QHDM 2021 Binded

Manual
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL Contents
Manual Contents
Volume 1
Part 1: Introduction to QHDM and Guidance
Part 2: Planning
Part 3: Roadway Design Elements
Part 4: Intersections and Roundabouts
Part 5: Roadway Design Criteria
Part 6: Design for Priority Intersections
Part 7: Design for Roundabouts
Part 8: Design for Signalized Intersections
Part 9: Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors
Volume 2
Part 10: Drainage
Part 11: Utilities
Part 12: Pavement Design
Part 13: Structures Interfaces
Part 14: Earthworks
Part 15: Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide
Part 16: Geotechnical Risk Management
Volume 3
Part 17: Intelligent Transportation Systems
Part 18: Street Lighting
Part 19: Pedestrian and Bicycle
Part 20: Context Sensitive Design and Solutions
Part 21: Environmental
Part 22: Landscape and Planting Design
Part 23: Design and Operations of Road Safety
Part 24: Road Safety Audits
Part 25: Departures from Standards Process
Part 26: Bus and Public Transportation
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | MANUAL CONTENTS

Glossary
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL Glossary
Glossary
Access Control
The limiting and regulating of public and private access to the State of Qatar’s highway network, as
required by the State of Qatar’s law.
Active Frontage
The frontage or edge of a building or space that has business or retail uses that open directly to the
sidewalk, as opposed to blank walls, fences, and garages.
Alignment
1. The fixing of points on the ground in correct linear form for setting out, for example, a road, railway,
wall, transmission line, or canal.
2. A ground plan showing a route (as opposed to a profile section) including levels and elevations.
All-red period
Period during the change from one phase to the next when all signal aspects display a red light signal.
Annual average daily traffic (AADT)

The total annual volume of traffic passing a point or segment of a highway in both directions divided by
the number of days in a year.
Approach
1. A set of lanes accommodating all left-turn, through, and right-turn movements arriving at an
intersection from a given direction.
2. Section of the accessible route that flanks the landing of a curb ramp. The approach may be slightly
graded if the landing level is below the elevation of the adjoining sidewalk.
Approach half-width (v)

The total width of the traffic lanes on the approach to a roundabout, upstream from any entry flare. This
is used by some capacity models to estimate the capacity of the roadway in advance of the roundabout.
Approved Departure
A departure that meets the Overseeing Organization’s requirements for that element of the works,
provided that any mitigation measures proposed by the design organization or conditional to that approval
are incorporated into the design and works.
Aquifer
A geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a formation capable of yielding a significant amount
of groundwater to a well or springs.
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 1

Glossary QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL
Ashghal
Qatar Public Works Authority (PWA).
At-grade intersection
An intersection where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
Attenuation Tank
A tank to store excess stormwater generated from limiting downstream flows.
Auxiliary Lane
1. A lane other than a through lane, used to separate entering, exiting or turning traffic from the through
traffic, Average daily traffic (ADT)
2. The total volume during a given time period, in whole days, greater than one day and less than 1 year,
divided by the number of days in the time period.
Axle
A supporting shaft or member on, or with which, a wheel or set of wheels revolves. The number of vehicle
axles is commonly counted in pairs sharing the same axis. For example, a car is classified as having only
two axles.
Axle load
The total load transmitted by all wheels, the centers of which may be included between two parallel
transverse vertical planes 1 m apart, extending across the full width of the vehicle.
Back Slope
The slope from the bottom of a swale to the existing ground surface; also referred to as cut slope.
Barchan dune
A large, crescent-shaped dune at right angles to the prevailing wind and having a steep, concave leeward
side with the crescent tips pointing downwind.
Barrier
A device used to prevent a vehicle from striking a more severe obstacle or feature located on the roadside
or in the median or to prevent crossover median crashes. As so defined, there are four classes of traffic
barriers: roadside barriers, median barriers, bridge railings, and crash cushions.
Base Course
The layer or layers of specified or selected material of designed thickness placed on a subbase or subgrade
to support a surface course.
Batter
The side slope of walls, embankments and cuttings or the degree of such slope.
2 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Bedrock
The scour-resistant material underlying erodible soils and overlying the mantle rock, ranging from surface
exposure to depths of several hundred kilometers.
Berm
1. A narrow shelf or ledge; also, a form of dike. A more detailed description might be (a) the space left
between the upper edge of a cut and the toe of an embankment or (b) a horizontal strip or shelf built
into an embankment to break the continuity of an otherwise long slope. Also may be the top surface
or plane of a shoulder, ledge, or bank constructed in connection with the road.
2. A raised, elongated area of earth intended to direct the flow of water, visually screen, redirect out-of-
control vehicles, or reduce noise levels by shielding the highway; may also be a horizontal ledge in an
earthen bank to increase stability of a steep slope.
3. Earthwork used to redirect or slow down impinging vehicles or vessels and to stabilize fill, embankment,
or soft ground and cut slopes.
BES
The Buildings Research Establishment (BRE) Environmental and Sustainability Standard for responsible
sourcing of construction products.
Bicycle (cycle)
A vehicle having two tandem wheels and propelled solely by human power upon which any person may
ride.
Bicycle parking
The infrastructure and equipment (cycle racks) to enable secure and convenient parking of bicycles.
Arrangements include lockers, racks, manned, or unmanned cycle parking stations including automated
facilities.
Binder course
A plant mix of graded aggregate (generally open graded) and bituminous material that constitutes the
lower layer of the surface course.
Blackspot
A road location with an abnormally high number of crashes. This term is said to derive from the method that
was originally used to identify locations with a high number of crashes. These crashes were pinpointed on
a physical map using colored pins to represent the severity of each crash. Black was reserved for crashes
having caused property damage only, and the significant proportion of these crashes created black areas
or spots at crash concentration points.
Blackspot analysis
The analysis to identify locations on the roadway network with a high concentration of crashes.

Borehole
A general term for a small diameter hole sunk in the ground, usually vertically but may be horizontal or
inclined, to collect samples of soil, rock strata, and groundwater and to carry out tests to establish the
properties of the strata. Can also be used to inject excess water into an aquifer.
Borrow
Suitable material from sources outside the roadway prism, used primarily for embankments.
Braking distance
Distance a vehicle travels between when the brakes are applied and when the vehicle stops.
Breakaway
A design feature that allows a device such as a sign, luminaire, or traffic signal support to yield or
separate upon impact. The release mechanism may be a slip plane, plastic hinges, fracture elements, or a
combination of these.
Building height
The height of a building expressed in terms of a maximum number of floors; a maximum height of parapet
or ridge; a maximum overall height; any of these maximum heights in combination with a maximum
number of floors; a ratio of building height to street or space width; height relative to particular landmarks
or background buildings; or strategic views.
Building line
The line formed by the frontages of buildings along a street. The building line can be shown on a plan or
section.
Bus lane
A lane of roadway intended primarily for use by buses, either all day or during specified periods. Also
known as a transit priority lane or bus priority lane.
Bus rapid transit (BRT)

A bus-based mass transit system. A true BRT system generally has specialized design, services, and
infrastructure to improve system quality and remove the typical causes of delay.
Bus shelter
1. A facility that provides seating and protection from the weather for passengers waiting for a bus. Bus
stop
2. A place designated for transit vehicles to stop and load or unload passengers.
Bypass
An arterial highway that permits traffic to avoid part or all of an urban area.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

The ratio of the force needed to penetrate a soil mass with a 5-centimeter-diameter circular piston to
the force needed to penetrate a mass of high-quality crushed stone with the same piston. The standard
material for this test is crushed California limestone which has a value of 100.
Capacity
The maximum sustainable flow rate at which vehicles or persons can reasonably be expected to traverse
a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a specified time period under given roadway,
geometric, traffic, environmental, and control conditions. Capacity is usually expressed as vehicles per
hour (vph), passenger cars per hour (pcph), or persons per hour (pph).
CAPEX
Capital expenditure; a business expense incurred to create future benefit.
Capillary break layer

Spacing left wide enough between two layers to prevent water moving through capillary action.
Capillary rise
The upward movement of water molecules along the surface of a solid.
Capping layer
The layer replacing existing material under the pavement.
Carrier drain
A sealed pipe for the conveyance of surface water.
Carrier filter drain

A fully or half-perforated pipe used to collect and convey surface water and subsoil water to an outfall.
Catchment area (A)

A defined area, determined by topographic features, drainage patterns, and land use, within which all rain
will contribute runoff to a specific point or system.
Centerline
A line indicating the division of the roadway between traffic moving in opposite directions.
Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessments System (CEEQUAL)

Originally developed as a sustainability and environmental performance assessment system. CEEQUAL
International has been developed to adapt to non-United Kingdom environments globally.

Clear Zone
The unobstructed, relatively flat area provided beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of
errant vehicles. The clear zone includes any shoulders or auxiliary lanes.
Colebrook-White Equation
A method for determining flows in conduits, such as pipes or open channels from the energy losses of the
liquids within these conduits; most appropriate for flows in smoother bore pipes.
Collector
A road of the intermediate functional category that serves a small town directly, connecting it to the
arterial network.
Collector channel
A system of channels that collects and conveys surface water.
Collector-distributor road
A one-directional road used to reduce or eliminate weaving by reducing the number of conflict points on
the mainline while satisfying the demand for access to and from the mainline.
Community Engagement
A process of involving the general public, or the people who will be affected by road building or
improvement, in the design process.
Community Severance
Community severance occurs where road traffic speed or volume inhibits access to goods, services, or
people.
Compaction
The process by which the asphalt mix is compressed and reduced in volume.
Compound curve
A curve that consists of two or more arcs of different radii curving in the same direction and having a
common tangent or transition curve between them.
Cone penetration test (CPT)

An in situ test to determine the geotechnical engineering properties of soil and to delineate soil
stratigraphy. The test method consists of pushing an instrumented cone, with the tip facing down, into
the ground at a controlled rate.
Continuing professional development (CPD)

A register of courses, conferences, workshops, and other training undertaken with the purpose of keeping
road safety auditors up to date with the latest developments in road safety auditing, crash investigating,
and road safety engineering.

Contractor
The individual, partnership, firm, corporation, or any acceptable combination thereof, or joint venture,
contracting with whom an agency or owner enters into agreement for performance of prescribed work.
Controller (traffic signal controller [TSC])

The microprocessor-based equipment that controls the illumination of the traffic signals. It stores signal
group and phase information, as well as any demand dependent configurations. The controller also makes
use of vehicle detection data to demand and extend signal phases.
Corridor
1. A strip of land between two termini within which traffic, topography, environment, and other
characteristics are evaluated for transportation purposes. Also, for transmission of a utility.
2. A broad geographical band that identifies a general directional flow of traffic. It may encompass
streets, highways, and transit alignments.
Crash
A multifactor event when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris, or
stationary obstruction, such as a tree or utility pole. Traffic crashes may result in injury, death, vehicle
damage, and property damage.
Crash investigation
The collection and examination of historical crash data over a period of time in order to identify patterns,
common trends, and factors that may have contributed to the crashes.
Crashworthy
1. A feature that has been proven acceptable for use under specified conditions through either crash
testing or in-service performance.
2. A system that has been successfully crash tested to a currently acceptable crash test matrix and test
level or one that can be geometrically and structurally evaluated as equal to a crash-tested system.
Cross slope
The transverse slope of the roadway cross section measured perpendicular to the direction of travel, also
referred to as crossfall.
Cross section
A vertical section of the ground and roadway at right angles to the centerline of the roadway, including all
elements of a highway or street from right-of-way line to right-of-way line.
Crossfall
referred to as cross slope.

Crossroad
At-grade intersection of crossing of the two roadways.
Crown
1. The top or highest point of the internal surface of the transverse cross section of a pipe.
2. The shape of a tangent roadway cross section with a high point in the middle and a cross slope
downward toward both edges.
Culvert
Any structure under a roadway with a clear opening of 6.1 meters or less measured along the center of
the roadway. It allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail, or similar obstruction.
Curb
A structure with a vertical, horizontal, or sloping face placed along the edge of a pavement or shoulder
forming part of a gutter, and strengthening or protecting the edge.
Curb extension
A section of sidewalk extending into the roadway at an intersection or midblock crossing that reduces the
crossing width for pedestrians and may help reduce traffic speeds.
Cycle
A complete sequence of traffic signal indications.
Cycle path
A way or separated part of a road provided for the sole use of cyclists.
Dahal
A local term that cavity in limestone or gypsum rock strata.
Decision tracking form (DTF)

A formal record of the identified risks, ratings, and recommendations from the road safety audit together
with the designer’s response and comments and endorsement by the project manager, the Overseeing
Organization, and the Overseeing Organization safety engineer.
Delay
The increased travel time experienced by a person or vehicle due to circumstances that impede the
desirable movement of traffic. It is measured as the time difference between actual travel time and free-
flow travel time.
Departure from Standards

A situation when the compliance requirements in the Qatar Highways Design Manual are not achieved in
the design. Before incorporating a Departure from Standards into the works, the designer shall seek the
approval of the Overseeing Organization.

Design build
The project delivery method that combines the design and construction phases of a project into a single
contract.
Design criteria
Criteria, coupled with prudent judgmental factors that are used in design.
Design hour volume

A volume determined for use in design representing traffic expected to use the highway. Unless otherwise
stated, it is an hourly volume.
Design life
The number of years of intended service life of a facility before the first major rehabilitation.
Design organization
The organization(s) commissioned to undertake the various phases of project preparation. Refers to any
organization undertaking the design of works that affect the highway network, including public and
private developments.
Design phase
The effort (budget/cost) of taking a project through the planning, scoping, and design phases. The terms
design or design phase are sometimes used interchangeably with preliminary engineering.
Design speed
A selected speed used to determine the various geometric design features of the roadway. The selected
design speed should be a logical one with respect to the topography, anticipated operating speed, adjacent
land use, and functional classification of the highway.
Design team
Qualified professionals within the design organization responsible for the road project design and
implementation.
Design team leader

A person within the design team who is responsible for managing the road project design and coordinating
the input of the various design disciplines.
Design vehicle
A vehicle, with representative weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics, used to establish
highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of designated classes.
Design volume
A volume, determined for use in design, representing traffic expected to use the highway. Unless
otherwise stated, it is an hourly volume.

Design-bid-build
The traditional project delivery method for building highways and making highway improvements where
the agency sequentially designs the project, solicits bids, and awards the construction contract to the
lowest responsive bidder (construction contractor) to build the project.
Detector
A part of vehicle- or pedestrian-detecting equipment that, when traversed by a vehicle or pedestrian,
initiates the process of detection; usually laid in a roadway.
Diagraphy drilling
Drilling using destructive techniques with real-time data acquisition such as depth, drilling rate, rotation,
torque, thrust pressure, retaining pressure, injection fluid flow rate and pressure, x and y inclination, and
reflected vibration.
Directional ramp
A one- or two-way connector road carrying free flowing traffic within an interchange between one level
or direction and another, or both.
Discharge rate
Volume of water per second passing out of the system at a specific point.
Divided roadway
A two-way roadway on which the opposing traffic lanes or travel lanes are separated by a median.
Divisional island
An island introduced on undivided highway intersections to alert drivers to the crossroad ahead, separate
opposing traffic, and regulate traffic through the intersection.
Drainage
1. The process of removing surplus groundwater or surface waters by artificial means.
2. The manner in which the waters of an area are removed.
Drainage basin
A part of the surface of the earth that is occupied by a drainage system, that consists of a surface stream
or a body of impounded surface water together with all tributary surface streams and bodies of impounded
surface water.
Drainage systems
A system designed to limit water damage to the roadway by controlling or directing the free flow of water
over, under, or adjacent to the highway and to control the movement of water through the pavement’s
structural support where necessary.
Driveway
An access from a public way to adjacent properly.

Dropped curb
A combined ramp and landing to accomplish a change in level at a curb. This element provides street and
sidewalk access to pedestrians using wheelchairs. Also known as a curb ramp.
Earth pressure
The soil pressure on abutments and other components of a bridge against which any significant depth of
earthen fill rests.
Earthwork(s)
1. The work of excavating, raising, or sloping the ground.
2. The civil engineering process that includes extraction, loading, transport, transformation or
improvement, placement, and compaction of natural materials (soils, rocks) and secondary or recycled
materials, or both, to obtain stable and durable cuttings, embankments, or engineered fills.
3. Structures that are formed by the excavating, raising, or sloping of ground, such as embankments,
cuttings, or remediated natural slopes.
Earthworks balance
Having a similar volume of earthworks cut materials and fill materials on a construction project.
Easement
A right to use or control the property of another for designated purposes.
Edgeline
A line that indicates the edge of the traveled way.
Effluent
Sewage, water, or other liquid, partially or completely treated or in its natural state as the case may be,
flowing out of a reservoir, basin, or treatment plant.
Emergency flood area

Area used to safely contain large and sudden accumulations of stormwater; this is additional to any
sustainable drainage systems.
Equivalent axle load (EAL)

The number of a determined standard axles causing the same damage effect as a given axle configuration
of different magnitude.
Equivalent single- or standard-axle load (ESAL)

A numerical factor that expresses the relation of a given axle load to another axle load in terms of their
effect on serviceability of a pavement structure.

Exploratory holes
A general term for boreholes sunk by various means including cable percussion, rotary coring, rotary open
holing, trial pits, and trial trenches to determine subsurface characteristics.
Expressway
A divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control of access and generally with grade
separations at major intersections.
Facies
The sum total of features, such as sedimentary rock type, mineral content, sedimentary structures,
bedding characteristics, and fossil content, that characterize a sediment as having been deposited in a
given environment.
Filter drain
A linear drainage feature, consisting of a trench filled with permeable materials, designed to capture and
convey surface water.
Filter membrane
A type of geotextile that allows the unimpeded flow of water through its surface but prevents the passage
of silt and other small particles, thereby prolonging the life of drainage medium, such as in filter drains.
Flare
1. The variable offset distance of a barrier to move it farther from the traveled way, generally in reference
to the upstream end of the barrier.
2. Sloped surface that flanks a curb ramp and provides a graded transition between the ramp and the
sidewalk. Flares bridge differences in elevation and are intended to prevent ambulatory pedestrians
from tripping. Flares are not considered part of the accessible route.
Flexible pavement
A pavement structure that maintains intimate contact with and distributes loads to the subgrade and
depends upon aggregate interlock, particle friction, and cohesion for stability.
Flora
All members of the plant kingdom: higher ferns, ferns and fern allies, mosses and liverworts, algae and
phytoplankton, fungi and lichens.
Footbridge
A bridge for the use of pedestrians.
Ford
A location where a highway crosses a channel by allowing high annual or larger flows to pass over the
highway and lower flows to pass through a culvert(s). Often used with cutoff walls, roadway lane markers,
and paved roadway embankments. Warning signs may be included.

Fore slope
The slope from the edge of the shoulder to the bottom of the swale or side ditch, also referred to as fill
slope.
Foundation
A supporting element that derives its resistance by transferring its load to the soil or rock supporting the
bridge.
Full barrier fence

A type of fence, serving a similar purpose to a partial barrier fence, but used in circumstances where the
adjacent hazard is deemed to be severe.
Functional Classification
The grouping of streets and highways into classes, or systems, according to the character of service they
are intended to provide.
Gantry
A crane or hoisting machine mounted on a frame or structure spanning an intervening space
Gateway
Points through which a road project passes during the project life cycle.
Geoenvironmental practitioner
A person specializing in geoenvironmental engineering.
Geometric design
Highway design that deals with dimensions and relationships of such features as alignments, profiles,
grades, sight distances, clearances, and slopes; distinguished from structural design, which is concerned
with thickness, composition of materials, and load-carrying capacity.
Geophysical survey company

A specialist contractor who carries out geophysical survey work.
Geosynthetic
Polymeric products generally used in civil engineering construction. This includes eight main product
categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells,
and geocomposites.
Geotechnical hazard
Unfavorable ground or groundwater conditions that may pose a risk to construction or of adverse
performance of completed works.
Geotechnical practitioner
A person specializing in geotechnical engineering or engineering geology.

Geotechnical risk
The risk posed to construction or to the appropriate function of completed works caused by ground or
groundwater conditions at the site.
Geotechnical risk register

A live and continuously updated table or spreadsheet that provides an up-to-date record of the project
geotechnical risks. The register usually contains a description of the risk, an assessment of its likelihood
and consequences, proposed mitigation measures, and owners.
Geotextile
Any permeable knitted, woven, or non-woven textile material integral to a project, structure, or system.
Geographic information system (GIS)

A computer-based system that stores information based on geographical coordinates.
Ghost Island
An area of the roadway suitably marked with hatching to separate lanes of traffic.
Grade separation
Any structure that provides a traveled way over or under another traveled way.
Gradient
Change of elevation, velocity, pressure, or other characteristics per unit length; slope.
Ground investigation
The process by which geological, geotechnical, and other relevant information is obtained for a project.
Ground investigation company

A company that specializes in services such as borehole drilling in soils and rock and laboratory testing.
Ground investigation factual report

The document that presents the results of a ground investigation. The report will normally include the
records of borehole and trial pits, soils and rock, and laboratory testing.
Ground model
A conceptual model based on the geology and morphology of the site, and used to speculate on likely
ground and groundwater conditions and variability.

Groundwater
1. Subsurface water occupying the saturation zone from which wells and springs are fed. A source of
base flow in streams. In a strict sense, the term applies only to water below the water table.
2. Water at and below the groundwater table; basal or bottom water; phreatic water. Used also in a broad
sense to mean all water below the ground surface.
3. Water in the ground that is in the zone of saturation from which wells, springs, and groundwater
runoff are supplied.
Groundwater table
The level below which the ground is saturated with water; the elevation of this layer varies seasonally
and spatially.
Gully
A chamber covered by a grating, which allows surface water to enter a drainage system.
Gutter
That portion of the roadway section adjacent to the curb that is used to convey stormwater runoff.
Hard strip
Hard strip is an extra width of the roadway pavement along the edge of the traveled way built contiguous
to and with the same pavement structure as the roadway pavement.
Health and safety

Activities or processes that focus on the prevention of death, injury, and ill health to those at work and
those affected by work activities.
Hierarchy
The grouping of individual highways in a highway system, according to their purpose or function, the type
of traffic they serve, and maintenance.
Highway
A public way for purposes of vehicular travel, including the entire area within the right-of-way.
Highway capacity
The maximum sustainable flow rate at which vehicles or persons reasonably can be expected to traverse
geometric, traffic, environmental, and control conditions; usually expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger
cars per hour, or persons per hour.
Horizontal alignment
Direction and course of the center line of a road or roadway on plan.

Horizontal curve
Curve in plan of a road.
Hydraulic radius
1. The cross sectional area of a stream of water (perpendicular to flow) divided by the length of that part
of its periphery in contact with its containing conduit; the ratio of area to wetted perimeter.
2. A measure of the boundary resistance to flow, computed as the quotient of cross sectional area of
flow divided by the wetted perimeter. For wide shallow flow, the hydraulic radius can be approximated
by the average flow depth.
Hydrology
The science and study concerned with the occurrence, circulation, distribution, and properties of the
waters of the earth and its atmosphere, including precipitation, runoff, and groundwater.
Hyetograph
1. Graphical representation of rainfall intensity over time.
2. A graph plotting rainfall amounts or intensities during various time increments versus time.
3. A graphical representation of average rainfall, rainfall-excess rates, or volumes over specified areas
during successive units of time during a storm.
Impact severity
A measure of the impact severity of a vehicle of mass M, impacting at a speed V, at an impact angle ϴ. It
is defined as follows: IS = 1/2 M(V Sin ϴ)2.
Impermeable surface
Surfaces in which texture is such that water cannot move perceptibly through it under pressures ordinarily
found in subsurface water.
Infiltration
1. The volume of groundwater entering a sewer and its connections from the soil through pipe, joints,
connections, or appurtenances.
2. The flow of a fluid into a substance through pores or small openings.
InfoWorks CS
Urban drainage network modeling software.
Inland
A segment along an inland river consisting of terminals, fleeting areas, and related cargo facilities,
designated as a port for reference purposes and, in limited instances, for tonnage compilation.

Inside lane
1. The lane on a multi-lane divided roadway adjacent to the median.
2. The lane on an undivided roadway adjacent to the centerline of the roadway.
Intelligent transportation system (ITS)

Programs intended to apply advanced communication and control technologies to ground transportation.
Formerly referred to as intelligent vehicle highway systems.
Intensity
The rate of rainfall upon a watershed; usually expressed in millimeters.
Interchange
1. A system of interconnecting roadways in conjunction with one or more grade separations, providing
for the movement of traffic between two or more roadways on different levels.
2. The exchange of cars between railroads at specified junction points.
Intergreen period
The period between the end of the green light signal giving right-of-way for one phase and the beginning
of the green light signal giving right-of-way for the next phase.
Interim road safety audit

A road safety audit applied to the whole or part of a road project during design and construction. An
interim road safety audit is not mandatory and is not a substitute for the formal Stage 1, 2, 3, and 4 Road
Safety Audits.
Interim road safety audit file

A file containing copies of all communications between the design team, the road safety audit team,
and the project manager. The file is only required for road projects where the road safety audit team
undertakes an interim road safety audit.
Intersection
The general area where two or more highways join or cross, within which are included the roadway and
roadside facilities for traffic movements in that area.
Intersection angle
The angle between two intersection legs.
Intersection leg
Any one of the highways radiating from and forming part of an intersection. The common intersection of
two highways crossing each other has four legs
Intersection point
Point at which two successive straight lengths of road, or tangents to curves, intersect.

Interstate Highway System

A system of highways in the United States that connects principal metropolitan areas, cities, and industrial
centers.
International Roughness Index (IRI)

An index computed from a longitudinal profile measurement using a quarter-car simulation at a simulation
speed of 80 kilometers per hour.
Island
A defined area between traffic lanes used to control vehicle movements. Islands may range from an area
delineated by a raised curb to a pavement area marked out by paint or thermoplastic markings.
Junction approach
The section of road upstream from a junction. The fully compliant visibility provision is considered most
essential and may be increased. The length of the junction approach is dependent on design speed.
Junction approach sight distance

The sight distance requirement within a junction approach. At higher design speeds, the junction approach
distance is greater than the stopping sight distance. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual.
k-value
Modulus of subgrade reaction; measured in pounds per cubic inch or MPa.
Land use
The physical characteristics of the land surface and the human activities associated with the land surface.
Landmark
A building or structure that stands out from its background by virtue of height, size, or some other aspect
of design.
Landscape
The character and appearance of land, including its space, form, ecology, natural features, colors, and
elements that combine in a way that is distinctive to particular localities, the way they are perceived, and
the area’s cultural and historical associations. Landscape character can be expressed through landscape
appraisals, maps, or plans. A “townscape” describes the same concept.
Lane
A strip of roadway used for a single line of vehicles.

Lane capacity
Traffic capacity of one traffic lane.
Lane line
A line separating two lanes of traffic traveling in the same direction.
Layout
The way buildings, routes, and open spaces are placed in relation to each other.
Left lane
The lane of a multi-lane highway on the extreme left side of the roadway in the direction of travel.
Left-turn lane
Diverging lane or left-hand lane used solely for traffic turning left.
Legibility
The degree to which people can understand, traverse, and identify with the built environment.
Leq
Equivalent continuous sound level. An average of the time-varying sound energy for a specified period.
Level of service (LOS)

A qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream based on service measures
such as speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. (see
QTCM for further details)
Light rail transit (LRT)

Typically, an urban form of public transport using the same rolling stock as a tramway, but operates
primarily along exclusive rights-of-way and has vehicles capable of operating as a single train or as
multiple units coupled together.
Limit state
The state beyond which a structure or earthwork no longer fulfils the relevant design criteria. The two
most common limit states are ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state. BS EN 1997-1, Eurocode
7. Geotechnical design. General rules, defines ultimate limit state as “states associated with collapse
or with other similar forms of structural failure”, and it defines serviceability limit state as “states that
correspond to conditions beyond which specific service requirements for a structure or structural member
are no longer met.”
Liquefaction
Loss of soil strength with a quicksand-like behavior that is caused by cyclic loads produced by vibrating
machinery or earthquakes.

Local road or street

A street or road primarily for access to residence, business, or other abutting property.
Local traffic
Freight moving solely over the lines of a single carrier.
Loop
A one-way turning roadway that curves about 270 degrees to the right to accommodate a left turn from
the through roadway. It may include provision for a left turn at a crossroad terminal.
Luminaire
Complete lighting unit, consisting of one or more lamps including the parts designed to distribute the
light, to position and protect the lamps, and to connect the lamps to the electric power supply.
Mainline
The roadway carrying the main flow of traffic; generally, traffic passing straight through the intersection
or interchange.
Manhole
An opening in an underground system that workers may enter for the purpose of making installations,
removals, inspections, repairs, connections, and tests.
Manning’s equation
A method for determining flows in conduits, such as pipes or open channels. The method is most
appropriate for flows in rough open channels.
Mast arm
An L-shaped traffic signal post and arm on which traffic signals are mounted to provide signals for lanes
not adjacent to the curb or central median.
Median
The portion of a highway separating opposing directions of the traveled way.
Mid-block pedestrian crossing

A signal controlled crossing point that is between intersections and designed specifically to allow
pedestrians to cross. Also known as a “standalone” crossing.
Minor street
The street controlled by stop signs at a two-way stop-controlled intersection. Also referred to as side
street.
Minor system
Road drainage, comprising gullies, soakaways, ditches, connecting pipework, and storage areas required
prior to connection to the major system.

Moisture content
An indication of the amount of water contained in a material; usually expressed as a percentage of the
weight of the oven-dry material weight.
Motorcycle
A two-wheeled motorized vehicle having one or two saddles and sometimes a sidecar with a third
supporting wheel.
Mounting height
Minimum vertical distance to the bottom of a sign or traffic signal, or to the center of gravity of a luminaire,
relative to the pavement surface.
Mowasalat
Popularly known as the Transport Company, Mowasalat is managed and operated by Qatar state
authorities for smooth provision of integrated ground transportation services, including taxis, limousines,
public buses, school buses, and private-hire coaches.
Mushtarak
Shared-use access streetscape.
Natural surveillance
The discouragement to wrongdoing by the presence of passers-by, or the ability of people to be seen out
of surrounding windows. Also known as passive surveillance or passive supervision.
Nonmotorized users (vulnerable road user)

A term used to refer to road users who are not in motor vehicles or on motorcycles (such as bicyclists,
pedestrians, and wheelchair users).
Nose
An approximately triangular paved area between a ramp and the mainline at a merge or diverge, suitably
marked to discourage drivers from crossing it.
Occupant impact velocity

Velocity, relative to the vehicle in motion, at which a hypothetical point mass occupant impacts a surface
of a hypothetical occupant compartment.
Off-line bus stop

A special zone on the side of the main roadway (or bus/tram lane) for primarily buses to stop for a
designated bus stop in order to pick up and drop off passengers.
Offtracking
The difference in the paths of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle when performing a turning maneuver.

Operational expenditure (OPEX)

Ongoing costs to run a business or project.
Outside lane
1. The lane on a multilane divided roadway adjacent to the right shoulder or curb in the direction of the
traffic.
2. The lane on an undivided roadway adjacent to the right shoulder or curb in the direction of the traffic.
Overpass
A grade separation where a highway passes over an intersecting highway or railroad.
Overseeing Organization
The highway authority responsible for approving a road construction or improvement project, including
planning, design and implementation, road safety, Departures from Standard.
Overseeing Organization safety engineer

A person from the Overseeing Organization who has responsibility for road safety engineering for road
projects that the Overseeing Organization is responsible. This includes endorsement of decision tracking
forms and Exemption Certificates and the methodology used by the road safety audit teams.
Park-and-ride
A car park with a connection to public transport that allows commuters and other people headed to city
centers to leave their vehicles and transfer to a bus, rail system (e.g., rapid transit, light rail, or commuter
rail), or carpool for the remainder of the journey.
Partial barrier fence

A type of fence intended to prevent access to a slope or fall away from a cycle path or other riding surface,
where injury might otherwise be expected if a cyclist rides inadvertently off a cycle path.
Participation
The process of working closely with stakeholders and the community to develop ideas and solutions
collaboratively, giving a genuine opportunity for involvement in the project development process.
Passenger
A person who rides a transportation vehicle, excluding the driver or the crewmembers of a public
transportation vehicle.
Passing sight distance

The distance required for a driver to complete a passing or overtaking maneuver without coming into
conflict with the oncoming traffic, on a two-way two-lane undivided roadway.

Pavement structure
The combination of sub-base, base course, and surface course placed on a prepared subgrade to support
the traffic load and distribute it to the roadbed.
Peak flow
The most voluminous period of flow at a location during a set time, usually in the period during or directly
after a storm.
Peak period
The period during which traffic levels rise from their normal background levels to maximum levels. These
periods are for morning, evening, or mid-day peaks and include appropriate peak hours.
Peak traffic flow

Maximum traffic flow under given circumstances.
Pedestrian
Person traveling on foot, using mobility aids (such as a wheelchair), or walking with a cycle, pram,
pushchair, or animal.
Pedestrian crossing (crosswalk)

Any portion of a roadway at an intersection or elsewhere distinctly indicated for pedestrian crossing by
lines or other markings on the surface.
Pedestrian Realm Zones

The pedestrian realm is the area between the curb and the property or building line. The pedestrian realm
zones include the threshold, pedestrian, street furniture, cyclist, and edge zones.
Pedestrian zone
An area where vehicular traffic is prohibited during certain periods, so it functions as a pedestrian area
during business hours, but permits vehicular traffic at other times.
Penstock
A sliding plate that regulates flow.
Perception/reaction distance
Distance traveled during the perception/reaction time.
Perception/reaction time
Time interval between the occurrence of an event that demands immediate action by the driver and the
driver’s response.

Permeability
1. The ease with which a porous material allows liquid or gaseous fluids to flow through it. For water,
this is usually expressed in units of centimeters per second and is termed hydraulic conductivity.
2. That property which permits movement of a liquid through the pores and interstices of the concrete.
3. The property of a material that permits appreciable movement of water through it when it is saturated,
and movement is actuated by hydrostatic pressure of the magnitude normally encountered in natural
subsurface water.
Phase
Set of conditions that fixes the pattern of movement and waits for one or more traffic streams during a
signaling cycle.
Piezocone test
A cone penetration test where pore pressure measurement is also made.
Pile
A long, heavy timber, steel, or reinforced concrete post that has been driven, jacked, jetted, or cast
vertically into the ground to support a load.
Pile load capacity

The load that a pile can carry without failing; usually defined in terms of ultimate capacity and capacity
such that it restricts movement within serviceability limits.
Platoon
A group of vehicles or pedestrians traveling together as a group, either voluntarily or involuntarily, because
of traffic signal controls, geometrics, or other factors.
Police crash listings

Formally recorded details of crashes occurring on Overseeing Organization roads.
Policy
A definite course of action or method of action selected to guide and determine present and future
decisions.
Porewater pressure
The pressure of groundwater held within a soil or rock.
Positive drainage
A piped system operating by gravity flow associated with an urban situation and used in conjunction with
gullies, curbs, and sidewalks.

Primary signal face

The signal face nearest to and facing oncoming traffic. It is situated close to the stop line on the near side
of the roadway facing the approaching traffic but may be duplicated on the off side.
Prime Coat
An application of a low viscosity liquid, bituminous material to coat and bind mineral particles preparatory
to placing a base or surface course.
Project management consultant (PMC)

The consultant appointed to manage a process or deliverable on behalf of the Overseeing Organization.
Public art
Permanent or temporary physical works or art visible to the public, whether part of the building or
freestanding. The art can include sculpture, lighting effects, street furniture, paving, railings, and signs.
Public realm
The parts of a village, town, or city, including streets, squares, and parks whether publicly or privately
owned, that are available without charge for everyone to use or see. Also referred to as “public domain”.
Public road
A road or street open to public travel under the jurisdiction of, and maintained by, a public authority.
Public transportation
Transportation service to the public on a regular basis using vehicles that transport more than one person
for compensation, usually but not exclusively, over a set route or routes from one fixed point to another.
Routes and schedules of this service may be predetermined by the operator or may be determined through
a cooperative arrangement. Subcategories include paratransit and mass transit service that are available
to the public. Also referred to as “public transit”.
R-value
The measure of the soil or aggregate resistance to displacement, as determined by ASTM International
D2844, Standard Test Method for Resistance R-Value and Expansion Pressure of Compacted Soils and
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, T-190, Standard Method of Test
for Resistance R-Value and Expansion Pressure for Compacted Soils.
Rainfall intensity
The amount of rainfall occurring in a unit of time, converted to its equivalent in millimeters per hour at
the same rate.

