Consistency
that have been cleared and further improved
Consistency is the most important single rule in
highway design. That is, by making every
element of the roadway conforms to the
expectation of every driver.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide
them with:
l. Clear information and guidance through a
variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well
as the road standards.
If these guides and directions could be planned
properly to convey one single message at a
time, and if these directions will be followed
smoothly and easily without undue haste, or
changes in speed, then, the roadway facilities
are considered satisfactory. Experienced
highway Engineers recommended that highway
signs and directions should be integrated as
early as the preliminary layout studies.
Definition of Terms
AASTHO is the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. In 1914,
the American Association of State Highway
Officials (ASSHO) was established as an
association of State Territorial and District of
Columbia Highway Department, and the Federal
Highway Administration. The name was
expanded in 1973, when the Departrnent of
Transportation was integrated into the
association renaming AASHO to AASFil, giving
the officials of these agency the power to
govern its operation. Engineering activities,
were implemented by the standing committees
with the task of preparing specifications manual
and standards, representing the current
highway engineering practice.
AASHTO publications includes:
l. Transportation Materials Specifications and
Tests.
2. Specifications for highway bridges
3. Geometric design standards.
4. Numerous policy statements and guides.
AASHTO publications are authoritative"
References are made in these books and
periodic manuals. The association also publishes
the AASHTO quarterly reports on current
Highway and Transportations subject including
trends in forecast and legislation.
Roads and Highways is defined as strips of land
for the movement of people and goods.
Road. Road has somewhat broader application
in usage while generally used to describe a
public thoroughfare. It can also refer to
railways.
Highway. The term was first used in England to
describe a public road built by digging ditches
on both sides and heaping up the earth in the
middle creating a way higher than the adjacent
land. Highway now connotes, a higher state of
development than road. But the words are
almost interchangeable.
Expressway is a divided arterial highway for
through traffic with full or partial control or
access and generally provided with grade
separation at major intersections.
Freeway is an expressway with full control of
access.
Control of Access is a condition where the
rights of owners or occupants of adjoining land
or other person access to light, air or view in
connection with a highway is fully or partially
controlled by public authority.
Full Control of Access - The authority to control
access is exercised to give preference to
through traffic by providing access connections
to selected public roads only. Crossing at grade
or direct private driveway connections is not
permitted.
Partial Control of Access - The authority to
control access is exercised to give preference to
through traffic. Although in addition to access
connections with selected public roads, there
may be some crossings at grade and some
private driveway connections allowed.
Through Street or Through Highway - Every
Highway or portion thereof on which vehicular
traffic is given preferential right of way, and at
the entrance to which vehicular traffic from
intersecting highways is required by law to yield
right of way to vehicles on such through
highway in obedience to either stop sign or
yield signs erected thereon.
Parkway is an arterial highway for non-
commercial traffic, with full or partial control of
access usually located within a park or ribbon
park-like development.
Arterial Street is an arterial route that carries
traffic to the nearest access point or through
traffic. It often serves as the most advantageous
routes for relatively long distance travel. Most
arterial streets are existing highways of
considerable length along which cross traffic is
regulated by signals or stop signs. In addition,
arterials provide access to adjacent property
but often with restrictions on entry and exit
points. Arterial street is considered as a "make
do" substitute for controlled access facilities
when traffic volume exceeds about 20,000
vehicles per day.
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial
Roadways
l. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each
direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than
penetrate them.
There is an obvious relationship between
vehicle speed and highway capacity. As the
volume of traffic approaches capacity, the
average speed is markedly reduced.
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on
a highway as measured by the number of
vehicles passing a partial station during a given
interval of time. It is called “Average Annual
Daily Traffic" if the period is less than one year.
Volume may be stated on hourly "Observed
Traffic Volume" or estimated 30e hour volume
commonly used for design purposes. Some
highway agencies use traffic volume for 5
minutes interval to distinguish short peak
movements of vehicles.
Factors affecting design speed
-width of pavement
-sight distance
-Gradient
-Super elevation
-Volume of traffic

9. On grid design system streets, arterials are

spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart.

