programs should be developed to deal with such differences.
These customized modules should also take account of the nature and the needs (culture) of the organization. The following
areas of concern in CRM of automated aircraft are the result of observations during actual flights. They indicate that highly
automated flight decks may require special scrutiny in the areas of crew co-ordination and resource management, both in
the assignment of tasks and the standardization of their performance.
• Compared to traditional models, it is now physically difficult for one pilot to see what the other is doing. For
example, in previous generation aircraft the autopilot mode control panel was easily observable by both pilots; in
automated flight decks the selections are made in the control display unit (CDU), which is not visible to the other
crewmember unless the same CDU page is selected. Proper procedures and intra-cockpit communication appear to be
the answers to this problem.

Student Guide
• It is more difficult for the captain to monitor the work of the first officer, and vice versa. New or revised procedures
and intra-cockpit communication are again the apparent answer.
• Automation can induce a breakdown in the traditional roles of the controlling pilot and monitoring pilot, and there is
a less clear demarcation of who does what. This is particularly relevant, since it has already been mentioned that
standardization is one of the foundations of safety. The answer to this problem might be found in procedures and
standard operating procedures
• Automated flight decks can produce a redistribution of authority from the captain to the first officer. This is
unintended, and is a product of an apparently greater proficiency of some first officers in CDU data entry compared to
that of the captains, plus the delegation of these duties to the first officer. Particularly in times
of high workload, the captain may surrender some responsibility to the first officer in order to accomplish the task. A
somewhat shallower trans-authority gradient1 may be the result, although captains, recognizing the superior CDU
skills of their first officers, may follow good CRM principles and use them to their advantage.
• There is a tendency of the crew to help each other with programming duties when workload increases, which can
dissolve a clear demarcation of duties. This seems to be computer-induced behavior, since no similar situation is
observed in traditional aircraft. Although little is known about the implications of automation for the design and
conduct of Line-Oriented Flight Training, some particular issues can be highlighted.
The automated flight deck offers new opportunities for scenario design. In conventional flight decks it was necessary to
introduce system failures to elevate the workload and stress of the crew in a realistic manner, but the automated flight deck
has enough built-in stressors to do this job, especially in the area of ATC instructions.
The “glass cockpit” presents new opportunities for scenario design that do not require abnormal conditions or emergency-
difficult problems, the human automation interface will suffice. In today’s world, we the opportunity to design scenarios
that will address the problems and opportunities of working in automation
Flight decks, where their peculiar characteristics can be stressed and where CRM principles can be easily exercised. For
example, an ATC instruction including an unexpected, non-depicted holding pattern over a fix defined by a radial/DME
value provides considerable opportunities to practice CRM principles without the necessity of introducing any system
failure.
Aircraft manufacturers are giving more importance to human performance issues in automated flight decks. At least one of
them has joined efforts with a training development company to integrate present and future training programs in Cockpit
Resource Management into the transition training courses for its aircraft. The manufacturer's instructor pilots will receive
CRM training. Current training courses for pilots and maintenance technicians will also incorporate CRM programs. This
particular manufacturer claims that CRM courses to be developed will be airplane tailored, with a different CRM course for
each specific model of aircraft in the production line.
The justification for this decision is based on the need to align training with longer-term behavioral education, as well as to
concentrate on the assigned duties and responsibilities of the flight crews. Most importantly, it is the tacit recognition that
Human Factors education is no longer an exclusive responsibility of the operators, but an integral part of present-day
system operations.
Adequate instructor/check pilot training
Though the Human Factors profession has recognized the problem, the issue of instructor training in relation to automation
has not yet been properly addressed, and training specialists have no source to consult for guidance on the question of
training for automation. Instructor selection and training continues to be determined by the same time-honored methods and
criteria applied for conventional flight decks, although the training issues
are quite different on automated flight decks.

Student Guide
Crew Resource Management (CRM)

General
The key to the success of a CRM program is the mutual respect and confidence that is created among crew members which
fosters an environment that is conducive to openness, candor, and constructive critique. The result is a more professional
performance due to the synergy that is achieved in the cockpit, thereby decreasing the risk of an accident or incident.
For better recognition and utilization of all available resources, information, equipment and people to achieve safe and
efficient flight operations aircraft equipment, operating procedures, navigation methods, and airworthiness safety standards
have steadily improved over the last few decades. This may lead you to determine that as a result, the accident rate has
improved. It has not.
Accident investigations show that approximately 80% of air carrier incidents and accidents have been caused by the failure
of flight crews to make use of readily available "resources."
The concept called "Crew Resource Management" is intended to address the problem of pilots making flawed decisions or
acting inappropriately because they may not have had all the information available to them at the time to complete a proper
situational assessment. In many accident investigations it was found that the information was available to the pilot-in-
command but tragically, it was not utilized.
The industry must address this high percentage of human factors performance errors and correct the dichotomy that may
still exist in many cockpits today.
This course is intended to be a "self-awareness" program. The objective of this course is to explain the history and basic
concepts of CRM, and how these concepts can improve your effective communication and leadership skills and decrease
the risk of an accident or incident.
History of CRM
From the beginning of our flying careers, pilot training programs have focused almost exclusively on the technical aspects
of flying and on an individual pilot's performance and problem solving capabilities. But accident statistics show that many
problems encountered by flight crews have very little to do with the technical aspects of flying. It would appear that to
improve the safety of flight, the priorities must shift from operating independently in a multi-crew environment to problem
solving using all available resources.
CRM concepts are not designed to challenge the authority of the captain or the high degree of technical proficiency
essential for safe and efficient flight operations. But a high degree of technical proficiency alone cannot guarantee safe
operations. Studies have shown that marrying technical proficiency with effective crew co-ordination will provide the best
opportunity for a successful flight.
Defining CRM
CRM refers to the effective use of all available resources. These resources are divided into four broad categories - people,
machinery, fuel/time and information. CRM is designed to optimize the human/machine interface and accompanying
interpersonal activities. These activities include team building and maintenance, information transfer, problem solving,
decision making, maintaining situational awareness and dealing with automated systems.
CRM training is not limited to multi-crew pilots. Bear in mind that CRM is a concept, affecting the way you think and the
way you act. It is intended to heighten attitudes and behavior, not to change personalities. Pilots flying single-pilot, flight
dispatchers, flight attendants or cabin medical attendants, maintenance personnel and air traffic controllers can all benefit
from CRM training.
CRM Synergy
The acceptance of CRM concepts has been shown to provide synergy, which is the combined effect of teamwork in the
cockpit which exceeds the sum of individual actions. The results of cockpit synergy would be the mathematical equivalent
of 1+1=3.

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Pilots must have training, practice and feedback, and continuing CRM reinforcement for the concept to be effective. It is
unrealistic to expect a short training exercise to reverse years of performance programming.
Management support of individuals who attempt to act in accordance with learned CRM principles will help its success.
CRM practices should also be incorporated into flight operations manuals and standard operating procedures to provide
crews with necessary policy and procedures guidance.
Challenges of CRM
Pilots are conditioned to believe that they are automated, performance-oriented beings, capable of amazing feats. The fact
that pilots are now encouraged to acknowledge that they have feelings, or to admit that they might be in a bad mood, seems
to conflict with the very fiber of the pilot's existence. To admit any "weakness" may appear to show a loss of confidence
contrary to the image of what a pilot is expected to portray. But the fact of the matter is, pilots are human. Humans are not
perfect 100% of the time, as we have seen in many accident cases.
As a pilot, the ability to tap another crew member as an available resource will help to compensate for the subjective human
factors performance errors involved in decision making and risk management. Managing the crew resources will help to
ensure that all decisions and actions are in accordance with safe flight practices, and reduce the risk of an incident or
accident.
What CRM IS and IS NOT

CRM IS
• A comprehensive system for improving crew performance
• A process addressing the entire crew and other related staff
• A system that can be extended to all forms of air crew training
• A concentration on crew member attitudes and behaviors and their impact on safety
• An opportunity for individuals to examine their behavior and make individual decisions on how to improve
cockpit teamwork
• A utilization of the crew as the unit of training
• Active participation training that focuses on safety improvement
• Is self-convincing
CRM IS NOT
• A quick fix that can be implemented overnight
• A training program administered to only a few specialized or "fix-it" cases
• A system that occurs independent of other ongoing training activities
• A psychological assessment or personality profile
• A system where crews are given a specific prescription of how to work with others on the flight deck
• Another form of individually-centered crew training
• A passive lecture-style classroom course
• An attempt by management to dictate cockpit behavior

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Five Elements of CRM
Inquiry
Inquiry is every crew member's right and responsibility. Inquiry is a mode of behavior that causes an individual to question,
scrutinize, and investigate all that is happening. It is curiosity, skepticism, interest; it maximizes learning and awareness at
all times and ensures larger gains in knowledge from each experience. Inquiry is the opposite of complacency.
Crew members, who practice inquiry, question or investigate what others are doing, believing or proposing. In addition,
they recognize that their own knowledge, beliefs, and actions could be wrong and are continuously challenging them.
The undetected problem presents a unique difficulty for flight crews. Active inquiry is an approach that stimulates early
detection and definition of problems by helping crew members sense a discrepancy between what is and what should be
occurring. Inquiry is also useful in sorting out what is going on from what appears to be going on. Nothing is taken for
granted. Human errors are reduced by exposing and correcting them at an early stage.
Advocacy
The essence of advocacy involves a crew member accepting the obligation to speak out in support of a course of action
different from that is currently being planned or followed. At the same time, it is listening to viewpoints that may be
contradictory to one's own.
An inviting question such as "Does anyone have a problem with...?" Encourages others to bring up alternatives that might
be considered before a decision or course of action is finalized. Similarly, the phrase "I have a problem with that..." Signals
to other crew members that a reservation exist that merits examination. This kind of concern is constructive questioning
that represents a respect and a desire to support authority, rather than a resentment of authority.
Verbal communication in a forthright and relevant manner increases the likelihood that information will be understood and
accepted; then problems can be anticipated and dealt with soundly. Advocacy is the obligation to support a position firmly,
but to also respond to a sound alternative when one is put forth. For example, a crew member whose own proposed action
has proven to be unsound accepts the sound action without reservation. This acceptance does not detract from the
responsibility to remain vigilant and continue to question others thereafter.
Conflict Resolution
Conflict is inevitable. In fact, it is often beneficial if handled properly and in a constructive manner. Differences in feelings,
opinions, thoughts, values, or action (actual or perceived) may lead to disagreement or dispute. Sometimes differences in
personality alone can create a source of conflict.
A conflict will turn bad when a crew member is unable to cope with giving or receiving inquiry, advocacy or critique
constructively. This conflict can polarize crew members to the point that the real problem or issue is not probed. Heated
arguments can lead to bitter words or bad feelings and will ultimately affect performance unless the disagreement is
brought into the open and resolved.
Alternatively, conflict can be transformed into a lively comparison of viewpoints that lead to deeper thinking, better
problem definition, and sound solutions. Under these conditions, conflict resolution can provide a basis for mutual
understanding and respect which strengthens, rather than erodes, team effectiveness.
Conflict resolution which holds the underlying question of who is right is destructive, conflict resolution which is focused
on the question of what is right and constructive?
Decision Making
Many types of decisions are made during the course of the flight. Some decisions of high quality can be made singularly by
one member of the crew; other decisions are of such complexity or importance that the inputs from more than one crew
member, or from an outside source, are necessary to ensure higher quality decisions.
When all information is resourced and analyzed, the likelihood is increased that crew members become aware of potential
problems they otherwise would not have appreciated, thus can take steps to deal with them in a sound way. In no way does
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the consideration of all appropriate resources in the decision making process diminish the ultimate authority of the Captain.
When decisions are made in this optimum manner based on a maximum of information, there exists a high potential for
success, respect among crew members and commitment to full support in implementing the decision.
Critique
Critique - used in the context of CRM - refers to discussions among crew members regarding the conduct of the flight. It
begins in the planning phase, continues throughout the flight, and concludes in a post-flight debriefing. Properly utilized,
critique can be initiated by any crew member at any time when he/she believes it will be helpful to the safety and efficiency
of the operation. It is totally separate from the evaluation involved with line checks and proficiency checks.
Critique is essential in producing useful future insights. When frank discussions are held among crew members,
misunderstandings and errors in perception can be clarified and resolved, and conflict can be dealt with before serious
problems arise.
HUMAN FACTORS
HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING
Information processing is the process of receiving information through the senses, analyzing it and making it meaningful.
Decision making is the choice between two or more alternatives.
An Information Processing Model
Information processing can be represented as a model. This captures the main elements of the process, from receipt of
information via the senses, to outputs such as decision making and actions. One such model is shown in Figure 1.
• Sensory Receptors and Sensory Stores
Physical stimuli are received via the sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and stored for a very brief period of time in
sensory stores (sensory memory). Visual information is stored for up to half a second in iconic memory and
sounds are stored for slightly longer (up to 2 seconds) in echoic memory. This enables us to remember a sentence
as a sentence, rather than merely as an unconnected string of isolated words, or a film as a film, rather than as a
series of still pictures.
• Attention and Perception
Having detected information, our mental resources are concentrated on specific elements - this is "attention".
Although attention can move very quickly from one item to another, it can only deal with one item at a time.
Attention can take the form of:
• selective attention;
• divided attention;
• focused attention;
• sustained attention.
Selective attention: Occurs when a person is monitoring several sources of input, with greater attention being
given to one or more sources which appear more important. A person can be consciously attending to one source
(e.g. the co-pilot) whilst still sampling other sources in the background (e.g. ATC transmissions). Psychologists
refer to this as the 'cocktail party effect' whereby you can be engrossed in a conversation with one person but your
attention is temporarily diverted if you overhear your name being mentioned at the other side of the room, even
though you were not aware of listening in to other people’s conversations. Similarly, flight crew may be talking
with one another, but as soon as they recognize their own call sign on the radio frequency, their attention is
diverted. Distraction is the negative side of selective attention.

