Chapter II
DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY
CONSISTENCY
Is the most important single rule in highway design.
That is, by making every element of the roadway
conforms to the expectation of every driver.
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials) was established as an
association of State Territorial and District of
Colombia Highway Department, and the Federal
Highway Administration. The name was expanded in
1973, when the Department of Transportation was
integrated into the association renaming from AASHO
to AASHTO.
AASHTO publications includes:
1. Transportation Materials Specifications and
Tests.
2. Specifications for Highway bridges.
3. Geometric design standards.
4. Numerous policy statements and guides.
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS – is defined as strips of land
that have been cleared and further improved for the
movement of people and goods.
ROADS – has somewhat broader application in usage
while generally used to describe a public through
fare. It can also refer to railways.
HIGHWAYS – was first used in England, to describe a
public road built by digging ditches on both sides and
heaping up the earth in the middle creating a way
higher than the adjacent land.
CONTROL OF ACCESS – is a condition where the
rights of the owners or occupants of adjoining land or
other persons access to light, air or view in
connection with a highway is fully or partially
controlled by public authority.
FULL CONTROLL OF ACCESS – authority to control
access is exercised to give preference to through
traffic by providing access connections to selected
public roads only.
PARTIAL CONTROL OF ACCESS - is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree that may
permit access connections with selected public roads
or with some crossings at grade or private driveways.
EXPRESSWAY – is a divided arterial highway for
through traffic with full or partial control access.
FREEWAY – is an expressway with full control of
access.
PARKWAY – is an arterial highway for non-
commercial traffic, with full or partial control of
access usually located within a park or ribbon park-
like development.
ARTERIAL STREET – is an arterial route that carries
traffic to the nearest access point or through traffic. It
often serves as the most advantageous routes for
relatively long distance travel.
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways:
1. Selection of routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each
direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than
penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are
spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart.
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the
minimum volume to justify arterial road is
300 vehicles hourly during peak periods.
To increase the arterial capacity, the ff. solutions are
enforced:
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on
one or both sides of the street.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away
from each side of the road intersections or
corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals any time
with care.
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested
intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the
center lane to provide more lanes in the
direction of heavier traffic flow.
COLLECTOR STREET – form smaller mesh grid pattern
where passengers are pick up from service streets
and carried to the arterials.
LOCAL ROAD – is defined as street or road primarily
for access to residence, business, or other adjoining
properties.
HIGHWAY CAPACITY – is defined as the maximum
number of vehicles that are reasonably expected to
pass a given point over a given period of time usually
expressed as vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can
accommodate about 2,000 passengers cars
per hour
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000
passenger cars per hour in each directions.
The design speed
There is no single set of Geometric Standards
that will apply to all highways. For every highway
segment, decisions regarding appropriate control for
each of the many details or requirements must be
addressed individually or separately.
Cross section of typical highways
Elements of Roads and Highways:
1. The volume of traffic.
 2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the
driver.
Highway design usually adopted cross section that is
uniform in thickness from end to end of the
improvement. A cross section design generally offers
the expected level of service for safety and a recent
study showed that:
1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less
accident compared with pavement narrower
than 5.50 m. wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer
accidents than the 6.00 meters wide roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference
between the 6.00 meters and the 7.20 meters
wide pavement.
gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires that its
usable pavement width shall be strong enough to
support vehicles.
IMPORTANCE OF ROAD SHOULDER:
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles
to stop when disabled or for some other
purposes. Road shoulder considerably
reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident
opportunity increases if the shoulder is too
narrow or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full
length of the roadway. It also adds structural
strength to the road.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight
distance on curves. It reduces accident
potential when vehicle stop during
emergencies.

It appears that, the above difference in accident The cross slope

potentials may not justify higher standard, Cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the
particularly, when traffic volume is low. Originally, the roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from
total surface width of the roadway was only 4.50 the center line of the two-lane highway except where
meters, but due to the increased number of vehicles super elevation of curves directs all water towards
using the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80 to the inside.
5.40 meters.
1. For First Class Paved One Lane Highway, the
width of the road was standardized to 3.00 m.
and now 3.60 meters wide surface was
adopted standard for freeways and other
major traffic roadways, although there are
strong demand to increase it further from
3.60 to 4.20 meters.
2. For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters
wide surface is required for safe clearance
between commercial vehicles
3. and is recommended for main highways.
4. For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide
surface is acceptable only for low volume
traffic including few trucks travelling thereon.
5. For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum
surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km / hr.
design speed.
6. For Urban Roadway, the minimum design
width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is
allowed where space is limited. CUT OR FILL SLOPE
Rock cuts could be as steep as 1:2 and sometimes 1:4
proven to be stable.