10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the

minimum volume to justify arterial road is 300
vehicles per average hour during the day, and
450 vehicles hourly during peak periods.

Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattern

where passengers are pick up from service
streets and carried to the arterials. Large
commercial enterprises or amusement facilities
like drive in theaters are mostly fronting arterial
roads.

Local Road is defined as street or road primarily

for access to residence, business, or other
adjoining properties. It is also defined as a road
constructed and maintained by the local
government.

Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum

number of vehicles that are reasonably
expected to pass a given point over a given
period of time usually expressed as vehicles per
hour.

l. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can

accommodate about 2,000 passenger cars per
hour.

2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000

passenger cars per hour in each direction.
The Design Speed
There is no single set of Geometric Standards
that will apply to all highways. For every
highway segment, decisions regarding
appropriate control for each of the many details
or requirements must be addressed individually
or separately.
AASHTO defined Design Speed as:
"The speed determined for design and
correlation of the physical feature of a highway
that influence vehicles operation. It is the
maximum speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of the highway when weather
and traffic conditions are so favorable that the
design features of the highway govern.”
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness
and super elevation of curves, the sight
distance, and grade. The design speed is
basically higher than the anticipated average
speed.
AASHTO recommend that:
"The design speed be set to the greatest degree
possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all
drivers bath today and throughout the road
anticipated life."
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features
of certain road sections are designed for speed
from 30 to 50 kilometers per hour. And yet,
some motorists drive faster on straight road
alignment or less sharply curved sections.
Under this situations, highway design adopted
control by reducing the super elevation
combined with easement curves, delineators,
stripping signs and rumble strips, to alert
motorists and inform them that they are
approaching sharp curves or blind curves.
Selection of the proper road design speed is one
of the most important decisions to make,
because it sets the limit to curvature, sight
distance, and other geometric figures. But
because of limited funds, there is a strong
temptation to reduce the design speed. Such
kind of decision is unwise, because the
alignment grade and sight distance after the
roadway has been constructed and paved along
the landscape and rights of way, become more
difficult and expensive to adjust or to correct.
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the
highway as Rural or Urban, then as Freeways,
Arterials, Collectors and Local. Rural collectors
and local facilities are classified as flat, rolling,
or mountainous. Although the design speed
presently used is 80 km. per hour, highway
designers projected design speed up ta 120
kilometers per hour to guarantee against future
Cross Section of Typical Highway
The cross section of a typical highway has
latitude of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of
the driver
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20
meters wide surface is required for safe
clearance between commercial vehicles and
is recommended for main highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide
surface is acceptable only for low volume
traffic including few trucks traveling
thereon.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum
surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km /
hr. design speed.
For Urbair Roadway, the minimum design
width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters
is allowed where space is limited.
Road Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that
portion of the roadway between the edge
of the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch,
gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires
that its usable pavement width shall be
strong enough to support vehicles.
Importance of Road Shoulder
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for
vehicles to stop when disabled or for some
other purposes. Road shoulder considerably
reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and
accident opportunity increases if the
shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the
design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the
full length of the roadway. It also adds
structural strength to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight
distance on curves. It reduces accident
potential when vehicle stop during
emergencies.
Most of the road shoulders in rural areas
are unpaved having a width of 60 to 120
centimeters wide either earth filled or
graveled surface that during rainy days,
drivers are hesitant to occupy. The Uniform
Traffic Control Device Manual provides that:
“All inter-town or city highways shall be
provided with edge line and may be used on
other classes of roads."
A continuous narrow white line strip at the
edge of the roadway that separates the
shoulder, serves as guide to drivers during
bad weather and poor visibility conditions.
The white strips tend the driver to stay in
the traffic lane and the vehicles seldom
infringe on the shoulder.
The Cross Slope
The cross slope is provided in all tangent
sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls
in both directions from the center-line of
the two lane highway except where super
elevation of curves directs all water towards
the inside. Curves directs all water towards
the inside. For high type pavement the
crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However,
steeper slopes are strongly recommended