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Divided attention: Is common in most work situations, where people are required to do more than one thing at the
same time. Usually, one task suffers at the expense of the other, more so if they are similar in nature. This type of
situation is also sometimes referred to as time sharing.
Focused attention: is merely the skill of focusing one’s attention upon a single source and avoiding distraction.
Cognitive 'black holing' is the negative side of focused attention, where attention is so focused on one area that
other important information is not noticed.
Sustained attention: as its name implies, refers to the ability to maintain attention and remain alert over long
periods of time, often on one task. Most of the research has been carried out in connection with monitoring radar
displays. Attention is influenced by arousal level and stress. This can improve attention or damage it depending on
the circumstances. Perception involves the organization and interpretation of sensory data in order to make it
meaningful, discarding non-relevant data, i.e. transforming data into information. Perception is a highly
sophisticated mechanism and requires existing knowledge and experience to know what data to keep and what to
discard, and how to associate the data in a meaningful manner. An example of the perceptual process is where the
image formed on the retina is inverted and two dimensional, yet we see the world the right way up and in three
dimensions; if the head is turned, the eyes detect a constantly changing pattern of images, yet we perceive things
around us to have a set location, rather than move chaotically.
Introduction to Human Factors in Aviation
In this module, the rationale for Human Factors training should be explained. A good point of departure is the fact that
since 1940, three out of four accidents have had at least one contributory factor relating to human performance. The
introduction has to be carefully prepared in order to capture the pilot’s interest. It is desirable that training directed at
meeting any examination or test requirement be kept relevant to operational aspects of flight.
A practical orientation is therefore essential to effective training. The relevance of the program must be made quite clear to
pilots – this is not intended as an academic exercise. Therefore, only that information which relates to pilot performance
should be included. Training personnel should present the information according to their particular operational needs and
may wish to take specific aspects of their local accident/incident experience into account.
The SHEL model might be usefully introduced in this module as one of the possible aids to understanding the interactions
between the different components of the system, as well as the potential for conflict and error arising from the various
mismatches which can occur in practice.
The SHEL concept (the name being derived from the initial letters of its components, Software, Hardware, Environment,
Liveware) was first developed by Edwards in 1972, with a modified diagram to illustrate the model developed by Hawkins
in 1975.
For those familiar with the long-established concept of “man-machine-environment” (now referred to as “human-machine-
environment”), the following interpretations are suggested: liveware (human), hardware (machine) and software
(procedures, symbology, etc.), environment (the situation in which the L-H-S system must function). This building block
diagram does not cover the interfaces which are outside Human Factors (hardware-hardware; hardware-environment;
software-hardware) and is only intended as a basic aid to understanding Human Factors.
The Human Element (Aviation Physiology)
Breathing; recognizing and coping with:
• hypoxia
• hyperventilation
Pressure effects; effects on ears, sinuses and closed cavities of:
• trapped or evolved gases

• decompression
• underwater diving
Limitations of the senses
• visual
• aural
• tactile

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Acceleration effects; positive and negative ”G’s”
• aggravating conditions
Disorientation
• visual illusions
• vestibular illusions
• coping mechanisms
Fatigue/alertness
• acute
• chronic
• the effects on skill and performance
Sleep disturbances and deficits
• Circadian dysrhythmia/ jet lag

• Personal health
Effects of:
• diet/nutrition
• alcohol
• drugs (including nicotine/caffeine)
• medications (prescribed; over-the-counter)
• blood donations
• aging
Psychological fitness/stress management
Pregnancy
The Human Element (Aviation Psychology)
Human errors and reliability

Workload (attention and information processing)
• perceptual
• cognitive
Information processing
• mind set and habit patterns

• attention and vigilance
• perceptual limitations
• memory
Attitudinal factors
• personality
• motivation
• boredom and complacency
• culture

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Perceptual and situational awareness

Judgment and decision-making
Stress
• symptoms and effects

• coping mechanisms
Skills/experience/currency vs. proficiency
Liveware-Hardware: Pilot-equipment Relationship
Controls and displays
• design (movement, size, scales, color, illumination, etc.)

• common errors in interpretation and control
• “glass” cockpits; information selection
• habit patterns interference/design standardization
Alerting and warning systems
• appropriate selection and set-up

• false indications
• distractions and response
Personal comfort
• temperature, illumination, etc.

• adjustment of seat position and controls
Cockpit visibility and eye-reference position

Motor workload
Liveware-Software: Pilot-software Relationship
Standard operating procedures
• rationale
• benefits
• derivation from human limitations and the accident/incident record
Written materials/software
• errors in the interpretation and use of maps/charts

• design principles and correct use of checklists and manuals
• The four 'P's (philosophies, policies, procedures, practices)
Operational aspects of automation
• overload/underload and phase of flight; complacency and boredom

• staying in the loop/situational awareness
• automated in-flight equipment; appropriate use, effective task allocation,
maintenance of basic flying skills

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Liveware-Liveware: Interpersonal Relations
NOTE: Liveware-Liveware deals with interpersonal contacts happening at the present time (here and now), as opposed to
the interpersonal contacts involving people outside of the current operating situation (the latter are considered in the next
subtitle).
Factors influencing verbal and non-verbal communication between and with:
• flight deck crew

• cabin crew
• maintenance personnel
• company management/flight operations control
• air traffic services
• passengers
How verbal and non-verbal communication affects information transfer and thus safety and efficiency of flight Crew
problem solving and decision-making.
Introduction to small group dynamics/crew management (see also ICAO Circular 217 for further information on this topic).
Liveware-Environment: The Operating Environment
• A systemic view of safety

• The aviation system: components
• General models of organizational safety
• Organizations structures and safety
• Culture and safety
• Procedures and safety
• Safe and unsafe organizations
BEHAVIORAL STYLES
The purpose of behavioral analysis is to provide you with an awareness of your individual behavioral style. With this
awareness, we will have a better understanding of why we react in a specific way to people or to situations. Our reactions
also affect the people around us, and in turn they react to us. This human interaction can be either healthy or dangerous in
the flight environment.
Knowledge of your behavioral style will ultimately benefit aviation safety.
Behavioral Styles and Leadership
All individuals have inherent leadership qualities which are manifested in their behavior. It is a matter of how these
leadership qualities are utilized that gives us the strength in our leadership abilities.
List some qualities which can make a person a "Good Leader."
List some qualities which can detract from "Leadership" ability.
Knowing our own behavioral style will also help us to understand others. This will lead to:
• Mutual respect
• Mutual trust
• A willingness to adapt
• Better communication
• Safer flight

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Behavioral Patterns
Psychologists divide behavioral styles into two basic categories:
Relationship Oriented - first consideration is the feelings of others which rank high in the decision making process. A
person who is high relationship oriented and low task oriented is considered to have a caring or nurturing style of
behavior.
Task Oriented - first consideration is given to the task or goal in the decision making process. A person who is high
task oriented and low relationship oriented is considered to have an aggressive style of behavior.
Combinations - Low relationship oriented traits combined with low task oriented traits are individuals considered to be
loners or autonomous in behavior style.
The person who is both high in

Relationship and task
Orientation is considered to have an
Assertive
Style of behavior
The definition of "assert"
• To put into words positively and with conviction

• To defend, maintain, or insist on the recognition of one's own rights
• To state to be true
It is interesting to note that the weaknesses in behavior styles indicate an excess use of a strength. We must do less of
our weakness to achieve the desirable assertiveness behavior style. Developing the strengths of the three styles allows
for a high degree of task orientation in conjunction with a high degree of caring.
Behavioral Styles - Body Language
Non-verbal behavior in relation to the various behavioral styles:
Aggressive
• General: exaggerated show of strength, flippant and sarcastic style, air of superiority
• Voice: tense, shrill, loud, shaky, cold, deadly quiet, demanding, superior, authoritarian
• Eyes: expressionless, narrowed, cold, staring, not really seeing you
• Stance: hands on hips, feet apart, stiff and rigid, rude, imperious
• Hands: clenched, abrupt gestures, finger pointing, fist pounding
Non-Assertive
• General: actions instead of words, hoping someone will guess what you want, looking as if you do not mean what
you say
• Voice: weak, hesitant, soft, sometimes wavering
• Eyes: averted, downcast, pleading
• Stance: lean for support, stooped, excessive head nodding
• Hands: fidgety, flutter, clammy

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Assertive
• General: Attentive listening, assured manner, communicating, caring, strong

• Voice: firm, warm, well-modulated, relaxed
• Eyes: open, frank, direct, eye contact without staring
• Stance: well balanced, straight-on, erect, relaxed
• Hands: relaxed motions
Assertive Behavior
Assertive behavior is intended to be the middle ground by taking the best of aggressiveness (without the put-down
negatives) and the best of non-assertiveness (without loss-of-self.) The action is genuine, complete and a direct
communication of ideas, wants and needs. It is the conviction that one's position can be expressed strongly without
dominating the other. Social grace can be maintained without weakening the position or request.
Assertive behavior is based on the fact that every individual has rights and can act on behalf of these rights:
• The right to have and express your own feelings and ideas
• The right to be listened to and taken seriously
• The right to ask for what you want
• The right to get some of your own needs met
• The right to be treated with respect
• The right to say "no" at times and not feel guilty
• The right to ask for information from others
• The right to make mistakes
• The right to be assertive
• The right to choose not to assert yourself
When we act assertively, we recognize these rights as legitimate. Assertive behavior becomes easier the more an
individual recognize these rights. When we respect these rights in ourselves, we are also more likely to act in a manner
that respects these rights in others.
Aggressive behavior denies the rights of others, and non-assertive behavior overlooks these rights in ourselves.
Characteristics of Assertive Behavior
• Expressing statements of one's own feelings, needs and ideas

• Standing up for your rights in ways that do not violate the rights of others
• The behavior is honest, direct, expressive and self-enhancing
• The person feels confident about themselves during a situation and afterwards
• A high level of respect is maintained for the other individual
• There is a positive impact on the interaction
• Direct statements of agreement or disagreement
• Direct refusal or statement of "no"
• Compromising behavior
• Statements which communicate what you mean; "I" messages
In a conflict situation, the difference between dealing with the issue and not with the person must be recognized. There
is a directness and a problem-solving quality in assertive behavior that is not present in aggressive or non-assertive
behavior. Negotiation as a problem-solving tool becomes a method of resolving differences. Ideas, wants, and needs
are heard and explored openly. Collaboration and integration are seen as positives, and compromise could be an
acceptable position. (Note - negotiation and compromise in problem solving is encouraged, however it is not the
recommended option for cockpit decision making. Please note the difference.)

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Most individuals are more skillful or at ease with either aggressive or non-assertive behavior. While there are some
who are naturally assertive, most need to acquire assertive skills.
If assertiveness must be learned, what needs to change?
Transforming Yourself into an Assertive Person
Aggressive individuals need to learn skills that will allow the strong expression of feelings, ideas and wants without
offense to others. This may require some revision of their basic beliefs. The aggressive person feels that they must stay
on top, diminish the other person and be on guard, lest anyone take advantage of them. They might also fear that unless
they are aggressive, they must be passive or non-assertive. This need not be the case. The aggressive individual needs
to begin to trust themselves and their abilities to cope with differences or disagreements without necessarily winning or
always having their own way. The aggressive person is entirely motivated by their own self-interests.
Assertive skills allow individuals to achieve results. This helps people to be clear on what they want and to pursue
goals in a positive way without demeaning the other person. These skills allow one to be strong in their views while
remaining open to other viewpoints and alternatives. The aggressive person need not become more passive.
Assertiveness will allow positive parts of aggressive behavior to be continued without the negative consequences of
aggressiveness. The result can be strong expression with corresponding effectiveness.
Non-assertive individuals need to learn skills that will allow respect for others to be communicated without a
diminishing of one's self, ideas or position. This may also require a revision of some basic beliefs. The non-assertive
person feels that they must be condescending to others or overly respectful of the other person's rights at the expense of
their own. They fear their behavior may be taken as aggressive unless they act in a non-assertive manner.
Assertiveness is never aggressiveness. The non-assertive individual needs to begin to believe that others can accept and
deal with disagreements and candor. The rights possessed by individuals can be acted upon without being offensive to
the other. The non-assertive individual must begin to believe that helpfulness at the expense of self may not be helpful
at all.
Assertive skills, allow individuals to achieve results. They help individuals to be clear on what they want and to act in
a positive way without diminishing self. They allow a person to be sensitive to other individual's viewpoints and
positions without diminishing their own ideas and alternatives. Non-assertive persons need not become more
aggressive.
Assertive skills will allow the positive aspect of non-assertive behavior to be continued without the negative
consequences of passiveness. The result can be caring about the other with corresponding effectiveness.
Summarizing Assertive Behavior
• Assertive behavior is the only way to defuse aggressive behavior

• It lessens heavy feelings when dealings with passive people
• It develops the possibility of receiving assertive responses
• Assertive behavior helps you get what you want and need
• It increases self-worth, self-esteem and self-confidence
• The assertive individual shares control and responsibility with others
• Assertive individuals are respectful to others as well as to themselves
• They make a strong impression without negative impact on others
• Assertive behavior enables a person to deal with negative and or passive responses
• The assertive individual is seen as a person who can be independent or dependent
• The assertive individual relies on others without loss of self-esteem
• Assertive people have better problem-solving abilities
• They feel good about themselves and others
• They increase the probability of workable solutions and effective decisions
• They produce more good ideas, opinions and feelings

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In the Cockpit
As a crew member, you have the right to assure that your life will not be compromised by any action/inaction,
miscommunication or misunderstanding. Assertive behavior in the cockpit does not challenge authority; it clarifies
position, understanding or intent, and as a result enhances the safe operation of the flight.
Assertive behavior will enhance the effectiveness

Of the Five Elements of CRM
Inquiry
Advocacy
Conflict Resolution
Decision Making
Critique
ATTENTION, VIGILANCE, FATIGUE, STRESS AND WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT
Introduction
These subjects have been grouped together because they all deal with 'readiness to cope' in some sense, in terms of an
individual's physical and mental ability to cope with work demands, and how he manages those work demands. The ideal
would be for flight crew to be at peak fitness and alertness all the time, and to be able to manage the workload such that
work demands never exceed ability to cope.
However, life isn't like that, and there are times when individuals are fatigued, or stressed, and workload sometimes
exceeds ability to cope. CRM aims to help flight crew to plan their workload as far as they are able, making best use of the
team, and taking into account the fact that some individuals may be performing below peak levels (e.g. due to fatigue, etc.).
It is also important for managers to be aware of such human performance issue when planning, e.g. rosters.
Fatigue will only be addressed in terms of the basic theory, and this document will not address flight time limitations and
fatigue.
Arousal and Workload
Arousal in its most general sense, refers to readiness of a person for performing work. To achieve an optimum level of task
performance, it is necessary to have a certain level of stimulation or arousal. This level of stimulation or arousal varies from
person to person. There are people who are overloaded by having to do more than one task at a time; on the other hand
there are people who appear to thrive on stress, being happy to take on more and more work or challenges.
At low levels of arousal, our attention mechanisms will not be particularly active and our performance capability will be
low (complacency and boredom can result). At the other end of the curve, performance deteriorates when arousal becomes
too high. To a certain extent, this is because we are forced to shed tasks and focus on key information only (called
narrowing of attention). Best task performance occurs somewhere in the middle. In the work place, arousal is mainly
effected by stimulation due to work tasks. However, surrounding environmental factors such as noise may also influence
the level of arousal.
• Factors Determining Workload
The tasks involved in operating an aircraft usually follow a fairly standard pattern and order, some of which is under the
control of the flight crew, and some of which is outside their control. It is more difficult to assess how that work translates
into workload.
As noted in the Appendix on information processing, humans have limited mental capacity to deal with information. We
are also limited physically, in terms of visual acuity, strength, dexterity and so on. Thus, workload reflects the degree to
which the demands of the work we have to do eats into our mental and physical capacities.