Cut and fill

- A method of road
construction in which
a road is built by
cutting into the
hillside and spreading
the spoil materials in
Road shoulder
Is defined as that portion of the roadway between
the edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch,
adjacent low and as compacted or side-cast fill slope
material along the route.
• Rock cuts could be as steep as 1:2 and
sometimes 1:4 proven to be stable.
• Slopes had been generally lowered for safer
operations and to facilitate plant growth.
• Plants reduce erosion and decrease
maintenance cost.
• Slope of the cuts through an ordinary
undisturbed earth fill remain in the place with
a ratio of 1:1 slope.
ADVANTAGES OF FLAT SIDE OR BACK SLOPE
• With back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars
could be directed to back into the road and
will come to stop or continue down the slope
with no risk of over turning.
• Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at
full extent giving the roadway safer
appearance.
• With visible slope for being low and flat
vehicles could be positioned or parked closer
to the edge, and on two lane roadway
facilities parking would be farther from the
opposing traffic.
Recommend policy on geometric design
1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on
embankment less than 1.20 meters high, and
4.1 ratio on higher fill.
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heigher than
6.00m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio
except solid rock oe specialkind of soil.
The AASHTON policy stipulated that where cut or fill
slope intersect the original ground surface, cross
section must be rounded to blend the slope with the
natural ground surface.
1. Hand placed stones
2. Cement rubbles masonry
3. Concrete blocks
4. Conventional reinforced concrete
5. T or counter forted designs
6. Cribs assembled from timber
7. Precast concrete
8. Metal elements
9. Tied back piling
10. Earth reinforcement with metal or plastic
bands
NUMBER OF LANES
 The number of lanes in segment of the of the
highway is determined from the estimated
traffic volume for the design year (AADT) and
highways lane capacity at expected level of
service.
 AASHTON policies accept a dually divided 16
lanes roadway with four lanes in each
direction for an inner freeway and four more
lanes in aech direction on the outside.There
are some instance where a reversible lane is
locatedat the center of freeways with
unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
HIGHWAY MEDIAN
The median strip, central reservation, roadway
median, or traffic median is the reserved area that
separates opposing lanes of traffic on divided
roadways such as divided highways
HIGHWAY MEDIAN
1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight
glares, conflicts, and accident between
opposing stream of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing
traffic stream of cross traffic, and pedestrian
could traverse each stream at separate
maneuvers.
3. Median provides availables space for left
lanes.
4. It makes turning or vehicles smooth and safe
operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is
highly recommended. For rural sections of
freeway, the 18 to 27 meters wide median is
being adopted.
6. The policy on Geometric Design state that;
3.00 to 9.00 meters media width is
appropriate in each suburban or
mountainous situations.
7. For rural and urban materials, 18.00 meters
median or wider is preferred because it
allows the use of independent profiles and at
the same time minimizes cross over accident.
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow
drivers to cross each roadway separately. A
4.20 to 6.60 meter median width provides
protection for turning vehicles.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters
width serves as partition-separation of
opposite trffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be
wide enough to prevent vehicles running out
of control from reaching the opposite traffic.
11. The 15 to 24 meters distace between landed
edges is favored, but specific value is not-
stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be
greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1.
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as
safety crash barries.
For Narrow Median,there are four means of
reducing cross median accidens:
• Provide deterring devices.
• Provide non-travesable energy absorbing
barriers.
• Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
• Provide G.M. barriers
Deterring Device - Two sets of double strip painted
on the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low
curbing and shallow ditches.
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices. The line
chain link fence 1 meter high supported by steel post
augmented by cables at the bottom and mudpoint.
Non-traversable rigid barriers are metal guard rail.
G.M. Barriers. A high non-mountain sloped face
concrete barries called New Jersey. It is cast or
extruded in place or precast in section and set in
position by crane.
THE GRADE LINE
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the
highway as a measure how centerline of the highway
rises and fall.
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently
meeting sight distances in relation to grade line,
economy is one main consideration.
2. In mountainous area, the grade line must be
considered balanced overall cost.
3. in flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to
the ground surface but sufficiently above the ground
for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with
suffcient covering.
5.Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is
governed by the expected level of water flood.
VERTICAL CURVE OVER CREST
All vertical curves should not be shorted than the
established minimum over crests. This is governed by
the sight distance requirements but sometimes a case
of riding, may demand longer curve than the sight
distance.
RIGHT OF WAY
A successful freeway and expressway operations,
closes the roadway from direct access to adjoining
property and land some local roads or streets. If local
trafficand land use are to be opened, it must be
served by service roads originally planned as part of
th min freeway. Frontage road shall be permitted to
enter connecting cross streets only at a distance of at
least 100 meters for rural and 50 meter for urban
conditions.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
Is defined as the longest distance that a driver could
see the top of an object
15 centimeters above the
road surface where the
design height of the
driver’s eye above the
pavement is 105 centimeters.
It is also defined as a viewable distanc required for a
driver to see so that he or she can make a complete
stop in the event of an unforesen hazard.
two elements:
1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or
object is seen and before the driver applies the
brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver
applies the brakes for the vehicle to stop.
d=tm/s
Breaking Distance: d=(m/s)^2/2gmf
d=(m/s)^2/19.6(f)
where: m/s=Initial speed, in meter per socond
t=Detection, recognition, decision and
response initiation
gm=Acceleration of gravity,9.80 meter per
second
f=Coefficient of friction between the tire and
pavement
If the car is travelling uphill, the braking distance is
decreased, and for downhill, braking distance is
increased. The braking distance on slope is expressed
by the following formula:
Breaking Distance(m)d=(m/s)^2/19.8(f+g)
where: g=Longitudinal slope of the roadway or %
Grade/100
Uphill grade is positive (+)
Downhill grade is negative (-)
Passing sight distance
The passing sight distance is the longest distance that
a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle
where the driver’s eye level is 1.05 meters above the
pavement surface. The relationship between the
passing sight distance, the algebraic difference in
grades, and the length of vertical curve is represented
by the following equations.
L=2S - 943/A ; where S is greater than L
L=AS2/943 ; where S is less than L
L is length in meters
L=legth required of vertical curve
S=specified sight distance
A=algebraic difference in grades expressed in
percent
F=(m/s)^2-Se/9.8(Rm)
where: (m/s)=Meter per second
Rm= Radius in meter
Se=Super Elevation(slope ratio)rise per
second
ROAD ALLIGNMENT
Road allignment should be consistent. An abrupt
change from flat to sharp and long tangents followed
by sharp curve should be avoided because it will only
create hazard and invite accident. Similarly, designing
circular curves of different radius from end to end or
compounded curve is not a good practice, unless
suitable transitions between them are provided.
Allignment should be provided with tangent because
they are drivers who hesitate to pass on curves. A
short curve appears like kinks. A long flat curve is
preffered for small changes in direction.
Circular curve
A vehicle
travelling in
curved road
is subject to
centrifugal
force. This
force is
balance by equal and opposite forces developed
through the super elevation and side frictions. The
sharpness of the curved is dependent on its radius.
Sharpness is expressed in terms of the curve degrees,
and the degrees of curve is inversely proportional
with the radius .
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width
for non-tracking of front and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position
of the front wheel to the roadway centerline.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional
width of 30 cm is necessary on an open curve
highway.
ISLAND
An island is a defined area between traffic
lanes for control of vehicle movement and for
pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection, median is
considered an island.
It may range from an area delineated by
barrier curb to a pavement area marked by paint. On
at-grade intersection in which traffic is directed into
definite paths by island is termed as Channelized
intersection.
PEDESTRIAN REFUGE