because rain water, flow away more rapidly
reducing the water thickness on the road
pavement. A cross slope in one direction of
multi-lane highways makes driving
comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the
water depth increases on the roadway.
These types of cross sections allow the
inner lane to accommodate high speed
traffic because it is flatter than the outer
lanes. On a very wide street, the parabolic
crown surface makes the centerline almost
flat unless gutters are sufficiently deep
enough to convey water. A combination of
uniform slope with parabolic curve is used
instead of the parabolic sections.
Cut or Fill Slope
Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope
of 1: 2 ratios. Meaning, the first number
represents the horizontal distance while the
second number is the vertical distance.
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope
- With back slope of 3:1 or even flatter,
cars could be directed to back into the
road and will come to stop or continue
down the slope with no risk of
overturning.
- Flat fill slopes are visible from the
vehicles at full extent giving the
roadway safer appearance.
- With visible slope for being low and fla!
Vehicles could be positioned or parked
closer to the edge, and on two lane
roadway facilities parking would be
farther from the opposing traffic.
Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the
highway is determined from the estimated
traffic volume for the design year (AADT)
and highway lane capacity at expected level
of service. AASHTO policies accept a dually
divided 16 lanes roadway with four lanes in
each direction for an inner freeway and four
more lanes in each direction on the outside.
There are some instances where a
reversible lane is located at the center of
freeways with unbalanced heavy traffic
flow.
Highway Median
Recently, median in various forms, becomes
absolute requirement for highways
because, it offers the following
advantages:
- It is an effective means of reducing
headlight glares, conflicts, and accident
between opposing streams of traffic.
- The Median offers refuge between
opposing traffic stream of cross traffic,
and pedestrian could traverse each
stream at separate maneuvers.
- Median provides available space for left
tum lanes.
- It makes turning of vehicles smooth and
safe operation.
- Where space and cost permit, wide
median is highly recommended. For
rural sections of freeway, the 18 to 27
meters wide median is being adopted.
- The Policy on Geometric Design states
that, 3.00 to 9.00 meters median width
is appropriate in suburban or
mountainous situations.
- For rural and urban arterials, 18.00
meters median or wider is preferred
because it allows the use of
independent profiles and at the same
time minimizes cross over accident.
- Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow
drivers to cross each roadway
separately. A 4.20 to 6.60 meters
median width provides protection for
turning vehicles'
- Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80
meters width serves as partition
 separation of opposite traffic control
devices.
- The width of a traversable median
should be wide enough to prevent
vehicles running out of control from
reaching the opposite traffic.
- The 15 to 24 meters distance between
landed edges is favored, but specific
value is not-stipulated.
- Cross slope of the median should not be
greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1.
- Dense planting of rose hedges serves as
Right of Way
safety crash barriers.
For Narrow Median, there are four means
of reducing cross median accidents:
- Provide deterring devices.
- Provide non-traversable energy
absorbing barriers.
- Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
- Provide G.M. barriers.
Deterring Devices - Two sets of double strip
painted on the existing pavement, raised
diagonal bars, low curbing and shallow
ditches.
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices
- The line chain link fence I meter high
Stopping Sight Distance
supported by steel post augmented by
cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non-
traversable rigid barriers are metal guard
rail.
G.M. Barriers - A high non-mountain sloped
face concrete barriers called New Jersey. It
is cast or extruded in place or precast in
section and set in position by crane.
The Grade Line
- Grade line is defined as the longitudinal
profile of the highway as a measure
how the centerline of the highway rises
and fall.
- The grade line appears on a profile
taken along the road centerline. It is a
series of straight lines connected by
parabolic vertical curves to which
straight grades are tangent.
- Varies with the design speed in meters
distance equals to 8 times the velocity
in kilometers per hour. “The vertical
distance from the intersection of the
straight grade line to the curve is equal
to one eight of the product of the
algebraic difference in grades and the
length of the curve in stations. This is
called the maximum correction. The
rate at which the curve departs
vertically from both tangent grade line
- Acquisition of land for the right of way
is very costly. Based on experience from
the past, highway agency now consider
it a good practice to acquire right of
way wide enough to sufficiently provide
for the ultimate expected development.
- A successful freeway and expressway
operations, closes the roadway from
direct access to adjoining property and
some local roads or streets. If local
traffic and land use are to be opened, it
must be served by service roads
originally planned as part of the main
freeway.
- The stopping sight distance is defined
as the longest distance that a driver
could see the top of an object 15
centimeters (6") above the road surface
where the design height of the driver's
eye above the pavement is 105
centimeters.
- Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two
Elements
o The distance traveled after the
obstruction or object is seen
and before the driver applies
the brakes.
o The second distance is
consumed while the driver
applies brakes for the vehicle to
stop.