Ramp
1. A short roadway connecting two or more legs of an intersection or connecting a frontage road or
service road and main lane of a highway.
2. A sloped transition between two elevation levels.
Ramp metering
A system used to reduce congestion on a freeway facility by managing flow from on-ramps. An approach
ramp is equipped with a metering traffic signal that allows the vehicles to enter a facility at a controlled
rate.
Refuge (island)
An island at or near a pedestrian crossing or cycle path that aids and protects pedestrians and cyclists who
cross the roadway.
Relaxation
An alternative acceptable design criterion in the Qatar Highway Design Manual; although it may not be
preferred because it may affect road safety, it is introduced at the discretion of the design team leader.
Resistance factor
A factor accounting primarily for variability of material properties, structural dimensions, workmanship,
and uncertainty in the prediction of resistance, but also related to the statistics of the loads through the
calibration process.
Resurfacing
The placing of one or more new courses on an existing surface.
Return period
An estimate of the likelihood of an event occurring. A statistical measurement, typically based on historical
data, denoting the average reoccurrence interval over an extended period.
Reverse curve
Two abutting curves in a road that are of opposite hand in the shape of an “S” or its mirror image.
Rideability index (RI)

An index derived from controlled measurements of the longitudinal profile in the wheel tracks and
correlated with panel ratings of rideability.
Ridedown acceleration
Acceleration experienced by a hypothetical “point mass” occupant subsequent to impact with a hypothetical
occupant compartment.

Right-of-way
1. Land, property, or interest therein, usually in a strip, acquired for or devoted to transportation
purposes. This can be for roads, railway, as well as electrical transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines.
It is reserved for maintenance or expansion of services within its confine.
2. The precedence in passing or proceeding accorded to one vehicle or person over another.
3. The legal power of passage over another person’s land.
Right-turn bypass lane

A lane provided adjacent to but separated from the circulatory roadway, which allows right-turning
movements to bypass the roundabout.
Rigid pavement
A pavement structure that distributes loads to the subgrade having as one course a Portland cement
concrete slab of relatively high bending resistance.
Risk management
Systematic, analytic process to consider the likelihood that a threat will harm an asset or individuals and
to identify actions that reduce the risk and mitigate the consequences of an attack or event.
Road
Road earthworks
An embankment or cutting present within the transportation system.
Road markings
Markings set into the surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement for the purpose of regulating,
warning, or guiding traffic.
Road project
All works that involve construction of a new road or permanent change to the existing roads or features.
This includes changes to the road layout, curbs, signs and markings, lighting, signaling, drainage,
landscaping, and installation of roadside equipment.
Road safety audit (RSA)

A formal examination of the operational safety of an existing or future road link or intersection by an
independent and suitably qualified road safety audit team. A road safety audit reports qualitatively on
potential road safety issues and identifies opportunities to improve operational safety for all road users
with the objective of minimizing the number and severity of personal injury crashes.

Road safety audit brief

The instructions to the road safety audit team from the Overseeing Organization or design organization
defining the scope and details of the road project to be audited, including sufficient information for the
road safety audit to be undertaken.
Road safety audit briefing meeting

A meeting at which all parties involved in the design and development of the road project meet with the
road safety audit team to outline the scope and discuss the design ethos of the project.
Road safety audit debrief

A meeting at which the road safety audit team reports all findings from the road safety audit to those who
attended the road safety audit briefing meeting.
Road safety audit report

The report produced by the road safety audit team describing the road safety related problems identified
by the team and the recommended solutions to those problems.
Road safety audit team

A team of at least two people who work together on all aspects of the road safety audit. This team is
independent of the design team and is approved by the Overseeing Organization safety engineer. The
team shall be allocated specifically to each road project.
Road safety audit team leader

The person with the appropriate training, skills, and experience who is approved for a particular road
safety audit by the project manager on behalf of the Overseeing Organization and is endorsed by the
Overseeing Organization safety engineer. The road safety audit team leader has overall responsibility for
carrying out the road safety audit, managing the road safety audit team, and certifying the road safety
audit report.
Road safety audit team member

A member of the road safety audit team with the appropriate training, skills, and experience necessary for
the road safety audit of a specific road project; reports to the road safety audit team leader.
Road safety audit team observer

A person with appropriate training, skills, and experience who accompanies the road safety audit team to
observe, interact, and gain experience of the road safety audit procedure before becoming a road safety
audit team member.
Road safety engineering

The process of analyzing the results of a crash investigation to design and implement physical changes to
the road network to reduce the number and severity of crashes involving road users.

Road structures
Any bridge, culvert, catch basin, drop inlet, retaining wall, cribbing, manhole, endwall, building, sewer,
service pipe, underdrain, foundation drain, or similar features present within the transportation system.
Roadbase
The layer of specified or selected material placed on a subbase or formation.
Roadway
The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
Roadway width
The roadway clear space between barriers, curbs, or both.
Roughness coefficient
The estimated measure of texture at the perimeters of channels and conduits. Usually represented by
the “n value” coefficient used in Manning’s channel flow equation. Numerical measure of the frictional
resistance to flow in a channel, as in the Manning or Strickler formulas.
Roundabout
An intersection at which traffic circulates counter-clockwise around a central traffic island; traffic entering
the intersection is required to yield to vehicles on the circulatory roadway.
Runoff (surface)
That part of the precipitation that runs off the surface of a drainage area after accounting for all
abstractions.
Runoff coefficient (C)

The factor representing that portion of runoff that results from a unit of rainfall. It is dependent on terrain,
topography, and the rate of runoff to precipitation.
Rural areas
An area that is predominantly natural with little, or no, land use development.
Rutting
The formation of longitudinal depressions in the roadway surface (flexible pavement) from traffic wear
in the wheel path.
Road weather information system (RWIS)

Sensors installed in the travel lanes of the highway and airport runways that measure the temperature of
the pavement. Atmospheric sensors are placed adjacent to the pavement and measure air temperature;
relative humidity; wind speed and direction; precipitation type, intensity, and rate; and the driver’s
perception of visibility. Information is used to inform motorists and assist public agencies in maintenance
decision making.

Sabkha
Sabkha are extensive salt flats that are characteristic of saline intrusion in coastal areas of Qatar. Sabkha
are underlain by sand, silt, and clay that are often encrusted with salt (halite). Coastal sabkha occurs along
the coast; inland sabkha are associated with isolated lagoons.
Safe system
A road safety model that compensates for human error by ensuring that road users are not subject to
crash forces that result in fatal or serious injuries.
Sag Vertical Curve

A vertical curve such that the point of intersection of the approach grades is below the profile line. Sag
vertical curves are concave upward.
Saline
A liquid mixture of salt and pure water; or in the context of soils, those that contain or are impregnated
with salt.
Scour
The washing away of streambed material by water channel flow. General scour occurs as a result of a
constriction in the water channel openings; local scour occurs as a result of local flow changes in a channel
due to constrictions caused by the presence of bridge piers or abutments.
Secondary signal face

The signal face facing oncoming traffic supplementing the primary signal face and beyond the stop line.
Seepage
The slow movement of water through small cracks and pores of the bank material.
Segregated paths
Separated part of a road shared by both pedestrians and cyclists with segregation provided by a road
marking or a physical feature.
Segregation
The separation of the coarse aggregate from the rest of the mix in a hot mix asphalt (HMA).
Seismic hazard
Unfavorable condition resulting from earthquake activity that may pose a risk to construction or have an
adverse effect on the performance of completed works.
Seismic loading
The application of an earthquake-generated load to a structure.

Semitrailer
A freight trailer supported at its forward end by a truck tractor or another trailer and at its rearward end
by attached axles.
Sense of place
The design of buildings and the definition of space that, through their uniqueness, give a location its
particular identity.
Service flow rate

The maximum hourly rate at which vehicles, bicycles, or persons reasonably can be expected to traverse
a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a given time period (usually 15 minutes) under
prevailing roadway, traffic, environmental, and control conditions while maintaining a designated level of
service, expressed as vehicles per hour or vehicles per hour per lane.
Service limit state

Limit state relating to stress, deformation, and cracking applied to normal operating loads.
Service road
A road parallel to but segregated from a major road and providing direct access to adjacent land uses by
distributing traffic onto higher grade roads.
Setback
The distance that a building is set back from the plot boundary, or from the nearest pavement edge.
Shared-use path
A cycleway physically separated from motorized vehicle traffic by an open space or barrier and either
within the highway right-of-way or within an independent right-of-way. Shared-use paths may also be
used by pedestrians, skaters, wheelchair users, joggers, and other nonmotorized users. Also referred to
as a “cycle path”.
Shoulder
The portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way primarily for accommodation of stopped
vehicles for emergency use and for lateral support of base and surface course.
Sidewalk
A paved pathway that parallels a highway, road, or street and is intended for pedestrians.
Sight distance
The length of highway ahead that is visible to the driver.
Sight line
The line, in plan or in profile, that delineates the area in which a sight distance can be achieved.

Sign
A device conveying a specific message by means of words or symbols, erected for the purpose of
regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.
Signal-controlled intersection (or signalized intersection)

A type of intersection where conflicting movements are separated over time by a signal that allocates
right-of-way in an alternating and regular pattern for each legal movement.
Signal face
The side of a signal head capable of exhibiting signal lights.
Signal head
An assembly containing one or more signal lenses that control a vehicular traffic or pedestrian movement.
Signaling cycle
One complete sequence of the operation of a traffic signal.
Sikka
Narrow passage between properties or buildings for pedestrian only or shared pedestrian/cycle use.
Slab
A component having a width of at least four times its effective depth.
Slip ramp
A ramp within an interchange between a mainline roadway and the lower classification network, or vice
versa, that meets the lower classification network at an at-grade intersection. Traffic using a slip ramp
usually has to yield/give way to traffic already on the mainline or on the lower classification network.
Slope
The relative steepness of the terrain, expressed as a ratio or percentage. Slopes may be categorized as
positive (back slopes) or negative (foreslopes) and as parallel or cross slopes in relation to the direction
of traffic.
Slope ratio
An arithmetic expression of vertical and horizontal value relationships of a slope. Vertical values precede
horizontal values.
Soakaway
A subsurface drainage feature to which water is conveyed; designed to facilitate infiltration. See filter
drain.

Speed limit
The maximum or minimum speed applicable to a section of highway, as established by law.
Split phase
At a signalized intersection, the permitted movement of traffic from one direction in one or more traffic
lanes while traffic approaching the intersection from the remaining directions is stopped.
Spoil
The material removed from an excavation or by dredging.
Stabilization
Modification of soils or aggregates by incorporating materials or methods that increase load bearing
capacity, firmness, and resistance to weathering or displacement.
Staggered intersection
An at-grade intersection of three roads, at which the major road is continuous through the intersection
and the minor roads connect with it by forming two opposed T-intersections.
Stakeholder
Any organization, representatives of an organization, or individual who is interested in or affected by a
project.
Stakeholder engagement
The process of involving stakeholders in the design process.
Stakeholder mapping
A process of identifying stakeholders and assessing their level of power and influence. Stakeholder
mapping is useful in defining the engagement plan.
Standard axle
A single-axle load of 8,167 kilograms.
Standard penetration test (SPT)

An in situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on the geotechnical engineering
properties of a soil. Procedures for the test are described in BSI BS EN ISO 22476-3: 2005, Geotechnical
investigation and testing. Field testing standard penetration test and ASTM International D1586-08a,
Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils.
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)

A gap-graded hot mix asphalt that is designed to maximize deformation (rutting) resistance and durability
by using a structural basis of stone-on-stone contact.

Stopping sight distance

The minimum distance within which a vehicle traveling at a specified speed can come to a stop.
Stopping time
The time interval between the instant when the driver receives a stimulus that signifies a need to stop
and the moment the vehicle comes to stop.
Storage length
The length provided on an intersection approach or auxiliary lane for enabling vehicles to wait to enter
the intersection without inhibiting through traffic.
Storm hydrograph
A graph that records the rate of flow through a catchment during a storm event.
Stormwater
Water generated from precipitated rain water runoff.
Street
Street Clutter
Clutter refers to any street furniture item that is not needed because it is a redundant, poorly located,
poorly designed, or temporary item.
Street furniture
Structures, objects, and equipment installed on roads for various purposes and which contribute to the
street scene (e.g., bus shelters, litterbins, seating, lighting, railings, and signs).
Streetscape
The visual elements of a street including the roadway, sidewalk, street furniture, trees, and open space
that combine to form the street’s character.
Stress-absorbing membrane interlayer (SAMI)

A pavement layer consisting of rubberized asphalt concrete, chip seal, or slurry seal, or a combination of
geomembrane and asphalt concrete, placed over a concrete base or pavement to retard reflective cracking
of the concrete cracks and joints through the surface of new flexible pavement.
Structural number (SN)

A linear combination of flexible pavement components that expresses pavement design as a single
number. The SN is used in the 1993 AASHTO design method for asphalt/flexible pavements.

Subgrade
The top surface of a roadbed upon which the pavement structure and shoulders, including curbs, are
constructed.
Subway
An underpass designed for exclusive use by pedestrians, cyclists, or both.
Superelevation
A tilting of the roadway surface to partially counterbalance the centripetal forces (lateral acceleration) on
vehicles on horizontal curves.
Superpave (superior performing asphalt pavement)

1. A method that uses the following Aggregate size definitions:
· Maximum size – one sieve size larger than the nominal maximum size.
· Nominal maximum size – one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 per-
cent by weight.
2. It is a performance-based system for designing asphalt pavements to meet the demanding roadway
needs. This performance-based approach holds the promise of more durable pavements that can
withstand extremes of temperature and heavy traffic
Surface course
One or more layers of a pavement structure designed to accommodate the traffic load, the top layer
of which resists skidding, traffic abrasion, and the disintegrating effects of climate. The top layer is
sometimes referred to as the “wearing course”.
Surface runoff
That part of the runoff that travels over the soil surface to the nearest collection point.
Surface treatment
One or more applications of bituminous material and cover aggregate or thin plant mix on an old pavement
or any element of a new pavement structure.
Surface water
Water that travels across the ground and hard surfaces, such as paved roads and buildings, rather than
seeping into the soil.
Surveillance
Surveillance is the monitoring of the traffic behavior to characterize the traffic flow conditions on the
highway to perform the traffic management functions such as measuring traffic flow and environmental
conditions, disseminating traveler information, monitoring and evaluating system performance, incident
detection and verification and management, emergency service management and transportation planning.

Sustainability
Identifies a concept and attitude in development that considers a site’s natural land, water, and energy
resources as integral aspects of the development.
Sustainable development
Maximizing the capability to recycle components of the infrastructure and minimizing the use of
nonrenewable resources.
Sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDS)

Surface water drainage systems that replicate natural systems and use cost-effective solutions with low
environmental impacts to drain collect, store, and clean water before it is released slowly back into the
environment.
Swale
A wide, shallow ditch usually grassed or paved and without well-defined bed and banks. A slight depression
in the ground surface where water collects and may be transported as a stream. Often vegetated and
shaped so as not to provide a visual signature of a bank or shore.
Swept path
The amount of roadway width that a vehicle covers in negotiating a turn that is equal to the amount of
off-tracking plus the width of the vehicle.
T-intersection
A three-leg intersection in the general form of a “T.”
Tack coat
Thin layers of asphalt product that are used in the construction or refacing of roads and highways. This
type of product is used to help the layers of asphalt laid down as part of the road building process to bond
together with more efficiency.
Tactile paving
Paving that has a change in surface condition that provides a tactile cue to alert pedestrians with vision
impairments of a potentially hazardous situation.
Taper
A section where the road width varies to accommodate a lane width change or to reduce or increase the
number of lanes. Tapers are typically provided at the starts and ends of auxiliary lanes.
Temporary traffic management (TTM)

The physical measures and combination of traffic control devices used to guide road users through a work
zone for the safety of the road users and the workforce.

Thematic road safety audit

A road safety audit that is more defined and focuses on single aspects of design provision or road user.
Three-leg intersection
An intersection with three legs.
Throughput
Traffic or volume of passengers or vehicles passing a point or series of points during a given period.
Time of concentration
The sum of the time of entry and the time of flow of surface water runoff directed to a stormwater drain
or outfall
Traffic bollard
A device placed on a pedestrian refuge or traffic island to warn drivers of the obstruction. It may incorporate
a traffic sign to indicate the direction of travel.
Traffic capacity
The maximum practicable traffic flow for given purposes or assumed for design purposes.
Traffic concentration
The number of vehicles per unit length of road at a specified time, excluding parked vehicles.
Traffic control
Regulation of traffic by traffic signals or traffic signs.
Traffic density
The traffic flow per unit of traveled way; usually expressed as the number of vehicles per hour per traffic
lane.
Traffic flow
The number of vehicles, people, or animals passing a specific point within a specified time, in both
directions unless otherwise stated.
Traffic island
A defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movements or for a pedestrian refuge. Within
an intersection, a median or an outer separation is considered a traffic island.
Traffic sign
A device mounted on a fixed or portable support whereby a specific message is conveyed by means of
words or symbols, officially erected for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.

Traffic signal
Any power-operated traffic control device, other than a barricade warning light or steady burning electric
lamp, by which traffic is warned or directed to take some specific action.
Traffic volume
The number of persons or vehicles passing a point on a lane, roadway, or other travel way during some
time interval, often 1 hour, expressed in vehicles, bicycles, or persons per hour.
Trailer
Trailers are generally unpowered vehicles towed by powered vehicles.
Transition
A section of barrier between two different barriers or, more commonly, where a roadside barrier is
connected to a bridge railing or to a rigid object such as a bridge pier. The transition should produce a
gradual stiffening of the approach rail so vehicular pocketing, snagging, or penetration at the connection
can be avoided.
Transverse
The horizontal direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a bridge.
Traveled way
The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders and cycle lanes.
Treated sewage effluent

Sewage effluent treated in a sewage treatment facility. For the purpose of this Manual, TSE is assumed
to have been treated to a standard suitable for plant irrigation under controlled conditions that minimize
or eliminate contact with humans.
Trenchless technology
Methods for utility and other line installation, rehabilitation, replacement, renovation, repair, inspection,
location, and leak detection, with minimum excavation from the ground surface.
Trial pit
An excavation, usually by machine, occasionally by small tools and hand-dug, to inspect and record the soil
and rock strata conditions or groundwater entry and to recover strata samples.
Trial trench pit

An elongated excavation, usually made by machine, to inspect and record the soil and rock strata conditions
or groundwater entry and to recover strata samples.
Truck
A wheeled highway freight vehicle. Also referred to as a “goods vehicle”.

Truck apron
The optional outer, mountable portion of the central island of a roundabout between the raised,
nontraversable area of the central island and the circulating roadway.
Trunk sewer
A sewer that receives flow from many tributary sewers and serves a large area.
Tunnel
A horizontal or near horizontal opening in soil excavated to a predesigned geometry by tunneling methods
exclusive of cut-and-cover methods.
Turning traffic
Vehicles turning left or right at an at-grade intersection.
Underpass
A grade separation where the subject highway passes under an intersecting highway or railroad. Also
referred to as “undercrossing”.
Upstream
The part of the roadway where traffic is flowing toward the section in question.
Urban area
An area that contains or is zoned to contain built land use development.
Urban design
The art of making places in villages, towns, and cities that involves the design of buildings, groups of
buildings, spaces, and landscapes and the establishment of frameworks and processes which facilitate
successful development.
Urban form
The physical layout and design of the urban area, including structure, density, scale, massing, appearance,
and landscape.
Urban traffic control (UTC)

A centrally located system to coordinate traffic signal controlled intersections within a highway network.
Utility corridor
Defined area for utilities.
U-turn
A turning maneuver carried out through 180 degrees, resulting in the vehicle proceeding on the same
road but in the opposite direction.

Vadose zone
Unsaturated zone between the ground surface and the groundwater table.
Vehicle-actuated traffic signals

Traffic signaling equipment in which the duration of the red and green signal lights and the duration of
the signaling cycle vary in relation to the traffic flow into and through the controlled area, as actuated by
a detector.
Vehicle classification
The identification, summarization, and reporting of traffic volume by vehicle or axle configuration.
Vernacular
The way in which ordinary buildings were built in a particular place, making use of local styles, techniques,
and materials and responding to local economic and social conditions.
Vertical alignment
The direction and course of the center line of a roadway in profile.
Vertical curve
The curve on the longitudinal profile of a roadway.
Visibility envelope
The area within and outside of the roadway that is required for compliant design visibility.
Vista
An enclosed view, usually a long and narrow one.
Vortex grit remover

Automatic grit removal from continuous wastewater or intermittent stormwater flows in a low footprint,
shop-fabricated installation.
Wadi
An Arabic term traditionally referring to a valley; in some cases, it normally refers to a dry riverbed that
contains water only during times of heavy rain.
Walkway
A facility provided for pedestrian movement and segregated from vehicular traffic by a curb, or provided
for on a separate right-of-way.
Wayfinding
The process by which people orientate themselves in space and navigate their way from place to place.

Wearing course
The top layer of a pavement that resists skidding, traffic abrasion, and the disintegrating effects of
climate. Also referred to as “surface course”.
Weigh in motion (WIM)

A set of sensors and supporting instruments that measures the presence of a moving vehicle and the
related dynamic tire forces at specified locations with respect to time; estimates tire loads, speed, axle
spacing, vehicle class according to axle arrangement and other parameters concerning the vehicle; and
processes, displays, and stores this information.
Work zone
The area of road construction, maintenance, or utility work and any additional areas of road required for
advance warning signs, tapers, safety barriers, delineators, safety zones, buffers, and any other function
associated with the road project, including alternative diversion routes.
Work zone road safety audit

A structured audit carried out at specified stages in the process defined in the Qatar Work Zone Traffic
Management Guide; specifically examines the elements of temporary traffic management to confirm
compliance with the practices defined in that guide.
Y-intersection
A three-leg intersection in the general form of a “Y.”
Yield line
A broken transverse traffic line across a traffic lane at the mouth of the minor road at a road intersection
signifying that vehicles emerging from the minor road should yield to vehicles on the major road or
roundabout.
Zebra crossing
A relatively low cost pedestrian facility that can offer immediate response to pedestrian demand and
provides priority to the pedestrian across the whole crossing.
Zoning
The division of an area into districts and the public regulation of the character and intensity of use of the
land and improvements thereon.

PART INTRODUCTION TO QHDM AND GUIDANCE
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42 VOLUME 1 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Volume 1
Part 1
Introduction to QHDM
and Guidance
INTRODUCTION TO QHDM AND GUIDANCE PART
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Disclaimer
The State of Qatar Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC) provides access to the Qatar
Highway Design Manual (QHDM) and Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM) on the web and as hard copies
as Version (2.0) of these manuals, without any minimum liability to MOTC.
Under no circumstances does MOTC warrant or certify the information to be free of errors or deficiencies
of any kind.
The use of these manuals for any work does not relieve the user from exercising due diligence and sound
engineering practice, nor does it entitle the user to claim or receive any kind of compensation for damages
or loss that might be attributed to such use.
Any future changes and amendments will be made available on the MOTC web site. Users of these manuals
should check that they have the most current version.
Note: New findings, technologies, and topics related to transportation planning, design, operation, and
maintenance will be used by MOTC to update these manuals. Users are encouraged to provide feedback
through the MOTC website within a year of publishing these manuals, which will be reviewed, assessed,
and possibly included in the next version.
Copyright © 2020. All rights reserved
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | VOLUME 1

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VOLUME 1 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

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Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations.................................................................................................. iii
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Purpose and Intent of the Manual......................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Scope and Jurisdiction of the Manual................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Intended Audience....................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Road Design and Collaboration............................................................................................................... 2
1.5. Organization of this Manual..................................................................................................................... 4
1.6. Integration with Other Publications..................................................................................................... 5
2 Guidance...........................................................................................................................7
2.1.Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.Sustainability................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3. Sustainability Concepts and Definitions............................................................................................. 8
2.3.1. Hima: Ancient Sustainable Best Practice in Qatar......................................................8
2.3.2. Sustainability in Qatar Today..............................................................................................8
2.3.3. International Best Practice in Qatar―Key Considerations......................................9
2.4. Safety in Design......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1. Human Factors in Roadway Design...............................................................................11
2.4.2. Road Safety Audits...............................................................................................................12
2.5. Design for Maintenance.......................................................................................................................... 12
2.5.1. Maintenance Organizations..............................................................................................14
2.6. Context Sensitive Design and Context Sensitive Solutions.................................................... 14
2.6.1. Problem Definition................................................................................................................14
2.6.2. Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context..................................................................................14
2.6.3. Development of the Design Vision and Objectives.................................................15
2.6.4. A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach...............................................................15
2.6.5. Working with Stakeholders................................................................................................15
2.6.6. Community Engagement....................................................................................................16
2.6.7. Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context..................................................16
2.6.8. The Importance of Incorporating Landscaping into Qatar Urban Roads.........16
References............................................................................................................................... 17
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | VOLUME 1 i

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Tables
Table 1.1. Qatar Key Stakeholders in Roadway Project Development...............................................................3

Table 1.2. Qatar Highway Design Manual Organization..........................................................................................4
Figures
Figure 1.1. Integration with other Publications............................................................................................................5
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
CSD Context Sensitive Design
GSPD General Secretariat for Development Planning
CSS Context Sensitive Solutions
HSM Highway Safety Manual
MME Ministry of Municipality and Environment
QHDM Qatar Highway Design Manual
QNV Qatar National Vision 2030
QTCM Qatar Traffic Control Manual
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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose and Intent of the Manual

The Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) was prepared in response to Qatar National
Vision 2030 (QNV) and in recognition of Qatar’s commitment to a long-term plan to develop
an integrated public transport network that supports the transition of Qatar from a vehicle
trip-based society to a modern, sustainable, multi-modal society (General Secretariat for
Development Planning [GSPD], 2008). This manual replaces the version first published
in 1997. The manual declares the requirements for the design of roads in Qatar, provides
general guidance, and acknowledges for the first time the importance of sustainability in
road infrastructure in Qatar. The goal is to achieve consistently safe and cost-effective road
infrastructure for Qatar.
The QHDM incorporates the principles of Context Sensitive Solutions (CSS), which promote:
• A collaborative approach to defining the scope of road projects
• Understanding the potential effects, both positive and potentially adverse, of road
projects on affected stakeholders
• Tailoring each design to fit its unique context as defined by location, terrain, surrounding
land use, and road function
• Accommodating the needs of road users including pedestrians, cyclists, and transit users
The QHDM provides tools and guidance for developing road designs that are environmentally
sensitive and safe for all users. The manual incorporates new knowledge garnered from
research on international road design practices, traffic operations, and safety performance.
In addition, it contains numerous technical changes in procedures and design values. The
reasons and basis for the new recommended values, which have been customized for the
unique needs and conditions in Qatar, are explained, as appropriate.
The road system in Qatar comprises freeways, expressways, and major arterials whose
primary function is to provide consistent, safe mobility at high levels of service. The system
also includes local roads, collector roads, minor arterials and boulevards that have somewhat
different functions and hence different design characteristics. For such facilities, the
manual contains information, guidance, and dimensions for street designs that create a safe
environment for users, including pedestrians and other nonmotorized travelers.
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1.2 Scope and Jurisdiction of the Manual

The requirements and guidance provided in the manual relate to the design of all types of
rural and urban roadways in Qatar. They apply to designs for construction of new roadways
and to projects to improve or upgrade existing roadways. If ambiguity arises over the
applicability of the manual for any particular project, clarity should be sought from the
Overseeing Organization.
This manual contains new and revised technical guidance for road design. Some roadways
designed using the 1997 manual may have elements with dimensions or features that
comply with the values now recommended. The fact that this manual contains guidance that
differs from that in the first edition does not imply that facilities must be reconstructed to
conform to the new guidance. The need for reconstruction is based on objective assessments
of the performance of the road - its operation, safety, and infrastructure condition. Merely
upgrading to current standards is not sufficient reason to reconstruct a road.
1.3 Intended Audience

The QHDM is the primary guidance for the design of all roadways in the State of Qatar. It
is intended for all organizations and professionals in the planning, design, and approval of
both new roadways and existing facilities that undergo reconstruction. The design process is
undertaken by such professionals as urban planners and designers, transportation planners,
traffic engineers, civil engineers, and landscape architects. Effective collaboration among
professionals will be maintained so that Qatar’s roadways are designed to be safe, functional,
and attractive for all users.
Roadway engineers, reviewers, and designers should be familiar with all parts of the manual,
including parts outside their primary interests or roles on projects. In particular, all should
become knowledgeable about the overall project development process, summarized in
Volume 1, Part 5, Roadway Design Criteria, of this Manual, which involves a wide range of
stakeholders for its successful completion.
The term “designer” as used in the QHDM refers to all professionals involved in the planning,
design and approval of a roadway design. Every project has a unique context and features
that require the application of the design values and approaches in the both the Qatar
Highway design Manual (QHDM) and the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM) as well as
professional judgment by the designer. The Overseeing Organization, which is ultimately
responsible for the construction, operation, and maintenance of the roadway project, owns
the final design decision-making authority for each project.
1.4 Road Design and Collaboration

Good road and street designs require effective collaboration, which this manual encourages
by engaging internal and external stakeholders in the design process. Stakeholders should
work together closely from the early stages of design when providing input into development
proposals.

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By involving stakeholders and road planners, designers will be able to provide information
that will enable the various parties to address all modes of transport as appropriate for the
context. Collaboration and consensus are particularly important in cases where the needs
of vulnerable users, such as pedestrians, transit users, and cyclists, should be given higher
design priority. The aim is to create complete roadways that are safe, active, and reassuring,
while maintaining efficient movement of all modes of transport.
This manual was produced through a collaborative consultation process that included
stakeholders who have regular involvement in road projects. Table 1.1 summarizes the key
stakeholders in Qatar who work with the Overseeing Organization to plan, design, construct,
and operate the road system and who were consulted in its development. It should be noted
that the list of stakeholders is not exhaustive and will likely change over time; therefore,
road planners and designers will need to identify all stakeholders prior to commencing any
study or project.
Table 1.1 Qatar Key Stakeholders in Roadway Project Development
Stakeholders
Ashghal (Qatar Public Works Authority) MME - Doha Municipality
Civil Aviation Authority MME - Umm Slal Municipality
Communications Regulatory Authority Mowasalat
Council of Information and Communication
MOTC - Technical Affairs
Technology
Hamad International Airport Ooredoo (formerly Qtel)
Hamad Medical Corporation Private Engineering Office
Internal Security Forces (Lekhwiya) Qatar Airways
Mesaieed Industrial City Qatar Armed Forces
Ministry of Interior (MOI) Qatar Cool
MOI - General Directorate of Civil Defence Qatar Foundation
MOI - General Directorate of Coasts and Borders
Qatar Fuel (Woqod)
Security
Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation
MOI - General Directorate of Public Security
(Kahramaa) – Electricity Division
Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation
MOI - General Directorate of Traffic
(Kahramaa) – Water Division
Qatar Mobility Innovations Centre (formerly Qatar
MOI - National Command Centre (NCC)
University Wireless Innovations Center)
MOI - Security Systems Department Qatar Museums Authority
Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) Qatar National Broadband Network
Qatar National Tourism Council (QNTC)
MME - Al Daayen Municipality
(formerly Qatar Tourism Authority)
MME - Al Khor & Dhekra Municipality Qatar Navigation (Milaha)
MME - Al Rayyan Municipality Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy (SC)
MME - Al Shamal Municipality Qatar Petroleum
MME - Al Sheehaniya Municipality Qatar Ports
Qatar Railways Company (commonly known as
MME - Al Wakrah Municipality
Qatar Rail)

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1.5 Organization of this Manual

This manual comprises three volumes. The first and second volumes contain requirements
and guidelines associated with various design aspects. The third volume addresses the
environmental process and guidance, landscaping, safety, and design Departures. Each
volume is subdivided into parts associated with specific design aspects, as described in
Table 1.2 below.
Table 1.2 Qatar Highway Design Manual Organization
Part Design Aspect

Volume 1
1 Introduction to QHDM and Guidance
2 Planning
3 Roadway Design Elements
4 Intersections and Roundabouts
5 Roadway Design Criteria
6 Design for Priority Intersections
7 Design for Roundabouts
8 Design for Signalized Intersections
9 Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors
Volume 2
10 Drainage
11 Utilities
12 Pavement Design
13 Structures Interfaces
14 Earthworks
15 Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide
16 Geotechnical Risk Management
Volume 3
17 Intelligent Transportation Systems
18 Street Lighting
19 Pedestrian and Bicycle
20 Context Sensitive Design and Solutions
21 Environmental
22 Landscape and Planting Design
23 Design and Operations of Road Safety
24 Road Safety Audits
25 Departures from Standards Process
26 Bus and Public Transportation

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1.6 Integration with Other Publications

The QHDM needs to be understood and used in conjunction with various other guidance. The
closest relationship is with the QTCM (MOTC, 2020). Figure 1.1 depicts some of the linkages
between the QHDM, the QTCM, and other documentation.
Figure 1.1 Integration with other Publications
In addition to the documents shown in Figure 1.1, this manual references procedures and
methods in the Highway Capacity Manual for traffic operational analyses as they relate to
road design (Transportation Research Board, 2010). The Highway Capacity Manual is an
integral part of the road design process in Qatar.

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Road design and operating practices in Qatar are fundamentally driven by the National Road
Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022 (National Traffic Safety Committee, 2013). Qatar has adopted
the Safe System approach and principles, which are reflected in this manual.
According to the National Road Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022, “Qatar’s road safety vision
is to have a safe road transport system that protects all road users from death and serious
injury.”
All users of the QHDM, in particular road designers, should understand their roles and
responsibilities to implement the Safe System approach, which incorporates the following:
• Safe Roads are self-explaining, forgiving roads and roadsides that protect road users.
• Safe Vehicles prevent crashes and protect road users supported by minimum safety
standards, inspections, and public desire for safer vehicles.
• Safe Road Users are competent and comply with traffic laws supported by effective
public education and campaigns, driver training and licensing, legislation, and
enforcement.
• Safe Speeds reflect the design of roads and vehicles, and the protection they offer.
The QHDM is written to inform designers of the implications of their road design decisions
regarding the potential for crashes that produce fatalities or serious injuries. Information
on the effects of design features on serious crashes is included, referencing the Highway
Safety Manual (HSM; American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
[AASHTO], 2010). The HSM was produced over a 10-year period through the direction of
an international task force within the national academies in the United States. It offers
the most recent, science-based information on the safety performance of road designs and
traffic operations, solutions, and dimensions.

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2 Guidance
2.1 Introduction
This section provides guidance on the key themes required to progress through the design
process. The topics of sustainability, safety, ease of maintenance, and context sensitivity
contribute to an overall better result.
2.2 Sustainability
Sustainability is at the core of the design guidance in this manual. The practice of sustainability
is aimed at delivering designs that optimize economic, social, and environmental performance
of highways on national, regional, and local scales. The following themes explain how
sustainability applies to transportation in general and to road design in Qatar:
• Economic Sustainability: Highway design should integrate with the wider national
infrastructure to facilitate economic development. Road design and construction should
deliver transportation services with minimal use of resources. Both regionally and
locally, a sustainably designed highway should minimize the need for design rework and
deliver optimal economic feasibility from the perspectives of capital expenditures and
operational expenditures. That is, the quality specification of the build will last longer
and require less maintenance over its lifespan.
• Social Sustainability: Nationally, economic development is envisioned to improve the

quality of life in Qatar. The QHDM has a significant focus on the health and safety
of all road users: motorists, pedestrians, and cyclists. Emphasis on safety and safety
performance is aimed at cost-effectively reducing crashes, specifically those that result
in fatalities or serious injuries; this is an outcome with clear and significant social
benefits. The importance of incorporating environmental controls and concerns, a high
social priority, also is acknowledged in road planning and design.
• Environmental Sustainability: Demonstrating that highway design practices reduce

various “footprints” such as carbon, water, and natural resources will enhance national
performance against key performance metrics. Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this
Manual, addresses the key environmental themes, aligned with those typically included
in environmental impact assessments, to be considered in highway design. The actions
and guidelines recommended in Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this Manual, should
be viewed as contributing to the overall sustainability of highway design. The content
reflects input from many international highway design manuals and known relevant
practices from established environmental and sustainability assessment systems.