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Workload is subjective (i.e. experienced differently by different people) and is affected by:
• The nature of the task, such as the:

• Physical demands it requires (e.g. strength required, etc.);
• Mental demands it requires (e.g. complexity of decisions to be made, etc.).
• The circumstances under which the task is performed, such as the:
• Standard of performance required (i.e. degree of accuracy);
• Time available to accomplish the task (and thus the speed at which the task
must be carried out);
• Requirement to carry out the task at the same time as doing something else;
• Environmental factors existing at time (e.g. extremes of temperature, etc.).
• The person and his state, such as:
• Skills (both physical and mental);
• Experience (particularly familiarity with the task in question);
• Current health and fitness levels;
• Emotional state (e.g. stress level, mood, etc.).
As the workload of the flight crew may vary, they may experience periods of overload and underload. This is a particular
feature of some flights and sectors, but overloads are often unpredictable.
• Overload
Overload occurs at very high levels of workload, when the individual's or crew's workload exceeds the ability to
cope well. As highlighted previously, performance deteriorates when arousal becomes too high and we are forced
to shed tasks and focus on key information. Error rates may also increase. Overload can occur for a wide range of
reasons based on the factors highlighted above. It may happen suddenly (e.g. if asked to remember one further
piece of information whilst already trying to remember a large amount of data), or gradually. It is good practice to
try to plan tasks such that the flight crew are not left with several things to be done at once, possibly during the
final stages of the approach. Task management between flight crew members can reduce the likelihood of one
pilot being overloaded. It is particularly important to ensure that in overload situations, it is always clear as to who
is carrying out the vital task of flying the aircraft.
• Underload
Underload occurs at low levels of workload (when the pilot becomes under aroused). Underload can result from a
task a pilot finds boring, or indeed a lack of tasks. The nature of long-haul flights means that workload tends to
come at the start and finish of a flight, with long periods of low workload in the cruise. Hence, unless stimulating
‘housekeeping’ tasks can be found, underload can be difficult to avoid at times.
Stress: Domestic and Work Related
Stress is an inescapable part of life for all of us. Stress can be defined as any force, that when applied to a system, causes
some significant modification of its form where forces can be physical, psychological or due to social pressures.
From a human viewpoint, stress results from the imposition of any demand or set of demands which require us to react,
adapt or behave in a particular manner in order to cope with or satisfy them. Up to a point, such demands are stimulating
and useful, but if the demands are beyond our personal capacity to deal with them, the resulting stress is a problem.
• Causes and Symptoms
Stress is usually something experienced due to the presence of some form of stressor, which might be a one-off
stimulus (such as a challenging problem or a punch on the nose), or an on-going factor (such as an extremely hot
hangar or an acrimonious divorce). From these, we get acute stress (typically intense but of short duration) and
chronic stress (frequent recurrence or of long duration) respectively.
Different stressors affect different people to varying extents. Stressors may be:

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• Physical - such as heat, cold, noise, vibration, presence of something damaging to health (e.g. carbon
monoxide), the onset of fatigue;
• Psychological - such as emotional upset (e.g. due to bereavements, domestic problems, etc.), worries about
real or imagined problems (e.g. due to financial problems, ill health, etc.);
• Reactive - such as events occurring in everyday life (e.g. working under time pressure, encountering
unexpected situations, etc.).
• There are also two categories of stress

Chronic Stress - the result of long term demands of lifestyle or personal situations (health, relationships, job
security)
Acute Stress - the result of demands placed on the body by a current issue (time constraints, bad weather, and
equipment failure)
• Stressors in Aviation
o Medicals
o Check rides
o Illness
o Pay
o Conflict
o Fears related to flying
o Time schedules
o Passengers
o Noise and vibration
o Temperature and humidity
o Diet
o Dehydration
o Altitude changes
o Confined space
o Poor visibility
o Fatigue
• The possible signs of stress can include:
o Physiological symptoms - such as sweating, dryness of the mouth, etc.;

o Health effects - such as nausea, headaches, sleep problems, diarrhea, ulcers, muscle tightness, aches, pains,
etc.;
o Behavioral symptoms - such as restlessness, shaking, nervous laughter, taking longer over
tasks, changes to appetite, excessive drinking, conflict in relationship, etc.;
o Cognitive effects - such as poor concentration, indecision, forgetfulness, withdrawal, etc.;
o Subjective effects - such as anxiety, irritability, depression, moodiness, aggression, feeling of depletion,
emotional burnout, emotional outburst, lack of energy, etc.
It should be noted that individuals respond to stressful situations in very different ways. Generally speaking
though, people tend to regard situations with negative consequences as being more stressful than when the
outcome of the stress will be positive (e.g. the difference between being made redundant from work and being
present at the birth of a son or daughter).
• Domestic Stress
Pre-occupation with a source of domestic stress can play on one’s mind during the working day, distracting from
the working task. Inability to concentrate fully may impact on task performance and ability to pay due attention to
safety.

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Domestic stress typically result from major life changes at home, such as marriage, birth of a child, a son or
daughter leaving home, bereavement of a close family member or friend, marital problems, or divorce.
• Work Related Stress
Aviation personnel can experience stress due to the task or job they are undertaking at that moment, or due to the
general organizational environment. Stress can be felt when carrying out certain tasks that are particularly
challenging or difficult. This stress can be increased by lack of SOPs in this situation, or time pressures. The latter
type of stress can be reduced by careful workload management, good training, etc.
Within the organization, the social and managerial aspects of work can be stressful. Pilots whose jobs are under
threat due to a company reorganization, for instance, are likely to have an increased level of background stress
which, when combined with task stresses or domestic stresses, may not be conducive to safe operations.
• Stressed-Out
On the back side of the stress curve, pilot performance will be degraded. Too much stress leads an individual to
distress. As the pilot suffers from over-stress, it could lead to
o Eroded judgment
o Compromised or accepting of lower performance levels
o Inattention
o Loss of vigilance and alertness
o Preoccupation with a single task
o Fixation on one instrument or procedure
o Forgetting or omitting procedural steps
o Greater tendency toward spatial disorientation and misperceptions
o Misreading charts or checklists
o Misjudgment of distance or altitude
o Loss of time perception
o Loss of situational awareness
• Attitudes
Definition: Attitude (noun); a frame of mind affecting one's thoughts and behavior; a general cast of mind with
regard to something.
5 Hazardous Attitudes
Anti-authority: "Don't tell me" This hazardous attitude is found in someone who does not like to be told what to
do. They may either be resentful of having someone tell them what to do or may just disregard rules and
procedures. An assertive person will question authority if warranted.
Impulsivity: "Do something quickly" Someone who does not stop and think about what they are about to do. They
do not select the best alternative, they do the first thing that comes to mind.
Invulnerability: "It won't happen to me" Many people feel that accidents will happen to others but not to them.
People who think this way are more likely to be risk takers beyond acceptable levels.
Macho: "I can do it" People who are always trying to prove themselves take risks to try and impress others. Both
men and women are susceptible.
Resignation: "What's the use" People who have this hazardous attitude do not see themselves
as making a great deal of difference in what happens to them. They attribute events to either
good or bad luck; they leave actions to others. They can go along with unreasonable requests to
be a "nice-guy."

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• Stress Management
Once we become aware of stress, we generally respond to it by using one of two strategies: defense or coping.
Defense strategies involve alleviation of the symptoms (taking medication, alcohol, etc.) or reducing the anxiety
(e.g. denying to yourself that there is a problem –denial-, or blaming someone else).
Coping strategies involve dealing with the source of the stress rather than just the symptoms (e.g. delegating
workload, prioritizing tasks, sorting out the problem, etc.).
Coping is the process whereby the individual either adjusts to the perceived demands of the situation or changes
the situation itself. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to deal with the problem if this is outside the control of
the individual (such as during an emergency), but there are well-published techniques for helping individuals to
cope with stress. Good stress management techniques include:
Relaxation techniques;
• Careful regulation of sleep and diet;
• A regime of regular physical exercise;
• Counseling - ranging from talking to a supportive friend or colleague to seeking professional advice.
There is no magic formula to cure stress and anxiety, merely common sense and practical advice.
• Time Pressure and Deadlines
There is probably no industry in the commercial environment that does not impose some form of deadline and
consequently time pressure on its employees. Aircraft flight operations are no exception. It was highlighted in the
previous section that one of the potential stressors in aviation is time pressure. This might be actual pressure where
clearly specified deadlines are imposed by an external source (e.g. ops management ) and passed on to flight crew,
or perceived pressure, where pilots feel that there are time pressures, even when no definitive deadlines have been
set in stone. In addition, time pressure may be self-imposed, where flight crew have personal reasons for timely
action (e.g. departing from a foreign airport before duty time limits expire and the crew can't get home). This is
often referred to as "get home-itis".
• The Effects of Time Pressure and Deadlines
As with stress, it is generally thought that some time pressure is stimulating and may actually improve task
performance. However, it is almost certainly true that excessive time pressure (actual or perceived, external or
self-imposed), is likely to mean that due care and attention when carrying out tasks diminishes and more errors
will be made. Ultimately, these errors can lead to aircraft incidents and accidents.
• Summary
o Identify, recognize, eliminate or reduce too much stress

o Cope actively with demands
o Eat, sleep and exercise properly
o Communicate
o Avoid mind altering substances
o Check your attitude, sense of humor and general emotional state
o Stress is associated not only with distress but also with excitement, achievement, and effective performance
o One of the major reasons for learning effective stress management is long-term preventive health care
o In addition to helping our lives work better, stress will help us to achieve peak performance
The greatest discovery

of mankind is that
human beings can alter
their lives by altering
their attitudes

Student Guide
Sleep, Fatigue and Circadian rhythms
• What Is Sleep?
Man, like all living creatures has to have sleep. Despite a great deal of research, the purpose of sleep is not fully
understood. Sleep is a natural state of reduced consciousness involving changes in body and brain physiology
which is necessary to man to restore and replenish the body and brain.
Sleep can be resisted for a short time, but various parts of the brain ensure that sooner or later, sleep occurs. When
it does, it is characterized by five stages of sleep:
o Stage 1: This is a transitional phase between waking and sleeping. The heart rate slows and muscles relax. It
is easy to wake someone up.
o Stage 2: This is a deeper level of sleep, but it is still fairly easy to wake someone.
o Stage 3: Sleep is even deeper and the sleeper is now quite unresponsive to external stimuli and so is difficult
to wake. Heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature continue to drop.
o Stage 4: This is the deepest stage of sleep and it is very difficult to wake someone up.
o Stage 5: Rapid Eye Movement or REM Sleep: Even though this stage is characterized by brain activity
similar to a person who is awake, the person is even more difficult to awaken than stage 4. It is therefore also
known as paradoxical sleep. Muscles become totally relaxed and the eyes rapidly dart back and forth under
the eyelids.
Stages 1 to 4 are collectively known as non-REM (NREM) sleep. Stages 2-4 are categorized as slow-wave sleep
and appear to relate to body restoration, whereas REM sleep seems to aid the strengthening and organization of
memories. Sleep deprivation experiments suggest that if a person is deprived of stage 1-4 sleep or REM sleep he
will show rebound effects. This means that in subsequent sleep, he will make up the deficit in that particular type
of sleep. This shows the importance of both types of sleep.
Typically, the first REM sleep will occur about 90 minutes after the onset of sleep. The cycle of stage 1 to 4 sleep
and REM sleep repeats during the night about every 90 minutes. Most deep sleep occurs earlier in the night and
REM sleep becomes greater as the night goes on.
• Fatigue
Fatigue can be either physiological or subjective. Physiological fatigue reflects the body’s need for replenishment
and restoration. It is tied in with factors, such as recent physical activity, current health, consumption of alcohol
and with circadian rhythms.
It can only be satisfied by rest and eventually, a period of sleep. Subjective fatigue is an individual’s perception of
how sleepy they feel. This is not only affected by when they last slept and how good the sleep was but other
factors, such as degree of motivation.
Fatigue is typically caused by delayed sleep, sleep loss, desynchronization of normal circadian rhythms and
concentrated periods of physical or mental stress or exertion.
In the workplace, working long hours, working during normal sleep hours and working on rotating shift schedules
all produce fatigue to some extent. Symptoms of fatigue (in no particular order) may include:
• diminished perception (vision, hearing, etc.) and a general lack of awareness;

• diminished motor skills and slow reactions;
• problems with short-term memory;
• channeled concentration - fixation on a single possibly unimportant issue, to the neglect of others and
failing to maintain an overview;
• being easily distracted by unimportant matters;
• poor judgment and decision making leading to increased mistakes;
• abnormal moods - erratic changes in mood, depressed, periodically elated and energetic;
• diminished standards.