Vertical Curve over Crest

- All vertical curves should not be shorter

than the established minimum over
crests. This is governed by the sight
distance requirements but sometimes a
case of riding, may demand longer
curves than the sight distance.
- AASHTO suggested that the minimum
curve length
 o The distance covered could be it will only create hazard and invite
expressed by the following accident.
formula:
Circular Curves
 D = tm/s
 Breaking distance: - A vehicle traveling in curved road is
 subject to centrifugal force. This force
 A is balanced by equal and opposite
forces developed through the super
elevation and side frictions. However,
 Where : neither the side friction on the super
elevation, could overcome nor exceed
 m/s = Initial the maximum control and limit on the
speed, in meter sharpness of the curves with a
per second prescribed design speed. The sharpness
 t = Detection, of a curve is dependent on its radius.
recognition, Sharpness is expressed in terms of the
decision and curve degrees, and the degrees of curve
response is inversely proportional with the
initiation (brake radius.
reaction time ) - The degree of curve is expressed either
 gm = by the Arc definitions or the Chord
Acceleration of definitions.
gravity, 9.80 - Arc Definitions - The degree of curve is
meters per the central angle subtended by a 30
second squared meters arc of the curve.
 f = Coefficient - Chord Definitions - The degree of curve
of friction is the central angle subtended by 50
between the meters chord.
tire and Super Elevation – Runoff
pavement.
- The above formula assumes that the - Curved sections of roadways are usually
highway level is flat. super elevated. Provisions for gradual
- If the car is traveling uphill, the braking changes from one point to the other
distance is decreased, and for downhill, should be considered. The centerline of
braking distance is increased. The each individual road-way at profile
braking distance on slope is expressed grade is maintained while raising the
by the following formula: outer edge and lowering the inner edge
- to attain the desired super elevation. It
is done by raising-up the outside edge
of the pavement with relation to the
centerline until the outer half of the
cross section is flat. Then, the outer
edge is raised until the cross section is
straight. Finally, the entire cross section
is rotated as a whole until full super
The Passing Sight Distance elevation is reached.