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2.3 Sustainability Concepts and Definitions

The Brundtland Commission (1987) definition of “sustainable development” is internationally
recognized:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Qatar’s social and cultural heritage is both rich and highly valued. Development, including
road infrastructure, done too rapidly or without sufficient study and forethought runs the
risk of unintentionally damaging that heritage. In this context, actions taken to meet present
needs are to maintain and protect features that reflect Qatar’s heritage while providing the
economic growth needed for future Qatar citizens. Within the context of the QHDM, the
following is an appropriate definition for a sustainable road or highway:
For Qatar, a sustainable road or highway is one designed to facilitate Qatar’s economic
development for the foreseeable future without compromising the nation’s cultural heritage,
social quality of life, or natural resources.
2.3.1 Hima: Ancient Sustainable Best Practice in Qatar

The concept of environmental protection (in its contemporary context) emerged in the late
1960s, bringing attention to issues such as water quality, damage to the ozone layer, industrial
pollution, and conservation and preservation of wildlife. The concept of sustainability is not
new to the Arabian Gulf. As researched by Salah and Hashemi (2011), Hima, which literally
means “protected area” in Arabic, can be defined as a community-based natural resources
management system that promotes sustainable livelihood, resources conservation, and
environmental protection for the human wellbeing. The Hima system was practiced for over
15,000 years in the Arabian Peninsula and was modified by the Prophet of Islam (peace be
upon him) by introducing social justice into the governance structure.
Hima principles are at risk of being overlooked in light of various modern theories and models
for sustainable development. The latter are, of course, relevant, but users of the QHDM have
a duty to understand and apply Qatar’s national design guidance manual while recognizing
the ancient Hima principles to plan, design, and construct roads in Qatar. As a result, valuable
resources will be preserved for future generations.
2.3.2 Sustainability in Qatar Today

The QNV was the outcome of a consultation exercise across Qatari society (GSPD, 2008). The
QNV is based on the guiding principles of Qatar’s Permanent Constitution, thus reflecting the
aspirations of the Qatari people. It defines Qatar’s long-term sustainable development goals
as being based on four pillars of development: human, social, economic, and environmental:
The State shall preserve the environment and its natural balance in order to achieve
comprehensive and sustainable development for all generations.

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The QNV development goals are stated in Qatar’s National Development Strategy 2011–
2016, which sets out to achieve “a sustainable framework that assures future generations
prosperity but with a quality of life unconstrained by shortages or inherited ecological
damage” (GSPD, 2011). Programs, projects, and policies are identified in the National
Development Strategy to help achieve the outcomes of the QNV. This includes a commitment
to improved environmental management, which encompasses the following:
• Cleaner water and sustainable use

• Cleaner air and effective climate change responses
• Reduced waste, more recycling, and more efficient use of materials
• Nature and natural heritage conserved, protected, and sustainably managed
• More sustainable urbanization and a healthier living environment
• An increasingly environmentally aware population
• Improved governance and regional and international cooperation
Associated with the QNV is a valuable and informative reference document for all highway
designers, the Qatar National Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Development (GSDP,
2009). This document provides a comprehensive description of the key topics of sustainable
development, water, the marine environment, and climate change.
Qatar’s Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) has made a commitment to

sustainable growth and protecting the environment. It is important for road and highway
designers to consider how to improve the sustainability aspects of their projects during the
design, construction, and operational stages.
2.3.3 International Best Practice in Qatar—Key Considerations

International best practice is a term used to describe methodologies that professionals around
the world recognize as providing the best means of addressing a particular environmental
feature. The QHDM adopts such practices. Many of the best practices were developed in
non-desert environments. In assessing international best practices, there is a focus on those
practices most relevant and of value to Qatar given its environment. In this process, caution
has been applied so that only the following relevant practices (adapted as appropriate) have
been included in the QHDM. Examples of relevant practices include:
• Water Use: Water scarcity is an acute issue in Qatar. Minimizing volumetric demands for
water is generally accepted as good design practice. With water being a scarcer resource
in Qatar than in most other countries, minimizing water use is of critical importance.
The capture and reuse of roadway stormwater runoff is an example of sustainable
applications of this issue.
• Public Consultation: Engaging a wide range of government and non-statutory

stakeholders is a common international best practice. The practice, relatively new to
Qatar, is based on seeking input and consensus for the project and its design features and
details from whomever may be affected by the project. Public consultation is intended

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to produce an improved outcome without expanding the scope of the project or delaying
its implementation. This involves two-way communications, with stakeholders providing
input to a project’s evolution in addition to receiving information from the Overseeing
Organization about the project.
• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: The concepts of reusing, recycling, and minimizing the amount
of materials and natural resources used are the focus of best international practice for
waste management and sustainable use of materials. This is particularly important in
Qatar, because it imports much of its materials and resources for infrastructure. The
State of Qatar is committed to developing recycling. The variety and capacity of facilities
are continually developing, and a market for reclaimed (reused or recycled) materials is
emerging. Over the next 20 years, older roads will require reconstruction, and recycling
of pavement will become increasingly important.
• Marine Environment: Qatar’s coastal environment is unique, and its biological resources
are sensitive to disturbance. Many species are likely approaching their natural tolerance
thresholds of salinity and temperature. The area has low tidal flushing rates and limited
ability to rapidly dilute and disperse discharged wastes. The MME strictly controls permits
to discharge to the marine environment. Designers are now faced with the challenge of
adopting new alternative methods for disposal, including onsite reuse or treatment.
• Sustainable Transport: International best practice for sustainable transport typically

are based on ambient climates that are less extreme than in Qatar. It focuses on the
availability of a reasonably well-developed public transport system, so that people have
a feasible alternative to traveling by car. Qatar is investing heavily in developing its
public transport infrastructure and has significant construction works under way. With a
rapidly rising population and associated traffic volumes, including sustainable transport
facilities in highway design is increasingly important.
2.4 Safety in Design

The safety of users of the finished roads is of paramount importance, as is the safety of
the workers who construct, operate, and maintain the roads. The internationally accepted
model for road safety is the Safe System. The fundamental principles of the Safe System are
focused on humans.
As humans, drivers will make mistakes, which can be errors in judgment, inattention,
or indecision, or driving actions reflecting limitations in their abilities. Designers need to
understand that mistakes will be made regardless of how “good” their design is, so they
need to be aware of how their design can compensate for or anticipate the consequences
of a mistake.
The consequences of a driving mistake may be severe. People are vulnerable and the human
body is capable of withstanding only limited forces before serious injury or death occurs.
Much of road design practice addresses the need to compensate for or absorb the energy and
forces associated with crashes, particularly those at higher speeds. Therefore, safe systems

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include the types and placement of roadside barriers that have been tested and designed to
protect the occupants of current vehicles, which are also engineered with safety principles.
Finally, the Safe System approach is owned by and the responsibility of everyone. Concerning
road planners and designers, many disciplines exist, such as traffic engineers, geometric
designers, environmental planners, and geotechnical engineers. They all may influence the
safety performance of the road that they plan, design, construct, and operate.
The QHDM incorporates these principles. Road designers should understand basic principles
of design so they can make good, context-sensitive design decisions that support the Safe
System approach.
Road corridor is used by multiple modes of transport like cycles, buses, taxis and also metro
and light rail systems.
2.4.1 Human Factors in Roadway Design

As noted above, the human is at the center of road design. Many of the basic geometric
design elements and features of roads have as their basis some particular element of human
performance in the derivation of design dimensions. Basic human performance includes the
ability to see and perceive the road, other vehicles, roadside environment, pedestrians, or
signs; and the ability to steer the vehicle, to control the speed behavior, and to react to an
external stimulus. Driving tasks range from very simple to complex.
Many design “models” of human behavior use measures of time associated with human
driving needs or actions. The QHDM includes explanations of the human factors’ basis for
the roadway elements because this is important for designers to understand. The models
are intended to result in the relevant dimension, value, or road element being successfully
by most human drivers. By necessity, the models will incorporate one value for time, e.g.,
the perception and reaction time associated with stopping sight distance, with this value
taken from controlled research studies of humans. However, the driving population shows a
range of times to accomplish these tasks or actions. For this reason, a designer should not
necessarily be satisfied in meeting a minimum value or dimension. In many cases, more time
to perceive or decide is better.
Drivers will make mistakes by themselves. Designers should recognize and avoid creating
situations that may increase the chances of a driver making a mistake. When drivers are
confronted with too many decisions or actions over a short time, or when they are confronted
with something unexpected, the chances of a mistake will increase. Avoiding overloading
the driver, and meeting their expectations is central to many of the design approaches in
the QHDM; where these principles are relevant, the manual explains this to the designer.
Roads should be “self-explaining,” which is another way of describing the importance of
meeting driver expectations. A self-explaining road reinforces the appropriate driver action
and behavior for the location or situation, whether it is navigating, steering, deceleration and
braking, or lane-changing.

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Certain driving tasks are inherently more complex, with some also involving more severe
consequences if a mistake is made. Road design policies in Qatar are established to minimize
or eliminate the locations where such complex actions and critical consequences can occur.
For example, roundabouts can eliminate the error-prone, high-speed crossing maneuver.
Medians and access control to the roundabouts also eliminate more complex left-turning
maneuvers to places such as signalized intersections, where they can more safely controlled.
2.4.2 Road Safety Audits

Road safety audits are an integral part of project development in Qatar. The QHDM
acknowledges the central role that road safety audits should play in the overall road design
process. Even designers who do not conduct road safety audits should become familiar with
Volume 3, Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this Manual, which discusses audits and how they
influence design. Although any one designer may not conduct a Road Safety Audit, the review
and understanding of what auditors do can be helpful to designers. They are encouraged to
read and become familiar with Volume 3, Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this Manual.
Where road corridors are shared with a light rail system Safety Audits have to be adjusted
and/or specialist rail auditors to be included.
2.5 Design for Maintenance

Many elements of roads and their design dimensions support maintenance activities and
functions. How a road is designed and constructed can support the road’s maintenance, or
make the road more difficult for the Overseeing Organization to maintain. A good design
example is the use of shoulders of sufficient width to allow a maintenance vehicle to park
on the shoulder without hindering through traffic. Another example is the choice of the type
of landscaping used in a median. The type of landscaping and its maintenance requirements
can significantly affect the frequency of workers in the median and their exposure to traffic
risk.
In the course of many design projects, a designer may be faced with Departure from
Standards decisions. In making such decisions, designers need to consider the safety
performance effects and seek to understand the effect the Departure might have on the
maintainability of the road. An understanding is best reached early in the design process by
engaging roadway maintenance personnel as technical stakeholders. Any such Departures
from Standard shall be submitted in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departure from
Standards Process, of this Manual.
Where road corridors are shared with a light rail system road and utility maintenance has to
consider overlapping use of areas and higher maintenance requirements as well as specialist
training and the safety risk associated when doing the work.
Road design elements and their dimensions facilitate many maintenance functions that are
likely to be undertaken during the lifetime of the road. These may include:

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• Inspections
• Installing and removing temporary traffic management
• Cyclic maintenance, including debris removal and cleaning
• Landscaping and plantings maintenance
• Repairing defects, such as potholes or electrical faults
• Major maintenance operations, such as resurfacing
• Demolition or removal of the road and associated structures
Where road corridors are shared with a light rail system permits, isolation and possessions
have to be obtained from the rail authority.
Routine maintenance activities are detailed in the Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual
(Ashghal, Asset Affairs). Design for maintenance is an integral part of the design process,
and it should be considered throughout the design cycle. It should not be left until the end
of design, when changes may be expensive and time-consuming.
The following are typical maintenance issues associated with road projects:
• Providing maintenance pull-outs that enable safe access to facilities
• Providing access for inspections
• Allowing maintenance vehicles to park without blocking splays
• Installing guardrails rather than continuous concrete barriers in areas prone to sand
storms to prevent accumulation of sand on the pavement, which would require removal
or other measures
• Providing safe access to electrical apparatus, such as cabinets and signs
• Designing bridges and roadway approaches that can be accessed for inspection without
traffic diversions or road closures
• Providing safe access to and within medians
• Designing road drainage so that it is easy to clean or is self-cleaning and is not obstructed
by other roadside features, such as signs or fencing
• Providing anchorages for temporary traffic signs in concrete barriers
• Identifying where temporary traffic management devices can be installed safely
• Designing equipment, such as traffic signals, gantries, and bridges, at height so that it
can be maintained safely and easily
The following are typical maintenance issues associated with light rail systems:
• grinding of rails
• re-sealing of joints

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• repairs on transitions between different materials
• rail repair and replacement
• works on switches and turnouts
• electrical & signaling works
• works on stations, etc.
2.5.1 Maintenance Organizations

It is best practice for road designers to consult with the Overseeing Organization responsible
for maintenance at the start of design and then at regular intervals throughout the design
process. This will enable designers to incorporate direct feedback from maintenance
practitioners.
2.6 Context Sensitive Design and Context Sensitive Solutions

The context sensitive design/context sensitive solutions (CSD/CSS) process is a collaborative,
multi-disciplinary approach to transportation projects that encourages stakeholder
engagement, emphasizes the need to consider multiple possible solutions, and commits to
working with the community to select and implement the solution that best addresses a
transportation problem and respects the local context. The intent of the CSD/CSS approach
is to preserve and, if possible, to enhance scenic, aesthetic, historical, and environmental
resources while maintaining safety and mobility.
2.6.1 Problem Definition

Every road project undertaken in Qatar has a basic reason for the investment. Defining the
problem in meaningful terms and sharing that definition with stakeholders is the first step
in the CSD/CSS process. New roads provide access to properties that were inaccessible,
reduce travel times between two locations, and offer alternative routes that relieve traffic
demands on congested routes. Projects involving existing roads may be based on repairing
infrastructure, improving traffic flow, or addressing an observed safety problem.
Successful projects are those for which concerns are well-defined and explained, and for
which stakeholders can offer their own insights to those problems or their own needs.
2.6.2 Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context

Roads are not designed in isolation. They form part of a coordinated approach to transportation
that results in a better-planned locale. The project team should understand relevant policies,
strategies, and plans that may apply to the road, the area through which the road passes, and
the context at a scale wide enough to be appropriate to the function of the road. Relevant
plans would include, for example, strategies for land use planning, open space, pedestrians,
and cyclists.

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2.6.3 Development of the Design Vision and Objectives

Developing a vision and objectives for road projects will identify how the design responds to
context; meets or exceeds the expectations of stakeholders; and adds lasting value to the
community, the environment, and the transportation system. Designers should set out the
vision and objectives and be able to develop strategies for their delivery.
Stakeholders should assist in developing the vision and objectives. They should be invited
to contribute to that development at appropriate times over the course of the project. The
vision and objectives evolve during the design development stages in response to various
constraints, opportunities, and stakeholder input. The designer should identify how and why
changes may need to be made and revise the vision and objectives accordingly.
2.6.4 A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach

The CSD/CSS approach stresses the importance of collaboration. Road projects involve many
different technical disciplines. The Overseeing Organization departments deal with road
design, operations, and maintenance. Agencies external to the Overseeing Organization
have their own responsibilities to the citizens of Qatar, and road projects often require their
consultation, input, and in some cases approval. Users of the project, residents, and business
owners are important stakeholders who have direct interests in the outcome of the project.
Multi-disciplinary teamwork is a key part of the CSD/CSS design approach. Project

management and team leadership are important in terms of coordinating team members and
providing an integrated team approach. This is particularly critical in Qatar for projects with
important delivery deadlines that may be associated with rapidly occurring developments or
external event deadlines.
Projects that follow the CSD/CSS design approach require that transportation professionals
have a role beyond that of technical experts when working with stakeholders and the
community. That role requires understanding behavior, using their role as a resource, and
facilitating for community stakeholders.
2.6.5 Working with Stakeholders

Stakeholder engagement has an important role in the CSD/CSS design approach. Ongoing,
effective, and genuine engagement and communication with stakeholders facilitate
successful project delivery. The approach to stakeholder engagement should be based on
some of or all the following levels of engagement:
• Participation and Working in Partnership: The project team works with stakeholders
to develop ideas and solutions jointly, giving stakeholders a genuine opportunity to help
shape the project development process.
• Consultation: The project team puts forward options for discussion and listens to
comments.

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• Information Sharing: Stakeholder engagement may be less about consultation and

more about communicating an important message to foster understanding about the
project and the constraints.
Engagement with stakeholders should begin at the earliest possible and appropriate
opportunity. Relationships developed at an early stage and maintained throughout the
project generally will be the most productive and effective.
The stakeholder engagement process should be defined clearly in a stakeholder engagement

plan. The plan should set out the proposed stakeholder engagement process for the project.
2.6.6 Community Engagement

The effective involvement of local communities at timely points in the project process is
fundamental to delivering successful outcomes for projects that follow the CSD/CSS design
process. Road projects can benefit considerably from ongoing consultation with community
groups and local residents.
Often, community engagement proceeds concurrently with stakeholder engagement, and,

in some cases, the two may become similar or merge. Community engagement is addressed
in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual,
highlighting techniques and issues suited to engaging local residents.
2.6.7 Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context

Context can be thought of as the character and setting of an area, described in terms of
the area’s physical, economic, and social characteristics. Good design solutions come from
thorough understanding of place and context. Understanding the context is important so
that projects are not developed in isolation from their surroundings. A site’s context should
be appraised so that the design fits its setting and can be integrated into the adjacent
landscape or urban context.
2.6.8 The Importance of Incorporating Landscaping into Qatar Urban Roads

In response to strong interests and preferences of stakeholders, the Overseeing Organization
recognizes the importance of incorporating landscaping into urban road projects in Qatar.
Landscaping contributes to the character of the area and can create a unique sense of place
when done properly with the road integrated into its context.
Urban roads and streets serve many users and functions beyond traffic service for motor
vehicles. Indeed, a well-landscaped and designed road enhances the experience of being in
the area or corridor for nonmotorized users by screening pedestrians from view of the road,
filtering dust, and providing shade for pedestrians and cyclists.
Landscaping is not merely an amenity, it is part of the overall roadway. As such, the QHDM
has been developed with a strong emphasis on identifying when landscaping should be
considered and how it is to be implemented in a sustainable manner that supports road
operations and safety.

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References
AASHTO. Highway Safety Manual. 1st edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials. Washington DC. 2010.
Ashghal. Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
Brundtland Commission. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: “Our
Common Future.” (A/42/427). United Nations General Assembly, 42nd Session. Available at: http://www.
un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm. 1987.
General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). Qatar National Vision 2030. http://www.gsdp.gov.
qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/qatar_national_vision. 2008.
General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). Qatar National Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable
Development. Doha, State of Qatar. http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/ gsdp_en/qatar_national_
vision/qnv_2030_document/QNV2030_English_v2.pdf. July 2009.
General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–
2016.http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/knowledge_center/ Tab/Qatar_NDS_reprint_
complete_lowres_16May.pdf. 2011.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual. 2nd edition. Civil Engineering
Department. 1997.
Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. Doha, Qatar. 2020.
National Traffic Safety Committee. Qatar National Road Safety Strategy 2013–2022. 2013.
Salah, W. and M. Hashemi. The Governance of Hima: A Community-based Natural Resources Management
System. June 2–23, 2011.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington DC, United
States. 2010.

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Volume 1
Part 2
Planning
PLANNING PART
2
Disclaimer
of any kind.
Copyright © 2020. All rights reserved.

PART PLANNING
2

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Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations................................................................................................. vii
1 Highway Strategy............................................................................................................1
1.1.Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Vision, Goals, and Objectives................................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Project Types and Scope........................................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Transportation Planning Process in Qatar.......................................................................................... 4
1.5. Land Use Considerations........................................................................................................................... 5
1.5.1. Land Acquisition.......................................................................................................................5
1.6.Appraisal.......................................................................................................................................................... 7
2 Projects Involving New Roads.......................................................................................9

2.1. Planning and Design Objectives: Provide Mobility and Accessibility...................................... 9
2.2. Planning Development Access for New Roads................................................................................ 9
2.3. Project Development Process................................................................................................................. 9
2.3.1. Development Process for New Road Projects...........................................................10
2.3.2. Project Development Process: Design and Build (D&B).........................................13
3 Project Development Process for Interchange Design Studies (Existing

Reconstruction or New)............................................................................................... 15
3.1. Step 1: Establish Data Collection Requirements and Obtain Data......................................... 15
3.1.1. Develop Interchange Planning and Design Framework.........................................16
3.1.2. Stakeholder Involvement...................................................................................................16
3.1.3. Develop Project Planning and Design Criteria...........................................................17
3.2. Step 2: Confirm Study Approach, Evaluation Criteria, and Decision Process..................... 17
3.2.1. Determine Evaluation Criteria and Technical Approach.........................................17
3.2.2. Develop Design Year Traffic and Select Most Likely Alternatives.....................18
3.3. Step 3: Conduct Interchange Type Studies..................................................................................... 18
3.3.1. Concept Engineering Design.............................................................................................18
3.3.2. Stakeholder Review and Screening................................................................................19
3.4. Step 4: Functional Geometric Design of Screened Alternatives............................................ 19
3.5. Step 5: Select Preferred Alternative, Document and Develop Final Engineering
Plans............................................................................................................................................................... 20
4 Projects Involving Existing Roads.............................................................................. 21

4.1. Unique Characteristics of Projects Involving Existing Roads.................................................. 22
4.2. Design of Reconstruction Projects..................................................................................................... 22
4.2.1. Relationship of Safety Performance to Design Elements.....................................23
4.2.2. Risk Management Guidelines...........................................................................................25
4.2.3. Reconstruction Design Approach....................................................................................26
4.3. Designation of Eligibility for 3R Treatment.................................................................................... 27

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4.4. Design of 3R Projects.............................................................................................................................. 28

4.4.1. Context Sensitive Safety Enhancements for 3R Projects.....................................29
4.4.2. 3R Safety Enhancements for Rural Highways...........................................................29
4.4.3. 3R Safety Enhancements for Urban Roads.................................................................32
5 Functional Classification as a Primary Design Control........................................... 33

5.1. Qatar Road Classification....................................................................................................................... 33
5.2. Definition of Urban and Rural Roads................................................................................................. 34
5.3. Functional Classification in Urban Areas......................................................................................... 34
5.3.1.Expressways...........................................................................................................................34
5.3.2.Arterials.....................................................................................................................................35
5.3.3. Collector-Distributor Roads...............................................................................................36
5.3.4. Collector Roads.......................................................................................................................36
5.3.5.Local............................................................................................................................................38
5.4. Functional Classification in Rural Areas........................................................................................... 38
5.5. Special Corridors........................................................................................................................................ 39
5.6. Temporary Roads....................................................................................................................................... 40
5.7. Application of Functional Classification in Design....................................................................... 40
5.7.1. Key Parameters......................................................................................................................40
5.7.2. Network Connections..........................................................................................................47
5.7.3. Transport Provisions for Non-car Users.......................................................................51
6 Design Vehicles............................................................................................................ 55
6.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 55
6.2. Vehicle Weights and Dimensions........................................................................................................ 55
6.2.1. Abnormal Loads and High Load Routes........................................................................55
6.3. Typical Design Vehicles.......................................................................................................................... 56
6.3.1. Definitions and Principles..................................................................................................56
6.3.2. Design Vehicles......................................................................................................................56
6.3.3. Swept Path Analysis............................................................................................................57
7 Driver Performance and Human Factors................................................................... 60

7.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 60
7.2. Qatar Driver Characteristics.................................................................................................................. 60
7.3. The Task of Driving................................................................................................................................... 61
7.4. Vehicle Guidance....................................................................................................................................... 62
7.4.1. Road Following.......................................................................................................................62
7.4.2. Car Following...........................................................................................................................62
7.4.3. Passing Maneuvers...............................................................................................................62
7.4.4. Gap Acceptance, Merging, and Other Guidance Activities....................................62
7.5. Information System.................................................................................................................................. 62
7.5.1. Traffic Control Devices........................................................................................................62
7.5.2. Road Environment.................................................................................................................63
7.6. Information Handling............................................................................................................................... 63

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7.6.1. Reaction Time.........................................................................................................................63

7.6.2.Primacy......................................................................................................................................63
7.6.3.Expectancy..............................................................................................................................63
7.7. Driver Error................................................................................................................................................... 64
7.8. Speed and Design..................................................................................................................................... 65
7.9. Design Assessment.................................................................................................................................. 67
8 Traffic Characteristics.................................................................................................. 68
8.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 68
8.2. Traffic Volume............................................................................................................................................ 68
8.2.1. Annual Average Daily Traffic............................................................................................68
8.2.2. Design Hour Traffic...............................................................................................................68
8.3. Highway Capacity Concepts.................................................................................................................. 70
8.3.1. Capacity Definition...............................................................................................................70
8.3.2. General Characteristics and Application.......................................................................70
8.3.3. Level of Service......................................................................................................................72
8.3.4. Traffic Operations Analysis...............................................................................................73
8.3.5. Level of Service as a Design Control..............................................................................73
8.3.6. Influence of Design Features on Capacity..................................................................74
9 Access Control and Access Management.................................................................. 76

9.1. General Conditions.................................................................................................................................... 76
9.2. Access Management................................................................................................................................ 77
9.2.1. Basic Principles of Access Management......................................................................77
9.2.2. Access Classifications..........................................................................................................78
9.2.3. Methods of Controlling Access.........................................................................................78
9.2.4. Access Management and Safety Performance..........................................................79
10 Speed and Design......................................................................................................... 80

10.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 80
10.2. Operating Speed........................................................................................................................................ 80
10.3. Speed Variations........................................................................................................................................ 80
10.4. Design Speed.............................................................................................................................................. 81
10.5. Posted Speed.............................................................................................................................................. 81
11 Facilities for Pedestrians............................................................................................. 82

11.1. General Considerations........................................................................................................................... 82
11.2. Designing for Pedestrians..................................................................................................................... 82
11.3. Pedestrian Capacity and Pedestrian Facilities.............................................................................. 82
12 Facilities for Cyclists.................................................................................................... 86
13 Parking........................................................................................................................... 88
References............................................................................................................................... 90

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Tables
Table 3.1. Typical Stakeholders and Their Issues for Interchange Projects.................................................16
Table 4.1. Relative Relationship of Geometric Design Features to Crash Frequency or
Severity by Type of Road.............................................................................................................................24
Table 5.1. Key Characteristics of Urban Roads.........................................................................................................42
Table 5.2. Key Characteristics of Rural Roads...........................................................................................................44
Table 5.3. Network Connections for Urban Roads..................................................................................................48
Table 5.4. Network Connections for Rural Roads....................................................................................................49
Table 5.5. Transport Provisions for Multimodal Users on Urban Roads.........................................................52
Table 5.6. Transport Provision for Non-car Users on Rural Roads....................................................................53
Table 6.1. Maximum Vehicle Weights and Dimensions.........................................................................................55
Table 6.2. Typical Design Vehicles................................................................................................................................57
Table 8.1. General Definitions of Levels of Service (Uninterrupted Flow)....................................................72
Table 8.2. Level of Service and Volume to Capacity (v/c)....................................................................................74
Table 8.3. Average Control Delay Criteria for Signalized Intersection Levels of Service.........................74
Table 9.1. Potential Crash Effects of Reducing Access Point Density............................................................79
Table 10.1. Relation Between Design and Posted Speeds....................................................................................81
Table 11.1. Level of Service, Pedestrian Area and Flow Rates............................................................................83
Figures
Figure 3.1. Example Single-line Concept Plan View over Aerial.........................................................................19

Figure 4.1. Conceptual Relationship between Available Sight Distance and Safety at
Crest Vertical Curves......................................................................................................................................25
Figure 4.2. Safety Edge.......................................................................................................................................................29
Figure 4.3. Paved Shoulder and Rumble Strip Example..........................................................................................30
Figure 4.4. Horizontal Curve Treatments......................................................................................................................31
Figure 5.1. Urban Road Network......................................................................................................................................34
Figure 5.2. Expressway with CD Roads.........................................................................................................................35
Figure 5.3. Arterial.................................................................................................................................................................36
Figure 5.4. Collector Road...................................................................................................................................................37
Figure 5.5. Local Road..........................................................................................................................................................38
Figure 5.6. Rural Road Network.......................................................................................................................................39
Figure 5.7. Illustration of a Road’s Mobility Versus Access Functions..............................................................46

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Figure 5.8. Freeway to Freeway Connection..............................................................................................................50

Figure 5.9. Expressway to Urban Arterial Connection............................................................................................50
Figure 5.10. Rural Freeway to Rural Arterial Connection.........................................................................................51
Figure 7.1. Crash Types and Indicative Fatality Risks at Various Speeds.......................................................66
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | VOLUME 1 v

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vi VOLUME 1 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

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AADT annual average daily traffic
ADT average daily traffic
D&B Design and Build
DHV design hour volume
HCM Highway Capacity Manual (2010)
HSM Highway Safety Manual (2010)
HV hourly volume
ITS Intelligent Transportation System
km kilometer
kph kilometers per hour
LARISA Land Acquisition and Roadway Improvement Strategic Approach
LOS level of service
m meter
MMUP Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning
PPD Public Parks Department
QNRSS Qatar National Road Safety Strategy
s second
3R Resurfacing, Restoration, and Rehabilitation
TMPQ Transportation Master Plan for Qatar
v/c volume to capacity
vpd vehicles per day
vph vehicles per hour
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | VOLUME 1 vii

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viii VOLUME 1 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

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1 Highway Strategy
1.1 Introduction
Planning for new cities or for transportation projects requires close cooperation among
town planners, transport planning specialists, and highway engineers. Transportation
infrastructure serves as the lifeline for the movement of people and goods, and is therefore
an essential component of good national and town planning practice. Transportation
infrastructure requires time and resources to construct, but if effectively managed, it can
promote economic growth and the well-being of Qatar’s population. Before construction of
any transportation infrastructure, transport specialists and town planners should confirm
that the facilities will aid the vision and goals of Qatar’s growth while adhering to the current
and future expansion policies.
Transportation infrastructure is intended for use by the public, who will have an interest
in the type of infrastructure provided, its features and characteristics, and the timing and
schedule of its implementation. The public includes road users, adjacent property owners,
businesses and local residents, all of whom will have different interests and concerns about
the project. It is important to identify and involve all such stakeholders during the planning
stage. This will allow interested parties to express their views and concerns, and thus to
benefit the users of transportation facilities.
This section states the vision and objectives of Qatar’s transport strategy, (based on the
latest Transportation Master Plan for Qatar (TMPQ), Transport Objectives for Qatar) and
provides planners and engineers with guidelines to enable the appropriate planning of
infrastructure projects. In line with the intent of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM),
it promotes the design and construction of highway infrastructure in Qatar to a high and
common standard, which is a basic component of good planning practice.
1.2 Vision, Goals, and Objectives

Qatar’s Transport Strategy vision is to “Promote safe, efficient and environmentally
sustainable transport for people and goods, responding to individuals’ needs for mobility
and supporting economic growth.”
The transportation goals for Qatar are categorized into five areas:
1. Quality of life and community

2. Economy
3. Mobility
4. Environment
5. Finance and governance

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Goals for each area are translated into objectives and described as follows.
Quality of Life and Community

• Provide an attractive and integrated multi-modal transport system to accomplish the
following:
−− Serve the anticipated increase in population.

−− Provide adequate mobility options for people of all social sectors.
−− Increase transport network access for remote and disadvantaged zones and
communities.
• Implement a transport system with minimum adverse effects on quality of life, such as
air pollution, noise emission, or barrier effect of infrastructure.
• Integrate land use and transport planning.
• Respect cultural heritage in alignment and design of transport facilities.
• Improve safety by reducing the number and severity of crashes.
Economy
• A smart integrated transport system and an appropriate infrastructure is vital to
accomplishing the following:
−− Support the existing and future massive economic and industrial growth.
−− Implement an efficient movement of goods, services, and passengers.
• Provide attractive and equivalent access to education sites by all modes of transport.
Mobility
• Identify corridors for large-scale transport of passengers and goods.
• Use an integrated transport system to respond to all travel demands.
• Employ phased development of transport networks for all modes as the long-range
forecast transport demand evolves.
• Provide an effective traffic management system to eliminate current congestion and

delays and help avoid over-saturation in the future.
• Improve safety (and security) of Qatar’s road transport system as part of the Qatar
National Road Safety Strategy (QNRSS)
• Achieve high transport awareness and education.
• Move away from only meeting demand by provision of additional infrastructure and start
with managing demand more effectively.
• Balance transport modes and minimize conflicts between them.
• Improve efficiency and reliability of traffic conditions for motorist and public transport
users by better information systems.
• Provide accessibility to all highway and transport users.

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• Integrate with other modes of transport like railways to provide inter-connectivity and
seamless travel experience.
Environment
• Consider principles of sustainability when developing Qatar’s integrated transport
system, now and in the future, particularly an integration of transport development with
land use development.
• Reduce or minimize energy consumption in transport.
• Increase awareness of decisions makers and planners about environmental impacts of

different transport modes.
• Raise awareness with general transport users about the impacts of their mobility
behavior on the natural, manmade, and social environments.
• Provide more sustainable options for mobility of Qatar’s residents, such as improved
public transport services and more attractive cycle and pedestrian facilities.
• Change transport behavior of residents and visitors to more sustainable modes, adequate
trip lengths, or other preferred options.
Finance and Governance

• Minimize the adverse economic impacts of the car; that is, minimize the costs resulting
from today’s car-dominated transport system on environment, health, and social life.
• Achieve a reasonable cost-benefit ratio of investments in the transport system.
1.3 Project Types and Scope

There are three basic types of projects that involve highway and transportation infrastructure:
• New roads
• Reconstruction of existing roads
• Rehabilitation, restoration, or resurfacing of existing roads (3R)
New roads may include service roads, minor arterials, or major arterials, any of which may
involve new intersections with the existing road network. Reconstruction may include
improvements to existing roads, such as addition of motor vehicle capacity, addition or
enhancement of facilities for nonmotorized users, or a combination of these. 3R projects are
those for which the basic roadway remains, but major repairs to the pavement, bridges, or
other infrastructure are necessary. Both reconstruction and 3R projects typically will include
replacement or major repair of highway infrastructure that has reached the end of its service
life or has been damaged by an external event. Reconstruction projects may include capacity
or other similar improvements.
All project types require preplanning, but because they all differ in scope and purpose, some
require greater planning and scrutiny.

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Road and highway projects that require planning approvals include:
• Highway widening
• Access to new developments
• Intersection improvements
• Proposed new pedestrian and bicycle facilities
• New service roads, local roads, and arterials in a new, mixed development, for example,
retail, commercial, residential, and recreational
1.4 Transportation Planning Process in Qatar

Qatar is undergoing tremendous economic and industrial growth. That growth has resulted in
a rapid population increase and the urgent need to develop infrastructure projects and major
transport projects. The economic and industrial growth are linked to the National Vision that
aims at transforming Qatar into an advanced country by 2030, capable of sustaining its own
development and providing for a high standard of living for all of its people for generations
to come.
The transport strategy developed from the transport master plan provides direction for
the planning authority for a systematic approach in the implementation of transport
infrastructure on the road network. It also calls for the development of an adequate, modern,
and innovative public transport system to accommodate the future transport needs of Qatar.
The transportation planning process identifies parts of the transport network where new
investments in transport infrastructure or redesign of existing facilities would be beneficial.
Proposals are usually developed within the context of master plans.
The Overseeing Organization’s focus is to deliver transport infrastructure in ways that

promote sustainable travel and safeguard the efficient and safe functioning of the transport
system.
A typical planning process considered by the Overseeing Organization for a transport

infrastructure project proposed by a developer will involve the following:
• Receipt of developer’s application.
• Initial review of the project carried out to make sure that local communities are not
adversely affected by development. This could involve a preapplication meeting with
the developer to discuss the project details.
• Submitting of a formal application by the developer to the Overseeing Organization with

the supporting information.
• Meeting with the developer and agreeing upon the terms of reference and the scope of
work for the project.
• Examination of the project by the Overseeing Organization, which then will advise the
developer to undertake a transport or traffic impact study for the project.