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• Causes of Pilot Fatigue
The main causes of pilot fatigue are:
o The disturbance of circadian rhythms

o Continuous wakefulness
o Cumulative sleep loss
• Circadian Rhythms
The aviation industry maintains a schedule that is 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Humans operate on a different
schedule, a circadian rhythm, which can conflict with a crew member's required work periods. This clash of
schedules can affect pilot performance, behavior and attitude. There are two circadian low periods where an
individual will experience increased sleepiness - between 3 and 5 o'clock both a.m. and p.m. A combination of the
circadian low period and fatigue could reduce pilot performance by up to 35%.
During sleep, the body's core temperature, which is often used as a biological marker, drops markedly. If you are
forced to stay awake during the time normally allotted for sleep, the disruption of the circadian cycle produces the
effects of fatigue. The more time zones that are crossed, the longer it will take an individual to adjust. It is easier to
adjust to a westbound time zone change than eastbound.
Apart from the alternation between wakefulness and sleep, men have other internal cycles, such as body
temperature and hunger/eating. These are known as circadian rhythms as they run on an approximately daily basis.
Circadian rhythms are physiological and behavioral functions and processes in the body that have a regular cycle
of approximately a day (actually about 25 hours in man).
Although, circadian rhythms are controlled by the brain, they are influenced and synchronized by external
(environmental) factors such as light. An example of disrupting circadian rhythms is by taking a flight that crosses
time zones. This will interfere with the normal synchronization with the light and dark (day/night). This throws out
the natural link between daylight and the body’s internal clock, causing jet lag, resulting in sleepiness during the
day, etc. Eventually however, the circadian rhythm readjusts to the revised environmental cues.
The pattern of circadian rhythm and body temperature is very robust, meaning that even if the normal pattern of
wakefulness and sleep is disrupted (by shift work for example), the temperature cycle remains unchanged. Hence,
it can be seen that if you are awake at 4-6 o’clock in the morning, your body temperature is in a trough and it is at
this time that it is hardest to stay awake. Research has shown that this drop in body temperature appears to be
linked to a drop in alertness and performance in man.
• Sleep Loss and Micro sleeps
The loss of as little as one hour sleep begins a person's sleep debt. Eight hours of disrupted sleep can also produce
the effect of too little sleep. You cannot indefinitely deny your body of its required sleep, nor can you substitute it
with anything else. The only cure for a sleep debt is to sleep.
Acute fatigue is severe, and could result from the loss of a night's sleep. Chronic fatigue is the result long term
sleep debt. It is usually not recognized by the individual and is more difficult to counteract. Acute or chronic
fatigue can lead to a micro sleep.
Micro sleeps are uncontrolled spontaneous episodes of sleep that could last for seconds or minutes. During a micro
sleep, a person disengages from reality and becomes unresponsive. They fail to respond to outside information.
o There is a 10 times increase of a micro sleep at night than during the day
o There is a 10 times increase of a micro sleep relative to each hour worked
o Micro sleeps increase with cumulative sleep debt
o A micro sleep does not decrease a sleep debt

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• Other Fatigue Inducers
There are other factors that can cause or contribute to pilot fatigue
o Length of duty day

o Time of day, shift irregularities
o Schedule, consecutive duty days
o Multiple layovers in quick succession
o Restricted time available for sleep
o Quality of sleep
o 24-hour layovers following a night arrival
o Easterly direction flights traversing several time zones
o Poor cockpit seat design or ergonomics
o Stressors such as noise, vibration, flicker, heat/cold, wearing headsets
o Accumulation of operational factors such as bad weather, congested airspace
o Boredom, waiting, monotony, monitoring instruments
o Poor diet, hypoglycemia
o Skill fatigue - a progressive loss of performance ability due to prolonged or extreme mental or physical
activity
o Vision fatigue - the eye's inability to maintain effective functioning from prolonged visual exertion
o Illness
o Physical exertion
o Dehydration
o Self-medication
o Caffeine, smoking, alcohol
o Hangover
o Hypoxia, flights with cabin altitude over 5,000 ft
o Unresolved stress
• Symptoms of Pilot Fatigue
Be aware that these are some of the symptoms that may affect you, but also watch for them in other crew members
o Slowed reaction time, both physically and mentally

o Increased errors despite increased effort
o Individual's underestimation of their performance degradation
o Performance variability and unpredictability
o Preoccupation with a single task
o Fixation on a single source of information
o Perseverance of an ineffective solution
o Short-term memory loss, such as a frequency change
o Impaired judgment and decision making
o Easily distracted by unimportant items
o Sloppy flying
o Loss of initiative
o Depressed, apathetic, lethargic or moody
o Willingness to accept below standard performance
o Limited situational awareness
o Poor communication skills
• Common Misconceptions
A pilot suffering the effects of fatigue will not be able to counteract them by
o Skill
o Increased effort
o Stamina
o Physical conditioning

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o Education
o Training
o Experience
o Will
o Professionalism
o Motivation
• Alcohol and Medication
All pilots should that be aware their performance may be affected by alcohol, medication or illicit drugs. FAA
legislation precludes the consumption of alcohol or the use of illicit drugs by flight crews when working.
o Alcohol
Alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system, dulling the senses and increasing mental and
physical reaction times. It is known that even a small amount of alcohol leads to a decline in an individual’s
performance and causes their judgment (i.e. ability to gauge their performance) to be hindered.
Alcohol is removed from the blood at a fixed rate and this cannot be speeded up in any way (e.g. by drinking
strong coffee). In fact, sleeping after drinking alcohol can slow down the removal process, as the body’s
metabolic systems are slower.
The affects of alcohol can be made considerably worse if the individual is fatigued, ill or using medication.
o Medication
Any medication, no matter how common, can possibly have direct effects or side effects that may impair
performance. "Medication" can be regarded as any over-the counter or prescribed drug used for therapeutic
purposes.
Flight Crew are advised to seek up-to-date advice from their Authority concerning which medication is
permissible, since the details change from time to time.
o Artificial enhancers
Caffeine is the most popular artificial stimulant, and can be useful after waking up. Continued caffeine intake
will deter sleep during the time allotted for sleep. Caffeine is also a diuretic and causes dehydration.
Melatonin is a depressant currently being promoted in the United States as a natural hormone which allegedly
induces sleep in shift workers or elderly people. Melatonin is not legal in Canada. There are problems with
quality control, potency and monitoring of this supplement. The biological effects and the long term use of
Melatonin is not known.
• Fatigue management
Most individuals need approximately 8 hours sleep in a 24 hour period, although some individuals will know that
they need more or less than this to be fully refreshed.
People can usually perform adequately with less that 8 hours sleep for a few days, building up a temporary sleep
‘deficit’. However, any sleep deficit will need to be made up, otherwise performance will start to suffer. A good
rule of thumb is that one hour of high-quality sleep is good for two hours of activity.
Publications exist which advise on how to manage sleep and rest, particularly when circadian disruption occurs
during long haul flights.
Some causes of fatigue are controllable, and pilots should make every effort to avoid flying fatigued when
possible.

Student Guide
o Do not begin a flight with a sleep debt, make this a priority over outside activities. NASA studies have shown
that an individual who received 8 hours of sleep was better able to carry out pilot duties after being awake for
20 hours, than that of a pilot who received just 6 hours of sleep
o Pre-planning for a known sleep disruption is essential for managing alertness. Develop a regular pre-sleep
routine, sleep in a comfortable environment
o Proper diet, physical conditioning, avoiding alcohol and smoking will help the body to stay healthy and be
better able to cope with the effects of fatigue. Do not exercise or eat a large meal directly before sleep
o Use caffeine sparingly during flight as it may keep you awake later when you are trying to sleep. Water is
favored to counteract dehydration effects.
o If you wake up spontaneously and cannot go back to sleep within 15 - 20 minutes, or have trouble falling
asleep, get up and try again later
o During a layover, get as much sleep as you would normally in a 24-hour period. Trust your own physiology -
if you feel sleepy and circumstances permit, sleep
o A 40-minute nap, dubbed the NASA-nap, will help to rejuvenate an individual without them entering into a
deep sleep, which is more difficult to wake-up from
• Summary
o The only remedy for a sleep debt is to sleep

o No amount of will-power will overcome the effects of fatigue
o Pilots retain a level of control over their fatigue levels
o Fatigued pilots must be aware of the gradual and cumulative effects of fatigue, which degrades their
performance
COMMUNICATION
True and effective communication occurs when there is a sincere and conscious effort by all parties.
Good communication is important in every industry. In aircraft operations, it is vital. Communication, or more often a
breakdown in communication, is often cited as a contributor to aviation incidents and accidents. Communication is defined
in the Penguin Dictionary of Psychology as: “The transmission of something from one location to another. The ‘thing’ that
is transmitted may be a message, a signal, a meaning, etc. In order to have communication both the transmitter and the
receiver must share a common code, so that the meaning or information contained in the message may be interpreted
without error”.
Definitions
• Effective communication is being able to communicate your thoughts and feelings in such a way that the other
person shares the same meaning you do
• The imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing or signs
• The process of exchanging ideas and information by the use of a common system of verbal and non-verbal signals
A good example of poor communication is from list of instructions from an aircraft electronics manual as quoted by the
Journal of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators:
"The internal guidance system uses deviations to generate corrective commands to fly the aircraft from a position where it
is to a position where it isn't."
"In the event that the position where it is now is not the same as the position where it originally wasn't, the system will
acquire a variation. Variations are beyond the scope of this simple explanation."

Student Guide
Key Facts About the Way We Communicate

• We tend to protect, maintain and enhance ourselves when we communicate
• We defend against looking ignorant or foolish for fear of ridicule
• We wish to maintain consistency, we tend to support our opinion even when we suspect that we may not be totally
correct
• We wish to feel valued, worthwhile, belonging and meaningful. This means that we must be acknowledged with
respect and trust
• Reality is second to perception - and our mindset may be very difficult to change
• People behave according to their perceptions; may not be aware of the level of risk
• Emotions always take first place, feelings are facts
• Commitment comes from self-determination, people have their own motivations
Modes of Communication
We are communicating almost constantly, whether consciously or otherwise. We may need to communicate:
• information (e.g. "ATC have instructed us to...");

• feedback/ challenger/ response (e.g. "checked" or "set");
• ideas/ proposals/ counter-proposals (e.g. "I disagree. What about.XX instead?");
• feelings (e.g. "I'm not happy with....").
As the sender of a message, he will typically expect some kind of response from the person he is communicating with
(the recipient), which could range from a simple acknowledgement that his message has been received (and hopefully
understood), to a considered and detailed reply. The response constitutes feedback.
• Verbal Communication
Verbal communication may be either social or functional/operational. Both serve a useful purpose, the former
helping to built teamwork, and the latter being essential to the task of flying an aircraft. For a spoken or written
message to be understood, the sender has to make sure that the receiver:
• is using the same channel of communication;

• recognizes and understands his language, including any subtleties;
• is able to make sense of the message’s meaning.
The channel of communication is the medium used to convey the message. For spoken communication, this might
be face-to-face, or via the radio or intercom. Written messages might be notes, information keyed in, or tone
messages (e.g. between flight deck and cabin crew). Oral/aural communication is the primary mode of
communication in an aircraft.
Pilot-ATC communication is a very important area, almost warranting a separate Appendix. However, it is not
appropriate to go into too much detail in this document, other than to stress that CRM principles should also apply
to pilot-ATC communications (within the restrictions of standard phraseology and air-ground communications
procedures) as well as face-to-face communications.
• Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication can accompany verbal communication, such as a smile during a face-to-face chat. It
may constitute acknowledgement or feedback (e.g. a nod of the head). It can also be used when verbal
communication is impossible, such as a thumbs-up in a noisy environment. Body language can be very subtle, but
often quite powerful. For example, the message “No” accompanied by a smile will be interpreted quite differently
from the same word said whilst the sender scowls.
Non-verbal communication may also take the form of written information or notes, between pilots or flight-deck
and cabin crew. Future ground-air communications are increasingly more likely to be non-verbal as data link
technology and associated procedures gradually replaces oral/aural RTF communications between ATC and pilots.
As mentioned above, this is not addressed in any detail in this document.

Student Guide
Non-verbal communication is the predominant manner by which systems communicate their status. For instance,
most displays in the aircraft cockpit present their information graphically. However, man-machine interface issues
are not covered in this document.
• Symbolic
Symbolic communication occurs as a result of our appearance - clothes, hair, jewelry, make of car, etc.
7% of all communication is accomplished Verbally.
38% of communication is the result of unconscious signals and readings, such as tone or sound of voice
55% of all communication is achieved through Non-Verbal and Symbolic means (body language.)
Communication Process
There are four elements in the communication process - the sender, the message, the receiver and the feedback. Human
beings acting as the sender or receiver are influenced by many factors - their perceptions, attitudes, values,
knowledge, expectations, language skills, experience and their relationship to "the other person." These influences
act like filters and can impact on the process of sending and receiving messages.
Identifying Assumptions
Crew members' clear understanding of cockpit communication is imperative to effective CRM and the ultimate safe
operation of the aircraft. Obstacles in the communication process must be identified before they can be addressed and
removed. Are you guilty of these assumptions?
• Assumption #1
Do you assume that the message sent is the same as the message received? Or do you consider that the message
sent is rarely the same as the message received? If you operate under the first assumption, you would be correct if
you were communicating with a machine. However, almost all communication in organizational settings involves
the sending of messages from one human to another. Consequently, the message sent is rarely the same as the
message received. Each of us has our own unique set of attitudes, motivations, and perceptual frames and we filter
incoming messages to some extent. The message we think we are sending may be substantially different from the
message that is received.
• Assumption #2
Do you assume that you communicate only when you consciously choose to do so? Or do you assume that
communication is often unplanned and unconscious? The truth is, you cannot not communicate. Simply being in
the presence of another person is to communicate with that person, even if you choose not to do so. Such non-
verbal stimuli as physical stature, dress and gestures may all serve as unintended messages in the communication

Student Guide
process. Furthermore, what others have heard about you and their mental image of you often contradicts the
message you hope to transmit. The total message sent incorporates not only the intended messages, but the
unintended messages as well. Remember, you cannot not communicate.
• Assumption #3
Do you assume that meanings are inherent in words? Or do you assume that meanings originate in people? When
structuring messages we often assume that the words constituting the message have a fixed, predictable meaning.
We are surprised when others do not understand what we believe to be obvious. If we assume that others may
attach their own definitions and connotations to words, then we are not so surprised when semantic confusion
arises. For example, "impending layoff" may mean "tomorrow I get axed" to one person, and "I wonder who will
be cut" to another. Words have a fixed meaning only when one machine communicates with another.
• Assumption #4
Do you assume that the communication process ceases after the message has been received? Or do you assume
that feedback is an essential element of the communication process? Many people assume that the communication
process ends when the message reaches its destination. Unfortunately, this assumption ignores the fact that
feedback is necessary if the sender is at all concerned about the impact of that message. Has the message been
understood? Has action been taken? How should the message have been structured in order to achieve the desired
results? Each of these questions can be answered only by feedback from the receiver. Sending the message is only
part of the communication process; the other part is being responsive to feedback from the receiver.
• Assumption #5
Do you assume that if a communication breakdown occurs, it is invariably the recipient's fault? Or do you assume
that a communication breakdown may be a function of your own communication style? There is a saying popular
among public speaking teachers, "if the audience is falling asleep, someone should wake up the speaker." Is the
communication problem with the sender's behavior rather than with the receiver's behavior? How can the message
best be adapted to the receiver's attitudes, motivations and perceptual frame?
• Assumption #6
Do you assume that most communication problems in your organization could be prevented with communication
hardware? Or do you assume that most communication problems in your organization could be prevented with
communications software? Hardware includes gadgets, gimmicks, procedures and techniques designed to facilitate
information exchange. For example, information routing slips, suggestion boxes, and periodic feedback sessions
are types of communication hardware. Software includes the assumptions, attitudes and knowledge you have about
the communication process.
After analyzing the six common assumptions you have concluded that effective communication does not just
happen, you have taken the first step in changing your own communication style. If you have concluded that
effective communication requires concerted effort, you have taken the next step.
"The wonder is not that we communicate so well the wonder is that we communicate at all."
Samuel Johnson
Essential Verbal Communication Skills in CRM

Communication can affect the safety of the operation. Using five aspects of effective verbal communication will assist
crew members to communicate in a clear and precise manner.
Inquiry: Good decisions are based on the quality of information that is assessed. In the cockpit environment we scan
instruments to gain information. In varying degrees, the same seeking of information from flight crew, cabin crew,
dispatch and ATC should also be brought under consideration when making complex cockpit decisions. One drawback
of asking questions in the cockpit is the fear of embarrassment. Clarification of an action or intended action is a right
among crew members.