Formula: D=5.729.58/Radius
HIGHWAY MEDIAN
where D=Degree of curve and the radius
The median strip, central
Degree of curve SI=0.328D
reservation, roadway
The degree of curve is expressed either by the Arc
median, or traffic median is
definitions or the Chord definitions:
the reserved area that
separates opposing lanes of
Arc Definitions- The degree of curve is the central
traffic on divided roadways
angle subtended by a 30 meters arc of the curve.
such as divided highways
Chord Definitions- The degree of curve is the central
Island is included in the
angle subtended by 50 meters chord.
design of intersection for
the following purposes:
Radius=50/(sine1/2)D
1. separation of vehicular flow.
super elevation- runoff
2. separation of conflicts.
• Curve sections of roadways are usually super
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas.
elevated. Provisions for gradual changes from
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper
one point to the other should be considered.
use of intersections.
The centerline of each individual roadway at
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning
profile grade is maintained while raising the
movements.
outer edge and lowering the inner edge to
6. Location of traffic control devices.
attain the desired super elevation. It is done
by raising-up the outside edge of the
ROAD CHANNELING
pavement with relation to the centerline until
The purpose of road channeling are:
the outer half of the cross section is flat.
1. To confine vehicles in definite route. Without
Then, the outer edge s raised until the cross
proper route for vehicles and pedestrians,
section is straight. Finally, the entire cross
everyone’s action could not be predicted by
section is rotated as a whole until full super
the others and these are usually the main
elevation is reached.
cause of confusion whih lead to accidents.
2. By channelization, the angle or route between
widening of curves
intersecting streams of traffic can be smooth
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp
and favorable.
curve for two lanes pavement under the following
reasons:
• By channelization, drivers are commanded to
merge into moving traffic streams at flat
1. To force the drivers to shy away from the
angle and right speed.
pavement edge.
 PARTIAL CLOVERLEAF
INTERCHANGE