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• Obtaining formal comments from the Overseeing Organizations regarding the project
and the transport report.
• Assessing the proposed land use and the impact of the development on its surroundings
by considering the impact on transport and the highway network. For the planning
process, consideration will be given to such, but limited to factors as road classification,
level of service (LOS), highway design, increased traffic and congestion that may harm
the economy, and increased crashes.
• Reviewing the transport report and, for the final planning approval, achieving developer
agreement with the appropriate highway infrastructure design.
• There is an appeal period and process if an application is refused on technical grounds.

Further information regarding different types of appeals should be addressed to the
Overseeing Organization. Scheduling highway planning conditions—that is, agreeing
upon a time scale in which to implement—will be the responsibility of the Overseeing
Organization for highway and traffic works.
1.5 Land Use Considerations

The designer needs to be aware of land ownership issues when developing highway plans.
The variety of land uses and landowners in Qatar can make the acquisition of land for road
infrastructure difficult, costly, or not in the interest of the public. In particular, the acquisition
of areas of special-category lands, such as burial grounds and military facilities, will involve
additional procedures and may require replacement land to be provided.
It is thus important that, in preparing feasibility studies and concept designs, the designer
becomes familiar with the land ownership and associated issues near the proposed program
of work.
Land uses surrounding a road corridor fundamentally affect the design choices for road
projects and similarly affect the expected impact of implementation of such a project.
Consequently, traffic impact studies covering all modes of transport are required for new
developments in order to assess the following:
• The overall transport and environment implications

• The impact of additional traffic on the adjoining highway network
• The internal/external site access arrangements
• Any need for mitigation measures in support of new development
1.5.1 Land Acquisition

As a general practice, the designer should attempt to maintain the existing right-of-way
corridor when planning for road improvement and design solutions. If design solutions
cannot be achieved within the existing right-of-way corridor, then additional land / buffer
area may be required. In such instance, the acquisition of adjacent properties / buffer area
may assist in achieving, geometric improvement solutions for roads and the surrounding
links, interchanges and intersections, in order to provide a continuation of proposed design

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solutions. Land acquisition may also assist in meeting project goals of an improved vehicular
and pedestrian circulation network and meet future demands where poor and acceptable
conditions are identified.
A Land Acquisition and Roadway Improvement Strategic Approach (LARISA) can be developed
to indicate sides of roads where land acquisition should be concentrated and to minimize the
impact of road corridors to one side versus both sides. This approach will efficiently lead the
design process in road improvements and design solutions.
LARISA is based on the site survey, existing land and building assessments, and identifying
project constraints and recommendations.
1. Existing Land and Building Survey

The principles of the site survey are subjective in nature and relative to surrounding land
uses, building conditions, and heights in comparison to adjacent properties, incompatibility,
heritage, or cultural landmarks. The site survey may identify the following features, and
others:
• Towers, residential and commercial

• Single and multi-family residential
• Heritage sites
• Rail and metro stations, utility pop-ups/structures and remote entrances, emergency
exits, etc.
• Vacant land
2. Existing Land and Building Assessment

The building survey shall seek opportunities for parcel acquisition of vacant lands and
demolishing buildings that are old or in poor condition. A strategic approach was formulated
to identify the methods of land acquisition and demolition of structures within the corridors.
The demolition of adjacent properties should provide sufficient room for widening and
realigning the road. On the other hand, various constraints may limit land acquisition and
indicate structures to be avoided. The following are criteria to be considered during the
assessment:
• Likely to be avoided:
−− Native single-family properties, which should have precedence over the leased
residential and commercial sites as constrained properties
−− Buildings that cannot be acquired because of cultural, historical, religious, or

economic restrictions
−− Multi-family residential buildings that preserve the character of the residential

area
−− Buildings in good condition, developments under construction, or new commercial

buildings

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−− Sites or buildings that have architectural character suitable for the area
−− Shopping malls and large business areas
−− Parks and recreational areas.
−− Small strips or sections of land impact on rows of buildings
• Likely to be acquired:
−− Substandard buildings, which are old or in poor condition, and large vacant land,
which are prime candidates for acquisition to accommodate road improvements.
−− Buildings where land use or occupation compatibilities conflict with surrounding

uses and are not applicable to the land use plan
−− Land acquisition on one side of the road only to avoid or minimize impacts to the
opposite side
−− Optimal use of buffer zones to avoid land takes on private properties, especially
with buildings
3. Constraints and Recommendations:

The field investigations shall yield specific recommendations for important buildings,
significant sites, and strategic existing utilities, which are categorized as constraints.
Land acquisition and removal of various stretches of roads confined to one side shall be
considered as part of value engineering approach during strategic planning stage. Constraint
plans should be developed in the early stages of the project. Restricted buildings and sites
should be avoided, if possible, in determining final roadway alignment options or be used as
an analysis tool for option development.
Considerable roadway improvements are needed not only to enhance vehicular and
pedestrian corridors but also to provide the minimum required space needed to make
roadway improvements.
The latest versions of the Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) documents,
Guidelines and Procedures for Transport Studies and Land Acquisition Process, outline
procedures to be followed for assessing the transport impact of new developments and the
MME land acquisition process in Qatar.
1.6 Appraisal
As part of the planning process, the highway project appraisal reflects the need for balanced
improvement across the network. An appraisal is the method of assessing whether investing
financially in construction of a highway provides value to the highway and transport users.
The planning process identifies parts of the transport network where investments in new
transport infrastructure or redesign of existing facilities would be beneficial. Proposals are
usually developed within the context of development plans. The purpose of the appraisal

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is to compare the advantages and disadvantages of various transport infrastructure

improvement proposals. Proposals are prioritized based on the costs and benefits arising
from traffic, economic, environmental, social, and safety effects on the community, both in
the short and long term.
The following are the key steps involved in carrying out an appraisal:
1. Define objectives and constraints.
2. Identify problems.
3. Identify solutions and designs. Develop policies or solutions to meet the objectives and
solve problems.
4. Perform measurement and forecasting. Forecasting the outcome for alternative plans
or scenarios over the life of the project using performance indicators. Indicators should
be operational (e.g., travel time), environmental (e.g., emissions and social benefits),
or economical (e.g., cost and benefit to the community during the life of the project).
Benefits are usually referred to as net present benefits, which are the total project
benefits minus costs of construction, maintenance, land acquisition, and other costs.
5. Evaluate the process of applying weights to the indicators identified in step 4. Weighting
should reflect the Overseeing Organization’s policies, with input from stakeholders.
6. Select a best-value solution. The highest total benefit that may be approved for design
completion and construction as appropriate.
The three levels of appraisal hierarchy are as follows:
1. Strategic: The focus is on developing broad options for consideration. Several alternative
strategic plans should be considered. For example, if a new town is being built to provide
residential housing, it is at this stage that the planner should consider the orientation
and the layout of the town’s road network.
2. Packages: A package is an alternative means of dealing with particular identified

problems. The package approach requires the planner to do the following:
−− Consider the nature of problems and objectives for a particular area.

−− Relate proposed solutions to the defined problems and objectives
−− Consider the impact the solutions have on the area as a whole.
3. Alternative: Alternative designs should be conceived within the context of defined

objectives and objectively identified and described transportation problems. Sound
appraisals require sound and defensible traffic forecasts. In making these choices,
reference should be made to the latest version of MME’s Guidelines and Procedures for
Traffic Studies.

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2 Projects Involving New Roads
2.1 Planning and Design Objectives: Provide Mobility and

Accessibility
A new road will have one of two basic purposes: to enable new development by making
the land accessible to the transportation road network, and to enhance the ability to travel
between two areas or destinations by providing an alternative route to an existing route.
The planning of new roads to serve new development zones should take into account the
proposed land uses of the new development. The amount of road capacity and the types and
volume of travel, including pedestrian and cyclist, will be a function of the type and density
of the development. New road planning and design entails development of a suitable road
hierarchy classification that can be assigned to roads serving both existing and new land
uses. A key objective is the designation and ultimate acquisition of right-of-way width.
2.2 Planning Development Access for New Roads

This section provides planning and design considerations for planning access to development
by new roads and other transport infrastructure in Qatar to be approved by Overseeing
Organization for planning and eventually adopted by the Overseeing Organization for road
works. It includes guidance on the information required to satisfy the transport and highway
aspects of planning applications with particular regard to safety, pedestrians, cyclists, public
transport, service and private vehicles, and parking standards.
2.3 Project Development Process

Road projects are undertaken to address specific transportation problems, such as safety,
capacity, physical features, or accessibility. Generally, road problems fall into three categories:
• Safety: There is a frequency and pattern of crashes well in excess of what should be
expected for the location, with such crash experience potentially treatable by proven
effective countermeasures.
• Demand exceeds capacity: Existing facilities do not meet current or projected traffic
demand as measured by the desired level of service for the facility.
• New development: Access needs to be provided to new developments.
These types of problems may be observed for potential road users, by the motorists,
pedestrians, and cyclists. The problems that a project is intended to address should be

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clearly defined and agreed upon by all stakeholders early in the project development process.
Therefore, it is important to actively involve stakeholders and seek their input early in the
project. See also Chapter 1 of Volume 3, Part 20, Context Sensitive Design and Solutions, of
this manual.
2.3.1 Development Process for New Road Projects

Once a project is planned and recommended for implementation, it goes through the following
major design phases with specific milestones before implementation: scoping, concept
design, preliminary design, detailed design, and tenders. Each design phase should comply
with Volume 3, Part 24, Road Safety Audit (RSA), of this manual. Construction, operation,
and maintenance phases of projects are discussed in other manuals. An exception to this
process is design and build (D&B) project delivery, in which detailed design and construction
are combined into a single phase in the project development process. See Section 2.3.2
regarding the D&B process.
1. Scoping Phase: The project purpose and need, goals, and objectives are defined in the
scoping phase. Stakeholders are identified, and a project manager is assigned to assemble
the project team based on the relevant disciplines involved in the project. The project
team defines project deliverables, estimated budget, and schedule for completion of the
study and design of the project. The team conducts a field investigation of the project to
identify potential problems including impacts to sensitive sites, constructability issues,
level of outreach, and method of project delivery.
2. Conceptual Design: During the conceptual design, strategies that could address the
problem including traffic management, alternative transportation routes and modes,
physical improvements, and other measures are identified, studied, analyzed, and
evaluated. If all strategies other than physical improvement prove insufficient to address
the problem, physical improvement will be recommended.
Relevant information including forecast traffic data and topographic survey information
will be obtained. Alternative improvement concepts will be developed, analyzed, and
evaluated based on project goals and objectives, and presented to stakeholders.
The alternative that meets the project objectives will be submitted for approval and
advanced to preliminary design.
The conceptual engineering design phase will include the following:
−− Gathering available information on location, size, use of the road, and pedestrian,
cycle, and landscape features; visiting the project site to locate sensitive
environmental features; and conducting topographic and utility surveys.
−− Conducting traffic counts and analysis and developing design year traffic
projections.
−− Developing and analyzing alternative conceptual solutions (including multimodal

opportunities) in coordination with stakeholders; preparing conceptual engineering
drawings; evaluating concepts; and identifying the preferred alternative.

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−− Establishing a workable geometric design for the preferred alternative that will
work through the final design without major revisions to the horizontal and vertical
geometry; preparing typical cross sections of structures and other features; and
identifying landscaping constraints and opportunities.
−− Establishing the type, size, and length of structures, including bridges, retaining
walls, box culverts, and other major structures that may be needed.
−− Performing conceptual design of drainage systems, including watershed

delineation, storm sewer system layout, culverts, waterway bridges, and
stormwater management facilities, and utility conflict and mitigation measures.
−− Performing analysis of constructability and maintenance of traffic and conceptual

design of traffic management and intelligent transportation system (ITS) plans.
−− Establishing limits of right-of-way, identifying land and parcels that need to be

acquired.
−− Assessing the environmental impacts of the preferred alternative, obtaining

stakeholders’ approval, and securing the required permits and approvals.
−− Conducting a value engineering review and incorporating its finding into the
design.
−− Undertaking an RSA in accordance with Volume 3, Part 24, Design and Operations
of Road Safety, of this Manual.
−− Developing quantities and estimated construction cost for the project, and
documenting pros and cons of the preferred alternative.
−− Conducting mandatory reviews and quality controls subject to approval from the
3. Preliminary Design: Once the preferred alternative is selected and approved, the project
will be advanced to preliminary design. The preliminary design phase is very important.
Sufficient engineering design details of the selected concept will be developed and
evaluated to verify that there are no unforeseen problems in the design. Departures and
required permits will be identified and the application process will begin. A detailed cost
estimate and construction schedule will be developed based on the preliminary design
plans. The project delivery method, e.g., design, tender, and construct or design and
build, will also be decided during the preliminary design phase. Engineering activities in
this phase include the following:
−− Design and further refinement of roadway geometry
−− Design of drainage systems, erosion and sediment controls, and storm water
management facilities
−− Design of structures and bridges, traffic control features, and ITS
−− Design of landscaping features and multi-use paths and trails

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−− Identification of utility conflicts and relocations options, utility designs, and utility
field inspection
−− Conducting constructability analysis, and preparing maintenance of traffic and

construction staging plans
−− Conducting and documenting mandatory reviews and quality controls.
−− Obtaining approval for right-of-way expropriations
of Road Safety, of this Manual
−− Revising and updating quantities, cost estimates, and schedule
−− Applying for and obtaining required permits from the Overseeing Organization
4. Detailed Design: Final design comprises the following activities:
−− Finalizing the design and producing final plans for roadways, drainage systems,
erosion and sedimentation control, and stormwater management systems.
−− Finalizing the design for and producing final plans for structures and bridges,
traffic control devices/ITS, landscaping, and multi-use facilities, and so on.
−− Finalizing right-of-way plans; preparing utility impacts analysis and producing

utility composite plans for existing utility relocations and for proposed utilities.
−− Obtaining all required permits.
−− Performing constructability and maintenance of traffic analyses, and preparing

construction staging and traffic management plans.
−− Authorizing right-of-way expropriation and utility relocation or installation, or both.
−− Making necessary preparations for construction advertisement and tender.
−− Conducting and documenting mandatory reviews and quality controls.
5. Pre-tender Phase: The pre-tender phase includes the following activities:
−− Prepare construction cost estimate, specifications, and construction schedule for

the project with sufficient details and milestones based on the final plans and
quantities.
−− Secure required permits, certifications, and approvals.
−− Prepare an overview of the project for the contract department including general
information, factors considered in preparing cost and schedule, and known issues
that could affect the project, along with supporting documentation for cost and
schedule.

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2.3.2 Project Development Process: Design and Build (D&B)

The process for developing plans up to the end of the conceptual design stage for D&B
projects is generally the same as that for a design, tender, and construct project. Limited
investigation and engineering and design can be necessary to identify key risks and
opportunities to be included in the D&B tender. More detailed engineering and design is not
required prior to tender for a D&B project, as it limits the D&B team’s scope for innovation.
However, a value engineering study is recommended for large projects.
Once a decision is made to use the D&B delivery method, the project team will use the
conceptual engineering plans to develop the tender documents, including project limits,
scope of work, outline schedule, employer’s requirements, and special provisions. A cost
estimate will need to be prepared to assess tenders. Rights-of-way need to be conservative,
within reason, at the concept phase for a D&B project to provide bidders scope for innovation.
Following the concept design, the process for D&B projects differs from the design, tender,
and construct process. Development of preliminary design and construction plans and
construction of the project will be the responsibility of the successful D&B tenderer’s team.
The D&B team will begin mobilization and construction work before completion of the design
stages.

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3 Project Development Process

for Interchange Design Studies
(Existing Reconstruction or
New)
Selecting and designing the best-value interchange combines application of the technical
background described above with site- or location-specific knowledge and data. The
importance of interchanges to the functionality of the overall highway network demands
careful study to determine the best solution. The design process starts with an understanding
of the basic goals, objectives, and need for the interchange project.
3.1 Step 1: Establish Data Collection Requirements and Obtain

Data
At a minimum, the following data and information are necessary to conduct a study to
determine the appropriate interchange type and to advance it through final engineering
design:
• Design year average daily and design hour traffic forecast for freeway approaches,
crossroad, ramps, and all peak hours turning movements. If the new interchange is within
4 kilometers (km) of an adjacent interchange, traffic forecast data for that interchange
should be obtained to understand the operational effects on it.
• Aerial photography and base-mapping allowing for planning studies at suitable scales of
typically 1:2500 for concept planning and eventual preliminary engineering at 1:1000
and 1:500 scales.
• Ownership of land in all quadrants of the proposed location and along the crossroad.
• Knowledge of important cultural, historic, environmental, mosques, schools, parks and

public safety facilities, or other lands and land uses near the interchange. Note that
awareness of these goes beyond potential right-of-way needs and encompasses such
factors as noise, visual effects, and presence of pedestrians.
• Plans and inspection reports for existing highway and bridge infrastructure at the
proposed location.
• Study / Capture if any possibility for stage construction.
• Plans of known utilities, both above and below ground.
• Data on soil conditions.

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3.1.1 Develop Interchange Planning and Design Framework

Key early decisions and actions will affect the progress of the study. The nature of
interchange projects is that many public, governmental, and private stakeholders may have
a direct interest in one or more aspects of the study, including regulatory permissions and
approvals.
3.1.2 Stakeholder Involvement

Key stakeholders are any agency or individual with a direct interest because of the location
of the study, or because of their role in providing information and data, in reviewing, in
issuing permits, or in accepting and approving the project. Early notice to such stakeholders
facilitates their input when needed, thus reducing the time and cost to complete the project.
Early notice and engagement avoid problems associated with unforeseen conflicts.
For major interchange projects or projects in urban areas affecting many stakeholders, best
practice is to formally engage them in early meetings and dialogue, referred to as chartering.
Table 3.1 summarizes suggested representative stakeholders and both the issues and
potential inputs they may provide to the project.
Table 3
‎ .1 Typical Stakeholders and Their Issues for Interchange Projects
Stakeholder Issue or Concern

Overseeing Organization: Project is designed in accordance with standards; adequate review and
Design approval of Departures.
Overseeing Organization: Project will operate as intended (LOS, safety performance); operation of
Traffic traffic controls.
Overseeing Organization: Project bids will be acceptable; constructability within schedule and
Construction budget.
Overseeing Organization: Need for maintenance of all project elements, safety of maintenance
Maintenance workers.
Overseeing Organization: Landscaping of public places, planting of trees, traffic island planting, and
Public Parks maintenance of landscaping and public parks.
Incorporation of bus stops or light rail/metro stations near interchange on

Transit Agency
crossroad; safety of pedestrians.
Utilities Need for and timing of relocated utilities.
Potential acquisition, noise from traffic, dust and other impacts of

Adjacent Landowners construction, changes in access to their properties, visual effects, timing,
and length of construction.
Highway Users Safety of the interchange, reductions in delay or travel time after
construction, detours, or delays during construction.
Ministry of Municipality and Protection of proximate environmental resources, permitting, and

Environment approvals.
Law Enforcement Ability to enforce traffic laws, safety of the interchange.

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A chartering meeting may include the following:
• Background introduction of the need for the project

• Introduction of key project staff, including contact information
• Presentation of the planned public outreach program
• Intended schedule for the study, design, and construction
• Opportunity for stakeholders to present issues or concerns at the outset
• Discussion of issues regarding property or interest that may not be known from public
records
3.1.3 Develop Project Planning and Design Criteria

The entity conducting the study, consulting with appropriate agency stakeholders including
the Overseeing Organization, should develop, distribute, and present the design criteria for
the project. These should include design speeds of all elements, design year and basis for
design year traffic, design LOS for all elements, design vehicles, drainage design criteria,
and design standards to be used, including specific entrance and exit design details. At this
stage, criteria determined to be appropriate for use that are outside the QHDM-published
criteria are understood to be subject to a Departure. Best practices are for such criteria to be
discussed fully before initiating major work, with concurrence from or at least notice to the
Overseeing Organization of the reasons for the Departure, and agreement to proceed using
the proposed criteria.
3.2 Step 2: Confirm Study Approach, Evaluation Criteria,

and Decision Process
The planning and design framework includes an affirmation of the technical approach to the
work. This should be as outlined in the scope of work for the project, but before it begins,
concurrence on methods, data, and necessary assumptions where no data exist should be
reached. Such methods may include capacity and operational analysis methods that are both
large- and small-scale, and quantitative safety analyses.
3.2.1 Determine Evaluation Criteria and Technical Approach

The key technical factors that will drive the selection of one alternative over another should
be identified, which should shape the detail and level of effort in addressing them. Although
every project is unique, the following factors generally will be of sufficient importance:
• Estimated initial cost of construction
• Measures of traffic service, such as travel time, delays, queuing, and LOS
• Right-of-way acquisitions, including not only cost but also types of businesses,
residences, or other uses affected or displaced
• Accessibility to side roads and private properties
• Environmental issues requiring mitigation

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• Assessment of safety performance
• Perform cost / benefit Analysis
• Constructability
To the extent possible, those charged with making the final decision on which alternative to
select should communicate the relative importance of these factors.
3.2.2 Develop Design Year Traffic and Select Most Likely Alternatives
The next step is to develop design year traffic as intended, and then, with reference to
the guidance presented in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway
Corridors, of this Manual, identify the most likely reasonable alternatives for the location.
These will depend on the functional classification of each road, design year traffic, general
knowledge of the spatial and quadrant-specific requirements for each interchange form, and
understanding of the most likely or only vertical crossroad/freeway relationship.
For service interchange projects, there may be as many as six reasonable options representing
basic forms and variants thereof. For system interchange projects, at least three and often
more solutions may be worthy of study.
3.3 Step 3: Conduct Interchange Type Studies

The process for efficient and complete interchange studies is stepped and begins with as
many likely alternatives as are evident, then proceeds through increasing level of technical
detail to screen those down to a single preferred alternative.
3.3.1 Concept Engineering Design

The following is completed for each concept, identified for study:
• Size each interchange concept using design year traffic and quick capacity techniques.
Sizing refers to determining the preliminary numbers of lanes for ramps, ramp terminal
intersections, roundabouts, crossroad bridges, auxiliary lanes on freeway.
• Develop concept level design in plan view over aerial photography. A sufficiently skilled
and knowledgeable designer can develop appropriate geometry without having to
conduct profile studies. The designer can estimate limits of bridges and retaining walls,
approximate right-of-way, and potential encroachments on properties. Figure 3.1 is an
example of such a concept.
• Using this information, an approximate, comparative construction cost estimate can

be prepared. As the interchanges should be operationally comparable, the process of
screening focuses on costs, right-of-way, and environmental or special local issues.

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Figure ‎3.1 Example Single-line Concept Plan View over Aerial
3.3.2 Stakeholder Review and Screening

Depending on the project’s sensitivity and importance, conduct external stakeholder or
public meetings to present the alternatives under consideration and their attributes. Such
meetings may apprise designers of previously unknown specific issues or impacts associated
with one or more alternatives. Each design phase should comply with Volume 3, Part 24,
Road Safety Audits (RSA), of this Manual.
Consult with agency and regulatory stakeholders. As a minimum, they should communicate
fatal flaws or issues that may, if not resolved, present major schedule or cost impacts not
previously apparent. They may express views representing their agency on the alternatives
that the Overseeing Organization should consider.
Decision-makers can then screen the alternatives down to the most reasonable two, or at
most three.
For simple two-level service interchange projects, it may be possible to select the best value
solution. For multilevel system interchanges with complex geometry and significant costs,
the next step is generally required.
3.4 Step 4: Functional Geometric Design of Screened

Alternatives
An alternative proceeding to this stage should have no environmental or other problems that
would hinder its selection. Assuming more than one alternative remains viable, designers
next conduct preliminary geometric design studies at an acceptable scale as agreed with the

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Overseeing Organization in three dimensions. Plan view, profile in the detailed design stage,
and intersection design studies are conducted. The latter include details such as intersection
or roundabout geometry, left- and right-turn lengths, signal phasing, and operations. Concept
level bridge studies determine most likely type, depths, widths, and ancillary structures such
as retaining walls. To facilitate a decision, additional concept studies of drainage, lighting,
and signing may be conducted. Designers shall ensure that the design complies to the Safe
System Approach as per Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this
Manual. With three-dimensional plans, earthwork can be developed as part of the detailed
design, enabling firm estimates of right-of-way acquisition. At this stage, differences in
construction staging or maintenance of traffic along the freeway should be understood and
documented.
This phase of work may include micro-simulation studies of freeway and or crossroad
operations. These can provide more complete measures of traffic performance, which may
help differentiate between, say a partial cloverleaf (PARCLO) interchange and a diamond, or
between a signalized diamond and a roundabout diamond interchange. Finally, quantitative
safety analyses using the Highway Safety Manual (HSM; American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2011) can be performed to develop
comparisons of the difference in predicted crash types and severities.
At this level of design, all necessary significant Departures should be known and presented
to Overseeing Authority in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards
Process, of this Manual. They should be fully discussed to the point that, should an
alternative be selected, there is confidence that any Departures associated with it will be
found acceptable.
3.5 Step 5: Select Preferred Alternative, Document and Develop

Final Engineering Plans
With all the above detail, there is sufficient technical information for the Overseeing
Organization to determine a preferred alternative. Once a decision is made, completion of all
final engineering plans can proceed.
Documentation of the recommended plan, including the following, provides the background
to explain and defend the project:
• Stakeholders consulted and their input
• Alternatives considered, including summaries of those screened out
• Design plans and supporting technical information on alternatives with completed

functional design
• Construction cost models, assumptions and estimates
• Environmental clearances and other permits required or obtained
• Departures subject to final approval

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4 Projects Involving Existing

Roads
The Overseeing Organization may undertake projects involving existing roads. There are
four main reasons for such projects, associated with modes of travel:
• An observed or expected traffic operational problem, such as bottlenecks or low LOS
• An observed safety problem, as identified through a science-based assessment of crash

frequency and severity
• An identified need to provide access to a new adjacent development
• Pavement or other road infrastructure in a state of disrepair
Projects involving existing roads are named 3R for Resurfacing, Restoration, and
Rehabilitation. Examples of 3R projects include:
• Pavement that has reached its useful life and requires complete replacement, including
potentially the subgrade, shoulders and curbing
• Removal of a bituminous overlay to a concrete pavement and replacement with a new

overlay
• Replacement of roadside barriers such as guardrail
• Bridge re decking
• Major repairs or replacements to a bridge substructure
Other certain work efforts related to infrastructure condition are fundamentally preventative
maintenance activities. These may include minor pavement repairs such as seal coats, full-
width patching, crack sealing, and thin plant mix resurfacing for sealing of the pavement
surface, correcting minor surface irregularities, and other similar repairs. Curb repairs
or replacement, replacement of drainage inlets, and other similar activities are also
fundamentally preventative maintenance in nature. These repair types are an important
part of the Overseeing Organization’s overall mission. Maintenance repair activities are not
considered to be 3R or reconstruction projects.

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4.1 Unique Characteristics of Projects Involving Existing Roads

Projects involving existing roads fundamentally differ from those involving new roads for
several important reasons. First, there is a proven and observable set of traffic operational
and safety performance measures for an existing road. These should be referenced to
determine the nature and extent of any problem.
Second, in most cases there is fixed right-of-way for the existing road, around which land
development typically has occurred. In urban areas development typically will involve
buildings and other private infrastructure immediately contiguous with the right-of-way.
Projects involving existing roads require designers to understand the context and to be
creative in developing solutions within the right-of-way, because any major realignment or
widening has the potential for producing substantial impacts to many property owners and
stakeholders.
A third unique aspect of projects involving existing roads is they have in place a roadway
with fixed geometric conditions. The road will have been designed to standards employed
at the time of its initial construction. Some roads may predate the 1997 QHDM. As this
edition of the QHDM includes some revisions to geometric design criteria based on research
advances, it is possible that an existing road may have geometric features that do not meet
the updated, current version of QHDM design standards.
Design standards are a means to an end. The end desired is measurable or expected
performance with respect to either safety, operations, or both. An existing geometric feature
or dimension that does not meet current design criteria does not automatically require
reconstruction to meet such criteria. Such practice is a sub-optimal use of resources and may
produce unnecessary inconvenience to road users and stakeholders affected by construction
activities. Decisions under a best-value approach shall be based on a review and analysis of
the existing roadway’s performance.
Projects of the above nature will be considered as either 3R projects or reconstruction

projects. The Overseeing Organization will make the determination for project eligibility for
3R treatment using the criteria discussed below.
4.2 Design of Reconstruction Projects

Reconstruction projects will be those for any of the following:
• The demonstrated project need goes beyond mere infrastructure repair, to include a
known quantitative safety problem or a known operational problem.
• The project involves the redesign or reclassification of a roadway to serve new types of
trips or travel not previously included along the route, such as cycle paths or dedicated
transit only lanes; widening; conversion of intersection type such as roundabout to
signalized intersection.

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• The project is bridge replacement which specifically includes improvements to vertical

clearance.
• The project converts a temporary road to a permanent road.
• The Overseeing Organization determines that the project shall not be eligible for 3R
treatment, as described above.
Reconstruction projects will involve substantial revision to the functionality and three-
dimensional character of the road. Reconstruction projects shall be designed and
reconstructed using the design criteria in the QHDM.
Challenges unique to reconstruction versus new construction projects include these:
• Right-of-way typically is limited, with adjacent development already established. Even

minor strip acquisitions may create significant damage to adjacent properties, in some
cases necessitating entire acquisition.
• In most cases, it will be necessary to maintain traffic flow along the roadway during
reconstruction. This includes through traffic, intersection movements, and access to
business, retail, and residential land uses. Existing underground utilities are in place.
These constraints will influence the suitability of design solutions and may limit the
ability to make more than minor changes to vertical alignment.
The full design process for new roads applies to reconstruction projects, including
development of design alternatives and evaluation of potential Departures from Standards.
Departures may be significant for such projects.
4.2.1 Relationship of Safety Performance to Design Elements

The acceptance of Departures from Standards generally will be greater for reconstruction
projects. A project may be designated for reconstruction based on a review of its crash
history, but the types and locations of crashes may be such that certain design elements
or locations along the road may not require full geometric redesign. Thus, for example, a
decision may be made to flatten a horizontal curve but to retain the vertical alignment, even
though there are nominally substandard elements.
Table 4.1 summarizes the known relative importance of roadway elements in safety
performance, crash frequency, and severity of different roadway types and contexts.
Not every geometric element is of equal importance in influencing safety performance.

Moreover, the contribution to safety performance of an element varies by type of road.
Table 4.1 serves as a reference in making decisions on retaining existing road geometry to
avoid major costs and conflicts. Refer to the AASHTO HSM (2010) for more details on the
specific elements and road types.

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Table ‎4.1 Relative Relationship of Geometric Design Features to Crash Frequency or Severity by
Type of Road
Road Type and Intersections
Rural Urban
Urban Arterials
Rural Multilane
and Collectors
Roadway Design Elements
Unsignalized
Roundabout
Rural 2-lane
intersection
intersection
Expressway
Signalized
Multilane
Freeway
Cross Section
Lane Width 🌕 🌕 🌕 🌕 — — — —
Cross Slope — 🌕 🌕 — — — — —
Shoulder Width ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ — — — —
Shoulder Type (Paved, Unpaved) 🌕 🌕 🌕 🌕 — — — —
Presence of Rumble Strips ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ — — — —
Sideslope ✓ 🌕 🌕 ✓ — — — —
Clear Zone ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ — — — —
Presence of Roadside Barrier ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ — — —
Presence of Median ✓ NA ✓ √ ✓ — — —
Width of Median ✓ NA ✓ √ ✓ — — —
Alignment
Horizontal Curvature (Radius) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ — NA NA ✓
Length of Curve 🌕 ✓ 🌕 🌕 — NA NA NA
Presence of Spiral 🌕 ✓ 🌕 🌕 — NA NA NA
Superelevation — 🌕 — — — NA NA NA
Grade — ✓ 🌕 — — NA NA NA
Length of Vertical Curve — 🌕 — — — NA NA NA
Stopping Sight Distance — 🌕 — — — NA NA NA
Presence of Weaving Sections ✓ NA NA ✓ ✓ NA NA NA
Length of Weaving Sections ✓ NA NA ✓ ✓ NA NA NA
Location of Ramps (Left vs. Right) ✓ NA NA ✓ NA NA NA NA
Other
Frequency of Driveways NA ✓ — NA ✓ NA NA NA
Frequency of Intersections NA ✓ ✓ NA ✓ NA NA NA
Type of Intersections (Traffic Control) NA — — NA — NA NA NA
Intersection Elements
Intersection Sight Distance NA NA NA NA NA ✓ — —
Number of Legs/Approaches NA NA NA NA NA ✓ ✓ ✓
Skew Angle NA NA NA NA NA ✓ ✓ ✓
Presence of Left-Turn Lanes NA NA NA NA NA 🌕 ✓ —
Presence of Right-Turn Lanes NA NA NA NA NA 🌕 🌕 —
KEY: ✓ Significant Effect 🌕 Minor Effect — No Effect NA Not applicable

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4.2.2 Risk Management Guidelines

Safety performance related to roadway design elements and dimensions is a continuum. One
can estimate safety risk by quantifying the three most important factors that relate to crash
risk on all road types:
• How close the dimension or value is to the specified minimum value

• Traffic volume exposed to the element
• Length of roadway over which the element occurs
Marginal differences in a design dimension will have at most marginal differences in the
expected safety performance of the road if any. Figure 4.1 illustrates this concept.
Source: Fambro, et al. Determination of Stopping Sight Distances, NCHRP Report 400.
Figure ‎4.1 Conceptual Relationship between Available Sight Distance and Safety at
Crest Vertical Curves
Figure 4.1 is taken from research on SSD and is illustrative only. The concepts below apply
not only to SSD but also to all other geometric elements.
Existing values for sight distance that do not meet the standard but are short by only a small
amount will produce little if any practical increase in actual risk. Only when the amount of
the deficiency is large might a meaningful increase in crash risk be expected.
4.2.2.1 Effective vs. Selected Design Speed

Taking the minimum design value per QHDM standards as a reference point, a useful measure
of risk is the difference between the “effective” design speed of existing geometry for a
design element, such as, horizontal or vertical curvature, and the selected design speed. This
difference is referred to as delta V (Δ V). Geometry that may not meet the minimum standard
but that is very close to it, with a small value for delta V, can be considered as presenting
minimal risk.

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The following guidelines apply and may be used in making departure decisions:
• Low risk alignment has a Δ V of 10 kilometers per hour (kph) or less.

• Moderate risk alignment has a Δ V of 11 kph to 20 kph.
• High risk alignment has a Δ V of greater than 20 kph.
4.2.2.2 Traffic Volume Exposure

Substantive safety risk is also proportional to the traffic volume on the roadway. For example,
the predicted crash frequency per km for a 2-lane rural highway is 0.15 per year for a volume
of 1,000 vpd, and 2.5 per km for the same road with 15,000 vpd. Whatever the effect of
a geometric element may be, the risk is clearly different depending on the traffic volume
exposure. This same concept applies to intersections, which are point locations in terms of
crash frequency.
4.2.2.3 Length of Roadway Affected

A geometric feature that does not meet criteria for a relatively short length will present less
safety risk than one that is continuous over a longer length.
4.2.2.4 Risk Minimization

In a reconstruction setting, a designer may be able to revise the geometry to some extent
with minimal right-of-way or other impacts but perhaps not fully to the minimum applicable
standard. This may reduce the risk even though the designer is unable to meet the full
standard. Using the above guidelines, a Departure may be appropriate if it improves the
alignment from, say, a high-risk category to a moderate or low risk category. The reconstruction
solution still requires a formal Departure, but it does accomplish some level of improvement
over the existing road.
4.2.3 Reconstruction Design Approach

As noted, designers who are upgrading roads have before them a facility for which they can
observe and measure its transportation performance. This general approach applies:
• Designers should develop a thorough understanding of the context through which the
road passes, particularly in urban areas. This includes knowledge of adjacent uses and
their interface with the road, prevalence of nonmotorized users, and the substantive
safety and operational performance on the road. The concept of context sensitivity in
developing reasonable solutions is particularly applicable to reconstruction projects.
• Defining the problem clearly and specifically, and then shaping the scope of work and
alternative solutions, is critical. The scope and limits of work should address the known
problems
• At the beginning of a project, designers should assess existing physical and operational
conditions affecting safety by using crash data and site inspections and noting existing
traffic operations and characteristics.