- The passing sight distance is the Widening of Curves

longest distance that a driver can see
- A provision for a wider roadway is
the top of an oncoming vehicle where
necessary on sharp curve for two lanes
the driver's eye level is 1.05 meters
pavement under the following reasons:
above the pavement surface.
o l. To force the drivers to shy
Road Alignment away from the pavemnent
edge.
- Road alignment should be consistent.
o 2. To increase the effective
An abrupt change from flat to sharp
transverse vehicle width for
curve and long tangents followed by
non-tracking of front and rear
sharp curve should be avoided because
wheels.
 o 3. To give additional width due
to the slanted position of the
front wheel to the roadway
center line.
o 4. For a 7.20 meters wide
roadway, an additional width of
30 centimeters is necessary on
an open curve highway.
Types of Interchange
- Reverse circular curves are seldom
used on modern highways, but reverse
curves that are provided with proper
length easements between them are
acceptable. If no easement curve is
allotted, curves on opposite directions
should be separated by tangent several
meters long.
Island
- An island is a defined area between
traffic lanes for control of vehicle
movement and for pedestrian refuge.
Within an intersection, median is
considered an island. This definition
makes evident that an island is no single
physical type.
- Island is included in the design of
intersections for the following
purposes:
o Separation of vehicular flows.
o Separation of conflicts.
o Reduction in excessive
pavement areas.
o Reduction of traffic and
indications of proper use of
intersections
o Arrangement to favor a
prominent turning movement
Highway Intersection at Grade
o Location of traffic control
devices
- By channelization, the angle or route
between intersecting streams of traffic
can be smooth and favorable. Drivers
are commanded to merge into moving
traffic streams at flat angle and right
Freeway Entrance and Exit
speed being controlled over vehicles
approaching an intersection.
- A well-studied super elevation is an
important adjunct to channelization
that regulates the vehicle speed and:
o Prohibited turns are prevented.
o Refuge may be provided for
turning or crossing vehicles and
pedestrian
o By channelization, refuge may
be provided for turning or
crossing vehicles and
pedestrians.
o The drivers has to face only one
decision at a time, hence,
conflicts can be avoided.
o It provides location for the
traffic control devices like signs,
signals and refuge for
pedestrians.
- The types and form of freeway
interchange requires selection of the
conformation that is best suited to a
particular situation and demand. The
functions of freeway interchanges are:
o To provide separation between
two or more traffic arteries.
o To facilitate the easy transfer of
vehicles from one entry to the
other or between local roadway
and the freeway.
- Diamond type - The simplest and low
cost form of interchange . It is
recommended where the freeway
crosses non freeway arterial.
- The cloverleaf type interchange - is
recommended for freeway and arterial
intersections. Intersecting arteries are
separated and free of intersections.
- Alternative cloverleaf design with
collector distributor road - is
recommended for one or two through
street if the cost of added land paving
and structures can be justified. Weaving
and merging movements are separated.
It also provide an opportunity to speed
adjustment clear of the freeway.
- All highways except freeways have
intersections at grade intersection area
is considered part of every connecting
roads. In this area all crossing and
turning movement occur
- The overall effectiveness of the
individual freeway systems is governed
by the flow characteristics of vehicles,
and the driver's behavior near on and
off the channel.
- A single lane on ramp vehicle flows into
the outer continuing freeway lane. The
design is either a taper blending into
the through lane or an auxiliary lane
parallel to the through lane. In either
case, sufficient length is required to
allow the vehicles to accelerate and
merge into the ongoing vehicle stream
at a speed near that of the freeway.
Railroad - Highway Separation

- The main question asked on a railroad

and highway separation is: “Where one
is to go over- the railroad or the
highway?” If the highway is to go over
the railroad, the structure itself is
lighter and the highway load is much
smaller than the railroad loads. With
regards to the vertical clearance height,
the railroad requires a minimum of 7.00
meters as against 4.80 meters clear
distance above the highway. If the
highway goes under the railroad,
special provision is required for the
removal of rainwater that falls within
the opposing area. If the ground water
is high in the vicinity of the crossing, the
roadway must be sealed against
leakage and be made heavy enough to
prevent from floating.

Bicycle Lane

- Bicycle use is now becoming popular

due to energy crises and traffic
problems. It requires separate road for
the riders that is entirely separate from
the vehicular traffic. The design speed is
20 to 30 kilometers per hour for flat
section. The width is 2.00 meters
minimum for a 2-way travel. The grade
of the lane is 5% maximum on short
distances.