• By channelization, speed of vehicle are T OR TRUMPET

controlled over vehicles approaching an INTERCHANGE
intersection. Funneling is also effective in
preventing overtaking and passing in conflict
area.

• Prohibited turns are prevented.

• Refuge may be provided for turning or Y TYPE INTERCHANGE
crossing vehicles and pedestrians.
• The drivers has to face only one decision at a
time, hence, conflicts can be avoided.
• It provides location for the traffic control
devices like signs, signals and refuge for
pedestrians.

Types of interchange
The types and form of interchange require
the selection of the conformation that is best suited
to a particular situation and demand. The functions of
freeway interchange are: highway intersection at grade
1. To provide separation between two or more All highways except freeways have
traffic arteries. intersection at grade. Intersection area is considered
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from part of every connecting roads. In this area all
one entry to the other or between local crossing and turning movement occur.
roadway and the freeway. 1. For right angle intersections with little traffic,
the use of street
sigh is more than
Diamond interchange sufficient.
-The most simplest and low cost form of interchange. 2. For Y intersection
It is recommended to where the freeway crosses a or other related
non-freeway arterial. conformation
where vehicles
meet at
unfavorable
cloverleaf interchange angles may
The most common require channelization.
interchange in freeway 3. The flared design will involve the following:
and arterial intersection. • Widening the entering traffic lane to allow
The intersecting arteries deceleration of the car and clear of through
are separated and free of traffic.
intersections. • Widening the leaving lanes to provide
acceleration and merging from the traffic
lane.
objections to the cloverleaf interchange design: 4. Interactions must accommodate large trucks,
1. It requires large area of land. and the radius of all curves must be sufficient
2. At higher design speed, more time is enough to accommodate them.
consumed just to traverse the longer loop.
3. Vehicles making left turns execute 270° right
turn and travel greater distance becoming
very unpleasant and hazardous due to the
sharp curves and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one
quadrant weave those entering the adjacent
loop from the through roadway.

freeway entrace and exit
The overall effectiveness of
the individual freeway
system is governed by the
flow characteristic of vehicles, and the driver’s
behavior near on and off the channel ramps.
Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to
energy crises and traffic problems. It requires
separate road for the riders that is entirely separate
from the vehicular traffic. The design speed is 20 to
30 kph for flat section. The width is 2.00 meters
minimum for a 2-way travel. The grade of the lane is
5% maximum on short distances.

A single lane on ramp vehicle flows into the

outer continuing freeway lane. The design is either a
taper blending into the through lane or an auxillary
lane parallel to the through lane.
In either case, sufficient length is required to
allow the vehicles to accelerate and merge into the
ongoing vehicle stream at a speed near that of the
freeway.
Vehicles leaving the freeway need distance to
accelerate and clear of the flow of ongoing traffic. In
situation where one lane could not meet the traffic
demand, two lane exists is necessary.

railroad highway separation

The main question involved in a railroad and
highway separation is: Which one is to go over, the
railroad or the highway?

1. If the highway is to go over the railroad, the

structure itself is lighter and the highway load
is much smaller than the railroad loads.
2. With regards to the vertical clearance height,
the railroad requires a minimum of 7.00
meters as against 4.80 meters clear distance
above the highway.
3. If the highway goes under the railroad, special
provision is required for the removal of
rainwater that falls within the opposing area.
If the groundwater is high in vicinity of the
crossing, the roadway must be sealed against
leakage and be made heavy enough to
prevent from floating.

bicycle lane