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• Suitably qualified safety engineers, who will produce a Road Safety Audit (RSA) Report
independent from the design team should review the safety and design proposals before
final approval is granted.
• At the preliminary engineering phase, before developing final detailed construction plans
and specifications, designers should prepare a design report that documents existing
design and operational characteristics, crash history, applicable design standards, and
design options that were studied. The design report should include proposed design
exceptions that require applications for Departure from Standard to enable their
evaluation, processing and agreed upon project approach in a timely manner.
4.3 Designation of Eligibility for 3R Treatment

The intent of a special designation for a project to be considered to be 3R and outside
the scope of new construction standards as stated in the QHDM is to avoid unnecessary
expenditure of road construction funds and associated disruption to road users, adjacent
landowners, and other stakeholders that full reconstruction and the potential for right-of-
way acquisition would produce.
A road programmed for reconstruction because of physical condition only, not because of
an observed crash or traffic operational problem, shall be eligible for designation as a 3R
project. A 3R designation means that the designer may retain the roadway geometry, with
the project focusing solely on repair or replacement of infrastructure.
For a project to be designated as 3R, the following shall be performed:
• Crash records should be sought and reviewed for the previous 5 years. Focus should
be on evaluating any fatal or serious injury crashes. Should records be unavailable, the
Overseeing Organization responsible for traffic law enforcement shall be contacted
and queried regarding their knowledge of the safety performance of the location. Law
enforcement stakeholders should also provide data and information on the operation of
the road relative to traffic laws, such as records on the issuance of speeding citations.
Knowledge of the safety performance of the existing road is a crucial input to designation
of a project as 3R.
• Qualified traffic safety engineers should review the crash records and other information
and determine the extent to which the roadway design or traffic control, or both, were
contributing factors in any reported crashes. The AASHTO HSM (2010) should be used as
a resource to assess the safety performance of the existing road.
• Studies of speeds during off-peak periods should be conducted to characterize the speed
behavior of drivers.
• A review of the road’s geometric features should outline which features no longer
meet current QHDM standards, and by how much, based on the design speed for the
road under current design policy. For example, limitations in stopping sight distance
can be expressed as the effective speed of the amount of sight distance provided. The

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difference between this speed and the design speed of the road is a direct risk measure
of the amount or severity of the design feature.
• A road safety audit (as per Volume 3, Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this Manual) shall
be undertaken, with emphasis on looking for low-cost, readily implementable solutions
that do not require geometric revisions, but that may support retention of the geometry
and enhance the potential safety performance after project completion.
• The designer shall conduct an engineering analysis of the geometric design revisions
necessary to bring the road to current minimum design standards. This analysis should
include documentation of right-of-way, changes in access, damage to properties
including need for full acquisition, relocation of businesses and residences. The designer
shall prepare an estimate of the additional time and cost to bring the roadway up to
current design standards above that necessary to undertake the repair or replacement
of the infrastructure.
• The designer should prepare a design report documenting all the above analyses with a
recommendation for treating the project as a 3R project. This report should summarize
all the above efforts. A project for which 3R designation is recommended should be one
in which there is clearly little or no substantive safety benefit expected from geometric
updates (i.e., the risk of retaining existing geometry is deemed to be very low), and
in which the costs and impacts to upgrade the road are substantial and unavoidable
should such upgrading be required. The design report shall include a recommendation
by the Designer to the Overseeing Organization on the eligibility of the project for 3R
designation.
The Overseeing Organization shall review the designer’s 3R report and make a final
determination of the project’s eligibility for designation as 3R. Projects involving existing
roads deemed not to be appropriate for 3R designation are therefore treated as reconstruction
projects, as discussed below.
4.4 Design of 3R Projects

The sole purpose of 3R projects is to preserve and extend the service life of roads and
related infrastructure.
• Resurfacing work consists of applying a new or recycled layer or layers of pavement

material to existing pavement to provide additional structural integrity, improved
rideability, improved drainage by reinstituting a cross slope or removing rutting or
restoring surface friction.
• Restoration work consists of restoring or generally bringing back the originally designed
capability of the entire roadway. This may include, in addition to resurfacing, minor
pavement widenings, or addition of paved hard shoulders, culvert extensions and repairs,
other drainage improvements, correction of superelevation, upgrading infrastructure such
as guardrails and roadside barriers to current standards, and other similar improvements.
Restoration work is confined to the existing right-of-way.

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• Rehabilitation may include reconstruction of limited parts of the project’s length, major
repairs to structural elements such as bridges, retaining walls and culverts, bridge rails,
and side slopes and ditches.
3R projects generally do not require additional right-of-way, as the intent is to retain the
original roadway footprint. Construction or temporary easements may be needed to facilitate
the work while traffic is maintained on the road.
4.4.1 Context Sensitive Safety Enhancements for 3R Projects

While designing a 3R project, designers should incorporate low-cost safety enhancements
that do not involve changes to the footprint or the fundamental scope of the project. As
noted, the engineering process for 3R eligibility includes a road safety audit focused on
identifying such improvements.
International research has demonstrated the safety effectiveness of a number of low-cost

and readily implementable solutions that may be incorporated into 3R projects. The following
sections summarize these.
4.4.2 3R Safety Enhancements for Rural Highways
4.4.2.1 Safety Edge

Rural highways with unpaved shoulders present a risk associated with shoulder drop-off,
whereby a driver inadvertently leaving the lane may have the right wheels drop on to the
unpaved surface. The difference in elevation between the resurfaced pavement and shoulder
may be as great as 15 to 20 cm. In correcting steering, the tire wall may scrub against the
pavement, inhibiting recovery to the lane. Driver response is often to jerk the steering wheel,
overcorrect, and encroach into the oncoming traffic lane. The safety edge, shown in Figure
4.2, is a simple 45-degree beveled treatment that eliminates the drop-off and facilitates
controlled recovery.
Figure ‎4.2 Safety Edge

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4.4.2.2 Paved Shoulders and Rumble Strips

Paving an unpaved shoulder produces measurable benefits. Shoulder paving and placement
of shoulder rumble strips can reduce the risk of run-off-road crashes by more than 20 percent.
This treatment in the context of a 3R project may be particularly useful, if there is interest in
promoting cycling on the road. Shoulder paving can be combined with run-off-road mitigation
treatments, such as rumble strips. See Figure 4.3.
Figure ‎4.3 Paved Shoulder and Rumble Strip Example
4.4.2.3 Horizontal Curve Treatments

Horizontal curves are overrepresented compared to tangent alignments on two-lane
highways. The following are treatments with measurable predicted effectiveness in reducing
crashes on curves that are to remain in place (see Figure 4.4):
• Additional edge-line width delineation
• Providing chevrons through the curve
• Paving more of the shoulder through the curve with focus on the outside shoulder
• Providing rumble strips on the approaches and through the curve
• Increasing superelevation on the curve, which may require warping of the shoulder
• Providing advance warning or speed advisory signing in advance of the curve

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Figure ‎4.4 Horizontal Curve Treatments
4.4.2.4 Rumble Stripes

Centerline rumble stripes are an alternative to rumble strips. They perform the same
function but instead of being placed on the edge of shoulder, they are placed in the roadway
centerline. These may apply for roads with unpaved shoulders to remain. Rumble stripes can
be applied in a manner that enhances the visibility of reflectorized paint applied over them.
4.4.2.5 Intersection Treatments

Minor road approaches to priority intersections or approaches to roundabouts on both minor
and major highways may experience the risk of unfamiliar or inattentive drivers insufficiently
reducing their speeds. Longitudinal rumble strips on the approaches with accompanying
warning signs provide both visual and audible stimulus to warn drivers of the upcoming
intersection or roundabout.
4.4.2.6 Dynamic Warning Signs

The use of dynamic warning signs for two different applications is now common international
practice. In one concept, the presence of a vehicle on a minor approach triggers a dynamic
warning sign or flashing lights on the major approach to alert the priority drivers of the
potential for a turning or crossing conflict. In another application, drivers at a stop or yield
line on the minor approach are provided a dynamic warning of a vehicle on the conflicting
major priority road approaching in either direction. The warning devices in these signs can
be solar powered.
4.4.2.7 Intersection Lighting

Lighting an unlit intersection may also be considered if there are concerns over night conflicts
or potential crashes.

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4.4.3 3R Safety Enhancements for Urban Roads

The following are urban 3R enhancements:
• Traffic signal heads may be increased in size or converted to light emitting diode (LED) for
greater visibility. Backplates for signal heads with retro-reflective borders also improve
signal visibility.
• Introduction of pedestrian-only signal phases at urban signalized intersections of

Boulevards and other locations with high levels of pedestrian activity.
• Pedestrian hybrid beacons.
• Signalized, pedestrian-actuated crossings mid-block in locations where nearby signalized

intersections are too far to divert pedestrian crossing demands.
• Conversion of right-turn into yield movements at priority intersections to signalized

control to recognize and address potential conflicts with pedestrians crossing the
intersection.
• Implementation of road diets tailored for use in Qatar on two-lane local and collector
roads. A road diet consists of a dedicated center lane reserved for left-turning traffic
into commercial and other driveways. It may be suitable for Qatar where speeds are low
and commercial driveway movements are substantial. The use of mountable curbs with
hatching can enhance the message of the median as being reserved only for left turns.
One of the most common applications of a road diet is to improve safety or provide space
for other modes of travel. For example, a two –way four lane road might be reduced to
one travel lane in each direction. The freed-up space can be used to provide or enhance
sidewalks and add cycle lanes on one or both sides of the road.

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5 Functional Classification as a
Primary Design Control
5.1 Qatar Road Classification

This section describes the functional classification of Qatar’s roads and provides designers
with a description of the various road classes approved by Overseeing Organization. The
classification of roads into various categories is an important consideration in planning and
engineering. Roads in Qatar are classified as follows:
• Functional: classifying roads according to the type of service they provide
• Geometric: classifying roads according to their physical attributes
• Administrative: classifying roads according to the government agency that has

responsibility and control over them
• Performance: classifying roads according to the LOS they offer
Of these, functional classification is the predominant method of categorizing roads for

planning and engineering. Functional classification refers to the actual or intended use of
a road within the network as a whole and the degree of access or mobility that is to be
provided to adjacent properties.
Several advantages of classifying roads according to their function are as follows:
• Encourages appropriate traffic speeds and operational conditions across the road network
• Improves traffic safety by separating traffic flows with different characteristics by

separating local traffic from through traffic
• Allows specific design parameters to be developed and applied to roads that are within
the same functional class
• Results in easier organization and management of the traffic infrastructure
• Can be designed to minimize the impact on sensitive development areas
The first step for the designer to consider is the function that the road will serve within the
surrounding context. Following this, the designer shall consider the LOS needed to fulfill this
function for the forecast traffic volumes.

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5.2 Definition of Urban and Rural Roads

Urban and rural areas have vastly different characteristics in terms of the density of their
road networks, the extent of their built-up areas, and the nature of their travel patterns. The
two types of roads are defined as follows:
• Urban roads lie adjacent to areas that contain, or zoned to contain, built land use
development.
• Rural roads lie adjacent to areas that are predominantly natural, with little or no adjacent
built land use development.
5.3 Functional Classification in Urban Areas

Roads in the urban areas of Qatar are arranged into five main functional classifications, with
further sub-classifications as described below. Figure 5.1 illustrates how urban roads relate
to one another and serve built-up areas. Figure 5.2 to Figure 5.5 depict each of the four main
road categories.
Figure ‎5.1 Urban Road Network
5.3.1 Expressways
Expressways carry most of the trips entering and leaving an urban area. Traffic along
expressways moves at high speeds and over long distances. Low and high vehicle speeds on
roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of this Part.
Within Qatar’s road network, long distance is typically more than 5 km within urban areas and
more than 10 km within rural areas. Freight traffic and intercity bus routes can travel along

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expressways. The through movement along an expressway is typically grade separated from
cross street movements.
Figure ‎5.2 Expressway with CD Roads
5.3.2 Arterials
Major arterials serve the major centers of activity in urban areas and, like expressways,
accommodate through traffic. Although they have high operating speeds, major arterials
typically intersect at grade with cross streets. Figure 5.3 provides an example of a major
arterial.
Minor arterials offer less mobility than major arterials and place more emphasis on land
access. Intersections along minor arterials are always at grade. Minor arterial roads are also
important for pedestrians and cyclists. Vehicle speeds and volumes are higher on these roads
than on local and collector roads and, therefore, special facilities such as separate cycle and
pedestrian provisions should be provided to the extent possible to improve the environment
for nonmotorized road users.
Boulevards can also be classed as arterials but have a number of special features. They are
located in areas with a high level of retail or recreational frontage. They have wide sidewalks
to accommodate high levels of pedestrian activity. Traffic volumes along boulevards may
be similar to those along arterials but travel speeds will be slower. Boulevards have more
frequent pedestrian crossings. Refer to a cross section of an urban boulevard in Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, and additional information is provided in
Volume 3, Part 20, Context Sensitive Design and Solutions, of this Manual.

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Figure ‎5.3 Arterial
5.3.3 Collector-Distributor Roads

Collector-distributor roads are part of a controlled access facility such as an urban expressway.
They are designed to operate as freeway facilities. On-street parking and direct access to
adjacent land uses is therefore prohibited on collector-distributor roads. They are provided
between adjacent intersections or interchanges to reduce the need for weaving traffic on
the main through route.
5.3.4 Collector Roads

Major collectors distribute trips from arterials into nearby land uses, and also collect traffic
from local roads and feed them to the arterials. Equal emphasis is placed on mobility and
accessibility.
Minor collectors have slower travel speeds and less mobility than major collectors.

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Collector roads may also distribute traffic to and from public transport nodes such as metro
stations and bus stops. Figure 5.4 provides an example of a collector road.
Figure ‎5.4 Collector Road

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5.3.5 Local
Service roads provide direct access to adjacent land uses while also distributing traffic
on to higher-grade roads. They differ from local roads in that they run parallel to collector-
distributors or arterials. On-street parking on service roads is common.
Local roads provide access to adjacent land uses while also feeding collector roads. Local
roads have no formal access control. Through traffic is actively discouraged from using local
roads by traffic-calming measures.
Figure ‎5.5 Local Road
5.4 Functional Classification in Rural Areas

Roads in rural areas are classified into four functional categories. A description of each is
provided as follows.
• Rural freeways connect inter-urban centers. They have high speeds with grade-
separated interchanges and connect major land uses within a large region.
• Rural arterials connect major land uses within a smaller region. They have medium to
high traffic volumes.
• Rural collectors distribute traffic from arterials into local roads. Direct access from
collectors to adjacent land uses is possible.

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• Local roads feed traffic from adjacent land uses and distribute it to collectors. For
example, many local rural roads in Qatar lead to farms and accommodation for farm
owners and workers.
Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of this Part.
Figure 5.6 illustrates how rural roads relate to one another and serve rural areas.
Figure ‎5.6 Rural Road Network
5.5 Special Corridors

Other types of roadway that do not strictly fit into the categories described previously are
considered special corridors and have their own unique characteristics. Examples of special
corridors are described as follows.
• Pedestrian streets are closed to motorized traffic but require periodic access by service
and maintenance vehicles.
• Cycle corridors could be either of the following:
−− Cycle paths are part of the road corridor’s right-of-way but are segregated from the
roadway by level or curbing.
−− Cycle paths are not associated with a road but may be several meters (or farther)
from the nearest road carrying motorized traffic.
• Dedicated public transport corridors accommodate public transport modes only. They are
segregated from the roadway. Examples are bus rapid transit lanes and rail lines.

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• Other types of roads include roads providing access to critical infrastructure, Emiri roads,
roads within military sites, sikkas, corridors, and roads for emergency services.
• Shared corridor where normal road traffic shares the same space with a railway.
5.6 Temporary Roads

Temporary roads are normally requested by farmers and developers in rural areas to provide
access from their lands to the nearby road network. As their name suggests, they are not
intended to be permanent. It is common, however, for such roads to remain in place and
operate as originally constructed for many years.
The Overseeing Organization does not classify temporary roads in Qatar. Therefore, The
Overseeing Organization requires no formal planning process for developers to introduce
temporary roads. However, developers are encouraged to design and construct such roads
to an appropriate minimum standard associated with the apparent or applicable functional
classification of the road.
At some point, the temporary road may need to become part of the formal road network as a
permanent road. In that case, it is expected that the road will need to be designed to QHDM
standards. As noted, temporary road conversion projects shall be treated as reconstruction
projects, with the QHDM standards applying to the road at the time.
The road works Overseeing Organization makes the initial consideration for road works where
the suitability of a temporary road application must be assessed. Regarding the temporary
road application, the planning Overseeing Organization will provide an approval in principle
to the developer to construct the temporary road, valid normally for 10 years.
5.7 Application of Functional Classification in Design

5.7.1 Key Parameters
The functional class of a road will have a fundamental influence on its design. This section
provides guidance on the key parameters for each road class. Given the various competing
factors in any project, the designer may wish to seek approval from the Overseeing
Organization to modify some of the parameters or classifications.
Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 summarize the key functions, characteristics, and design parameters
of each road class for urban and rural locations. The designer should first refer to these
tables to make a preliminary identification of the functional class of the road. An explanation
of the column titles follows the two tables.
The data in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 should be viewed in the context of the design standards
and requirements identified in the relevant design parts of this QHDM. The tables highlight
the need for different parameters in different locations to meet specific demands. The values

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provided are not absolute, they are for guidance only, and key parameters such as traffic
flows, posted speed, cross section, appropriate intersection provision, and access control
shall be in line with the relevant parts of this QHDM.

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PART
Table ‎5.1 Key Characteristics of Urban Roads
Intersecting Right Minimum
Permitted Roads Posted of Way LOS at
Through Land Use AADT Roadway Mobility vs. Intersection Minimum Speed Width Parking Design
Route Frontage Function Flowa Type Accessibility Types Spacing (m)b (kph)c (m) Provision Year
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Mainly free-flow
Not traffic connecting
8- to Primary function Grade-
Urban residential, major land uses 50,000– 80 or
10-lane is mobility. No separated 1,500 64–264 Prohibited C
Expressway or across wide urban 80,000 100
divided access. interchange
recreational area. Medium to
high traffic volumes.

Industrial, or Connect urban 4- to Primary function Signalized, or
Major Urban 30,000–
commercial districts. Medium to 8-lane is mobility. priority right-in/ 600e 50 or 80 64 Prohibited C
Arterial 60,000
preferred high traffic volumes. divided Limited access. right-out
Primary function
Industrial, or Connect urban 4- to is mobility. Signalized, or
Minor Urban 20,000-
commercial districts. Medium to 8-lane Secondary priority right-in/ 150 50 or 80 40–64 Restricted C
Arterial 50,000
preferred low traffic volumes. divided function is right-out.
access.
Primary function
Retail, Signalized,
Specialf arterial. 4- to is access.
Urban commercial 30,000– roundabout, or
Medium to high 8-lane Secondary 300 50 or 80 64 Restricted D
Boulevard or 60,000 priority right-in/
traffic volumes. divided function is
recreational right-out
mobility.
Distribute
Not Grade
Urban traffic between Primary function
residential 5,000– One separated, or 50, 80, Not
Collector expressway is mobility. No NA Prohibited D
or 50,000 directional priority right-in/ or 100i applicableg
Distributorg interchanges. Low access.
recreational right-out
to medium traffic.
20,000– Some
Industrial
Collect traffic 50,000 restrictions
from service roads 20,000–
Commercial and local roads Equal mobility 100 50
Major Urban 50,000 4- to Signalized, or
and distribute to 6-lane and access 32-40 D
Collector priority.
Residential arterials. Low to 20,000– divided functions. Restricted
medium traffic 30,000
volumes. 10,000-
Recreational 50 50
20,000
Intersecting Right Minimum
Permitted Roads Posted of Way LOS at
Through Land Use AADT Roadway Mobility vs. Intersection Minimum Speed Width Parking Design
Route Frontage Function Flowa Type Accessibility Types Spacing (m)b (kph)c (m) Provision Year
5,000– Some
Industrial
20,000 restrictions
Collect traffic
5,000– Primary function
Commercial from service roads 2-lane
20,000 is access. Signalized, or
Minor Urban and local roads undivided
Secondary roundabout, 50 50 20-32 D
Collector and distribute to 5,000- 4-lane
Residential function is priority. Restricted
arterials. Low traffic 20,000 divided
mobility.
volumes.
5,000-
Recreational
10,000
Provide access Primary function
to adjacent land. is access. Signalized, Permitted
Service 2-lane Not
Any Distribute traffic <5,000 Secondary roundabout, or 50 30 or 50 with D
Roadg undivided applicableg
to collectors and function is priority. conditions
boulevards. mobility.
Primary function
Industrial 30 or 50
is access.
Minor function 20-24
30 or Permitted
Commercial is mobility.
2-lane 50h with
Through traffic Signalized,
Urban Local Provide access to undivided conditions
<5,000 is discouraged roundabout, or As required D
Road adjacent land. 4-lane 30 or
Residential with traffic- priority.
divided 50h
calming.
10-24d
Minimal mobility
30 or
Recreational and access Restricted
50h
functions.
Notes:
a
Indicative values, neither minimums nor maximums.
b
Taken from intersecting road centerlines.
c
Expected posted speed values quoted, other posted speeds may be appropriate and should be agreed upon with the Overseeing Organization before use.
d
New roads shall have a minimum Right of Way width of 20 meters.
e
One access to development between intersecting roads permitted at mid-point.
f
Adjacent to high-quality development where lower vehicle speeds and greater integration of nonmotorized users is required or demanded.
g
PLANNING
Collector-distributor and service roads are included within the right-of-way of other road types.
h
An exception would be 30 kph with traffic calming, signage, and markings where categorized as “urban streets”. For example, in the vicinity of schools.
i

Collector distributor roads are part of the freeway or expressway system. As per Clause 3.4.5 of Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this
2
Manual, their design speed should be the same as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline.
PART
43
44
2
Table ‎5.2 Key Characteristics of Rural Roads PART
Intersecting Right- Minimum

Permitted Roads, Posted of-Way LOS for
Through AADT Roadway Mobility vs. Intersection Minimum Speed Width Parking Design
Route Function Flowa Type Accessibility Types Spacing (m)b (kph)c (m) Provision Year
PLANNING
Connect regions and major

cities on national and
6-lane Maximum Grade-
Rural international scale. Free- 100 or
> 8,000 divided, mobility. No separated 3,000 264 Prohibited B
Freeway flowing traffic. Capable of 120
or more accessd. interchange.
accommodating high traffic
volumes.

Primary Grade
Rural Distribute traffic between
5,000– One function is separated, or 80, 100 Not
Collector freeway interchanges. Low NA Prohibited C
50,000 directional mobility. No priority right- or 120f applicablee
Distributoref to medium traffic.
access. in/ right-out
Primary
Connect major land uses Grade-
function is
Rural within a smaller region. 2,000– 4-or 6-lane separated, 80 or
mobility. 1,000 64 Prohibited C
Arterial Medium to high traffic 8,000 divided signalized, or 100
Limited access
volumes. roundabout.
possible.
2-lane
Collect and distribute traffic Equal mobility Permitted
Rural 1,000– undivided Signalized, or
to adjacent rural land uses. and access 500 50 or 80 24−40 with D
Collector 2,000 4-lane roundabout.
Medium traffic volumes. functions. conditions
divided
Primary
function
Permitted
Rural Local Provide access to adjacent 2-lane is access. Roundabout,
< 1,000 As required 50 20 with D
Road rural property and land. undivided Secondary or priority.
conditions
function is
mobility.
Notes:
a
Indicative values, neither minimums nor maximums.
b
Taken from intersecting road centerlines.
c
Expected posted speed values quoted, other posted speeds may be appropriate and should be agreed upon with the Overseeing Organization before use.
d
Conditional access to petrol stations and rest areas permitted.
e
Collector-distributor and service roads are included within the right-of-way of other road types.
f
Collector distributor roads are part of the freeway or expressway system. As per Clause 3.4.5 of Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this
Manual, their design speed should be the same as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline.
PLANNING PART
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5.7.1.1 Land Use Frontage (Urban Roads Only)

The level of access and on-street parking required from a road depends on the land uses
adjacent to the road. This parameter refers to the four land use categories appropriately
adjacent to each road class:
• Industrial: Includes activities associated with manufacturing, storage (warehouses),

logistics, and military facilities.
• Commercial: Includes offices, shopping malls, retail outlets, strip malls, restaurants,
banks, hotels, and business districts such as West Bay.
• Residential: Includes villas, townhouses, and apartments. Buildings that comprise

apartments but have significant retail facilities on the ground floor should be regarded
as commercial.
• Recreational: Includes sports facilities (for example, leisure centers, gymnasiums, and
stadiums), open spaces, and public parks.
Many buildings do not fit exclusively into a single category. For example, some residential
buildings have commercial facilities on the ground floor. In such cases, the designer should
exercise careful judgment as to the requirements for access, parking, and mobility on the
adjacent road.
5.7.1.2 Function
This column provides a general description of the function of each road class.
5.7.1.3 Annual Average Daily Traffic Flow

This refers to the annual average daily traffic (AADT) flow that each road is designed to
accommodate by the design year. All roads shall consider traffic for a 20-year design period.
5.7.1.4 Mobility Versus Accessibility

This designation refers to the extent of mobility or access that a road class provides.
Fundamentally, roads have two main purposes:
• To provide mobility for through traffic, which concerns traffic that has no direct business
in or relationship with the land uses it is passing through.
• To enable access to land uses adjacent to the roads, which concerns traffic with direct
business in or having a direct relationship with the area it passes through.
These two purposes tend to conflict and need to be balanced against one another for any
particular road during the design process, especially when undertaking rehabilitation and
improvements. A road that places emphasis on mobility will have limited accessibility. Thus,
access on to freeways, expressways, and arterials shall be controlled so as not to impede
their primary purpose of serving through traffic. Conversely, the primary purpose of local
streets is to provide access, and this limits their ability to offer mobility. Collectors offer an
approximately balanced mobility and accessibility function. Figure 5.7 depicts the balance
between mobility and access.

PART PLANNING
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Source: TMPQ – A Guide to Planning Roads in Qatar, 2008.
Figure ‎5.7 Illustration of a Road’s Mobility Versus Access Functions
5.7.1.5 Permitted Intersection Types

This refers to the types of intersections that are permitted along each road class. The most
appropriate type and layout will be dependent on the site and the nature of intersecting
flows.
5.7.1.6 Minimum Intersection Spacing

Intersections enhance accessibility, but they also interrupt the flow of traffic. This criterion
refers to the minimum distance that should exist between intersections on each road class,
measured between the respective intersecting centerlines.
5.7.1.7 Posted Speed

This is the posted speed limit for each category of road. While posted speeds may vary for
vehicle types, the speeds identified in the tables relate to light vehicles and, therefore, the
highest posted speed on that road classification. Depending on local conditions, the designer
may propose a speed limit within the range that is lower than the preferred speed; for
example, in areas of frontage or high pedestrian activity. Refer to Section 9, Access Control
and Access Management, for more information on posted speed.
5.7.1.8 Right-of-Way Width

This is the width in meters of the area of land in which the route is accommodated. It is
based on typical design dimensions, conditions and terrain. Right-of-way for public roads is
government owned. Further details on cross-sectional elements are provided in Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

PLANNING PART
2
5.7.1.9 Parking Provisions

The extent to which parking and loading provision is permissible on each of the road classes
is presented in this column. Three cases are considered:
• Prohibited: No parking or loading provision is allowed directly adjacent to the road. It is

applicable to freeways, expressways, and major arterials.
• Restricted: Parking is restricted to areas where it is safe and practicable. Parking areas
shall be clearly defined and strictly enforced.
• Permitted with Conditions: Parking is permitted alongside the road, although time-
of-day or location-specific restrictions may be implemented to eliminate potential
operational problems.
Refer to Tables 5.1 and 5.2 for parking provision.
5.7.1.10 Minimum Level of Service for Design Year

This is the minimum LOS at which the road should operate. The LOS describes the travel
experience in terms of operating speed, delays, the ability to safely overtake vehicles, traffic
congestion, overall safety, and driver and passenger comfort.
5.7.2 Network Connections

Table 5.3 and Table 5.4 show which road classes interconnect with one another within the
urban and rural contexts, respectively. On each table, the horizontal rows, labeled “Through
Route”, are the main route that vehicles take to access or egress an area. The vertical columns,
labeled as the connecting route, indicate the type of roads that can connect to the through
route. The through route is higher in the hierarchy than the roads that connect with it.

48
Table ‎5.3 Network Connections for Urban Roads
2
PART
Connecting Route
Major Minor Collector Service

Expressway Boulevard Major Collector Minor Collector Local Roads
Arterial Arterial Distributor Road
PLANNING
Any
Any
Retail/
Preferred
Preferred
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Residential
Residential
Residential
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial/
Commercial/
Commercial/
Recreational
Recreational
Recreational
Recreational
Through Land Use
or Recreational
Not Residential
Route Frontage
Not Residential
Expressway ü ü o o ü X X X X X X X X X X X X X
or Recreational

Major
Commercial/ ü ü
Industrial ü ü ü ü ü ü o o o o o ü X X X X
Arterial
Preferred
Minor
Commercial/ o ü
Industrial ü ü o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü X X X X
Arterial
Preferred
Commercial/
Boulevard o ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Recreational
Collector
Any ü ü o o ü o o o o o o o o X X X X X
Distributor
Industrial X ü ü ü o ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Major Commercial X ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü X ü ü ü
Collector Recreational X ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü X ü ü ü
Residential X o ü ü o o ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü X ü ü ü
Industrial X o ü ü o ü o o o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Minor Commercial X o ü ü o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü X ü ü ü
Collector Recreational X o ü ü o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü X o ü ü
Residential X o ü ü o ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü X o o ü
Service
Any X ü ü ü X ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü o o o o
Road
Industrial X X X ü X ü X X X ü X X X o ü ü ü ü
Commercial X X X ü X ü ü ü ü ü ü o o o ü ü ü ü
Local Roads
Recreational X X X ü X ü ü ü ü ü ü ü o o ü ü ü ü
Residential X X X ü X ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü o ü ü ü ü
KEY: ü Recommended o Permitted, but not recommended X Not recommended
PLANNING PART
2
Table ‎5.4 Network Connections for Rural Roads
Connecting Route
Through Route Rural Freeway Rural Arterial Rural Collector Rural Local Road
Rural Freeway ü ü X X
Rural Arterial ü ü ü o
Rural Collector X X ü ü
Rural Local Road X X ü ü
KEY: ü Recommended o Permitted, but not recommended X Not recommended
The network connection, the LOS, and the functional classification are some of the available
planning tools to assist the Overseeing Organization when planning to control connections from
and to new developments and new roads that are recommended for construction on the road
network system.
The designer should identify the through route as the road that has the higher functional class.
Once the through route is identified, the designer should move horizontally across the table to
ascertain the road classes that are allowed to connect to it.
For example, if the through route is a major arterial, the designer can check what other road classes
are recommended to connect to it by selecting the major arterial row from the through routes
and traversing along this row. The recommended connecting route classifications are identified
with checkmarks (ü) in this case, other major arterials and some road classes lower than it in the
hierarchy are recommended to connect to it. The converse is also the case. In considering routes
for which a particular classification is recommended, the designer can select a route from the
connecting route columns and read down the column to identify the recommended connecting
routes.
Providing a connection between two roads with incompatible functions can lead to conflict and
congestion. The following are two examples of inappropriate practice:
• Several residential compounds alongside a major arterial seek their own direct access on to
the arterial. In this case, the traffic from the residential compounds should be combined on to
a service road that then connects to the major arterial at a single point.
• In the case of access to a car park directly from a relatively high-speed arterial road, an
intermediate collector road is recommended to serve as a transition between the arterial and
the car park.
Figure 5.8 through Figure 5.10 provide further information on the appropriate grade-separated
interchange types through which the different road classes can connect. Refer to Interchanges for
the cloverleaf intersection designs for further information in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and
Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.

PART PLANNING
2
5.7.2.1 Urban Expressway to Urban Expressway Connection

All movements, both through and turning between two expressways, should be free flowing,
unstopped.
5.7.2.2 Rural Freeway to Rural Freeway Connection

Through movements and all turning movements, such as a cloverleaf intersection, are free
flow as shown in Figure 5.8.
Source: Salwa Road, Google Earth Pro, 2014.

Figure ‎5.8 Freeway to Freeway Connection
5.7.2.3 Expressway to Urban Arterial Connection

The through movement on the expressway is free flow. Both the through and turning
movements on the arterial are signalized, as shown in Figure 5.9.
Source: D-Ring Road and Haloul Street Intersection, Google Earth Pro, 2014.
Figure ‎5.9 Expressway to Urban Arterial Connection

PLANNING PART
2
5.7.2.4 Rural Freeway to Rural Arterial Connection

The through movement on the freeway is free flow, but the movement to the freeway to the
arterial is by a signalized intersection or a roundabout as shown in Figure 5.10.
Source: Dukhan Umm Bab Highway, Google Earth Pro, 2014.
Figure ‎5.10 Rural Freeway to Rural Arterial Connection
5.7.3 Transport Provisions for Non-car Users

Table 5.5 and Table 5.6 show the provisions or prohibitions for non-car and multimodal users.

52
2
Table ‎5.5 Transport Provisions for Multimodal Users on Urban Roads PART
Cyclists (cycle lane Road-Based Public Light Rail-Based Public

Through Route Land Use Frontage Pedestrians Heavy Trucks
and path) Transport Services Transport
Not residential or Segregated sidewalks Segregated cycle paths Express services only Light rail (segregated from No restrictions
Expressway
recreational road)
PLANNING
Commercial/ industrial Segregated sidewalks Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (segregated from Some restrictions
Major Arterial
preferred lane where required) road)
Commercial/ industrial Segregated sidewalks Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Restricted
Minor Arterial
preferred lane where required) lane where required)
Commercial/ recreational Sidewalks on both sides of Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Restricted
Boulevard
road and sitting areas lane where required) lane where required)
Any Segregated sidewalks Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority None Some restrictions

Collector Distributor
lane where required)
Industrial Sidewalks on both sides of Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority No restrictions
road lane where required) lane where required)
Commercial Sidewalks on both sides of Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Some restrictions
Major Collector
Residential Sidewalks on both sides of Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Local access only
Recreational Sidewalks on both sides Segregated cycle paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Prohibited
(segregated from road) lane where required) lane where required)
Industrial Sidewalks on both sides of Segregated cycle paths or Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Some restrictions
road shared road use lane where required) lane where required)
Commercial Sidewalks on both sides of Partial integration within Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Local access only
road roadway lane where required) lane where required)
Residential Sidewalks on both sides of Partial integration within Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Local access only
Minor Collector
road roadway lane where required) lane where required)
Recreational Sidewalks on both sides Partial integration within Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Prohibited
(segregated from road) roadway lane where required) lane where required)
(separate cycle path or
shared road use)
Service Road Any Segregated sidewalks Segregated cycle paths Local services None Some restrictions
Industrial Sidewalks on both sides of Cyclists may use roadway Local services Not recommended Some restrictions
Commercial road Local access only
Local Roads
Residential Local access only
Recreational Prohibited
Table ‎5.6 Transport Provision for Non-car Users on Rural Roads
Transport Provision
Road-Based Public Transport Light Rail-Based Public

Through Route Pedestrians Cyclists Services Transport Heavy Trucks
Segregated sidewalks where Segregated cycle paths Express services only. Light rail (segregated from No restrictions.
Rural Freeway required. where required. road).
Segregated sidewalks where Segregated cycle paths. Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with Some restrictions.
Rural Arterial required. lane where required). priority lane where
required).
Sidewalks where required. Segregated cycle paths. Local services (with priority Not recommended. Local access only.
Rural Collector
lane where required).
Sidewalks where required. Cyclists may use Generally, not provided. Not recommended. Access only.
Rural Local Road
roadway.
Note: Details of at-grade pedestrian crossing, cycle paths, and bus stop facilities are provided in Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, and Volume 3,
Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual.
PLANNING

2
PART
53
PART PLANNING
2

PLANNING PART
2
6 Design Vehicles
6.1 Introduction
The primary function of a roadway is to allow the safe and efficient passage of motor
vehicles for the transportation of goods and people. Highway designers therefore need to
understand the types and physical characteristics of vehicles currently in use, or likely to
be used in the future, as well as the vehicles legally permitted to be driven on the public
highway system under normal circumstances.
6.2 Vehicle Weights and Dimensions

State of Qatar “Law No. (19) of 2007 Regarding the Traffic Law”, Article 86, places limits on
the size and weight of vehicles that can be legally driven on the public highway in Qatar.
Table 6.1 summarizes the main restrictions.
Table ‎6.1 Maximum Vehicle Weights and Dimensions
Parameter Maximum Value

Maximum length of a motor vehicle Not defined
Maximum height of a motor vehicle 4.2 m a
Maximum width of a motor vehicle 2.6 m a
Maximum authorized weight on a single axle 13,000 kg b
Maximum gross vehicle weight (GVW) 45,000 kg c
Source: Traffic Law No (19), Ministry of Interior, Government of Qatar (2007).