Student Guide
Advocacy: Advocacy is the clear stating of one's position, even if it is contrary to the accepted position. Should a crew
member disagree with an action or an intended action, it is the crew member's responsibility to advocate their position.
Advocacy is also the attitude of an individual accepting another crew member's perspective and rationalizing the
different points of view for the best operational decision.
Listening: The art of listening appears to be a reoccurring failure in many accident reports. Active listening is an
action, it is not a passive function. It requires the listener to actively inquire and respond, confirm to the transmitter that
the message has been received and understood.
Conflict Resolution: If crew members are effectively advocating their positions, eventually there will be a conflict of
opinion. An effective resolution process will help the flight crew to operate efficiently. Conflict can be constructive if
cockpit issues are dealt with rationally. Problems may arise when the conflict becomes external to the task at hand.
Outside issues should be deferred until another time while the crew deals with the task at hand.
Critique: Proper critique is an important element of the successful operation of flight. It begins in pre-flight, continues
during the operation of the flight and ends in a post flight debriefing. Critique is an analysis of events, past or future. It
is an impersonal survey of how the operation can be improved. All crew members' input to the critique process will
improve total crew performance and ultimately improve the safety and efficiency of the operation.
Active Listening
The active listener attends to the words and projects their mind into that of the speaker, so that they can align their
thoughts and feelings more closely to those of the speaker. Active listening consists of the following two skills:
• Non-Verbal - Attending (to build and maintain rapport)

o Face the speaker, smile, look relaxed
o Maintain eye contact
o Encourage the other to speak
o
• Verbal – Questions
A. Closed Questions (for short answers)
o Restrict the range of possible responses

o Useful in getting specific information quickly
o Improper use can make a person feel like hey are being interrogated
Example:
How many duty managers are there?

How long are your shifts?
B. Open-Ended Questions (for long answers)
o Allows the person a lot of freedom of response

o Useful for identifying attitudes and beliefs
o Can be quite time consuming
Example:
What is your observation on the pilot's techniques in this area?

Which other areas would you like to draw our attention to?
C. Probe Questions (for more information)
o Ask the person to clarify or elaborate

o Can be verbal or non-verbal

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Example:
Tell me more about that?

I see...how did it work out?
D. Paraphrasing (to show understanding and encouragement)
o Putting the other person's ideas or feeling into your own words
Example:
So, if I understand correctly, you've outlined two problems; double exits and the lack of a stop bar on the
runway
• Active Listening Is:
o The genuine desire to understand another person's perception

o Listening and expressing - understanding of what another person has said
o Sensitivity to another's thoughts and feelings
• Active Listening Is Not:

o Passive or token
o Advice given
o Agreement or disagreement
o Judgmental or critical
o Argumentative
• The Art of Effective Listening

Being an effective listener takes practice and a sincere effort on behalf of the listener. Problems in effective
listening are:
o We speak at approximately 125 words per minute
o We have the capacity to listen at 900 words per minute
Our brain spends this excess time:
o Pre-planning (anticipation) - preoccupation with formulating a response and not listening to what the sender is
saying
o Detouring (wandering) - waiting for a key word and when it comes up, take the conversation into another area
of interest
o Debating - playing the devil's advocate; regardless of what was said, they take the opposite point of view
o Tuning Out - when a message has been heard repeatedly, after a while the receiver does not listen because it is
felt that the message is not important
The effective listener is:
o Caring
o Trustworthy with integrity
o Accepting
o Lets you talk
o Focuses on thoughts and feelings
o Constructive, focuses on problem solving, not blame
o Encourages self-determination
o Is capable of active listening

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Listen to More than Words

Effective listening takes into consideration all aspects of communication - verbal, non-verbal and symbolic. For
pilots, most communication takes place in the cockpit. This environment is ripe for communication error and
misunderstandings because words exclusively represents just 7% of total communication. The communication
process can be enhanced by an additional 38% by paying particular attention to the individual's speech
characteristics:
o Rate of speech Is the individual speaking quickly or slowly? Generally, people speak more quickly when they
are excited, angry or upset. Speaking slowly generally suggests calmness and control
o Inflection Which words does the individual emphasize? Inflections can help indicate what is most important
to the individual
o Tone of Voice Is the individual's voice loud or soft, harsh or smooth? Tone of voice can help to determine the
individual's emotional state. It can be critical in determining the stress level of other crew members
• Critique
Critique is an efficiency or performance analysis of future, current or past events.
All crew members should be encouraged to give critique to enhance the flight operation. Critique is constructive. It
is what we think will work best, monitoring of our decisions to ensure performance is as expected, and a debrief as
to what will improve total crew performance next time. Critique is a continual process that challenges the dynamic
environment of flight.
Communicating Criticism
Occasionally, mistakes happen. Bear in mind that people do not make mistakes on purpose but they are the result
of a multitude of factors that may be influencing the individual at any one time. Miscommunications, task
overload, misunderstanding of targets, stress or fatigue are some of the factors which could induce errors. Perhaps
just letting the person know the consequences of his or her behavior is enough the make the point. Other times,
criticism must be communicated. The most effective way to do this is
o Avoid criticizing the person; focus on the behavior exhibited instead
o Describe the specific behavior you observed
o Avoid being sarcastic or parental
o Avoid using vague or general statements
o Avoid using anger
o Avoid asking questions for which you already know the answer
o Describe the impact of the behavior on others in the working environment
o Describe the consequences of the behavior. It is important to help the person see what type of consequences it
might have for him or her personally over a period of time
o Reach an agreement on how to change behavior. If the person chooses not to change the behavior after being
made aware of its negative impact and consequences, the person is either an intentional trouble maker or
under severe emotional strain. Proper disciplinary action should be taken. If the person agrees to modify his or
her behavior, then a process should be agreed upon to provide supportive and positive feedback.
Do
o Encourage others to talk
o Be tentative, explore
o Express your feelings objectively
o Focus on other's self-determination
o Use problem-sharing approach

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Do Not
o Degrade the other person, especially in public
o Be dogmatic or self-righteous
o Ignore other's feelings or ideas
o Argue
o Interrupt
• Conflict Resolution
The key principle in resolving conflict in the cockpit is the determination of
What is right, not who is right
When crew members advocate their position, a difference of opinion in the cockpit arises. CRM principles
recognize this conflict as not only healthy, but expected. All crew members’ input is a required ingredient for
synergy to become active.
A problem begins when outside conflict enters the cockpit, when heated emotion, bias, or lack of respect taints the
real issue.
o Is it a cockpit issue or does it pertains to something beyond the confines of this cockpit?
o If it is not a cockpit issue, set it aside and deal with it once you are on the ground. Maintain a professional
attitude.
o If it is a cockpit issue, resolve it based on what is right and not who is right. Rely on an impartial source of
information if possible, an Aircraft Operations Manual or Air Regulation. This is a constructive method of
resolution versus the destructive method of who is right.
• How to Manage Angry Conflict

There will be times, inside or outside the cockpit, that angry conflict will take place. Should this angry conflict
take place during a critical phase of flight, it will constitute a serious hazard to safety. The following tips will help
you to manage the angry conflict until the problem can be resolved at a more convenient time.
Maintain Control
o If possible, suggest another time (cool off)
o Avoid sharing the anger
o Objective: To Listen
Listen
o Objective: Allow other to explain

o Use listening skills
Open ended questions

Probe questions
Paraphrasing
Use Problem Sharing Approach

o Guide discussion to clarification of problem and constructive exploration of ways to resolve it
We have a problem
Define the problem-is it cockpit related? Cause vs effects
Explore the alternatives and consequences - elicit and suggest
What action should we take - pick the safest one
Mutual commitment
Follow-up

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Maintain respect
o The use of personal insults and put-downs must be eliminated. "I wonder if we can approach this issue
without attacking each other."
o Objective: To clarify the issue as objectively as possible
o Feelings are facts - do not deny the other's experience
o Separate the facts from opinion; mentally separate facts from irate expressions
Avoid Hasty Responses
o Allow time for issues (facts vs opinions) to settle

o Wait and go back later
Seek Constructive Solutions
o Explore alternatives
o Have other choose, if possible
Effective Communication
Effective communication encompasses the entire scope of the sender's verbal, non-verbal, symbolic message.
Effective communication is a recognition that a variety of assumptions and other filters potentially could distort the
message that is sent or received
Effective communication involves active listening for clear comprehension
Effective communication completes the circuit of sending, receiving and feedback with all parties sharing a common
understanding of the message
Communication Problems
There are two main ways in which communication can cause problems. These are lack of communication and poor
communication. An example of the former is a young first officer who is very IT-literate, who is engrossed with
programming the FMS but doesn't explain to the less-IT-literate Captain what he is doing. An example of the latter is a
flight deck crew who advise the cabin crew that there will be a precautionary emergency landing, but fails to tell them not
to evacuate the cabin. Both problems can lead to subsequent human error.
Communication also goes wrong when one of the parties involved makes some kind of assumption. The sender of a
message may assume that the receiver understands the terms he has used. The receiver of a message may assume that the
message means one thing when in fact he has misinterpreted it.
Problems with assumptions can be minimized if messages are unambiguous and proper feedback is given.
There are several hazards which reduce the quality of communications:
• failures during the transmitting process (e.g. the sending of unclear or ambiguous messages, language problems);
• difficulties caused by the medium of transmission (e.g. background noises or distortion of the information);
• failures during receiving (e.g. the expectation of another message, wrong interpretation of the arriving message o
even its disregard);
• failures due to interference between the rational and emotional levels of communication (e.g. arguments); and
• physical problems in listening or speaking (e.g. impaired hearing or wearing of the oxygen mask).
It is the task of Human Factors training to prevent or minimize communication errors. This task includes the explanation of
common communication problems as well as the reinforcement of a standard of language to ensure the error-free

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transmission of a message and its correct interpretation. Ambiguous, misleading, inappropriate or poorly constructed
communication, combined with expectancy, have been listed as elements of many accidents, the most notorious one being
the double 747 disaster in Tenerife.
Barriers to Communication
There are many factors which block effective communication. They are organized into three distinct categories:
• Physical Barriers
The physical barriers are normally barriers that prevents the communication from being received - items such as
noise, hearing loss, confusion, fatigue, poor radio equipment. The pilot has some control over these barriers.
• Psycho-social
The psycho-social barriers are much harder to detect and control; stemming from inside an individual, they
encompass attitudes, feeling, bias and prejudice. For example, strong negative feelings in the cockpit can lead to a
total lack of communication. Hostile environments create a safety hazard. Pilots must maintain a professional
attitude to help to overcome the psycho-social barrier.
• Technique-related
The technique employed to process information can be a barrier in itself. The professional who processes
information does it the same way every time. The individual answers two questions before responding or acting on
any information:
o What is the literal meaning?
o What is the contextual meaning?
If these questions cannot be answered to the receiver's satisfaction, then clarification should be sought. After this,
the next question should be:
o What action is appropriate in response to this communication?
This type of controlled response creates a professional atmosphere and no matter what the feelings are between the
crew members this professionalism cuts through much of the personality problems.
The bottom line for Crew Resource Management skills

is promoting good communication in the cockpit
NASA tested 7,500 flight crews and determined that the two most significant factors in the promotion of good
CRM principles were:
o The Captain giving a thorough briefing, and;
o The First Officer making inquiries and advocating his/her position
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
True situational awareness is an individual's accurate perception of reality. The "Theory of the Situation" is what one
assumes to be true for a specific period of time. If a discrepancy exists between the individual's Theory of the Situation and
the Reality of the Situation, a loss of situational awareness occurs and an error chain could begin.

