LECTURE 3

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

LECTURER: MISS EDNA
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
In this section we will look at the various cross elements of the road and the different standards
outlined in the manual for various elements
OVERVIEW
This lecture is a follow up from lecture 2 where the design controls and criteria were introduced:
We were able to understand why topography, the environment, safety, road function, design
speed, design vehicle and economics matter in the design of a road.
By the end of the lecture the student should be able to answer the following questions:

1. What is camber?
2. What is pavement widening
3. List and explain all the major cross section elements.

CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

The cross section elements in highway design pertain to the features which deal with its width. They are
aspects such as

1. Right of way width

2. Roadway width
3. Pavement width
4. Central Reservations/median
5. Shoulder
6. Camber
7. Side Slopes
8. Horizontal and vertical clearances
A SAMPLE CROSS SECTION OF AN URBAN ROAD

The choice of the cross-section elements depends on a number of factors, the most important of which
are:
 The traffic volumes which the road will have to accommodate.
 The selected design speed.
 The road function, i.e. the predominant type of traffic that the road serves, for example, "long-
distance" versus "access", or "heavy goods" versus "passenger cars".

Right of Way

The road land width/right of way width is the width of land secured and preserved to the public for road
purposes. It should be adequate to accommodate all the elements that make up the cross section of the
highway and may reasonably provide for future development.

In order to prevent ribbon development along highways it is sometimes necessary to establish building
lines and control lines.

Building line is a line prescribing the nearest limits of future buildings in relation to the road
Control line is a line which represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in
relation to a road. This signifies that though building activity is not totally banned between the building
line and control line, the nature of buildings permitted is controlled.

Carriageway width
A carriageway means the portion of the road generally available for traffic by motor vehicles. A
carriageway generally consists of a number of traffic lanes.
A single carriageway is a road with one, two or more lanes arranged within a one carriageway
with no central reservation to separate opposing flows of traffic.

Two lane single carriageway Three lane single carriageway

A dual carriageway or divided highway is a class of highway with carriageways for traffic travelling
in opposite directions separated by a central reservation or median. Between the traffic going
up the road and traffic going down the road there will be a central reservation.

This means that there is a physical barrier, such as a grass verge, separating the traffic going in
each direction. There may be a metal safety barrier in the central reservation. Roads with two or
more carriageways which are designed to higher standards with controlled access are generally
classed as motorways, freeways, etc., rather than dual carriageways.
Therefore, the difference between a single carriageway road and a dual carriageway road is not
the number of lanes, it is whether the road has a central reservation or not.

Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety
The width of a traffic lane governs the convenience of traffic and has an effect on the capacity of
the road.
Factors which influence the width of a carriageway are:
1. The design volume
2. Vehicle dimensions
3. The design speeds
4. The road classification
Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least 3.5 m,
although narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on both rural
and urban roads.
However, research has established that the accident rates for vehicles running off the road, and
for head-on and sideswipe accidents between vehicles travelling in opposite directions, decrease
with increasing lane width up to 3.65 m on two lane two-way rural roads
Central reservation
Dual carriageways are normally divided by a central reservation or median strip. Central
reservations have a number of uses, including:
a) Separating high-speed opposing traffic, thereby lessening the chances of head-on
collisions; providing opportunities for vehicles to recover when they inadvertently
leave the carriageway;
b) Providing a safe waiting place for pedestrians crossing a high-speed dual carriageway;
c) Controlling right turning vehicles wishing to enter/leave premises with access to the
highway; and providing space for road furniture such as road signs and street lighting.
d) Gaps provided in central reservations can also be used to safely store vehicles from
minor roads or driveways while they wait to turn fight (in Britain).
e) Deceleration and storage lanes are easily and safely provided in central reservations
for right-turning vehicles wishing to leave the high-speed through lanes.
f) Wide dish-shaped (shallow) central reservations also simplify solutions to drainage
and snow clearance problems.

Shoulders
A shoulder is that surfaced clear portion of the roadway cross-section immediately adjacent to
the carriageway edge.

Shoulders serve a number of purposes- for example, they provide:

a) A refuge for vehicles forced to make emergency stops;
b) A recovery space for vehicles that inadvertently leave the carriageway, or deliberately do
so during emergency evasive maneuvers;
c) Temporary extra traffic lanes during road maintenance or carriageway reconstruction;
d) Assistance in achieving desired horizontal sight distances;
e) Structural support to the road pavement (usually by extending all or part of the road base
through the shoulder width).
KERBS
A kerb is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or shoulder forming part of
a gutter. Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or
footpaths.
Kerbs have various functions:
1. To facilitate and control drainage
2. To strengthen and protect the pavement edge
3. To delineate the pavement edge
4. To present a more finished appearance
5. To assist in orderly development of the roadside
The use of kerbed edges is probably more common in built-up areas/urban areas. Kerbs (which
are typically about 100 mm high) assist road drainage as well as protecting adjacent areas from
intrusion by vehicles.
Different types of kerbs are

Low or mountable kerbs: This type of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to
remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which
allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes
and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their
height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking
vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They
are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a
height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges
between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to
the pavement.

Camber
Camber is the cross slope provided to raise the middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain rain water from road surface and avoid ponding in surface deformations on
the carriageway.

Drainage and quick disposal of water from the pavement surface by providing camber is important
because of

1.To prevent the entry of surface water into the pavement layers and the subgrade soil through
pavement. The stability, surface condition and life of pavement are affected by water entering the
subgrade.
2.To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers as water strips bitumen off
aggregates and pavement deteriorates.

3.To remove water from the pavement quickly to avoid reducing the skid resistance of the pavement.
The water on the pavement renders the surface slippery at high running speeds.

At horizontal curves with superelevation the surface drainage is provided by raising the outer edge of
the pavement with respect to inner edge while providing the desired superelevation.

The required camber of a pavement depends on

1. Type of pavement surface

2. The amount of rainfall

A flat camber is sufficient on relatively impervious pavement surface like cement concrete or bituminous
surface. In pervious surfaces like gravel or earth roads which may allow surface water to get into
subgrade soil, steeper camber is required. Steep camber is provided in areas of heavy rainfall to enable
the surface water to drain off rapidly.

Too steep cross slope is not desirable.

SIDE SLOPE

The slope of embankment and cut sections depend upon the type of soil and the height of embankment
or depth of cuttings. A flatter slope is conducive for soil erosion control but is costly. Flat slopes of
embankments promote safety of traffic.
COMPLEMENTARY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

EXCERPT FROM ROAD MANUAL PART 1(Refer)

Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because it
is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m
width in the case of parallel parking.

Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that they do
not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75 meters
away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-
bay.

Cycle track
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high Minimum width
of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional track.
Service roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like freeways and
expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a separator and
access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid
congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

Footpath
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided
for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high.
Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be
either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the
footpath.

Lay byes

Lay byes are provided near public conveniences with guide maps to enable drivers to stop clear of the
carriageway. Lay byes should normally be of 3m width and 15m length.