Notes:
a
Includes the load or any items protruding from the vehicle.
b
In addition, the gross weight on a single axle shall not exceed the weight limit set by manufacturer.
c
In addition, the gross vehicle weight shall not exceed the weight limit set by the manufacturer.
When the values in Table 6.1 need to be exceeded, such as when transporting abnormal
indivisible loads, special authorization in writing is required from the Overseeing Organization
for licensing before such a vehicle is driven on the public highway.
6.2.1 Abnormal Loads and High Load Routes

When transporting abnormal loads that exceed the maximum height requirements in Table
6.2, truck operators will be required by the Overseeing Organization to use the designated
high load routes. On these routes, the highway designer should comply with the vertical
clearance requirements for high load routes as discussed in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual.

PART PLANNING
2
6.3 Typical Design Vehicles

6.3.1 Definitions and Principles
Design vehicles are the vehicles used in highway design to determine if the resulting facility
will be fit for its intended purpose. They enable the designer to allow for sufficient space
within the highway cross section, both horizontally and vertically. They are also used to
determine that the various structural elements of highways can adequately support the
predicted vehicle loading likely to occur throughout the intended or specified design life
for the part being considered. Design vehicles are used in assessing the crash performance
criteria of highway safety products such as guardrails, safety barriers, and bridge rails.
Design vehicles are defined by their vehicle specification parameters. Manufacturers’ vehicle
specifications can be used to guide the definition of a design vehicle.
6.3.2 Design Vehicles

Table 6.2 lists the design vehicles for use in the State of Qatar and includes vehicles currently
in use or likely to be used in the near future. These vehicles can be summarized as follows:
• Passenger Cars (P): The design vehicle is an AASHTO passenger car.
• School Bus: The main design vehicle for school bus is the AASHTO 10.91 m long
conventional school bus (S-BUS 11). This vehicle should be used as a minimum design
vehicle on all existing and future local access and dead end / cul-de-sac routes.
• Buses and Coaches: The main design vehicle for buses is the AASHTO 12.19 m long city
transit bus (city bus). This vehicle should be used as the design vehicle on all existing
and planned future bus routes. In terms of length, the longest bus is the AASHTO 18.29
m articulated bus (A-Bus).
• Rigid Trucks: The typical design vehicles for rigid trucks are the AASHTO 9.14 m long,
2-axle, single unit truck (SU-9) and the AASHTO 12.04 m long, 3-axle, single unit truck
(SU-12).
• Tractor-Semitrailer Combinations: The typical design vehicles in this category are the
AASHTO WB-12 and WB-15 intermediate semitrailers, which are both representative
of the articulated trucks used in Qatar. Also included in this category is the AASHTO
WB-20 interstate semitrailer, which should be used as the design vehicle on urban
expressways, rural freeways and on designated truck routes, and at specific interchange
locations, as set out in Volume 1, Part 6, Priority Intersections, and Volume 1, Part 8,
Design of Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.

PLANNING PART
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Table ‎6.2 Typical Design Vehicles

Min.
Vehicle Turning
Description Length Width Height Radius
(AASHTO) Schematic (m) (m) (m) (m)
Passenger Car
5.79 2.13 1.30 7.26
(P)
Conventional
School Bus 10.91 2.44 3.20 11.75
(S-BUS 11)
City Transit
12.19 2.59 3.20 12.80
Bus (City Bus)
Articulated
18.29 2.59 3.35 12.00
Bus (A-Bus)
Single Unit 3.35 to

9.14 2.44 12.73
Truck (SU-9) 4.11
Single Unit
Truck 3.35 to
12.04 2.44 15.60
(SU-12) 4.11
Intermediate
Semitrailer 13.87 2.44 4.11 12.16
(WB-12)
Intermediate
Semitrailer 16.77 2.60 4.11 12.16
(WB-15)
Interstate
Semitrailer 22.40 2.59 4.11 13.66
(WB-20)
Source: AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2018)
6.3.3 Swept Path Analysis

Design vehicles are often used to carry out swept path analysis on highway layouts,
particularly at intersections, ramps and turning roadways, where lanes may need to be
widened to adequately accommodate a vehicle negotiating the curve.

PART PLANNING
2
Swept path analysis shall be carried out, using appropriate vehicle swept path software, to
verify that adequate clearance is provided at pinch points, such as between channelizing
islands, vehicles bodies and adjacent road signs, lighting columns, and other street furniture.
General guidance on swept path analysis is provided in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual.
The swept paths of light rail systems shall be considered where applicable.

PLANNING PART
2

PART PLANNING
2
7 Driver Performance and

Human Factors
7.1 Introduction
According to A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018):
Consideration of driver performance is essential to proper roadway design and

operation. The suitability of a design rests as much on how efficiently drivers are able
to use the roadway as on any other criterion. When drivers use a roadway designed to
be compatible with their capabilities and limitations, their performance is aided. When
a design is incompatible with the capabilities of drivers, the chance for driver errors
increases, and crashes or inefficient operation may result.
Humans as drivers respond to the road and environment as it is presented to them. Their
response in terms of speed, acceleration, and reaction to other drivers and events in large
part determines the overall safety of their trip. Driver characteristics are fundamental
inputs to road design criteria and best practices. This chapter provides an overview of such
characteristics.
In addition, under Section 7.7 Driver Error, reference is made to the QNRSS, which has
adopted the Safe System approach.
7.2 Qatar Driver Characteristics

Driving licenses and privileges are restricted in Qatar to only certain individuals. Individuals
need to pass an eye test and a driving test to obtain a license. The driving population is
relatively young compared with that of many other nations. A special problem faced by other
nations is the shift in demographics, resulting in a growing number of older drivers who do
not possess mental and physical acuity of younger drivers. Unique aspects of the driving
population that influence road design include the following:
• A large proportion of drivers in Qatar come from other countries, and thus have different
attitudes and views about good or safe driving practices. In addition, they are unfamiliar
with driving in Qatar.
• A large number of drivers are transient, as opposed to permanent citizens or residents.

Thus, at any given time the road system will have a large number of drivers who are
unfamiliar with the road system.
• The driving population is multi-lingual. This requires traffic sign messages to be in

both Arabic and English. The location, design and messaging of traffic signs is heavily
influenced by the roadway’s design. Multilingual signing presents the same challenges

PLANNING PART
2
that drivers encounter in many other countries.
• Policies regarding access control, prohibition of crossing and left turns at unsignalized
locations, and preference for T-intersections versus crossroads all reflect a sensitivity to
restricting or eliminating high-risk driver behaviors.
7.3 The Task of Driving

A necessary and fundamental assumption in road design is that drivers have sufficient
human capabilities and knowledge of laws and regulations to be able to operate on the
public road system without endangering themselves or others. Qatar, like other countries,
licensed drivers who must demonstrate their visual and car-handling abilities in order to
obtain a license.
Road design, i.e., the basic models and assumptions used to determine design dimensions, is
based on the assumption that the licensed operator is capable and qualified, alert, attentive,
and not impaired by drugs or other substances.
The driving task, in order of increasing complexity, involves control, guidance, and navigation.
A fundamental objective of road design and operation is to recognize the complexity of the
driving task and to avoid overloading the driver with information.
Speed control and steering represent the basic control functions. Drivers respond both visually
and by feel to the roadway environment, which includes alignment in three dimensions
and intersections. Drivers also respond to traffic around them, which, combined with their
response to the roadway, represents the guidance task. The most complex task is navigation.
Driving tasks take time. Because they occur while the vehicle is in motion, time translates to
distance. Basic design principles and design values are derived based on the times required
at the design speed for most drivers to perform such tasks.
The driving task becomes more complex in difficult environmental conditions, such as, at
night, or in situations unfamiliar to the driver. In other situations, such as a long and straight
stretch of a rural road, the driving task may be so undemanding that drivers can become
inattentive.
Drivers will make errors. They may misjudge speed or a gap for merging, become inattentive
or distracted, oversteer or understeer an alignment, or make a wrong turn. Much of road
design attempts to mitigate the potential adverse effects of driver error. For example, the
concept of designing a forgiving roadside is based on the expectation that drivers will run
off the road, erring in the basic driving task. Other practices related to spacing of ramps and
intersections, and arrangement and messages of signs, all serve to reduce the potential for
information overload, which can lead to driver error.

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7.4 Vehicle Guidance

Highway design and traffic operations have a significant effect on the task of vehicle
guidance. Vehicle guidance includes road following, car following, merging, gap acceptance,
and passing.
7.4.1 Road Following

Road following involves positioning the vehicle in the lane and following the alignment of
the road. Drivers perform this task using visual cues and by feel. The three-dimensional
alignment design controls are influenced by the need or desire to provide a clear view of the
upcoming alignment for the driver at the assumed eye location used for design. As drivers
traverse horizontal curves, they feel the lateral acceleration created by tracking the curve
at a speed. The fundamentals of curve design are based on delivering a level of comfort
with respect to lateral acceleration for the design speed of the road. The widths of roads
and lanes are based in part on providing a sufficient width for drivers to comfortably drive
adjacent to other vehicles while maintaining speed.
7.4.2 Car Following

Driving requires the following of other vehicles, and therefore, reacting to the behavior of
the vehicle ahead. Drivers react to the vehicle in front of them, adjusting their speed to
maintain a comfortable distance. The capacity of a roadway is a function of the density of
traffic that travels at a constant speed. Alignment and cross section both contribute to the
feel and response of each driver, with the aggregate responses representing the capacity of
the road.
7.4.3 Passing Maneuvers

The driver’s decision to initiate and complete a passing or overtaking maneuver has greater
complexity than the decisions involved in road or car following. Overtaking maneuvers
include adaptations in road following and car following activities, and judgments of speed,
acceleration, and gap availability.
7.4.4 Gap Acceptance, Merging, and Other Guidance Activities

Merging and diverging, gap acceptance, lane changing, avoidance of pedestrians, and
response to traffic control devices are other guidance activities that involve complex
decisions and judgments by drivers.
7.5 Information System

The entire roadway environment presents an information system to the driver. This system
is a combination of control devices, such as signals, traffic signs, and road markings, and
other roadside features that form the road environment, such as tree lines, curbing, and
pedestrian facilities.
7.5.1 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices provide guidance and navigation information. They include regulatory,
warning, and directional signs, and other route guidance information.

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Other traffic control devices, such as markings and delineation, display information that
augments particular roadway or environmental features. These devices help drivers perceive
information that might otherwise be overlooked or difficult to recognize. Information on the
appropriate use of traffic control devices is presented in the Qatar Traffic Control Manual.
7.5.2 Road Environment

Drivers need to see the road directly in front of their vehicles and far enough in advance to
perceive the alignment, profile, and other related aspects of the road. The view of the road
includes the environment immediately adjacent to the roadway. The presence or absence of
shoulders and placement of roadside elements and features can influence driving behavior.
Such elements include sign supports, bridge piers, abutments, guardrail, and median barriers.
7.6 Information Handling

During the driving task, drivers perform several functions simultaneously. Different sources
of information, such as billboards, commercial properties with signs, and the landscape,
compete for drivers’ attention. Information a driver needs should be in the driver’s field of
view, when needed, available in a usable form, and capable of capturing the driver’s attention.
7.6.1 Reaction Time

The time for a driver to react to a situation is influenced by the complexity of the event creating
the need to react and whether the event or situation was expected. Human factors research
has documented average reaction times of 0.6 second for events that are expected, with
some small proportion of drivers requiring as much as 2 seconds to react. With unexpected
events, reaction times increase by 35 percent. Thus, for a simple, unexpected decision and
action, some drivers may take as long as 2.7 seconds to react. Longer reaction and response
times are typical of older drivers and drivers operating in difficult environmental conditions.
Complex situations will occur at key locations such as intersections. In the urban environment,
design standards developed in consideration of these complexities include lower design
speeds and enhanced visibility requirements near intersections.
7.6.2 Primacy
The term primacy refers to the prioritization of the competing information presented to the
driver. Driver control and guidance are very important and have primacy over information
relating to navigation. The consequences of driver error associated with control and guidance
are more severe than of an error in navigation. A road’s design and traffic control should
focus the driver’s attention on the high-priority information sources that provide control and
guidance information.
7.6.3 Expectancy
Expectancy refers to what drivers anticipate or expect to see or encounter as they drive.
Driver expectancy is formed by experience and reinforced by common approaches to design

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and traffic control. Situations that generally occur in the same way, and successful responses
to those situations, become part of each driver’s store of knowledge.
Many design practices serve to meet or reinforce driver expectancy and to eliminate
unexpected situations. Drivers traveling along a steep rural highway with no intersections
or driveways expect more of the same when the road comes back into view after cresting
a vertical curve. There is the potential for a driving error if driver expectancy is violated by
the appearance, just over the crest curve, of an intersection, the beginning of sharp curve,
or some other unusual feature requiring a guidance or navigational response. The concept
of decision sight distance, discussed in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual, specifically deals with situations that may be unexpected.
Research demonstrates that design practices that violate expectancy, such as left-hand exits
from freeways, result in greater crash frequencies than those that meet driver expectancy.
Experienced professionals, e.g., designers, traffic engineers and safety auditors, are able to
identify conditions that violate expectancy. When a constraint prohibits this, measures such
as enhanced warning signs or devices may be necessary to partially compensate for the
unexpected condition. The following conditions typically violate driver expectancy:
• Left-hand freeway exits versus right-hand freeway exits
• Lane drops or “traps” at exits, versus the exit providing the choice to exit or to proceed
as a through vehicle
• A through lane becoming a right-turn only lane at an intersection approach
• At a diverge or major fork such as occurs at a Y-type interchange, having the road that
splits to the right actually go the left, and the road to the left go to the right
• A ramp exit to a crossroad located beyond the crossroad
• A half interchange that does not allow drivers to reenter a freeway at the location at
which they exited
• An intersection or driveway hidden by a horizontal or vertical sight restriction
As noted, Qatar has a greater than typical proportion of drivers who may be relatively
unfamiliar with the road network. Their expectancies are formed by driving in their home
countries. Qatar’s road design and traffic control practices are thus created to be consistent
with international best road design and traffic control practices that are recognizable to most
drivers.
7.7 Driver Error

Driver error can result from deficiencies in the ability of the driver. These may stem from
lack of experience; younger drivers tend to be over-represented in crashes for this reason.
Complex maneuvers such as merging and weaving on a high-volume freeway, passing, or
driving through a sharp curve may be prone to misjudgments and errors.

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Ability to react to situations may also be affected by a driver’s psychological state, such as
fatigue or distraction, or the influence of drugs or other substances. Tired drivers on long-
distance trips are also over-represented in crashes.
The tendency for driver error can be addressed in part through the licensing process and
driver training, through public education efforts on distracted driving and other high-
risk behaviors and on use of seat belts, and through traffic laws and their enforcement.
Nevertheless, driver error always will occur, so a primary design concern is to design the
road in a manner that an error does not necessarily translate into a crash. In some cases,
designers need to contain crashes to reduce severity; for example, installing crash barriers.
The importance of influencing safe driving behavior is central to the principles of safety
system planning.
How the road is designed and operated can influence the propensity for driver effort. Drivers
often make errors when confronted with difficult, stressful, or complex situations. Situation
errors may arise from overloading the driver with information, leading to stressful and
complex driving conditions. These are most likely to occur in high volume traffic conditions
such as on urban arterials or expressways.
Conversely, the opposite situation can lead to errors. In low-trafficked areas, drivers may lose
their concentration and vigilance, and be less capable of reacting to an unexpected event.
Long sections of flat, straight roadway should be avoided by using flat, curving alignment
that follows the natural contours of the terrain whenever practical. Rest areas spaced at
reasonable intervals are also beneficial.
The QNRSS has adopted the Safe System approach. In a Safe System, the road transport
system is designed to anticipate and accommodate human error, protect the vulnerable
human body, and make the forces to which the body is exposed in a crash survivable. All
factors relating to the safe system elements are described in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and
Operations for Road Safety, of this Manual.
7.8 Speed and Design

Road design, context, and environment communicate appropriate speed behavior to drivers.
Most drivers will seek to travel as fast as they will feel comfortable. Road design practices
can encourage high-speed behavior or communicate the need for lower speeds. For shared
road corridor with light rail systems, the speed of the rail vehicle and the space occupied
when interacting with the road traffic shall be considered. Research on driver behavior and
speed demonstrates the following:
• Horizontal curvature influences speed response through transmission of lateral

acceleration to the driver.
• Drivers generally do not reduce speeds based on vertical geometry except in the extreme
(very steep grades and very short vertical curves). Terrain that creates extreme vertical
alignment does not exist in Qatar.

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• Drivers respond to lane or road width, but the amount of speed reduction associated
with lanes narrower than 3.65 m is marginal, on the order of 5 to 10 kph at most.
• Drivers respond only minimally to landscaping, trees, or other roadside features in

changing their speed behavior. Drivers respond mainly to the activities and movement
on the road and at intersections.
• Speed behavior on urban arterials and streets is primarily controlled by the operation of
traffic signal controls along the street, particularly in environments such as Qatar that
have few alignment controls
• Speeds of 130 kph represent the maximum at which most drivers feel comfortable
traveling, regardless of the alignment or traffic or the type of car they drive.
• Enforcement can influence speed behavior, but only if it is continual and visible to the
driving public. Law enforcement campaigns to combat speeding can initially work to
lower speeds, but unless the enforcement continues over time, speeds return to their
pre-enforcement levels.
Although most road design practices and design criteria support higher speeds, there are
clearly situations in which lower speeds are desirable for public safety. For local roads serving
access, boulevards, and other facilities in which pedestrian and bicycle traffic is substantial,
the primary design concern is minimizing the risk of motor vehicle/pedestrian and bicycle
crashes, and minimizing the severity of conflicts with such vulnerable road users. Figure 7.1
shows that the severity of such crashes increases substantially with speed.
Source: Wramborg, 2005
Figure ‎7.1 Crash Types and Indicative Fatality Risks at Various Speeds

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Road design in areas with pedestrians should promote lower speeds. The application of traffic
calming features (see Chapter 4 in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operation of Road Safety,
of this Manual), stop control rather than yield at priority intersections, minimum radius curb
returns to promote low speed turning, and sufficient pedestrian crossing times allocated to
signalized intersections are all potential tools to promote lower speeds. Boulevard corridors
with frequent signalized intersections can have the timing of the signals set for lower traffic
speeds, such as 40 to 50 kph.
Management of speed on a road network is a core activity to create a safe road environment.
The setting and signing of posted speeds and the location and signing of speed radars are
just two elements that ordinarily would be included in a comprehensive speed management
strategy.
Posted speeds need to be understandable, safe, and enforceable for all users. To determine
an appropriate posted speed for any new or existing road, each characteristic of the road
must be compared against an idealized set of characteristics for that road type.
To review and assess appropriate posted speeds, the Safe System approach is adopted. This is
an approach adopted by some countries that are leading the way in road safety performance.
Within the Safe System, the forces experienced by road users in the event of a crash are
managed so that crashes become survivable. Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operation for
Road Safety, of this Manual, contains information on the Safe System approach, including
crash types and indicative fatality risk speeds.
7.9 Design Assessment

The view of the road is very important, especially to the unfamiliar driver. In completing
an alignment, the designer should consider how the road will fit into the landscape, how
it should be signed, and the extent to which the information system will complement and
augment the proposed design.
Locations with potential for information overload should be identified and corrected. The
adequacy of the sight lines and sight distances should be assessed and determined whether
unusual vehicle maneuvers are needed and whether likely driver expectancies may be
violated.
Properly designed roads that provide positive guidance to drivers can operate at a high level
of efficiency and with relatively few crashes; therefore, designers should seek to incorporate
these principles in highway design.

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8 Traffic Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
The volume of traffic and its characteristics are major determinants in highway design. It is
important for the designer to have reliable estimates or forecasts of future traffic volumes
15 to 20 years after the opening year of a transportation project. This section discusses the
issues associated with the volume and characteristics of traffic.
8.2 Traffic Volume

8.2.1 Annual Average Daily Traffic
The most basic measure of the traffic demand for a highway is the Annual Average Daily
Traffic volume (AADT). The AADT is defined as the total volume of traffic during one year
divided by 365 days. The AADT is a basic measure of the road’s traffic demand.
The actual traffic volume that may occur on any given day can vary significantly from the
AADT. Volume varies by day of the week, typically in response to home-to-work trip-making
that may occur in 5 or 6 days of the week. Traffic may also vary by season or month depending
on major holidays, vacation periods, or other common events. Even during a typical work
week, the traffic volume on a road may vary from, say, Sunday through Thursday.
Traffic planners develop estimates of AADT volume by conducting traffic counts. Historic
records of daily, weekly and monthly variations are used to adjust a count performed in
any given time period. Procedures for conducting traffic counts and making the necessary
adjustments are contained in Chapter 5 of the Guidelines and Procedures for Traffic Studies
(MME, 2011).
A road’s current AADT or its forecast AADT is an important factor in assessing the need to
increase a highway facility’s capacity or design its cross-sectional elements. However, traffic
typically will vary considerably when measured for an entire 24-hour day. A road’s AADT is
thus typically not sufficient to determine its design characteristics.
8.2.2 Design Hour Traffic

The flow of traffic through a road segment or intersection during a 1-hour period is the
basis for characterizing its quality of flow, and for designing the basic features of the road.
Roadway facilities are sized with reference to design hour volume (DHV).
8.2.2.1 Determining Design Hour Volume

As noted, the traffic pattern as measured by hourly volume on any highway varies considerably
throughout the year. For example, the single highest hourly volume throughout an entire

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year for a given road segment may be as much as three or even four times the average
hourly volume over a year. Designing for this very highest hour of the year is impractical and
wasteful. Selection of some critical value for the design basis is typically done.
The pattern of variations in hourly volume differs by road type and location. In rural areas a
common design basis is either the 30th or 50th highest hourly volume of the year, referred to
as 30 HV or 50 HV. This is a two-way traffic volume typically expressed as a percentage of
the AADT.
In urban areas, traffic volume throughout the year is typically less variable. The design
basis for urban facilities typically is a “peak hour,” which is predominantly representative of
home-to-work and return trip-making (commuting traffic). These traffic volumes are typically
between the 100th and 200th highest hours of the year.
In special circumstances, a different hourly volume may be the basis for design. For example,
roadway infrastructure adjacent to and serving a major stadium or other recreational facility
may be based on the arrival or departure traffic flow for a typical time when the facility is
used to its capacity.
The DHV as a percentage of AADT is referred to as “k.” This is typically between 10 and 15
percent of the AADT on rural roads, and between 8 and 12 percent for urban roads.
Directionality of traffic is also reflected in design. Directionality is the proportion of total

two-way traffic for a road segment that occurs in the peak direction of flow. In a typical
road network, peak hour traffic is higher on the approaches to employment centers in the
morning (AM) peak hour, with the reverse being the case for the evening (PM) peak hour.
Directional distribution (D) is the traffic factor that expresses the expected percentage of
two-way traffic forecast for the peak direction of flow. By definition it is at least 51 percent,
but it can be as high as 70 percent or more. Values for D are calculated as the 1-hour volume
in the peak direction of the design hour, divided by the total DHV.
With the above established, one can calculate the one-way peak hour design volume, which
is used to size a roadway or roadway element as follows:
one-way DHV (vph) = [forecast AADT] × k × D
Example: Forecast ADT for a roadway is 28,000 vpd
If k is chosen as 12 percent and D as 55 percent, the one-way design hour volume is:
28,000 × 0.12 × 0.55 = 1,848, say 1,850 vph
For design of intersections and roundabouts further detail is needed. Forecasts should include
DHV for each turning movement. For a typical balanced road network, turning movements
will be reciprocal; that is, a right-turn volume in one peak will become the return left-turn
volume in the other peak.

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For the example above, if 1,850 vph is the approach volume to an intersection one would
need to generate three values representing the possible departure movements from the
intersection approach:
1,850 total approach volume

=> 250 left turns, 1,200 through, 400 right turns
Turning volumes for all approaches are the basis for determining the number of lanes for each
movement, signal phasing, lengths of storage or queuing, and ultimately the LOS provided.
8.2.2.2 Use of Travel Demand Forecasts for Design Hour Volume

Design values for DHV are obtained from forecast average daily traffic volumes based
on travel demand forecasts. The transport model for Qatar covers the entire country and
produces model outputs up to the horizon year of 2030. These reflect the official, approved
Master Plan for land use and roadway infrastructure. They reflect the type, location, and
density of land developments and the expected or committed roadway network. MME’s
Urban Planning Affairs Department updates their forecasts regularly as developments occur,
new ones are proposed, and they update their Master Plan. For new road and reconstruction
projects, traffic planners and designers shall use the AADT forecast provided by the
For details on modeling guidelines and procedures refer to Chapter 6 of the latest Guidelines
and Procedure for Transport Studies (MME, 2011).
8.3 Highway Capacity Concepts

8.3.1 Capacity Definition
The capacity of a road is its ability to accommodate traffic. Capacity expresses the maximum
hourly rate at which vehicles can be expected to traverse a uniform section of a lane or a
roadway. The Transportation Research Board’s 2010 Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) is the
internationally recognized source of information and methods for determining the capacity
of any road or road element.
Roads in Qatar should typically be designed to operate at traffic flows for design year
conditions well beneath the capacity of the road. The volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) is a
measure of the relationship between demand volume and capacity. With a v/c over 0.85,
normally unstable flow conditions occur with regular flow breakdown. A v/c of 1.00 means
the roadway or road element is just able to process the arriving traffic. Should more traffic
arrive than can be processed, the v/c becomes greater than 1.00. Under these conditions,
queues develop, speeds drop, and delays occur.
8.3.2 General Characteristics and Application

Each type of road has different operating conditions that produce different approaches to
measuring their capacity. Through research, methods for measuring and estimating capacity

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and determining the influence of road design on capacity have resulted in the following
different basic capacity concepts:
• Uninterrupted flow: the operating condition of two-lane rural highways, freeway

segments, and multi-lane rural highways. The capacity of a road under uninterrupted
flow conditions is based on number of lanes, lane and shoulder widths, and three-
dimensional alignment characteristics.
• Signalized intersections: point locations that interrupt the stream of traffic flow. Their
capacity is based on the number of approaches requiring dedicated signal phases, numbers
of lanes and free flow capacity at the stop-lines for each approach and movement, the
widths of lanes, and signal timing necessary for pedestrians and for clearance between
conflicting phases.
• Roundabout capacity: based on the traffic volume on the roundabout, the number
of approaches entering the roundabout, the number of lanes in the roundabout, the
geometry of the entry approaches, and the radius of the roundabout.
• Weaving sections: road segments with entry ramps and nearby downstream exit ramps.
The crossing of traffic flows is referred to as weaving. The capacity of a weaving section
is based on the spacing between the entry and exit roads, the arrangement or location of
these roadways relative to the mainline, and the number of lanes in the weaving section.
• Entrance and exit ramps: roadways that allow traffic to enter or leave a highway. Their
capacity is based on the number of lanes, the length of acceleration or deceleration
provided on the ramp, the arrangement of lanes on the highway and at the ramp entry or
exit, and the volume of traffic on the highway upstream of the entry or exit.
• Unsignalized intersections: those for which one roadway may have priority and be
unstopped, with the roadway with lower functional class under stop or yield control.
The term capacity for these intersections refers solely to the minor road traffic that
is under traffic control. The capacity of these approaches is based on the number and
arrangement of lanes on the approach, the speed of the priority road, and the traffic
volume on the priority road that creates or inhibits the ability of stopped traffic to enter
the major road. Unsignalized intersections may be under all-way stop control, in which
case the capacity refers to all approaches and is based on the number of legs and number
and designation of lanes on each leg.
• Urban arterials: consist of a combination of road segments with uninterrupted flow and
signalized intersections. Their capacity is determined by this combination of elements.
The frequency and spacing of signalized intersections heavily influences the capacity
of urban arterials.
There are also methods for describing the capacity of pedestrian and cycle facilities. These
are based on the same general principles of freedom of movement and research and field
studies on walking and riding behaviors.

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8.3.3 Level of Service

The term level of service describes the quality of traffic flow through any road segment or
intersection as described above. In general, the term LOS is intended to describe the overall
freedom of movement for a driver, which includes the ability to operate at the desired speed
and thus minimize delay.
Levels of service range from A through F, with E representing the capacity of the road or road
element. Under low volume traffic conditions drivers can choose their desired speed and are
not subject to more than minimal delays in passing through intersections. Such conditions
are typified by LOS A and B. As volume increases, drivers become more constrained in their
speed choice and path, and they endure longer delays at intersections and roundabouts.
LOS C and D represent these conditions. As traffic volume increases to a level at which it
approaches the capacity of the road or segment, traffic flow significantly affects the driver.
LOS E represents these conditions.
Although LOS is a term used uniformly for all road types and elements as discussed above,
the specific LOS criteria established in the HCM vary by type of road element:
• Uninterrupted flow LOS: the density of traffic as measured by passenger cars per
kilometer per lane. As density increases, drivers feel more constrained, speeds lower,
and passing opportunities on two-lane roads become less frequent. Table 8.1 shows the
LOS definitions for uninterrupted flow.
• Signalized intersection LOS: the delay experienced by all drivers passing through and
subject to the signal control. This is expressed as sec/veh.
• Roundabout LOS: the delays experienced by the approaching fast traffic that must stop
or yield to the circulating traffic in the roundabout.
• Weaving LOS: the density of traffic in the weaving section and is expressed as passenger
cars per kilometer per lane.
• Exit and Entrance LOS: the density of traffic in the two right-hand lanes upstream of
the exit and downstream of the entrance.
• Unsignalized intersection LOS: the delays experienced by minor road traffic that must
stop or yield to major road traffic with priority.
• Urban arterial LOS: the combination of uninterrupted flow on the arterial segments and
the signalized intersection operations along the corridor.
Table ‎8.1 General Definitions of Levels of Service (Uninterrupted Flow)

Level of Service General Operating Conditions
A Free flow
B Reasonably free flow
C Stable flow
D Approaching unstable flow
E Unstable flow
F Forced or breakdown flow
Source: HCM (Transportation Research Board, 2010)

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8.3.4 Traffic Operations Analysis

Traffic operations analysis using HCM methods serves several planning and design purposes:
• Transportation Planning Studies: Highway capacity analysis is used in these studies to

assess the ability of existing highway networks to accommodate future forecast traffic
volumes. Analysis may demonstrate the need for such infrastructure improvements as
lane additions, intersection improvements, interchanges, or even addition of new roads.
• Congestion Mitigation Studies: Bottlenecks and delays can be observed, but their
resolution requires study of the effectiveness of design or operational alternative
solutions. Traffic operational analyses can inform decision-makers on the effectiveness
of adding turn lanes, re-timing signals, relocating ramps, or other solutions to known
• Highway Design: Highway capacity analysis is used to size a roadway and its elements
as part of the initial planning efforts. Sizing refers to the numbers and arrangements
of lanes, ramps, intersections, and roundabouts. This exercise uses design year traffic
volumes.
8.3.5 Level of Service as a Design Control

By policy, the target LOS for design year conditions is set as noted in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2.
Traffic planners and designers use DHV and methods for evaluating LOS to establish the
basic characteristics of the roadway: number of lanes (including auxiliary lanes, turning lanes
at intersections), and operations such as traffic signal timing. Every project should have an
established design level of service to design all roadway elements. Selection of a design
LOS different from that shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 should be with the concurrence of the
8.3.5.1 Design for Road Segments with Uninterrupted Flow

The LOS of a highway facility is a measure that describes operational conditions within
a traffic stream, based on service measures such as speed and travel time, freedom to
maneuver, traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. The LOS ranges from LOS A (least
congested) to LOS F (most congested). Designers select the appropriate LOS based on the
guidance in Tables 5.1 and 5.2, with reference to the context. Table 8.1 shows the general
operating conditions represented by LOS. The specific definitions of LOS differ by facility
type.
Table 8.2 describes the relationship of uninterrupted flow level of service expressed as
a ratio of the demand volume to capacity (v/c). As traffic volumes increase such that v/c
approaches 1.00, the close spacing of vehicles in all lanes results in lowering of speeds and
unstable flow as indicated in Table 8.1. The v/c ratio is a readily determined measure of LOS
for both existing and future forecast traffic. From a design perspective, design LOS should
be as far from v/c of 1.00 and unstable flow (LOS D) as is practical.

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Table ‎8.2 Level of Service and Volume to Capacity (v/c)
Level of Service v/c Ratio

A 0–0.6
B ˃0.6–0.7
C ˃0.7–0.8
D ˃0.8–0.9
E ˃0.9–1.0
F >1
Source: HCM, 2010
8.3.5.2 Design for Signalized Intersections

The LOS at signalized intersections is based on the average delay imposed by the traffic
control for the design hour traffic entering the intersection. Table 8.3 lists the average
time delay at a signalized intersection and the corresponding LOS categories. In designing
signalized intersections, the v/c ratio of all movements and the intersection itself is also
important. The v/c ratio does not necessarily correspond directly with LOS average control
delay.
Table ‎8.3 Average Control Delay Criteria for Signalized Intersection Levels of Service
Level of Service Average Control Delay (seconds per vehicle)

A 0–10
B ˃10–20
C ˃20–35
D ˃35–55
E ˃55–80
F >80
Source: HCM, 2010
8.3.5.3 Design for Roundabouts and Unsignalized (Priority) Intersections

The LOS of other intersection types is based on similar concepts to signalized intersections
(delay), but the unique operating conditions of roundabouts and unsignalized intersections
require different methods and approaches.
8.3.6 Influence of Design Features on Capacity

The manner in which designers select alignment and cross section values and develop a road
design can heavily influence the capacity of the road. Designers are encouraged to become
familiar with the factors that influence capacity and hence LOS. These vary by road type.
The HCM addresses fully each road type and the design elements that influence capacity
and operations.

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9 Access Control and Access

Management
9.1 General Conditions

Access control is the regulation of access from private property to the roadway. It is achieved by
regulating public access rights to and from properties adjoining highway facilities. Regulation
is enforced through design guidance, policies, and a permitting process administered by the
Overseeing Organization. Regulations generally are categorized as full control of access,
partial control of access, access management, and driveway or entrance regulations. The
principal advantages of controlling access are the preservation or improvement of service
and the reduction of crash frequency and severity.
The functional advantage of providing access control on a street or highway is the

management of interference with through traffic. Interference is created by vehicles or
pedestrians entering, leaving, and crossing the highway. Where access to a highway is
managed, entrances and exits are located at points best suited to fit traffic and land use
needs. They are designed to enable vehicles to enter and leave the highway with minimum
interference from through traffic. Vehicles are prevented from entering or leaving somewhere
else so that, regardless of the type and intensity of development of the roadside areas, a
high degree of service is preserved, and crash potential is lessened. Conversely, on streets
or highways where there is no access management and roadside businesses are allowed to
develop haphazardly, interference from the roadside can become a major factor in reducing
capacity, increasing crash potential, and eroding the mobility function of the facility.
Full control of access means that access connections are strictly limited to ramps with only
selected public roads and by prohibiting at-grade crossings and direct private driveway
connections.
With partial control of access, some preference should be given to through traffic. Access
connections, which may be at-grade or grade-separated, are provided with selected public
roads and private driveways. Full or partial access control generally is accomplished by legally
obtaining access rights from abutting property owners, usually at the time of purchase of
the right-of-way, or by the use of frontage roads.
Where road corridor is shared with a light rail system, access requirements and restrictions
shall be confirmed with Qatar Rail.