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Elements of Situational Awareness
• Theory of the Situation - A set of beliefs about what is happening and what action and individual should take. It
is based on the interpretation of available information. It is a human's perception of reality.
• Reality of the Situation - Actually reality, without human perceptions
• Theory of Practice - a person's concepts and skills developed over time used to build and respond to Theories of
the Situation. It is the sum of experience.
It is normal for people to defend their Theory of the Situation rather than to change it, or inquire about possible error.
Many accidents have occurred where a crew was using a faulty Theory of the Situation and overlooked data that
indicated otherwise.
• You are MOST likely to change your Theory of the Situation when you
o Operate under low stress
o Have access to and accept feedback
o Develop inquiry skills into your Theory of Practice. Guard against interpreting information to support your
Theory of the Situation
• You are LEAST likely to change your Theory of the Situation when
o Your Theory of Practice is over-learned
o You have a complacent attitude - "we've always done it that way"
o It is a crisis situation
o The Theory of the Situation is central to your self esteem, ego
In attempting to change your Theory of the Situation, as in Conflict Resolution, the important factor is
What is right, not who is right
The CRM principles of inquiry, advocacy, conflict resolution and critique will assist in clarifying the Reality of the
Situation, and provide the basis for higher quality decision making.
Clues to the Loss of Situational Awareness
• Low Stress Level - When the amount of information being processed is significantly low, the level of situational
awareness is low. Low stress level is common on long flights when we become bored or when we are fatigued.
This lack of alertness will result in a loss of recognition of warning signals and reduce our ability to react quickly
and correctly in an emergency.
• High Stress Level - When the amount of information being processed is significantly above an individual's
capacity. If our stress level is very high, we operate at low levels of situational awareness. This is commonly
referred to as information overload.
• Ambiguity - When information can be understood in more than one way, there can be a fifty per cent chance of an
accident occurring. A classic example is the captain calling "take-off power" and the first officer reduces the
power to idle.
• Confusion or Unresolved Discrepancies - When information is unclear, or two or more pieces of information do
not agree, we must search for information until the discrepancies are resolved. A simple example with catastrophic
consequences is the acceptance of a clearance to descend below published minimum safe altitudes.
• Fixation or Preoccupation - The ability to detect other important stimuli is lost when an individual is fixated,
preoccupied or distracted. This situation can easily result in no one flying or looking outside the aircraft unless
there is proper assignment of responsibilities essential to safe flight. The entire crew's preoccupation with a
malfunctioning nose gear indication light resulted in an L-1011 crashing into the Florida Everglades. No one was
monitoring the flight instruments; no one was flying the aircraft.

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• Departures from sops/Regulations - Violating minimums or using improper procedures puts pilots into a gray
area without being able to predict safe outcomes with certainty. Consistent and blatant violations of rules often
reveal other systemic problems within an organization.
• Failure to Meet Planned Targets - In flight, pilots are constantly setting planned targets such as airspeeds,
altitudes, checkpoints, times, etc. When planned targets are not met, like being high and fast on an approach, we
must question why and recognize the consequences of not meeting set targets.
• Gut Feeling - This is often the most detectable and reliable clue to the loss of Situational Awareness. Our bodies
are able to detect stimuli long before we have consciously put the big picture together. Learn to recognize your
own signs, such as stomach butterflies, muscle tension, mood swings, etc. Trust your feelings; policemen
sometimes place their lives on gut feelings.
Maintaining Situational Awareness
The following eight skills will favorably contribute to gaining and maintaining Situational Awareness
• Experience - Experience creates a mental file. Pilots draw upon it every time they fly and use it to assess
conditions and make decisions. Under pressure, people tend to revert to previous patterns of behavior. An
individual's experience file helps establish how one will interpret and respond to a given set of conditions.
• Training - Training does far more than perfect skills. Training adds to a pilot's experience file by creating events
that rarely happen in real life. For example, a flight simulator session can generate a lifetime of experience in a
very short period of time. Few pilots will ever actually have an engine fail at V1. Yet through training, it can
become part of a pilot's experience so that if and when it does occur, there will be something to draw upon.
• Spatial Orientation - Spatial orientation is position awareness; knowing where the aircraft is in relation to VOR's,
airports, runways, terrain, or other aircraft. It is knowing where you are and where you are going.
• Physical Flying Skills - As the pilot's role becomes that of a cockpit manager, it must be remembered that pilots
still have to be able to fly the aircraft proficiently. Flight control manipulation continues to be an important part of
a pilot's job.
• Ability To Process Information - This is an ability to use information from sense inputs, instruments, and other
sources to form an accurate picture of what is happening. It is the ability to integrate all the elements that
contribute to Situational Awareness.
• Cockpit Management Skills - These contribute to a pilot's ability to manage the total of the flight environment.
• Personal Attitude - Professionalism is a matter of attitude. Safety does not just happen; it is a conscious effort. To
be safe, one must think safe.
• Emotional / Physical Conditions - An individual's emotional and physical condition affects their perception of
the environment. Emotional problems, mental illness, physical conditions, and frame of mind can cloud or distort
an accurate perception of events or conditions.
Summary
Crew Resource Management principles, stress that all resources must be considered before a quality decision can be made.
Therefore, the quality of the decisions is directly related to the amount and the accuracy of information gathered pertaining
to the crew, aircraft and the environment.
If a pilot suspects that a loss of Situational Awareness has occurred, revert immediately to the basics
• Maintain Control - Fly the Aircraft
• Assess the Problem in the Time Available
• Gather Information from All Sources
• Assess All the Options - Choose the Best
• Monitor the Results - Alter Plan as Required

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Continual use of the 5 CRM principles will assist crew members to retain their Situational Awareness at all times;
Inquiry
Advocacy
Conflict Resolution
Critique
Decision Making
DECISION MAKING
Leadership and Managerial Skills
Effective leadership and managerial skills help to achieve joint task completion within a motivated, fully-functioning team
through co-ordination and persuasiveness.
• Use of authority and assertiveness
The use of authority and assertiveness infers the ability to create a proper challenge and response atmosphere. The
given command authority of the Captain should be adequately balanced by assertiveness and crew member
participation. If a situation requires, decisive actions are expected.
Examples of poor practice:
• Hinders or withholds crew involvement;

• Passive, does not show initiative for decisions, own position not recognizable;
• Does not show appreciation for the crew, coaches very little or too much.
Examples of good practice:
• Advocates own position;

• Takes initiative to ensure involvement and task completion;
• Takes command if situation requires;
• Motivates crew by appreciation and coaches when necessary.
• Providing and maintaining standards
Providing and maintaining standards refer to the compliance with essential standards (SOPs and others) for the
task completion. Supervision and intervention in case of deviations from standards by other crew members is also
part of this skill. If situation requires, non-standard procedures might be necessary. Such deviations shall be
discussed and announced.
• Does not comply to SOPs, does not monitor crew for SOP compliance;
• Does not intervene in case of deviations;
• Applies non-standard procedures without announcement or consultation of crew members.
• Ensures SOP compliance;

• Intervenes if task completion deviates from standards;
• Having consulted the crew deviates from standard procedures if situation requires.

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• Planning and co-ordination
Planning and co-ordination refers to applying an appropriate concept for organized task-sharing and delegation in
order to achieve top performance and to avoid workload peaks and dips. Communication of plans and intentions
leads to coordinated activities within the whole crew.
• Plans only for self, does not involve crew;

• Intentions not stated or confirmed;
• Changes plan without informing crew or follows plans blindly.
• Encourages crew participation in planning and task completion;

• Clearly states intentions and goals;
• Having consulted crew, changes plan if necessary.
• Decision Making
Decision making is the process of reaching a judgment or choosing an option.
o Problem definition and diagnosis
Problem definition and diagnosis is the ability to collect the information needed to define a problem and
its causal factors.
• Nature of the problem not stated or failure to diagnose;

• No discussion of probable causes.
• Gathers information and identifies problem;

• Reviews causal factors with other crew members.
o Option generation
Option generation refers to the ability of a crew member to generate multiple responses to a problem.
• Does not search for information;

• Does not ask crew for alternatives.
• States alternative courses of action;

• Asks crew members for options.
o Risk assessment and option selection
Risk assessment and option selection refers to the ability of a crew member to successfully assess risks
and benefits of different responses to a problem, and to select the best response. Both should be
accomplished through discussion with other crew members.

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• Inadequate discussion of limiting factors with crew;

• Failing to inform crew of decision path being taken.
• Considers and shares risks of alternative courses of action;

• Talks about possible risks for course of action in terms of crew limitations;
• Confirms selected course of action.
o Co-operation
Co-operation is the ability to work effectively in a crew.
Team-building and maintaining
Team-building and maintaining is about the ability to establish positive interpersonal relations
between crew members and their active participation in fulfilling the tasks.
• Blocks open communication;

• Keeps barriers between crew members;
• Competes with others.
• Establishes atmosphere for open communication and participation;

• Encourages inputs and feedback from others;
• Does not compete with others.
Consideration of others
Consideration of others involves the acceptance of others and understanding their personal condition.
• Ignores suggestions of other crew members;

• Does not take account of the condition of other crew members;
• Shows no reaction to other crew member’s problems.
• Takes notice of the suggestions of other crew members even if s/he does not agree;
• Takes condition of other crew members into account;
• Gives appropriate personal feedback.
Support of others
Support of others relates to giving help to other crew members when they need assistance.
• Hesitates to help other crew members in demanding situations;

• Does not offer assistance.

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• Helps other crew members in demanding situations;

• Offers assistance.
Conflict solving
Conflict solving is about the articulation of different interpersonal positions and giving suggestions
for solutions.
• Overreacts in interpersonal conflicts, sticks to own position without considering a compromise;

• Accuses other crew members of making errors.
• Keeps calm in conflicts;

• Suggests conflict solutions;
• Concentrates on what is right rather than who is right.
HUMAN ERROR, RELIABILITY AND ERROR
Management
• Introduction
The science of Human Factors accepts the fact that human error is inevitable – what is important is to ensure that
human error does not result in adverse events such as air accidents. This can be addressed in two ways: reducing errors
in the first place, and controlling errors such that they, or their immediate effects, are detected early enough to allow
remedial action. CRM addresses both types of mitigating strategies, but concentrates particularly on error detection,
especially in the multi-crew situation.
Human reliability is the science which looks at the vulnerability of human beings to error (or less than perfect
performance) under different circumstance. One could argue that it is more of an art than a science, since it is very
difficult to predict, in quantifiable terms, human reliability in different situations, and from individual to individual.
However, there are certain conditions under which humans are more likely to make errors (e.g. during circadian lows,
when stressed, when overloaded, etc.), but these will be covered in other Appendices rather than under "human
reliability" as such. If readers wish to find further information on the science of human reliability, a few references are
included at the end of this Chapter.
• Basic Theory
o Introduction to human error
It has long been acknowledged that human performance is at times imperfect. Nearly two thousand years ago, the
Roman philosopher Cicero cautioned “It is the nature of man to err”. It is an unequivocal fact that whenever men
and women are involved in an activity, human error will occur at some point. In his book “Human Error”,
Professor James Reason defines error as follows:
“Error will be taken as a generic term to encompass all those occasions in which a planned sequence of mental or
physical activities fails to achieve its intended outcome, and when these failures cannot be attributed to the
intervention of some chance agency”.

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o Error Models and Theories
To appreciate the types of error that it is possible to make, researchers have looked at human error in a number of
ways and proposed various models and theories. This attempt’s to capture the nature of the error and its
characteristics. To illustrate this, the following models and theories will be briefly highlighted:
• design- versus operator-induced errors;

• variable versus constant errors;
• reversible versus irreversible errors;
• slips, lapses and mistakes;
• skill-, rule- and knowledge-based behaviors and associated errors;
• the ‘Swiss Cheese Model’.
o Design- Versus Operator-Induced Errors
In aviation, emphasis is often placed upon the error(s) of the front line operators, who may include flight crew, air
traffic controllers and aircraft maintenance engineers.
However, errors may have been made before an aircraft ever leaves the ground, by aircraft designers. This may
mean that, even if an aircraft is maintained and flown as it is designed to be, a flaw in its original design may lead
to operational safety being compromised. Alternatively, flawed procedures put in place by airline, maintenance
organization or air traffic control management may also lead to operational problems.
It is common to find when investigating an incident or accident that more than one error has been made and often
by more than one person. The ‘error chain’ captures this concept. It may be that, only when certain combination of
errors arise and error ‘defenses’ breached (see the ‘Swiss Cheese Model’) will safety be compromised.
o Variable Versus Constant Errors
In his book “Human Error”, Professor Reason discusses two types of human error: variable and constant errors. It
can be seen in Figure 1 that variable errors in (A) are random in nature, whereas the constant errors in (B) follow
some kind of consistent, systematic (yet erroneous) pattern.
The implication is that constant errors may be predicted and therefore controlled, whereas variable errors cannot
be predicted and are much harder to deal with. If we know enough about the nature of the task, the environment it
is performed in, the mechanisms governing performance, and the nature of the individual, we have a greater
chance of predicting an error.
However, it is rare to have enough information to permit accurate predictions; we can generally only predict along
the lines of “fatigued pilots are more likely to make errors than alert pilots”, or “The SOPs for task X on aircraft
type Y is known as being ambiguous and likely to result in pilot error ”. It is possible to refine these predictions
with more information (e.g. The SOPs in Operator Z's QRH are known as being ambiguous), but there will always
be random errors or elements which cannot be predicted.
o Reversible Versus Irreversible Errors
Another way of categorizing errors is to determine whether they are reversible or irreversible. The former can be
recovered from, whereas the latter typically cannot be.
For example, if a pilot miscalculates the fuel he should carry, he may have to divert to a closer airfield, but if he
accidentally dumps his fuel, he may not have many options open to him.
A well designed system or procedure should mean that errors made by flight crew are reversible. Thus, if a flight
crew member incorrectly selects fuel feed which results in an imbalance, the aircraft systems should generate an
appropriate alert.

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o Slips, Lapses, Mistakes and Violations
Professor Reason highlights the notion of ‘intention’ when considering the nature of error, asking the questions:
• Were the actions directed by some prior intention?