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9.2 Access Management

Access management involves providing (or managing) access to land development while
simultaneously preserving the flow of traffic on the surrounding road system in terms of
capacity, speed, and low crash frequency and severity. Property owners have a right to
some access to the public road network. Without such access, their property is unusable and
may considered taken by the government. Each abutting property is permitted access to a
street or highway, but the location, number, and geometric design of the access points are
governed by the regulations.
Access management is the enabling of and provision for all property owners to have access,
in a way that reinforces the road system’s basic functions. Access management applies to all
types of roads and streets. It calls for setting access policies for various types of roadways,
keying designs to these policies, having the access policies incorporated into legislation, and
having the legislation upheld in the courts.
Good access management treats the highway and environs as part of a single system.
Individual parts of the system include the activity center and its circulation systems, access
to and from the center, the availability of public transportation, and the roads serving the
center. The goal is to coordinate the planning and design of each activity center to preserve
the capacity of the overall system and to allow efficient access to and from the activities.
Access management extends traffic engineering principles to the location, design, and
operation of access roads that serve activities along streets and highways. It includes
evaluating the suitability of a site for different types of development from an access
standpoint and is, in a sense, a new element of roadway design.
Access management addresses the basic questions of when, where, and how access
should be provided or denied, and the legal or institutional changes are needed to enforce
decisions. In a broad context, access management is resource management, since it is a way
to anticipate and prevent congestion and to improve traffic flow.
Elements of access management include defining the allowable number of access points and
their spacing, providing a mechanism for granting variances when reasonable access cannot
otherwise be provided, and establishing means of enforcing policies and decisions.
9.2.1 Basic Principles of Access Management

The following principles define access management techniques:
• Classify the road system by the primary function of each roadway. Freeways emphasize
movement and provide complete control of access. Local streets emphasize property
access rather than traffic movement. Arterial and collector roads serve both property
access and traffic movement.
• Limit direct access to roads with higher functional classifications. Direct property access
is limited along higher class roadways whenever reasonable access can be provided to a
lower-class roadway.

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• Locate traffic signals to emphasize through-traffic movements. Signalized access points

should fit into the overall signal coordination plan for traffic progression.
• Locate driveways and major entrances to minimize interference with traffic operations.
Driveways and entrances should be located away from other intersections to minimize
crashes, to reduce traffic interference, and to provide for adequate storage lengths for
vehicles turning into entrances.
• Use curbed medians and limit median openings to manage access movements and
minimize conflicts.
Access management actions involve both the planning and design of new roads and the
retrofitting of existing roads and driveways.
9.2.2 Access Classifications

Access classification is the foundation of a comprehensive access management program. It
defines when, where, and how access can be provided between public highways and private
driveways or entrances. Access classification relates the allowable access to each type of
highway in conjunction with its purpose, importance, and functional characteristics.
An access classification system defines the type and spacing of allowable access for each
class of road. Direct access may be denied, limited to right turns in and out, or allowed for all
or most movements depending upon the specific class and type of road. Spacing of signals in
terms of distance between signals or through progression speed is also specified.
9.2.3 Methods of Controlling Access

Access may be controlled by means of statutes, land use ordinances, geometric design
policies, and driveway regulations.
• Access may be controlled by statute to protect public safety, health, and welfare. The
extent to which specific policies can be applied for driveways, entrances, traffic signal
locations, land use controls, and denial of direct access is specifically addressed by
legislation. Refer to the latest version of TMPQ document for A Guide to Planning Roads
in Qatar.
• Local zoning ordinances and subdivision requirements can specify site design, setback
distances, types of access, parking restrictions, and other elements that influence the
type, volume, and location of generated traffic. Approval of a development may in fact
hinge on the ability to provide appropriate and reasonable access.
• Geometric design features, such as raised-curb medians, the spacing of median

openings, frontage roads, closure of median openings, and raised-curb channelization at
intersections, all assist in controlling access.
Driveway and entrance policies may be introduced by guidelines, regulations, or

ordinances, provided specific statutory authority exists. Guidelines usually need no
specific authority but are weak legally. Regulations can deny direct access to a road

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if reasonable, alternative access is provided, but they cannot legally take away access
rights (AASHTO, 2018).
9.2.4 Access Management and Safety Performance

Strong access management policies and design are proven effective. International studies
uniformly document the reduction in injury crashes associated with driveway removal and
consolidation, as shown in Table 9.1
Table 9
‎ .1 Potential Crash Effects of Reducing Access Point Density
Setting Traffic Crash Type Std.

Treatment (Road Type) Volume (Severity) CMF Error
Reduce driveways from 76.8 to

0.71 0.04
41.6–76.8 per kilometer
Urban and
Reduce driveways from 41.6–76.8 All types
suburban Unspecified 0.69 0.02
to 16–38.4 per kilometer (injury)
(arterial)
Reduce driveways from 16–38.4 to
0.75 0.03
less than 16 per kilometer
Base Condition: Initial driveway density per mile based on values in this table (76.8, 41.6–76.8, and 16–38.4
per kilometer)
CMF = Crash Modification Factor

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10 Speed and Design
10.1 Introduction
Speed is an important aspect considered by travelers in assessing travel options. Drivers value
time and seek to minimize travel times. Most drivers value roads that may be comfortably
driven at higher speeds. The speed of vehicles on a road or highway depends, in addition to
capabilities of the drivers and their vehicles, upon five general conditions:
• Design characteristics of the highway

• Amount of roadside interference
• Weather
• Presence of other vehicles
• Speed limitations established either by law or by traffic control devices
• Design characteristics of any light rail system
Any of these conditions may govern travel speed, but actual travel speed on a facility usually
reflects a combination of them.
Any engineered facility used by the public should be designed to satisfy demand for service
in an economical manner with efficient traffic operations and with low crash frequency and
severity. The facility should accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy.
Accommodating the speeds drivers’ desire should also be balanced against the safety of all
users, including non-motorized road users. The presence of pedestrians on or along roads
may limit or restrict vehicle speeds. Designers should recognize where this is a factor and
make design decisions accordingly.
10.2 Operating Speed

Operating speed is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles under
free-flow conditions. It is a measure of how drivers respond to the road environment absent
influences of other traffic. Speeds are affected by traffic flows and increase as traffic volume
decreases. One result of conducting speed surveys over a 24-hour period shows that the
speeds increase at night.
10.3 Speed Variations

Speeds vary throughout the day, largely based on the volume and composition of traffic on
the road. On freeways and other similar facilities high speeds are maintained even as traffic
density increases until the traffic flow approaches the capacity (v/c > 0.85) at which point
traffic flow becomes unstable, and average speeds drop. Low and high vehicle speeds on
roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of this Part.

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On other road types with intersections and driveways, the effect of turning traffic and traffic
control will be the dominant influencers on average speeds.
10.4 Design Speed

As is stated in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, design speed
is the speed selected to determine the geometric parameters of the road design. By policy
in Qatar, the posted speed is directly related to the design speed. Table 10.1 summarizes
the relation between the design speed and the posted speed. Refer to Roadway Design in
Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for further details.
Table ‎10.1 Relation Between Design and Posted Speeds
Design Speed (kph) Posted Speed (kph)
140 120
120 100
100 80
80 60
70 60
60 50
50 50
30 30
The maximum design speed for an urban expressway is 120 kph.
There are important differences between the design criteria applicable to different vehicle
speeds. Because of these distinct differences, the following definitions of high and low
vehicle speeds will apply for both urban and rural areas:
• high speed: 80 kph or greater
• low speed: 50 kph or less
In selecting a design speed, the designer is setting the basis by which all of the basic
elements—cross section and alignment—will be established.
10.5 Posted Speed

The posted speed is the maximum speed limit applied to the road. Driving above the posted
speed constitutes a traffic offense. For the various classifications of road in Qatar, and the
relationship between design speed versus posted speed, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway

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11 Facilities for Pedestrians
11.1 General Considerations

The interaction of pedestrians and traffic is a key consideration in road planning and design. It
is particularly important in urban areas, where pedestrians are most numerous. Transportation
and land development policies in Qatar are promoting the concept of ‘walkability’ which
refers to providing an attractive, comfortable and readily accessible network of pathways
and sidewalks for pedestrians.
Successful commercial and recreational areas provide a comfortable walking environment.

Pedestrian facilities may include sidewalks, crossings, traffic control features, dropped curbs
and ramps, and islands to facilitate crossing. Access to facilities such as public transport
stops, shops, schools, and mosques should be given particular consideration.
The most important design consideration regarding pedestrians is the control or elimination
of vehicle conflicts, including particularly conflicts with vehicles operating at higher
speeds. Traffic calming, reduced speed limits, and all-stop control at local crossroads where
pedestrians are prevalent are all potentially effective solutions. Elimination of vehicular
traffic may also be applied.
Further information is provided throughout this manual, particularly in Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, and Volume 3,
Part 20, Context Sensitive Design and Solutions, of this Manual.
11.2 Designing for Pedestrians

The Overseeing Organization requires developers to include comprehensive pedestrian
facility proposals as part of their applications for new developments. Pedestrian facilities
include sidewalks, subways, footbridges, stairways, ramps, escalators, and moving walkways.
11.3 Pedestrian Capacity and Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian service standards are based on the freedom to select normal traffic speed, the
ability to bypass slow-moving pedestrians, and the relative ease of cross- and reverse-flow
movements at various pedestrian traffic concentrations. Six levels of service (LOS) have been
defined. These are based on service volumes and qualitative evaluation of user convenience.
They are described below.
LOS A provides sufficient space for free-flow conditions that allows a bypass for slower
pedestrians and avoids conflicts at crossings, with others.

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LOS B provides space that allows normal walking speeds and the passing of other pedestrians
in primarily one-directional flows. In the case of bi-directional flows or cross flows, minor
conflict will occur, resulting in slightly lower mean pedestrian speeds and potential volumes.
LOS C is a condition where the freedom to select individual walking speeds and to freely
pass other pedestrians is restricted. With flows that reverse and cross, frequent adjustment
of speed and direction would be required.
LOS D represents conditions where most pedestrians have restricted or reduced normal
walking speeds because of difficulty in avoiding conflicts experienced when passing other
pedestrians. Reverse and crossing flows would be severely restricted because of frequent
conflicts with others.
LOS E approaches the maximum attainable flow volume (capacity) of the walkway. Because
of insufficient area available to pass others, frequent stoppages and interruptions to
pedestrian flow would be experienced by virtually all pedestrians.
LOS F conditions cause frequent unavoidable contact with other pedestrians. Reverse and
crossing movements would be virtually impossible. Walking speeds are extremely restricted
with forward progress reduced to a shuffle.
One measure of LOS is a variable of pedestrian module size that relates to an individual’s
buffer zone (space). The pedestrian area module is M (m2/ped), an expression of flow rate is
derived similar to the form of the traffic equation:
P=S/M
where
P = flow rate in pedestrians per meter width per minute (ped/m/min)
S = mean horizontal space speed (m/min)
The HCM provides guidance for determining the capacity and quality of service for pedestrian
facilities. Table 11.1 shows the space for pedestrians and flow rates.
Table ‎11.1 Level of Service, Pedestrian Area and Flow Rates
Average Pedestrian Area

Level of Service (square meters per person) Flow Rate (ped/m/min)
A >5.6 < 16
B 3.7–5.6 16–23
C 2.2–3.7 23–33
D 1.4–2.2 33–49
E 0.75–1.4 49-75
F <0.75 Var
Source: HCM, 2010

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Level of service standards provide a means of determining the environmental quality of

a pedestrian space, but they are no substitute for engineering design assessment and
judgment. All elements of pedestrian way design should be examined, including traffic
characteristics, platooning caused by traffic signal cycles or public transport arrivals, and the
economic consequences of use of space. When designing for extreme peak demands of short
duration, a lower level of service may apply to obtain a more economical design.
The potential pedestrian capacity of urban sidewalks is significantly reduced by the presence
of street furniture. Refuse bins, traffic signs, utility poles, ornamental trees, planters, and
other items all reduce sidewalk facility capacity.
A sidewalk width of at least 1.5 m generally is adequate for most road situations, (See
Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual) except in commercial or shopping
areas or other areas of high pedestrian flow. In such locations, widths of 3.0 m or more may
be needed to provide the desired walking environment and LOS. Ideal width of sidewalk can
be higher for new pedestrian generators, such as shops, malls, schools, and mosques, subject
to the availability of land and approval by the Overseeing Organization for planning.
A sidewalk wider than the minimum may be necessary at locations where pedestrians gather,
such as at the entrances to schools and associated crossings, and at recreation facilities and
important bus stops. In these cases, sidewalks should be at least 3.0 m wide.
Where possible, sufficient sidewalk width should be provided to allow two wheelchairs to
pass. In such cases, 1.8 m should be considered the minimum. Refer to Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, for further details.
Narrower widths can be tolerated for short distances; for example, where items of street
furniture restrict the width available. The minimum unobstructed width at such restrictions,
should be at least 1.5 m. A 1.5 m effective width is adequate to enable a pedestrian to pass
a wheelchair user.
Adequate lateral clearance should be provided to trees, street furniture, signposts, rubbish
bins, benches, balconies, telephone kiosks, benches, and traffic signs.
Refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, for more information on

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12 Facilities for Cyclists

Cycles are a healthy and sustainable travel option, and facilities should be provided
to encourage their use, particularly for short- to medium-length journeys in the urban
environment.
The following improvements, which generally are of low to moderate cost, can reduce the
frequency of crashes on a street or highway and provide for cycle traffic:
• On high speed and higher classification routes, cycle facilities should be physically
separated from the roadway to minimize conflict with motor vehicles. Shared roadway
usage by cyclists should be encouraged only on low speed roads with low traffic flows,
such as local roads and collectors. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in
Clause 10.4 of this Part.
• Care should be taken in providing cycle lanes on roads with on-street parking, particularly
where parking turnover is high. Drivers opening doors of parked cars into cyclists is
among the most prevalent cycling crash types on urban streets.
• Dimensions for cycling facilities depend on cycle dimensions, operating characteristics,

and needs. The most important design element is lane width. In many instances, design
features of separate cycle facilities are controlled by the adjoining roadway and by the
design of the highway itself.
Further information is provided throughout the QHDM, and particularly in Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, and Volume 3, Part
26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual.
To provide continuity of cycle and pedestrian networks in urban areas, pedestrian and cycle
facilities and infrastructure should be provided regardless of whether there are adjacent
developments.

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13 Parking
Both commercial and residential developments require provisions for parking private vehicles.
An important land planning decision and policy is to establish the amount of off-street
parking to be provided as part of a land development plan. Some amount of on-street parking
should be expected and accommodated based on the type of development and its location.
Parking needs in Qatar are determined through consultation with MME. A core reference
used in such consultation is the parking design guidelines in the TMPQ (MMUP, 2008), which
provides comprehensive coverage of parking design requirements for Qatar.
Certain road types and locations are designed and intended to be free of parking. Adequate
parking should be provided adjacent to existing and new developments to preclude the need
for vehicles parking along roads in areas not designated for parking.
The following design elements are referred to in the parking design guidelines in the TMPQ
(MMUP, 2008):
• Design vehicle characteristics and dimensions
• On-street parking
• Off-street parking
• Design of parking modules, circulation roadways, ramps, and access facilities to off-
street parking areas
• Design requirements for car parking structures
• Bus and truck parking requirements, including truck service areas and maneuver
clearances, access driveways and circulation roadways for commercial vehicles
• Facilities for pedestrians in parking areas
• Signage, marking, and lighting
• Designing for safety
• Park-and-ride facilities for public transportation interchanges
The following summarizes key guidance from the Parking Design Guidelines concerning
roadside or on-street parking with respect to road planning and design.
Wherever possible, parking should be provided away from the roadway, in convenient off-
street parking lots. Access to parking lots should be gained only from local roads, collectors,
and minor arterials. In urban locations, parking may be provided contiguous with the road
in designated on-street parking lanes. On-street parking is most appropriate on local roads

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and service roads. The AASHTO HSM (2010) reports that four-lane divided urban roads with
parallel parking may experience increased crash frequencies between 10 and 70 percent
depending on the type of land use served by the parking and the length of curb lane over
which the parking is permitted. For these reasons, parking lanes should be provided only on
roads with posted speed limits of 50 kph or less, and design hour traffic volumes should be
less than 1,000 vehicles per hour on roads with on-street parking.
On-street parking shall not be provided on urban expressways including collector-distributor

roads, and arterials. On-street parking on multi-lane boulevards and collectors should be
limited. Where used, parking areas should be clearly defined, and illegal parking strictly
enforced. Where possible, off-street facilities or parking on adjacent lower classification
roads should be provided.
The regulation and use of on-street parking should be prioritized to support road users with
needs for high levels of access such as public transport, taxi operators, loading and service
vehicles, people with disabilities and emergency services.
Both parallel and angle on-street parking are used in Qatar. Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, and Volume 1, Part 5, Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this Manual,
contain guidance on design for each type, including parking bays and lanes.
The Qatar Traffic Control Manual contains parking regulatory signs available for enforcing
and legalizing approved parking plans for proposed developments. Parking and waiting may
be regulated as follows:
• No waiting at any time

• No loading at any time
• No loading: day and time restriction
• No waiting on edge of sidewalk
• No waiting by trucks and buses
The following are other factors to consider when designing parking facilities:
• Parking in dense urban areas

• Ability for parking enforcement activity to occur
• Provision for taxi parking zones in the city center to improve passenger accessibility
• Provision for special parking spaces for disabled persons
• Sufficient signing to off-street parking facilities
• Provision of bus and truck parking by designating space in built up and residential areas
Refer to the latest version of parking design guidelines in the TMPQ for more details.

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References
AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. 7th edition (the Green Book). American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2018.
Department for Transport. “Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.” Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 2, Part 6. UK Highways Agency: London, England. January 1995.
Department of Transport. Guidance on the use of Tactile Paving Surfaces. Department of the Environment,
Transport and the Regions: London, England. 1998. Reprinted April 2000.
Department for Transport. “The Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cycle and Equestrian Routes.” Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 3, Part 5. UK Highways Agency: London, England. 2005.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland. Road Planning and Design Manual, 2nd edition.
Volumes 1 to 6. Queensland, Australia. July 2013.
Dubai Municipality. Pedestrian and Cyclist Design Manual. Prepared by CHRI for Dubai Municipality.
Government of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. 2003.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar—A Guide to
Planning Roads in Qatar. Doha, Qatar. 2008.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar—Existing Public
Transport System. Doha, Qatar. 2007.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar Guidelines for
Designing Parking Facilities. 2010.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar—Pedestrian
Facility Guidelines. Doha, Qatar. 2007.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar Recommended
Practice Guide for Designing Parking Facilities.. 2008.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Guidelines and Procedures for Transport Studies.
Doha, State of Qatar: Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning, Government of Qatar. 2011.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Land Acquisition Process. Land Acquisition and
Roadway Improvement Strategy. 2012.

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Mowasalat. Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit Planning. Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Transportation Research Board. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), 5th edition. Washington DC, 2010.
Traffic Law No. 19 of 2007. Ministry of Interior, Al Meezan Legal Portal, Government of Qatar 2007.
Wramborg, Per. A New Approach to a Safe and Sustainable Road Structure and Street Design for Urban
Areas. Paper presented at Road Safety on Four Continents (RS4C) Conference, Warsaw, Poland. October
5–7, 2005.

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Volume 1
Part 3
Roadway Design
Elements
ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS PART
3
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS
3

3
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations.................................................................................................. xi
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Design Speed................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1. Posted Speed.............................................................................................................................2
1.2. Design Speed Related Parameters........................................................................................................ 3
1.2.1. Changeover of Design Speed..............................................................................................3
1.2.2. Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads.....................................................4
1.2.3. Departures from Standards..................................................................................................4
1.2.4. Special Considerations...........................................................................................................7
1.3.Sustainability................................................................................................................................................. 7
2 Sight Distance............................................................................................................... 11
2.1. Basic Types of Sight Distance.............................................................................................................. 11
2.2. Stopping Sight Distance......................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.1. SSD Model and Parameters...............................................................................................12
2.2.2. Stopping Sight Distance Design Values.......................................................................12
2.2.3. Horizontal Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance................................................14
2.2.4. Stopping Sight Distance for Local Roads in Residential Areas...........................16
2.2.5. Vertical Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance......................................................16
2.3. Passing Sight Distance........................................................................................................................... 17
2.4. Decision Sight Distance.......................................................................................................................... 19
2.5. Intersection Sight Distance................................................................................................................... 22
2.5.1. Case A: Intersections with Stop Control on Minor Road.........................................23
2.5.2. Case B: Intersections with Yield Control on Minor Road........................................27
2.5.3. Case C: Intersections with Traffic Signal Control......................................................30
2.5.4. Case D: Intersections with All-Way Stop Control......................................................31
2.5.5. Case E: Left Turns from Major Road...............................................................................31
2.6. Special Considerations............................................................................................................................ 32
2.7.Departures................................................................................................................................................... 32
3 Horizontal Alignment................................................................................................... 34
3.1. Simple Horizontal Curve and Spirals.................................................................................................. 34
3.2. Alignment combinations using simple curves and tangents................................................... 36
3.3. General Design Considerations............................................................................................................ 39
3.3.1. Maximum Centerline Deflection without a Horizontal Curve..............................39
3.3.2. Minimum Curve Lengths.....................................................................................................40
3.4. Cross Slope and Superelevation.......................................................................................................... 40

3
3.5. Superelevation Transition and Spirals.............................................................................................. 42

3.5.1. Axis of Rotation.....................................................................................................................43
3.5.2. Rate of Rotation.....................................................................................................................43
3.5.3. Calculation of Superelevation Transition Lengths...................................................46
3.5.4.Spirals.........................................................................................................................................48
3.5.5. Positioning of Superelevation Transition....................................................................50
3.5.6. Superelevation on Compound Curves...........................................................................52
3.5.7. Superelevation on Reverse Curves.................................................................................53
3.5.8. Shoulder Slopes on Superelevated Roadways..........................................................54
3.6. Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves............................................................................... 57
3.7. Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset............................................................................................. 61
3.8. Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections............................................................................. 62
3.9. Local and Residential Roads................................................................................................................. 64
3.9.1. Special Considerations........................................................................................................64
3.9.2. Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation..................................................................65
4 Vertical Alignment........................................................................................................ 67
4.1.Terrain............................................................................................................................................................ 68
4.2. Longitudinal Grades................................................................................................................................. 68
4.2.1. Maximum Longitudinal Grades.........................................................................................68
4.2.2. Minimum Grades....................................................................................................................68
4.2.3. Minor Road Grades at Intersections...............................................................................69
4.3. Vertical Curves........................................................................................................................................... 69
4.3.1. Crest Vertical Curves............................................................................................................69
4.3.2. Sag Vertical Curves...............................................................................................................70
4.3.3. Crest Vertical Curve Design...............................................................................................72
4.3.4. Sag Vertical Curve Design..................................................................................................74
4.3.5. Minimum Length of Vertical Curves...............................................................................76
4.3.6. Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve..................................................77
4.4. Vertical Clearances................................................................................................................................... 78
4.5. Special Considerations............................................................................................................................ 80
5 General Considerations............................................................................................... 82
5.1.General.......................................................................................................................................................... 82
5.2. Harmonizing the Horizontal Alignment............................................................................................ 82
5.3. Harmonizing the Vertical Alignment................................................................................................. 84
5.4. Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments............................................................................ 85
5.5. Alignment Coordination in Design...................................................................................................... 86
6 Cross Section Elements............................................................................................... 92


3
6.1.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................92
6.1.2. Design Principles...................................................................................................................93
6.1.3. Road Network Objectives...................................................................................................94
6.1.4.Departures...............................................................................................................................96
6.2. Design Requirements.............................................................................................................................. 96
6.2.1. Travel Lanes............................................................................................................................97
6.2.2.Shoulders..................................................................................................................................98
6.2.3. Hard Strips............................................................................................................................. 101
6.2.4. Auxiliary Lanes.................................................................................................................... 101
6.2.5.Medians.................................................................................................................................. 102
6.2.6. Separator Islands................................................................................................................ 106
6.2.7. Service Roads....................................................................................................................... 106
6.2.8. Frontage Roads................................................................................................................... 107
6.2.9. Parking Bays and Lanes................................................................................................... 110
6.2.10. Parallel Roadside Parking................................................................................................ 111
6.2.11. Angled Roadside Parking................................................................................................ 111
6.2.12. Off Street Parking.............................................................................................................. 112
6.2.13. Off Street Disabled Parking............................................................................................ 115
6.2.14.Curbs........................................................................................................................................ 115
6.2.15. Vehicle Restraint System................................................................................................ 120
6.2.16. Side Slopes............................................................................................................................ 121
6.2.17.Clearances............................................................................................................................. 122
6.2.18.Fencing................................................................................................................................... 123
6.2.19. Roadside Elements and Verges.................................................................................... 123
6.2.20. Pedestrian Facilities.......................................................................................................... 125
6.2.21. Bicycle Facilities................................................................................................................. 125
6.2.22.Utilities................................................................................................................................... 125
6.2.23.Right-of-Way........................................................................................................................ 125
6.2.24. Typical Cross Sections...................................................................................................... 126
6.2.25. Swept Path Analysis......................................................................................................... 165
7 Integrated Road and Landscape Design................................................................. 168

7.1. Integrated Road Design Principles.................................................................................................. 168
7.2. Road Siting and Alignment................................................................................................................. 169
7.2.1.Earthworks............................................................................................................................ 169
7.2.2. Retaining Walls.................................................................................................................... 170
7.2.3. Rock Cut................................................................................................................................. 170
7.2.4. Interchanges and Roundabouts................................................................................... 171
7.2.5.Gateways............................................................................................................................... 171
7.2.6. Special Areas........................................................................................................................ 172

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7.3.Structures.................................................................................................................................................. 172
7.3.1.Bridges.................................................................................................................................... 173
7.3.2. Pedestrian Bridges............................................................................................................ 173
7.3.3.Tunnels................................................................................................................................... 174
7.3.4. Pedestrian Underpasses.................................................................................................. 174
7.4. Fences and Walls.................................................................................................................................... 175
7.5. Water Management/ and Conservation......................................................................................... 175
7.5.1. Detention Systems............................................................................................................ 176
7.5.2. Infiltration Systems........................................................................................................... 176
7.6. Landscape and Utilities....................................................................................................................... 177
7.7. Sustainable Landscape Design......................................................................................................... 177
7.7.1.Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 177
7.7.2. Urban Street and Landscape Assessment and Planning.................................... 178
7.7.3.Soils.......................................................................................................................................... 178
7.7.4. Water Conservation........................................................................................................... 179
7.7.5. Plant Species........................................................................................................................ 179
7.7.6.Materials................................................................................................................................ 179
7.7.7. Landscape Maintenance and Management............................................................. 180
8 Other Elements Affecting Design............................................................................ 182

8.1. Erosion Control........................................................................................................................................ 182
8.2. Rest Areas................................................................................................................................................. 182
8.2.1. Spacing of Rest Areas....................................................................................................... 182
8.2.2. Site Selection....................................................................................................................... 182
8.2.3. Rest Area Design................................................................................................................ 183
8.3. Traffic Control Devices......................................................................................................................... 189
8.3.1. Signing and Marking.......................................................................................................... 189
8.3.2. Traffic Signals...................................................................................................................... 190
8.4. Noise Barriers.......................................................................................................................................... 190
8.4.1.Placement.............................................................................................................................. 190
8.5.Fencing....................................................................................................................................................... 191
8.6. Sand Abatement in Dune Areas....................................................................................................... 191
References............................................................................................................................. 194

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Tables
Table 1.1. Design and Posted Speeds for Various Road Classifications............................................................2
Table 1.2. Design Speed Related Parameters..............................................................................................................3
Table 2.1. Stopping Sight Distance for Level Roadways with Grades less than
3 Percent............................................................................................................................................................13
Table 2.2. Stopping Sight Distance for Local Roads in Residential Area........................................................16
Table 2.3. Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Roadways...............................................................................19
Table 2.4. Decision Sight Distance................................................................................................................................21
Table 2.5. Time Gap—Case A1, Left Turn from Stop...............................................................................................24
Table 2.6. Intersection Sight Distance—Case A1, Left Turn from Stop...........................................................25
Table 2.7. Time Gap—Case A2, Right Turn from Stop and Case A3, Crossing
Maneuver............................................................................................................................................................26
Table 2.8. Intersection Sight Distance—Case A2, Right Turn from Stop and Case A3, Crossing
Maneuver............................................................................................................................................................26
Table 2.9. Crossing Maneuver from Yield Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor
Leg and Travel Time from the Decision Point.....................................................................................28
Table 2.10. Length of Sight Triangles along Major Road—Case B1, Crossing Maneuver
from Yield Controlled Intersections.........................................................................................................29
Table 2.11. Gap Acceptance Time for Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers from Yield-Controlled
Intersections.....................................................................................................................................................30
Table 2.12. Intersection Sight Distance along Major Road—Case B2, Left or Right
Turn at Yield-Controlled Intersections....................................................................................................30
Table 2.13. Time Gap for Case E Left Turn from the Major Road.........................................................................32
Table 2.14. Intersection Sight Distance—Case E, Left Turn from the Major Road.........................................32
Table 3.1. Minimum Radius without Superelevation.............................................................................................41
Table 3.2. Superelevation for Radii and Design Speed (percent)......................................................................42
Table 3.3. Maximum Relative Gradients......................................................................................................................44
Table 3.4. Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated............................................................................47
Table 3.5. Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition.....................................................................49
Table 3.6. Desirable Length of a Spiral Curve Transition......................................................................................50
Table 3.7. Traveled Way Widening Criteria on Horizontal Curves.....................................................................58
Table 3.8. Traveled Way Widening Criteria at Horizontal Curves, Inside Curve Radius
100 m or Less...................................................................................................................................................59
Table 3.9. Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways.......................................................................63
Table 3.10. Minimum Radii for Local and Residential Roads up to 50 kph without Superelevation.....65

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Table 4.1. Maximum Grades.............................................................................................................................................68

Table 4.2. Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curve Design Based on Stopping Sight Distance...........74
Table 4.3. Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves.................................................................................................76
Table 4.4. Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve............................................................................77
Table 4.5. Vertical Clearance at Structures................................................................................................................78
Table 4.6. Sag Radius Compensation...........................................................................................................................80
Table 6.1. Mainline Rate of Change of Width for a Standard Lane...................................................................98
Table 6.2. Typical Roadway Cross Sections...............................................................................................................99
Table 6.3. Typical Minimum Median Width.............................................................................................................. 102
Table 6.4. Parking Bay Dimensions............................................................................................................................ 114
Table 6.5. Typical Cross Sections – Urban Roads.................................................................................................. 127
Table 6.6. Typical Cross Sections – Rural Roads.................................................................................................... 128
Table 8.1. Demand Assessment Guidelines for Provision................................................................................. 188
Table 8.2. Minimum Parking Provision...................................................................................................................... 188
Figures
Figure 2.1. Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance.........................................................................................................15

Figure 2.2. Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve...........................................................................17
Figure 2.3. Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve....................................................................................17
Figure 2.4. Passing Maneuver...........................................................................................................................................18
Figure 2.5. Sight Triangles for a Yield Controlled Intersection............................................................................23
Figure 2.6. Sight Triangles (Stop Controlled)..............................................................................................................24
Figure 2.7. Left Turns from Major Roads......................................................................................................................31
Figure 3.1. Simple Curve Elements.................................................................................................................................35
Figure 3.2. Simple Curve with Spirals.............................................................................................................................36
Figure 3.3. Compound Curve..............................................................................................................................................37
Figure 3.4. Broken Back Curve..........................................................................................................................................38
Figure 3.5. Reverse Curve...................................................................................................................................................39
Figure 3.6. Development of Superelevation................................................................................................................45
Figure 3.7. Number of Lanes Rotated for Undivided Roadways.........................................................................47
Figure 3.8. Superelevation Transition for Two-Lane Roadways.........................................................................51
Figure 3.9. Superelevation Transition on Compound Curves (Distance between PC and
PCC is less than or equal to 90 m)............................................................................................................52

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Figure 3.10. Superelevation Transition on Compound Curves (Distance between PC and

PCC is greater than 90 m)............................................................................................................................53
Figure 3.11. Superelevation between Reverse Curves..............................................................................................54
Figure 3.12. Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways.....................................................55
Figure 3.13. Superelevation Development for Arterial and Collectors with Narrow
Medians...............................................................................................................................................................56
Figure 3.14. Superelevation Development for Freeway and Expressways (Shoulder Break Option).....57
Figure 3.15 . Travel Lane Widening on Horizontal Curves.........................................................................................60
Figure 3.16. Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset...................................................................................................62
Figure 3.17. Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections.......................................................................64
Figure 4.1. Minor Road Vertical Alignment Approach at Intersections.............................................................69
Figure 4.2. Vertical Curve Elements...............................................................................................................................71
Figure 4.3. Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve...........................................................................73
Figure 4.4. Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve....................................................................................75
Figure 4.5. Additional Clearances at Underpasses for Sag Vertical Curves....................................................79
Figure 5.1. Example of a Kink and Improvement with Larger Radius...............................................................83
Figure 5.2. Alignment Relationships in Roadway Design—1 of 4.......................................................................87
Figure 6.1. Cross Section Design Flow Chart..............................................................................................................95
Figure 6.2. Typical Median Pedestrian Fence.......................................................................................................... 103
Figure 6.3. Typical Median Layouts............................................................................................................................. 106
Figure 6.4. Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—1 of 2.................................................................................. 108
Figure 6.5. Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—2 of 2.................................................................................. 109
Figure 6.6. Minimum Clearance of Parking Lane from Intersection for Low Speed,
Low Volume Local roads in Residential Areas................................................................................... 110
Figure 6.7. Roadside Parking Parallel Bay Dimensions........................................................................................ 111
Figure 6.8. Roadside Parking in 45 degree Angled Bay Layout....................................................................... 112
Figure 6.9. Parking Bay Dimensions............................................................................................................................ 113
Figure 6.10. Disabled Parking........................................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 6.11. Standard Curb Types................................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 6.12. Urban Local Road – 10 m ROW Residential......................................................................................... 129
Figure 6.13. Urban Local Road – 12 m ROW Residential......................................................................................... 130

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Figure 6.14. Urban Local Road – 16 m ROW Residential (One lane each direction).................................... 131
Figure 6.15. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 20 m ROW Residential (One lane each direction).... 132
Figure 6.16. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 20 m ROW Commercial (One lane
each direction).............................................................................................................................................. 133
Figure 6.17. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 20 m ROW Industrial (One lane
each direction)............................................................................................................................................... 134
Figure 6.18. Urban Local Road/ Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Residential (one lane
each direction)............................................................................................................................................... 135
Figure 6.19. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Residential (Two lanes
each direction)............................................................................................................................................... 136
Figure 6.20. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector - 24 m ROW Commercial (One lane
each direction)............................................................................................................................................... 137
Figure 6.21. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Commercial (Two lanes
each direction).............................................................................................................................................. 138
Figure 6.22. Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Industrial (One lane each direction)........ 139
Figure 6.23. Urban Major/ Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Residential (One lane each direction).............. 140
Figure 6.24. Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Residential (Two lanes each direction)............ 141
Figure 6.25. Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Commercial (One lane each direction).............. 142
Figure 6.26. Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Commercial (Two lanes each direction)............ 143
Figure 6.27. Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Industrial (One lane each
direction).......................................................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 6.28. Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Industrial (Two lanes each direction)................ 145
Figure 6.29. Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial – 40 m ROW Residential (Two lanes
each direction)............................................................................................................................................... 146
Figure 6.30. Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial – 40 m ROW Commercial
(Two lanes each direction)....................................................................................................................... 147
Figure 6.31. Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial – 40 m ROW Industrial (Two lanes
each direction)............................................................................................................................................... 148
Figure 6.32. Urban Boulevard/Minor Arterial – 64 m ROW (Three lanes each direction
without Service Road)................................................................................................................................ 149
Figure 6.33. Urban Boulevard/Minor Arterial – 64 m ROW (Three lanes each direction
with Service Road)...................................................................................................................................... 150
Figure 6.34. Urban Major Arterial – 64 m ROW Residential/Commercial with Service
Road.................................................................................................................................................................. 151
Figure 6.35. Urban Major Arterial – 64 m ROW Industrial with Service Road................................................ 152
Figure 6.36. Urban Expressway – 64 m ROW (Three lanes each direction with Two
lanes service road)...................................................................................................................................... 153