• Did the actions proceed as planned?
• Did they achieve their desired end?
Professor Reason suggests an error classification based upon the answers to these questions.
The most well-known of these are slips, lapses and mistakes.
Slips can be thought of as actions not carried out as intended or planned, e.g. ‘finger trouble’ when dialing in a
frequency or ‘Freudian slips’ when saying something.
Lapses are missed actions and omissions, i.e. when somebody has failed to do something due to lapses of memory
and/or attention or because they have forgotten something, e.g. forgetting to lower the undercarriage on landing.
Mistakes are a specific type of error brought about by a faulty plan/intention, i.e. somebody did something
believing it to be correct when it was, in fact, wrong, e.g. switching off the wrong engine.
Slips typically occur at the task execution stage, lapses at the storage (memory) stage and mistakes at the planning
stage.
Violations sometimes appear to be human errors, but they differ from slips, lapses and mistakes because they are
deliberate ‘illegal’ actions, i.e. somebody did something knowing it to be against the rules (e.g. deliberately failing
to follow proper procedures). A pilot may consider that a violation is well-intentioned, e.g. electing not to climb in
response to a TCAS RA, if he is certain that the other aircraft has already initiated avoiding action. There is great
debate about whether flight crew should follow SOPs slavishly, or should elect to diverge from SOPs from time to
time. Whatever the case, and however well intentioned, this would still technically constitute a 'violation' rather
than an error.
o Skill-, Rule- and Knowledge-Based Behaviors and Associated Errors
Human behavior can generally be broken down into three distinct categories: skill based, rule-based and
knowledge-based behavior. These are covered in greater detail in Professor James Reason's book "Human Error".
Each of these behavior types have specific errors associated with them.
Examples of skill-based errors are action slips, environmental capture and reversion.
Action slips as the name implies are the same as slips, i.e. an action not carried out as intended. The example given
in Figure 3 may consist of a pilot intending to key in FL110 into the FMS but keying in FL100 by mistake, after
having been distracted by a query from his co-pilot.
Environmental capture may occur when a pilot carries out a certain task very frequently in a certain location. Thus,
a pilot used to reaching for a certain switch to select function A on an Airbus A320, may inadvertently select the
same switch on an Airbus 321 when, in fact, it has a different function.
Reversion can occur once a certain pattern of behavior has been established, primarily because it can be very
difficult to abandon or unlearn it when it is no longer appropriate. Thus, a pilot may accidentally carry out a
procedure that he has used for years, even though it has been recently revised. This is more likely to happen when
people are not concentrating or when they are in a stressful situation. Reversion to originally learned behavior is
not uncommon under stress.
Rule-based behavior is generally fairly robust and this is why the use of procedures and rules is emphasized in
aircraft maintenance. However, errors here are related to the use of the wrong rule or procedure. For example, a
pilot may misdiagnose a fault and thus apply the wrong SOP, thus not clearing the fault. Errors here are also
sometimes due to faulty recall of procedures; for instance, not remembering the correct sequence when performing
a procedure.

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Errors at the knowledge-based performance level are related to incomplete or incorrect knowledge or interpreting
the situation incorrectly. An example of this might be when a pilot makes an incorrect diagnosis of a situation
without having a full understanding of how the aircraft systems work. Once he has made such a diagnosis, he may
well look for information to confirm his (mis) understanding, while ignoring evidence to the contrary (known as
confirmation bias).
o Violations
It is a fact of life that violations occur in aviation operations. Most stem from a genuine desire to do a good job.
Seldom are they acts of laziness or incompetence.
There are three types of violations:
• Routine violations;
• Situational violations;
• Optimizing violations.
Routine violations are things which have become ‘the normal way of doing something’ within the person’s work
group (e.g. flight crew from one company base).
They can become routine for a number of reasons: flight crew may believe that procedures may be over
prescriptive and violate them to simplify a task (cutting corners), to save time and effort. This rarely happens in
flight operations, since flying tasks are so proceduralized, but it is not unusual to see these types of violations in
maintenance engineering.
Situational violations occur due to the particular factors that exist at the time, such as time pressure, high
workload, unworkable procedures, poorly designed man machine interface in the cockpit. These occur often when,
in order to get the job done, pilots consider that a procedure cannot be followed.
Optimizing violations involve breaking the rules for ‘kicks’. These are often quite unrelated to the actual task.
The person just uses the opportunity to satisfy a personal need. Flying an illegal circuit over a friend's house might
be an example.
Time pressure and high workload increase the likelihood of all types of violations occurring. People weigh up the
perceived risks against the perceived benefits; unfortunately the actual risks can be much higher.
• Error Management
One of the key concepts associated with error management is that of "defenses in depth", based on the premise that
there are many stages in any system where errors can occur, and similarly many stages where defenses can be built to
prevent and trap errors. Professor James Reason covers error management in his book "Human Error".
o Reason's ‘Swiss Cheese Model’
In his research, Reason has highlighted the concept of ‘defenses’ against human error within an organization, and
has coined the notion of ‘defenses in depth’. Examples of defenses are pre-flight checks, automatic warnings,
challenge-response procedures, etc., which help prevent to ‘trap’ human errors, reducing the likelihood of negative
consequences. It is when these defenses are weakened and breached that human errors can result in incidents or
accidents.
These defenses have been portrayed diagrammatically, as several slices of Swiss cheese (and hence the model has
become known as Professor Reason’s “Swiss cheese” model)
Some failures are 'latent', meaning that they have been made at some point in the past and lay dormant. This may
be introduced at the time an aircraft was designed or may be associated with a management decision. Errors made
by front line personnel, such as flight crew, are ‘active’ failures. The more holes in a system’s defenses, the more
likely it is that errors result in incidents or accidents, but it is only in certain circumstances, when all holes ‘line

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up’, that these occur. Usually, if an error has breached the design or engineering defenses, it reaches the flight
operations defenses (e.g. in flight warning) and is detected and handled at this stage.
However, occasionally in aviation, an error can breach all the defenses (e.g. a pilot ignores an in-flight warning,
believing it to be a false alarm) and a catastrophic situation ensues.
o Error detection and prevention
The concept of redundancy should be applied at all stages of the aviation system, never assuming that one single
mechanism, especially if human, will detect and prevent an error. CRM provides a form of redundancy in that it
emphasizes the role of the second pilot to check what the first pilot has done.
There is a potential danger with independent checks that the second person will trust the first person not to have
done anything wrong, and therefore not to carry out the second check properly. CRM dual checking is one of the
last lines of defense, especially if no automatic system checks and alerts are present, and pilots should always be
alert for the possibility that their colleague may have made an error, when carrying running through SOPs which
require challenge-response checks, no matter how much they might trust and respect the other pilot.
Similarly, the pilot carrying out the first action should never become complacent and rely upon the other pilot
detecting an error. (The same applies with pilot-ATC communications, and read backs). It is essential to remember
that we are all human therefore we all make mistakes from time to time, so assume the worst.
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP’s) are designed to enhance safety, to assist the flight crews to manage risk and to
ensure consistency in the cockpit. Consider them guidelines as to who-does-what-and-when. At all times, these procedures
should encourage effective communication and teamwork in the cockpit. Sops can be either general in nature or aircraft
specific. Although aviation companies have a certain amount of latitude when creating their sops, under no circumstances
should they contravene aviation regulations or the procedures outlined in the aircraft flight manuals.
Included in the sops should be a section on normal procedures, and it is to be considered an enhancement of the aircraft
flight manual. These normal procedures include all aspects of day-to-day flight, including the start-up and normal
procedures checklist, the take-off briefing, go-around procedures, IFR approaches, etc.
A section of the sops should be dedicated to emergency procedures, with the expanded version of the emergency
procedures checklists. Again, this should compliment the aircraft flight manual's emergency section and streamline
procedures removing any ambiguity.
Another section can include aircraft landing and take off distances charts, a Jeppesen chart, or any other references that the
flight crews may require.
Sop’s should be reviewed periodically and amended to maintain their relevance in changing times or aircraft fleet. Care
should be taken not to include non-applicable items, as personnel may then tend to view the whole package as being
irrelevant. Sops should be written in simple terminology leaving no room for subjective interpretation.
There are definite safety benefits from the use of Standard Operating Procedures but they must first be adopted by the flight
crews. Company check pilots should monitor for crew adherence to the sops. Finally, there is no substitute for good
judgment, and decisions made in the cockpit should be supported by management.
Standard Phraseology
Standardization of crew communications is desired to increase the efficiency of crew coordination during times of high
crew workload such as take off, emergency conditions, instrument approaches, landings and in detecting partial
incapacitation. The normal call-outs are one example of standard phraseology used to convey vital information with a
minimum number of words that have an exact meaning to all crew members. Some other recommended words and phrases
could be:

Student Guide
Thrust Settings Flap Settings

"Set Take off thrust" "Flaps up"
"Set go-around thrust" "Flaps five"
"Set maximum continuous thrust" "Flaps fifteen"
"Set climb thrust" "Flaps thirty"
"Set cruise thrust"
Standard Call-outs
• Objective
Ensure that all crew members are aware of airplane altitude, position and instrument indications. Casual and
nonessential conversation can be distracting and may interfere with normal communications, thereby reducing crew
efficiency and alertness to the task at hand, i.e. the approach and landing.
• Call-outs
The pilot not flying (PNF) will accomplish the appropriate call-out based on instrument indications or observations for
the condition indicated on the chart on the following page. The pilot flying (PF) will verify the condition/location from
their instruments and acknowledge. If the pilot not flying does not make the required call-out, the pilot flying should
make it.
• Crew Concept
One of the basic fundamentals of the "Crew Concept" is that each crew member must be able to supplement or act as a
back-up for another crew member. Proper adherence to standard call-outs will stimulate more meaningful and
standardized crew communications and provide for early detection of crew member incapacitation during critical
phases of flight.
• Standard Call-outs Examples
CONDITION/LOCATION CALL-OUT (PNF)

Approaching;
CLIMB AND DESCENT "Transition___,Altimeters reset"
Transition alt./flt lvl
1,000 ft. Abv/blo assigned "1,000 to level off" altitude/flt lvl
DESCENT 10,000 ft (reduce airspeed) "10,000"
1,000 ft abv initial app. Alt. "1,000 above initial"
APPROACH First positive motion of Localizer "Localizer alive"
First positive motion of Glide
"Glide Slope alive"
Slope
"Outer Marker . . . Etc.,
Final fix inbound (altimeter,
Time,___,feet altimeters &
instrument and flag crosscheck)
instruments crosschecked"
500 ft abv field elevation "500 ft, alt & inst. Crosschecked"
500 ft & blo on Final Approach "Airspeed" & profile deviations
100 ft abv DH "100 to minimums"
100 ft abv MDA "100 to MDA"
"Minimums" & Visual Reference
Reaching DH or MDA/MAP
or "No Contact"

Student Guide
Checking the Checklist

Checklists were created so that an aircraft can be operated by a pilot safely. It is ironic that checklists are designed to cover
omissions and oversights of pilots, but the built in redundancy and repetition found in checklists can also make pilots
complacent. This complacency is a breeding ground for errors and negligence.
This catch-22 situation should be addressed to make checklists more efficient so that they can be utilized as designed.
These suggestions may help to revamp your checklists and make them more "user-friendly."
Consult with the flight crews that fly on a regular basis to determine what changes should be made to improve efficiency.
Unnecessary items should be removed to avoid skipping over checklist items and increasing the risk of omitting a critical
check. For example, the "coffee pot" check on a converted cargo aircraft can be substituted with "all switches" for brevity.
The chances are better that you will not miss the "boost pumps on" check if the items you are used to seeing on the
checklist are all pertinent. If an item on the checklist is useful on occasion, it should be noted as "deferred" during the
checklist execution, rather than purposely skipped.
The built-in redundancy in a checklist is for a specific purpose. The so-called "killer items" on the checklist should be
repeated twice, in different areas of the checklist in case they be inadvertently missed. For example, if the aircraft flap
setting is important to take off performance, the flap check should be included in both the taxi checklist and again in the
before take-off checklist.
Items that are a key to the safety of your flight should be in the "challenge and response" format. The pilot-not-flying must
monitor the pilot flying, and confirmation of the checks through the challenge and response method is an effective way to
verify compliance. It is also important that both flight crew members have awareness as to the state of the aircraft, i.e. what
switches are on or off.
Non-critical items, such as the environmental setting or noting the take-off time, might be better off completed by the pilot-
not-flying. Once a checklist is complete, the pilot-not-flying must advise the pilot-flying and announce ". . . Checklist
complete."
The checklists should be clear, easy to read plastic laminated sheets and easily accessible in the cockpit. The emergency
checklist should be uniquely marked so it can be quickly located. It is also suggested that crews review an "emergency du
jour" from this checklist.
Checklists were created to eliminate errors of omission in the cockpit. Involving the flight crew and revising a tired
checklist will result in a safer and more efficient cockpit.
Crew Briefings
A crew briefing is not limited to reviewing an instrument approach procedure, or detailing aspects of the flight to the flight
attendants. In fact, the cockpit crew briefing is an important tool for improving safety during any critical phase of flight. In
a somewhat modified form, it's of use to the single-pilot flight operation as well.
In the simplest terms, your crew briefing is the verbalization of your plan for executing a critical phase of your flight. Given
a normal transport flight ops profile, most would agree takeoffs and departures, as well as descents and arrivals, constitute
critical flight segments. For the novice briefer, verbalizing the elements of these two major events is an excellent beginning.
As you would expect, you will not easily brief something you have not planned. Also one must avoid becoming too
ritualistic or institutionalized with their crew briefing. Conducting appropriate and meaningful briefing enhances individual
as well as crew performance. It is a learned art born of practice in identifying the key elements of every departure and
arrival conveyed with clarity and brevity.
• A Brief Beginning
The takeoff and departure briefing is not as common as the arrival brief, yet it's no less critical. In fact, given the pilot
flying/pilot not flying discipline so widely accepted today, the departure crew briefing goes far to establish or clarify
what's expected of crew members in their respective roles. This is the opportune time for the captain to establish or

Student Guide
promote the atmosphere of enlightened leadership within the confines of the workplace. Even if the captain is the pilot
not flying on a particular leg, the responsibilities of command dictate that he or she include amendments or
modifications to the pilot flying's crew briefing should it be warranted.
A typical takeoff and departure crew briefing should include:
• Weather and related precautions
• Any special modification to the standard takeoff and initial climb profile
• Initial routing via designated SID and/or vector fix
• Initial clearance altitude including the transition altitude
• Com and nav radio configuration to include the assigned transponder code
• Contingencies for critical emergency situations
Weather conditions for your takeoff and departure should be part of every briefing. Special procedural precautions
such as the use of engine or wing anti-ice, modified takeoff computations, or restrictions on the applicability of using a
reduced power takeoff are examples of weather-related modifications best reviewed before getting involved in the
actual activity.
Include in your briefing any special noise abatement takeoff and climb profile to be flown, a high terrain/obstacle
clearance maneuver to execute, or a possible winds hear complication. When briefing the departure climb, either by
reference to a published SID or radar vector clearance, be sure to emphasize your initial clearance altitude. The nav
radio setup should be noted, crossing restrictions discussed, and any special switchology or pilot not flying duties
clarified.
Many different emergencies are possible during any takeoff and climb out. Reviewing the basics of "who will do what"
in the event of a rejected takeoff, or engine failure is commonly briefed. Attempting to address further emergencies
could run your brief too long to be effective.
Once cleared onto the runway for take-off, the pilot flying should re-brief (1) the initial heading and/or route to be
flown, (2) the initial clearance altitude, and (3) confirm the takeoff flap settings and respective takeoff flap settings and
takeoff speeds. Conducting this last chance mini-brief will focus the crew on the details at hand.
Pilot workload increases relative to your distance from touchdown. For this reason, the best time to conduct the
approach briefing is before or soon after, commencing your initial descent. This scheduling may not work in some
situations but the intent is to avoid trying to brief and fly at the same time. Neither is done well. As your briefings
become more polished, you will be better able to accommodate last-minute alterations like a runway change However,
if what you have briefed is rendered totally inappropriate, make the time to do an approach and landing briefing that's
relative to your actual situation.
Mindful of the intent to promote crew coordination and enhance communication with your fellow pilots, the content of
the approach and landing briefing should contain no more than 8 to 10 key elements beyond a common understanding
of the current weather conditions;
• Name and effective date of the instrument approach procedure
• Minimum sector altitudes(s)
• Airport elevation
• Initial approach maneuver and respective minimum altitude(s)
• Final approach course and defining navaid
• Final approach fix minimum altitude

Student Guide
• Applicable approach minimums (DH or MDA)
• MAP for the non-precision approach
• Published missed approach procedure
• Approach lighting and runway information
It is imperative to clarify the name and currency of the instrument approach procedure (IAP) to be used. It is a good
idea to state the airport elevation as an overall awareness factor.
Focus attention on the frequency of the defining navaid as well as the published final approach course. You may want
to brief the pilot not flying on a special sequence for tuning and identifying navaids specific to your radios.
All crew members must know the decision height(DH) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) and the advisory
minimum visibility. For non-precision iaps, step-down fixes and the corresponding minimum descent altitudes and
missed approach point (MAP) should be called out by the pilot not flying. Brief the timing or DME fix for every IAP
as a means of identifying the MAP. Granted, the MAP for the ILS is the DH, but should you lose the glideslope signal
inside the FAF, you have the option to descend to the LOC minimums and a better reference for the location of the
MAP.
In the absence of ATC intervention, your clearance for the published IAP includes a clearance for the published missed
approach procedure. It is good practice to emphasize the initial route and altitude in your briefing. Should nav radio
changes be required, these are best included as pilot not flying duties. And if the missed approach procedure culminates
in a holding pattern, the type of entry is worth mentioning.
Do not be too brief
Do not complete your briefing with just the approach. The airport chart contains an abundance of valuable information.
If you are faced with conducting an approach and making a landing in IMC, or at night, or in particularly low-visibility
situations, briefing the type of approach light system available is critical. Whoever is not monitoring the instruments
will be looking for the lights, so it is appropriate to know what to look for. The lighting codes are deciphered in the
Canada Flight Supplement and the Canada Air Pilot. Also useable runway length and width are worthy parts of every
briefing you make.
• A Brief Example
Departure Brief If you anticipate radar vectors to intercept the final approach course, it is important to brief the
published minimum final approach fix (FAF) altitude. In the absence of radar vectors to final, your briefing must be
expanded to include depicted transitions, procedure turns, arcs or other published routings and the associated minimum
altitudes.
"Let's plan on runway three five for takeoff. We're cleared via the McCoy two and the Colliers Transition. We'll use
our standard takeoff and departure climb profile. With these rain showers and wet runway, I prefer to use full power for
takeoff. We'll maintain the assigned heading and climb to cross the Orlando one one five at or above 2600 and the zero
niner zero at or above 3000. Our initial altitude is 5000 and that's set in the altitude alerter. I've got Orlando tuned and
three three eight in my window. You're tuned to Orlando and please monitor those radials. We should have no problem
meeting the crossing restrictions. Let's stay with the number one comm for ATC and our squawk is set on 3531.
"As far as emergencies go, if something happens prior to V1, I'll stop the aircraft, you call the tower and I’ll get on the
PA after we've stopped. Beyond V1, we go. I'll continue to fly. Let's not do anything in a hurry. I'll call for the
checklists and let's stick with our procedures. If possible, I’ll use the autopilot and get in the loop ASAP. Any time you
have a question about anything we're doing or not doing, please ask. Any questions? Comments?
• Arrival Brief
"Let's plan on the Pueblo two six right ILS and the glideslope is out of service. The effective date on my chart is March
5th. The MSA's are 7700 to the northwest and 7100 to the southeast of Aruba with an airport elevation of forty seven
twenty six. Since we're cleared via Huner and the 10 DME arc, let's keep both nav radios on Pueblo and tune the ADF

Student Guide
to Aruba. Once we're on the arc, I’ll descend to 7000. As we near the Pueblo zero eight niner radial tune and identify
my nav radio on one zero eight point three and I’ll set two fifty seven in my window. Call me passing the zero eight
niner on your CDI and once I’ve turned to intercept the localizer, come on over on your nav radio and we'll switch the
RMI's to ADF. Established on the localizer, I’ll descend to the final approach fix altitude of 6600. Our minimums are
five thousand sixty feet and one and a quarter mile. Let's time the approach for two minutes and forty five seconds and
call me two minutes and five seconds after we pass Aruba.
"The missed approach is a climb to 7000 direct to Mertz. If we go around, tune Mertz on the ADF. Let's keep approach
flaps and I’ll use a hundred and sixty knots max. We'll plan on a teardrop entry to that holding pattern.
"Runway two six right has hirls, reils and VASI on the left side. That's not much in the way of lighting. We'll likely see
the reils first. That runway is over ten thousand feet long and 150 feet wide. Any questions? Suggestions?

Student Guide
Simulator Training
Overview: The training modules presented in the Simulator Training subject area provides the trainee with instruction on
aircraft systems interrelationships with respect to normal, non-normal and emergency procedures. Trainees will be
introduced to, and will exercise in, the elements of Crew Resource Management as part of the integration process,
including, but not limited to such elements as: Situational Awareness and the Error Chain, Synergy and Crew Concept, and
Workload Assessment and Time Management. Trainees will become familiar with the cockpit layout, Checklists,
maneuvers and procedures. Lessons are conducted in a classroom, cockpit procedures mockup, cockpit procedures trainer,
or simulator without motion.
Simulator Module 1
Objective: To review airplane systems by covering the function of all cockpit controls and indicators. To review the
philosophy of Normal checklist use. To practice cockpit management and Normal Checklist use in a simulated flight
sequence.
Flight Sequence (4:00): The following sequence of procedures will be accomplished. Trainees will perform them as
appropriate to their respective crewmember position. Instructor will provide ATIS and ATC clearances.
¾ COCKPIT PREPARATION
¾ BRIEFLY REVIEW SYSTEMS AND SWITCHES
¾ USE OF CHECKLIST
¾ NORMAL ENGINE START
¾ DEPARTURE BRIEFING
¾ NORMAL TAKE OFF
¾ FLAP RETRACTION SCHEDULE
¾ EXPLAIN FLYING PILOT AND NON FLYING PILOT DUTIES
¾ CONFIGURE AIRPLANE FOR LANDING ACCORDING TO BOEING PROCEDURES
¾ NORMAL LANDING
¾ FLIGHT DIRECTOR REVIEW
¾ NORMAL TAKE OFF AND LANDING WITH USE OF FLIGHT DIRECTOR
¾ NORMAL TAKE OFF AND LANDING WITH USE OF FLIGHT DIRECTOR UNDER IFR CONDITIONS
¾ AUTOPILOT INTRODUCTION
¾ NORMAL TAKE OFF
¾ USE OF AUTOPILOT FEATURES (VOR LOC, APP, LVL CHANGE….)
¾ NORMAL APPROACH USING AUTOPILOT
Revision: Original 10/19/2009 Page 86

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Simulator Module 2
Objective: To review the cockpit preparation procedures, and the philosophy of normal checklist usage. Trainees will be
introduced to normal operating procedures, as well as selected non-normal procedures. Trainees will be instructed on
appropriate decision making process, as well as appropriate CRM implementation.
¾ COCKPIT PREPARATION
¾ USE OF CHECKLIST
¾ NORMAL ENGINE START
¾ DEPARTURE BRIEFING
¾ NORMAL TAKE OFF
¾ USE OF LNAV/VNAV MODE
¾ USE OF A/P, A/T, AND F/D
¾ NAVIGATE USING DEPARTURE PROCEDURES AND FOLLOWING FLIGHT PLAN
¾ FMS BASIC USAGE
¾ ATC COMMUNICATIONS
AT SOME POINT DURING THE FLIGHT, A “SIMPLE” EMERGENCY WILL BE PRESENTED (APU FIRE, WHEEL
WELL FIRE, PACK TRIP OFF)
¾ IDENTIFY EMERGENCY
¾ DECLARE EMERGENCY WITH ATC
¾ DIVERT TO NEAREST AIRPORT
¾ USE OF QRH
¾ ACCOMPLISH NON NORMAL CHECKLIST FROM QRH
¾ FMS APPROACH LOADING
¾ T/D DESCENT TECHNIQUE, VNAV TECHNIQUE
¾ APPROACH BRIEFING
¾ COMPLETE APPROACH AND LANDING
NOTE: CREW MUST FULLY SIMULATE COMMUNICATIONS WITH ATC, INCLUDING TUNNING AND
IDENTIFYING NAV FREQUENCIES AND OBTAINING ATIS INFORMATION, BY TUNNING TO THE CORRECT
ATIS FREQUENCIES. INSTRUCTOR WILL SIMULATE ATC AND WILL SIMULATE ATIS INFORMATION FOR
STUDENTS TO COPY.

Student Guide
Simulator Module 3
Objective: To review normal operations. To introduce the trainee with more challenging abnormal operations, such as; the
loss of cabin pressure, single engine operations, hydraulic failures, electrical generator failure, etc. The trainee will conduct
appropriate procedures and checklists. At the instructor’s choice, the simulator session could start with the aircraft at the
takeoff position and engines started.
¾ NORMAL TAKEOFF
¾ AREA DEPARTURE
¾ RAPID DEPRESSURIZATION OR LOSS OF CABIN PRESSURE
¾ EMERGENCY DESCENT
¾ APPROACH (ILS, LOC, OR VISUAL)
¾ NORMAL LANDING
¾ ABNORMAL TAKEOFF
¾ REJECT TAKEOFF/V1 CUT
¾ SINGLE ENGINE INITIAL CLIMB
¾ CORRECT USE OF RUDDER TRIM
¾ ACCOMPLISH ABNORMAL CHECKLIST FROM QRH
¾ AIRMEN DECISION MAKING
¾ APPROPRIATE RETURN OR DEVIATION
¾ ATC COMMUNICATIONS
¾ FMS APPROACH LOADING
¾ APPROACH BRIEFING
¾ LANDING
NOTE: THE INSTRUCTOR SHOULD ANSWER ANY AND ALL STUDENT QUESTIONS REGARDING SYSTEMS OR
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE. ENSURE STUDENTS HAVE A BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF HOW THE AIRPLANE
AND IT’S SYSTEMS WORK. THROUGH THE SESSIONS ASK STUDENTS LOCATION OF SWITCHES. ENFORCE
USE OF CHECKLISTS IN EVERY SESSION.

Student Guide
Simulation Module 4
Objective: In this module, the trainee will review all learned normal and abnormal operations, as the instructor deems
appropriate. Correct use of checklist, CRM, and airmen decision making, should be emphasized. The instructor may choose
a LOFT type scenario for this module.
NOTE: THIS MODULE MAY BE PERFORMED IN A B-767 SIMULATOR. THEREFORE, APPROPRIATE

INTRODUCTION TO THE AIRCRAFT PROCEDURES AND PERFORMANCE SHOULD BE ACCOMPLISHED BY
THE INSTRUCTOR.

Student Guide
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JET TRANSITION COURSE

The Airline Life & Flight Physiology ...................................................................................................................... 1

The Basic Airline Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Turbine Aircraft World ..................................................................................................................................... 13

Basic Aerodynamics ..................................................................................................................................... 20

High Altitude/High Speed Aerodynamics................................................................................................................ 22

The Turbine Engine .......................................................................................................................................... 27

Basic Jet Airplane Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 32

The Automated Flight Deck ..................................................................................................................................... 34

Simulator Training .......................................................................................................................................... 86

Revision: Original 10/19/2009 TOC 1

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Revision: Original 10/19/2009 TOC 2

The Airline Life & Flight Physiology

1. Basic Indoctrination (1 to 2 weeks)

2. Aircraft Specific Ground School (64 Hours)

3. Simulator Training (20-24 Hours)

4. Initial Operational Experience (IOE)

Flight Physiology and Aeromedical Factors (Slides 10-18)

• Vision: night flight, illusions

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There are four types of Hypoxia:

Some of the Symptoms of Hypoxic Hypoxia are:

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Other Aeromedical Factors

Other factors that may affect a pilot’s body are:

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The Basic Airline Structure

Flight Deck Crew

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• Pass a practical flight test, called a type rating ride;

• Systems of the aircraft

• 3 takeoffs and landings in the last 90 days

First Officer Responsibilities

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The Flight Operations Manual (FOM)

• Completion of Training (Ground School, Simulator, IOE);

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• 8 Hours within a 24 hour period

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o Ceiling: 400ft. plus the published HAT; and

o Ceiling: 200ft plus the published HAT

• Ensure proper configuration of aircraft; checklists are a

In addition, Normal checklists:

• Verify aircraft configuration;

• Allow for cross-checking;

Checklists are of two types:

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The Minimum Equipment List (MEL)

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1) Determine that the inoperative item is an MEL authorized inoperative item.

3) Determine that any required alternate equipment is operative.

1) The Pilot in Command.

3) The Director of Maintenance.

Rectification Interval Categories

The Rectification Interval Categories are defined as follows:

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Configuration Deviation List (CDL)

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The Turbine Aircraft World

General Rules and Techniques

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o Class Airspace Speed Limits: Class B, C, D, etc.