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Figure 6.37. Urban Expressway – 64 m ROW (Four lanes each direction with
service road)................................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 6.38. Urban Expressway – 264 m ROW (Four lanes in each direction with
frontage road)............................................................................................................................................... 155
Figure 6.39. Rural Local – 20 m ROW.............................................................................................................................. 156
Figure 6.40. Rural Collector – 24 m ROW...................................................................................................................... 157
Figure 6.41. Rural Collector – 32 m ROW (One lane each direction).................................................................. 158
Figure 6.42. Rural Collector – 40 m ROW (Two lanes each direction)................................................................ 159
Figure 6.43. Rural Arterial – 64 m ROW (Two or three lanes each direction)................................................. 160
Figure 6.44. Rural Freeway – 264 m ROW without Frontage Road................................................................... 161
Figure 6.45. Rural Freeway – 264 m ROW with Frontage Road.......................................................................... 162
Figure 6.46. Typical Embankment Cross Sections.................................................................................................... 163
Figure 6.47. Typical Cut Cross Sections........................................................................................................................ 164
Figure 6.48. Requirement for Barriers on Embankments...................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.49. Swept Path Parameters for Typical Tractor-Semitrailer Combination..................................... 167
Figure 8.1. Typical Rest Area Plan................................................................................................................................ 183
Figure 8.2. Bus Parking Details at Rest Areas......................................................................................................... 186
Figure 8.3. Truck Parking Details at Rest Areas...................................................................................................... 187
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | VOLUME 1 ix

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x VOLUME 1 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

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CL Center line
Departure Departure from Standards
DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
DSD decision sight distance
HSSD horizontal stopping sight distance
HOV high-occupancy vehicle
ISD intersection sight distance
m meter(s)
MASH Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
NMU nonmotorized users, such as pedestrians, cyclists, and equestrians
OHPS over-height protection system
PC point of curvature
PCC point of compound curvature
PSD passing sight distance
QPDM Qatar Parking Design Manual
R/L Reference line
ROW Right of Way
s, sec second(s)
VSSD vertical stopping sight distance
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | VOLUME 1 xi

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xii VOLUME 1 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

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1 Introduction
This Part outlines the following design controls and elements to be applied in the design of
the roadway geometry:
• Design speed
• Roadway cross sections
• Sight distances
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Grades and cross slope
• Vertical clearances
• Light rail considerations
The roadway design process begins with the establishment of basic design controls and
design criteria, the most important of these being design speed. The design process proceeds
sequentially, with establishment of the basic typical cross section, followed by the setting of
the horizontal alignment and then the vertical alignment.
Roadway design is not performed on a blank sheet of paper, nor is it an automatic or rote
exercise. The context, i.e., the terrain, adjacent land use, and location-specific features or
constraints, influences the design. Good design is necessarily iterative. There is always more
than one reasonable solution to a design problem. The role of the designer as an engineering
professional should be to seek the highest value solution; with “value” being dependent on
the site-specific conditions and stakeholder input.
The unique engineering challenges designers face involve the often conflicting transportation
values of mobility and safety. Traditionally, design focus has been on meeting the desires
of road users to minimize their travel time. This is accomplished by designing the road for
the highest speed that is reasonable given the context. Designing for high speeds, however,
presents challenges because human driving capabilities are limited at high speeds, and the
consequences of human error are heightened because the severity of crashes is significantly
greater at higher speeds.
1.1 Design Speed

The design speed for a road or highway is a selected speed that is used to determine the
dimensions, values, and characteristics of the roadway. A fundamental principle of design
speed is that it applies over relatively long sections of roadway. The professional designer
selects a speed that is logical and reasonable using the guidance provided by the Qatar
Highway Design Manual (QHDM). The selected speed should reflect the anticipated and
desired operating speed, the topography, the adjacent land use, and the intended primary

3
function of the highway as determined by its functional classification. The selection of a

design speed should be made with an awareness of the need to achieve safety, mobility, and
efficiency within the constraints of environmental quality, economics, aesthetics, and social
and political impacts. In selecting a design speed, the designer is setting the basis by which
all of the basic elements—cross section and alignment—will be established.
Meeting the expectations of drivers should influence the selection of a design speed. Where
the reasons for lower speed are obvious, such as the land use or terrain, drivers are apt to
expect and accept lower speed. Drivers do not adjust their speeds to the importance of the
highway, but rather in response to their perception of the physical limitations of the highway
and its traffic.
A related control in highway design is the setting of legal operation of vehicles through the
posting of speed limits. By policy in Qatar, the posted speed limits that apply are related
to the design speeds, as shown in Table 1.1. The design speeds and corresponding posted
speeds vary by functional classification and land use frontage.
Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual.
1.1.1 Posted Speed

Posted speed is the mandatory speed limit applied to a road. The speed limit is displayed on
the roadside and is enforceable. Table 1.1 lists the posted speed limits to be implemented in
relation to design speed.
Table 1.1 Design and Posted Speeds for Various Road Classifications
Design Speeds Posted Traffic

Road Classification Land Use Frontage (kph) Speeds (kph)
Urban Expressway Not residential or recreational 100 to 120 80 or 100
Urban Arterial—Major Industrial, or commercial preferred 60 to 100 50 or 80
Urban Arterial—Minor Industrial, or commercial preferred 50 to 100 50 or 80
Urban Boulevard Retail, commercial or recreational 50 to 100 50 or 80
Urban Collector Distributor Not residential or recreational 80 to 120 50, 80 or 100
Industrial, commercial, residential or
Urban Collector—Major 50 or 60 50
recreational
Urban Collector—Minor 50 or 60 50
recreational
Service Road Any 30 to 50 30 or 50
Urban Local Road 30 to 50 30 or 50
recreational
Rural Freeway Not applicable 120 to 140 100 or 120
Rural Collector Distributor Not applicable 100 to 140 80, 100, or 120
Rural Arterial Not applicable 100 to 120 80 or 100
Rural Collector Not applicable 60 to 100 50 or 80
Rural Local Not applicable 50 50

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Posted speeds are generally lower than design speeds for roadways with design speeds
greater than 50 kilometers per hour (kph). Posted speed for roadways with design speeds
of 80 kph or greater is 20 kph lower; for roadways with design speeds less than 80 kph and
greater than 50 kph posted speed is 10 kph lower. Design and posted speeds are the same
for roadways with design speeds of 50 kph or lower. The road classifications are defined in
Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
Selection of a design speed is one of the very first project decisions. Selection of a design
speed outside the values shown in Table 1.1 shall constitute a Departure from Standards
(Departure). Should a Departure be considered, the process of evaluation and approval
should occur before proceeding with any engineering design. The selection of design speed
shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization. Refer to Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process, of this Manual, for more information.
Refer to Clause 1.2.4 for design speeds for roads that require special consideration. They
should be agreed to with the Overseeing Organization.
1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

The design of most elements of the roadway are influenced by the selected design speed.
Table 1.2 details the main design speed related parameters dealt with in greater depth in
their respective clauses in this Part.
Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters
Parameter Reference
Stopping sight distance Chapter 2: Clause 2.2
Passing sight distance Chapter 2: Clause 2.3
Decision sight distance Chapter 2: Clause 2.4
Intersection sight distance Chapter 2, Clause 2.5
Horizontal curvature Chapter 3, Clause 3.1
Vertical curvature Chapter 4, Clause 4.3
Cross sectional elements Chapter 6: Clause 6.2
1.2.1 Changeover of Design Speed

Transitions between roads (or sections of a road) with different design speeds shall
be implemented so as not to present the driver with an abrupt change in the roadway’s
characteristics or appearance. A change in the design speed should not exceed 20 kph. For
example, in transitioning to a lower design speed from 100 kph the new, lower design speed
should not be less than 80 kph.
At the interface between sections of roadway designed to different design speeds, designers
check that the curvature and sight distance is adequate for the approach design speed. See

3
Chapter 3 regarding transition curves where the road passes through an area where the
curve radius must be reduced beyond the limiting radius to accommodate design speed. Road
designers shall consider Qatar Rail’s particular requirements at rail crossings, parallel runs
and station areas.
Designers should avoid interfaces between different design speeds near horizontal or
vertical curvature less than the requirements for the higher design speed, and at or near
steep vertical grades. Sufficient warning signs should be provided in advance of reaching
the section of the road with lower speed. For details of signing the speed control refer to
1.2.2 Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads

Care shall be taken in the design of road to be reconstructed, with such reconstruction
resulting in a significant change in the roadway geometry. At the project limits, the design
characteristics transition from the newly reconstructed road to the existing road to remain
in place.
The setting of appropriate project limits is one measure of care. Logical limits may include an
intersection, or a tangent highway section at which the vertical alignment provides stopping
sight distance that is greater than the minimum. Careful consideration should be given for
roads passing between rural and urban areas, posted speed step down and also two lanes
to single lane roadways, although this latter case should be limited to intersection locations
only.
Clear signing is needed at all locations where there is a speed reduction.
1.2.3 Departures from Standards

The standards herein represent the various criteria and maximum/minimum levels of provision
whose incorporation in the road design would achieve an acceptable level of transportation
performance. In most cases, designs can be achieved that do not require the use of the
lowest levels of given design parameters. At some locations on new roads or reconstruction of
existing roads it may not be possible to provide even the lowest levels of design parameters
in economic or environmental terms because of unique context features including existing
landmarks, high-rises; religious, cultural, and historic sites; natural preserves; and community
resources. Prevailing circumstances may identify sufficient advantages that may justify a
Departure from Standards. The parameters are not to be regarded as fixed in all circumstances.
Departures should be considered and assessed in terms of their effects on the economic
worth of the project, the environment, and the safety of road users. Designers should always
have regard to the cost-effectiveness of the design provision. The implications, particularly
in relation to safety risk, should be quantified to the extent possible. Engineering judgment
is necessary in many cases. In exercising judgment, professional designers considering a
Departure should have knowledge of the operational and safety effects of roadway design
features. Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual, provides
technical guidance including research references that designers can review to enable
appropriate judgments. The QHDM covers a wide range of geometric elements and design

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dimensions. Based on a review of international, peer-reviewed research and practices of

major national highway agencies, the following 16 criteria have been identified as being
of sufficient importance that the inability, for whatever reason, to meet the minimum
design value shall require a formal Departure from Standards:
• Design speed
• Lane width
• Shoulder width
• Bridge width
• Horizontal alignment
• Superelevation
• Vertical alignment
• Longitudinal grade
• Sight distance
• Cross slope
• Vertical clearance
• Lateral offset to obstruction
• Structural capacity (not a geometric element)
• Acceleration and deceleration lane lengths on fully access controlled highways
• Weaving section
• Cycle path or shared use path
The Overseeing Organization requires a formal written Departure Application for each design
exception if the specified maximum or minimum criteria related to the 16 controlling criteria
above are not met. The process for submitting a written Departure Application is given in
Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.
Other design parameters, values, and policies in QHDM are guidelines to promote consistency
in design and achieve overall quality control in the project development process. The
Overseeing Organization provides oversight on all design and specification aspects of all
projects. Designers should strive to fully apply all published criteria, regardless of whether
they are subject to the Departure process.
This section introduces the concept of a hierarchy of permitted values for geometric layout
parameters such as sight distance, horizontal and vertical curves. That hierarchy is based
upon minimum standards based on design speed. Values equal to or greater than the minimum
results in safer alignments and minimizes journey times. The hierarchy of values enables a
flexible approach to be applied where the strict application of minimum requirements would
lead to disproportionately high construction costs or severe environmental impact upon

3
people, properties, and landscapes. Successive levels in the hierarchy invoke more stringent
consideration in line with the need to carefully consider safety.
Over the years, there have been many advances in road layout design and associated
improvements for the assessment of safety and operational aspects. Research has
strengthened the understanding of driver behavior, and safety audits and other initiatives
in the mechanics of assessing and checking scheme layouts have made the design process
more rigorous and reliable.
Experience in the application of the hierarchy of values indicates that the environmental and
financial benefits gained from this increased flexibility can be considerable. The designer must
carefully consider the benefits and any potential disadvantages of Departures. Additional
guidance in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual, describes
the approach to be taken to assessing Departures. Any such Departures must be agreed to
in writing with the Overseeing Organization. Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards
Process, of this Manual gives a procedure for the preparation and submission requirements
for Departures.
Principles to follow when preparing options that include Departures are summarized in the
bulleted list below. It is likewise a list of factors to be taken into account when considering
the merits of options. Designers should consider whether and to what degree the site is:
• Isolated from other Departures
• Isolated from intersections
• One where drivers are provided minimum stopping sight distance
• Subject to momentary visibility impairment only
• One that would affect only a small proportion of the traffic
• On straightforward geometry readily understandable to drivers
• On a road with no frontage access
• One where traffic speeds would be reduced locally by adjacent speed limits or road
geometry, such as uphill sections, approaching roundabouts, major/minor intersections
where traffic has to yield or stop, and so on
Designers should consider whether the following should be introduced in conjunction with
any Departure:
• Crash prevention measures; for safety fencing, increased skidding resistance

• Warning signs and road markings to alert the driver to the layout ahead
Designers should have regard for the traffic flows carried by the link. High flows may carry
a greater risk of queues and standing traffic approaching intersections in the peak period.
Conversely, lower flows might encourage higher speeds.

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The road classifications for Qatar are described in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
The selection of a design speed is difficult for some roads in the older areas of the city.
Those areas are not so easily classified into land use, and factors such as access and parking
must be assessed in determining the design speed. Other considerations are the number
and spacing of intersections on a particular section of road. Departures provide a means of
accommodating these areas.
Departures from minimum or maximum values specified for the 16 controlling criteria may
be considered when context, cost, or environmental savings are considered to be significant,
except in the following circumstances:
• Immediately following an overtaking section on undivided roads
• On the immediate approach to an intersection, other than a roundabout, where frequent

turning traffic will occur.
1.2.4 Special Considerations

The posted speed for local roads in residential, commercial, and recreational areas is 50 kph.
Where there are areas of high pedestrian activity (such as school zones, metro stations,
sports stadia, etc.), or where the local roads are provided for access only a posted speed
of 30 kph, supported by traffic calming measures, must be considered. Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual, identifies circumstances on lower category urban roads where the
30 kph posted speed should be applied. For guidance on school zones and traffic calming
measures refer to Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety, of this Manual.
The lower design speeds of 50 kph and 30 kph applied in urban areas do not require
transitions or superelevation on bends. Refer to Clause 3.3 and Clause 3.4.
One-way roads may be used on local roads for access, usually in the form of discrete loops.
One-way roads should be designed so as not to encourage speeding. This may be achieved by
the use of narrower roadway lanes, avoiding long tangent sections of road, and implementing
traffic calming measures. Refer to Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety,
of this Manual.
Care shall be taken to ensure that traffic calming measures being introduced do not impede
emergency service vehicles. Particular attention is required at Metro and Light Rail stations.
1.3 Sustainability
The key sustainability principles for highway design in Qatar are summarized in Volume 1,
Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, of this Manual, and Volume 3, Part 21,
Environmental, of this Manual. Early consideration of potential impacts and how the design
can help to avoid or minimize them is a key principle to be followed. Sustainable design should
minimize the need for design rework and achieve optimal economic feasibility considering
costs over the whole asset life, including costs that may be incurred from changes to traffic
volumes, urbanization, user types, and environmental conditions. The design should consider,

3
from the earliest stages, opportunities to design out adverse environmental and social
impacts and how enhancements can be incorporated. Regarding the design of roadways,
roadway elements, and intersections, designers should consider the following issues. Road
designers shall consider Qatar Rail’s particular requirements at rail crossings, parallel runs
and station areas; especially at Metro and Light Rail stations. See also Volume 3, Part 21,
Environmental of this Manual.
• Water use: Designers should consider the requirements for water use during construction
and how designs can be optimized to avoid or minimize the need for water.
• Soil erosion and contamination: The design should minimize soil erosion, windblown
sand, and contamination during construction and operation. Where possible, the road
should avoid areas likely to lead to erosion and contamination impacts, such as sabkha,
sand dunes, and contaminated land. Natural vegetation should be used as a natural
barrier to sand movement where possible.
• Material use and resource efficiency: Designs should minimize the quantity of raw
materials required and when specifying materials or setting technical specifications.
Designers should give due consideration to incorporating sustainable materials into
their designs, such as locally sourced, reused, or recycled materials, or low embodied
energy/ carbon materials. The design should be optimized to minimize waste during
construction and maintenance.
• Climate change adaptation: Designers should ensure that consideration is given to the
potential impacts of climate change on roadways and that resilience is built into their
design for issues such as increased temperatures, rainfall intensity, sea level rise, and
erosion control.
• Provision for sustainable transport: Designers should consider the needs of and
make suitable provisions for both nonmotorized and public transport users in terms of
accessing the road network crossing the roadway, in order to avoid severance impacts.
Where roadways are unsuitable for nonmotorized users, the design should consider
incorporating segregated pathways for bicycle users. Intersections should be made safe
and usable to nonmotorized users to avoid severance.
• Air quality: Designers should take measures to ensure that operational air quality
impacts are minimized through design. Road alignment, traffic management to control
speed and to encourage specific traffic behavior, landscaping, gradients, cross-slope
roads, and corner angles affecting speeds and flows should all be considered. Roadways
should be integrated with the public transport network, and pedestrian and cycle access
should be provided.
• Noise: Designers should consider routing alignments to maximize the distance between
receptors and the roadway. Where sensitive receptors are affected by a roadway, the
design should incorporate adequate mitigation measures to reduce traffic noise through
the specification of low-noise surfacing materials or of environmental barriers.

3
• Visual impact and landscape design: Landscape design should minimize the visual
impact of the road and seek to enhance the visual amenity value of the area where
possible.
• Ecology and biodiversity: Roadway design should minimize ecological and biodiversity
effects within the roadway corridor and optimize opportunities for enhancement
through landscaping or planting strategies for example. Severance of wildlife corridors
and fragmentation should be mitigated through design
• Operational energy use: Energy-consuming equipment required to fulfil a function

of the roadway should be specified to maximize energy efficiency in use. Designers
should incorporate opportunities for micro-renewable energy generation co-located
with equipment requiring an energy demand.
• Safety: It is important to ensure that design characteristics, such as stopping sight

distance, curve radius, lane width, and superelevation, are commensurate with the speed
limit of the road. The characteristics of the road determine the safety of the speed limit
and the degree to which road users will accept the speed limit. See Volume 3, Part 23,
Design and Operation of Road Safety, of this Manual.
• Archaeology and cultural heritage: Roadway design should optimize the protection,
preservation, and enhancement of sites of archaeological or cultural value by routing so
as to avoid them where possible and to optimize horizontal and vertical alignments in
order to avoid or minimize severance and visual and noise intrusion impacts.

3

3
2 Sight Distance
A fundamental principle of road design is that the driver should be able to see the roadway
and its environment sufficiently in advance of the vehicle such that the driver can maneuver
and/or change speeds while maintaining full control of the vehicle. The term sight distance
expresses this fundamental principle. Sight distance is the continuous length of the roadway
ahead that is visible to the driver. Drivers should be able to see far enough ahead to safely
and efficiently perform any carry out any legal maneuvers. They should have sufficient
view of the road to safely avoid conflicts that may occur. Sight distances can be affected by
passing railway trains and associated shelters, stations, etc.
2.1 Basic Types of Sight Distance

The four important maneuvers drivers undertake form the basis for the design for sight
distance in Qatar:
Stopping Sight Distance: applicable on all roadways
Passing Sight Distance: applicable only on two lane undivided roadways
Decision Sight Distance: applicable on urban and rural roads where road users have to make
complex decisions, for example exiting at interchanges
Intersection Sight Distance: applicable at all intersections
Sight distances can be affected by passing trains and associated shelters, stations, etc.
Simple operational models are used to compute design values for each type of sight distance.
Each model employs assumptions for the basic parameters describing the assumed location
of a driver’s eye, and the assumed type and location of an object or feature that characterizes
or controls the design maneuver.
The criteria and models applied to roads in Qatar are based on the latest research (National
Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP] Report 383, 1996 and NCHRP Report 400,
Fambro et al., 1997) and its application to design criteria in other national design manuals
and policies, such as the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB; UK Department for
Transport, 2002).
Two critical features to be considered while evaluating sight distances are object height and
eye height. Eye height is 1.08 m for all sight distances. Object height is 0.6 m for stopping
and decision sight distance and 1.08 m for intersection and passing sight distance. These
heights are in reference to the passenger cars. For large trucks eye height varies from 1.8 m
to 2.4 m with a recommended value of 2.3 m.

3
2.2 Stopping Sight Distance

Roads should be designed such that a driver operating a passenger car proceeding at design
speed should be able to perceive an object of sufficient size to represent a risk if struck,
and brake to a full stop in a reasonable manner thus avoiding collision with the object. This
statement expresses what is referred to as stopping sight distance (SSD). Guidance for SSDs
for local roads in residential areas is provided in Clause 2.2.4 of this Part.
2.2.1 SSD Model and Parameters

The SSD model is based on human factors research and the capabilities of vehicles. The
following parameters are used (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials [AASHTO], 2011a):
• Height of driver’s eye – 1.08 m

• Height of object in road – 0.6 m
• Driver perception and reaction time – 2.5 seconds (sec)
• Driver brake response – deceleration at 3.4 m/s2
The driver eye height is exceeded by the majority of vehicles in the common fleet. The
height of the object is based on the taillights of a vehicle. The background on this model is
described in (NCHRP 400, 1997).
SSD design values are calculated as the sum of the two distances representing driver brake
reaction distance and vehicle braking distance. Brake perception and reaction distance is
the distance traveled by the vehicle from the instant the driver detects the object on the
roadway and then applies the brake. Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle
from the instant the brake is applied to where the vehicle comes to complete stop under the
assumed deceleration rate. The following equation is used to calculate SSD.
SSD = Brake Reaction Distance + Braking Distance
SSD = . + .
where
SSD = stopping sight distance, m,
V = design speed, kph,
t = brake perception and reaction time, 2.5 seconds
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s2
2.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance Design Values

Table 2.1 lists the recommended computed stopping sight distance design values. These apply
on grades of less than 3 percent. The values shown are minimum values. Table 2.1 provides
SSD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments.
By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional classification as

3
shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed other than specified
in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Level Roadways with Grades less than
3 Percent
Stopping Sight Distance (m)

Brake Reaction Braking Distance
Design Speed (kph) Distance (m) (m) Calculated (m) Design (m)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20

30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
140 97.3 224.8 322.1 325
Note:
Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Volume 3, Part 25,
Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.
Source: AASHTO, 2011a.
In general, terrain in Qatar is flat and the SSD design values in Table 2.1 meet the requirements
for level roads with grades less than 3 percent. For grades steeper than 3 percent, the SSD
design values could be calculated
(AASHTO, 2011a). using the formula shown below (AASHTO, 2011a).
SSD = 0.278 Vt +
[ . ± ]
where
where
SSD = stopping sight distance, m
V = design speed, kph
t = brake reaction time, 2.5 seconds
G = grade, m/m
Sight distances can be affected by passing trains and associated shelters, stations, etc.
Roadway geometry that limits the available sight distance includes both vertical alignment
and combinations of horizontal alignment and roadside obstructions. Design parameters
for SSD are thus required for all three dimensions. On a tangent roadway, driver’s line of
sight may be limited by the vertical alignment of the roadway surface, specifically at crest

VOLUME 1 PART 3
ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS
PART VOLUME DESIGN
ROADWAY 1 PART 3 ELEMENTS
3 ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS
specifically
vertical at crest
curves. vertical curves.
On horizontal curves,Onthehorizontal curves,
line of sight may bethelimited
line ofbysight may be limited
obstructions outside
specifically at outside
by obstructions crest vertical curves. Onway,
the traveled horizontal
such ascurves, thepiers,
bridge line ofretaining
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be limited
bridge
the traveled way, such as bridge piers, retaining walls, bridge approach fill slopes, concrete
by obstructions
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way, such as bridge piers,
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cut areas,
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requires
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slopes, concrete
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both horizontal slopes cut areas,
and vertical planes.
analysis and design
Providing inrequires
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in both horizontal and vertical planes.
2.2.3
2.2.3 Horizontal
HorizontalRestrictions
Restrictions to toStopping
Stopping Sight Distance
Sight Distance
2.2.3 Horizontal Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance
Horizontalsight
Horizontal sightlines
linesareare based
based on assumed
on an an assumed location
location of theofdriver’s
the driver’s eye within
eye within the
the roadway
Horizontal sight lines are based on an assumed location of the driver’s eye within the
roadway
or lane. or lane.
The sight The
line sight
onsightline on
a horizontal a horizontal curve
curve is curve is
defined defined by
by a chord, a chord,
whichwhichwhich
assumes assumes
the eye
roadway or lane. The line on a horizontal is defined by a chord, assumes
the eye location is centered on the travel lane, and the object is a point centered in the
location
the is
eyecentered
location on the travel
is centered on lane, and lane,
the travel the object
and the is object
a point is centered in the in
a point centered road
thealong
road along the curve. The SSD is measured along the centerline of the lane, as shown in
road along
the curve. The SSDthe curve. The SSDalong
is measured is measured along theofcenterline
the centerline the lane,ofasthe lane, in
shown as Figure
shown in 2.1.
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1.
To provide for the SSD as measured along the center of the lane, the sight line chord must
To provide forfor
Toobstructed
provide thethe SSD asas measured along the center of the
thelane,
lane,the
thesight
sightline
line chord must
not be by SSD
a feature measured
outsidealong
thethe center of
traveled way. The design processchord must
involved the
not not
be obstructed
be obstructed by a feature outside the traveled way. The design process involved thethe
by a feature outside the traveled way. The design process involved
calculation
calculation ofofwhat
what is referred to astothe horizontal offsetoffset
(HO), which is the radial dimension
calculation of whatis isreferred
referred toasas the the horizontal
horizontal offset (HO),which
(HO), which is isthethe radial
radial
from the
dimensioncenter
dimensionfrom of
from the
thethe lane
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ofofthelimiting
thelane
laneto sight
tothe obstructing
thelimiting feature.
sightobstructing
limiting sight Design
obstructingfeature. for
feature. the horizontal
Design
Design forfor
offset tohorizontal
the the the obstruction
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the calculated
obstruction using
is the following
calculated using formula.
the following
offset to the obstruction is calculated using the following formula. formula.
૛ૡ.૟૞ ×ࡿࡿ
૛ૡ.૟૞ ×
HO==Rቔ૚
HO Rቔ૚െ
െࢉ࢕࢙
ࢉ࢕࢙ ቀ ቁቕ
ቁቕ
ࡾ
ࡾ
Or the
OrSSD can can
the SSD be calculated forfor
be calculated a given
a givenhorizontal
horizontaloffset usingthe
offset using theformula
formula
Or the SSD can be calculated for a given horizontal offset using the formula
ࡾࡾ ࡾି
ି૚ ࡾ ି ࡴࡻ
ࡴࡻቁቕ
S S== ૛ૡ.૟૞ቔ‫ܛܗ܋‬
ቔ‫ିܛܗ܋‬૚ ቀቀ
ࡾ ቁቕ
૛ૡ.૟૞ ࡾ
where
where
where
S = stopping sight distance, m
HO = horizontal
SHO ==stopping sight offset measured
distance, m from from the centerline of inside lane, m
horizontal offset measured the centerline of inside lane, m
R = radius to centerline of inside lane, m
R ==horizontal
HO radius to offset
centerline of inside
measured fromlane,
themcenterline of inside lane, m
R = radius to centerline of inside lane, m
PAGE 14 VOLUME 1
PAGE 14 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 3
3
28.65ܵ ܴ ܴ െ ‫ܱܪ‬
‫ ܴ = ܱܪ‬൤1 െ ܿ‫ ݏ݋‬൬ ൰൨ ܵ= ൤ܿ‫ି ݏ݋‬ଵ ൬ ൰൨
ܴ 28.65 ܴ
Where:
HO = Offset to the sight
obstruction measured from
centerline of inside lane, m
S = Stopping sight
distance along the curve, m
R = Radius of the
centerline of inside lane, m

Figure
Figure 2.1
2.1 Horizontal Stopping
Horizontal StoppingSight
SightDistance
Distance
HSSD
HSSD should
should bebeprovided
providedforforthe
the entire
entire length
length of the
of the curve
curve andand
bothboth directions
directions of travel.
of travel. The
The
most critical case for a two-lane road will involve the travel lane on the inside of the curve.the
most critical case for a two-lane road will involve the travel lane on the inside of
curve.
The formula to calculate HO produces exact results when the length of the curve is greater
The
thanformula to calculate
the required SSD, in HO produces
which exact
case both theresults
driver when the length
eye location of the
and the curve
point is greater
obstruction
than the required
are within the limits SSD,
of theinhorizontal
which case
curve.both
If thethe driverSSD
required eyeis location andthe
greater than thelength
point
obstruction are within the limits of the horizontal curve. If the required SSD is greater
than the length of the curve, either the vehicle or the obstruction will be outside the limits
of the horizontal curve. In these cases, the values for HO produced by the formula are
VOLUME 1 PAGE 15
3
of the curve, either the vehicle or the obstruction will be outside the limits of the horizontal
curve. In these cases, the values for HO produced by the formula are approximate and may
be slightly greater than required and, in many cases, it may not be significant. In these
instances, and when horizontal alignment consists of combination of spirals, curves and
tangents, HO can be determined graphically.
An obstruction to SSD may be a point location (as shown in Figure 2.1) or a continuous
obstruction such as a retaining wall concentric with the curve.
2.2.4 Stopping Sight Distance for Local Roads in Residential Areas

For Local Access roads and residential streets, an appropriate design guidance is the Manual
for Streets (MfS).
For visibility at bends, the MfS requires a minimum forward visibility to be equal to the
minimum Stopping Sight Distance (SSD), measured between points on a curve along the
center of the inner lane.
For visibility at junctions, the MfS require an ‘x’ value of 2.4 m and ‘y’ value based on
the appropriate SSD. See Section 4.8 (Visibility) in Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority
Intersections, of this Manual.
The guidance provides revised stopping sight distances suitable for speeds of 50 kph or less.
The derived SSDs are provided in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance for Local Roads in Residential Area
Design Speed (kph) Stopping Sight Distance (m)
30 23
40 33
50 45
Source: Manual for Streets, Table 7.1 Derived SSD for Streets, UK Department for Transport, 2007
2.2.5 Vertical Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance

Vertical restrictions to SSD on crest and sag vertical curves. The most common restriction is
a crest vertical curve as illustrated in Figure 2.2. The SSD design parameters for eye height
and object height noted above define the sight line which the crest curve should provide.
Chapter 4 provides details on design lengths for vertical curvature to provide the necessary
sight lines for SSD.

3
Figure 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve
Vertical restriction, as illustrated in Figure 2.3, on sag vertical curves depends on the ability
of the driver to see the roadway surface from the beams of headlights at nighttime with the
following assumptions:
• Height of the head light: 0.6 m

• Height of the object: 0 m
• 1 degree upward divergence of headlight beam
Figure 2.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve
2.3 Passing Sight Distance

Two-lane rural highways may be designed to enable the ability of drivers to pass slower
vehicles using the opposing traffic lane. The concept of Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
expresses the length of sight line required for a driver to affect a passing maneuver without
coming into conflict with oncoming traffic. It applies only to two-lane undivided roadways
where the fast moving vehicles overtake slow moving vehicles. PSD is the distance required
for a driver to observe the oncoming vehicle traveling in the opposing direction and to
complete the passing maneuver safely without conflict with the opposing vehicle.
Derivation of design values for PSD is based on a three-step model shown in Figure 2.4. The
model assumes the passing vehicle (passenger car) accelerates to design speed, and the

3
speed of the vehicle being passed (passenger car) is traveling at the design speed, while
the approaching vehicle (passenger car) traveling in the opposing direction at design speed.
Figure 2.4 Passing Maneuver
D1 shows the distance required to complete the passing maneuver by vehicle A. D2 shows
the distance traveled by vehicle B in the opposing lane as vehicle A overtakes vehicle C.
D3 shows the distance required between the opposing vehicles at the end of the passing
maneuver. PSD is sum of the distances D1, D2, and D3. Distances are calculated using the
formulas below. Source: Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (2002).
D1 = 0.85 × t × V
D2 = t × V and
D3 = D2/5
PSD = D1+D2+D3 = 2.05 × t × V
where
PSD = passing sight distance, m
t = time to complete the passing maneuver, 10 seconds
V = design speed, m/sec
Table 2.3 lists the passing sight distance design values. Minimum values are shown. Where
practical consider using higher values as the basis of design. Table 2.3 provides PSD values
for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy,
design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown
in Table 1.1. However, designers may, select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process specified in

3
Table 2.3 Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Roadways
Design Speed (kph) Passing Sight Distance (m)
20 120
30 180
40 250
50 290
60 345
70 410
80 460
90 520
100 580
110 630
120 690
130 *
140 *
Note:
* Not recommended for facilities with design speeds greater than 120 kph
Source: UK Department of Transport, 2002
The provision for PSD is not a design requirement; rather, its presence influences the capacity
of the road. The Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual (2010) describes
methods for determining the capacity of two-lane rural highways. One of the parameters is
the percentage of highway in which passing can occur. This would be the length of a road’s
alignment in which PSD is available divided by its total length.
PSD is measured using both an eye height and object height of 1.08 m. For design of crest and
sag vertical curves using PSD, refer to Chapter 4. PSD should be checked in both horizontal
and vertical plane. Procedures provided in Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.5 can be used
to check the available sight distance by substituting PSD for SSD and using object height of
1.08 m.
2.4 Decision Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance design requirement is provision for SSD. The SSD model is
simple and expresses one specific driver action, which is braking in response to an object in
the road.
The operating environment presents many other challenges to human drivers that are more
complex, require more time, and involve different maneuvers or actions. Such maneuvers
involve decision-making by the driver. The concept of decision sight distance (DSD)
expresses the sight line to be provided a driver in advance of roadway conditions that require

3
decision-making and then other maneuvers. Lengths of DSD are much longer than SSD given
1) decision-making takes longer time and 2) driver resultant maneuvers are different.
The decision sight distance (DSD) provides the additional length needed by the drivers to
reduce the likelihood for error in perceiving the necessary information, making a decision,
and executing the maneuver. Providing DSD is not a requirement, but consideration should
be given in providing DSD at certain critical locations along the roadway. The following are
examples of conditions for which designers should consider providing DSD in advance of the
condition:
• Exit and entrance ramps at the interchanges

• Left-hand exits on freeways or expressways
• High-speed roadway diverge and merge areas
• Change in cross section of the roadway, as in lane drops
• At-grade railroad crossings
• Signalized intersection on the downstream end of a crest vertical curves
The derivation of DSD includes two basic types of maneuvers: stop and speed, path, or
direction change. The derivation also considers the context of the road (rural, suburban, and
urban) which reflects driver expectations. The calculation of DSD depends on the design
speed, type of roadway urban or rural and the type of avoidance maneuver needed to
negotiate. QHDM adopts AASHTO’s definitions for the five avoidance maneuvers:
• Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road

• Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road
• Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed, path, or direction change on rural road
• Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed, path, or direction change on suburban road
• Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed, path, or direction change on urban road
Table 2.4 provides DSD values. Where practical, consider using higher values as the basis of
design. Table 2.4 provides DSD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds
in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1, Chapter 1. However, designers may select
a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards
Process, of this Manual.

3
The DSD values in Table 2.4 are determined using the following equations. For avoidance
maneuvers A and B the equation is:
DSD =
DSD = .. +
+ ..
For avoidance maneuvers C, D, and E the equation is
DSD = .
where
DSD = decision stopping sight distance, m
t = pre-maneuver time, seconds and varies with the avoidance maneuver
t = 3.0 seconds for avoidance maneuver A
t = 9.1 seconds for avoidance maneuver B
t = varies between 10.2 and 11.2 seconds for avoidance maneuver C
t = varies between 12.1 and 12.9 seconds for avoidance maneuver D
t = varies between 14.1 and 14.5 seconds for avoidance maneuver E
The longer distances associated with urban conditions reflects the more complex, visually
cluttered urban environment.
The application of DSD is encouraged. As it is not a specific requirement, choosing not to

provide DSD does not require a Departure.
Table 2.4 Decision Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance (m) for Avoidance Maneuver

Design Speed (kph) A B C D E
50 70 155 145 170 195
60 95 195 170 205 235
70 115 235 200 235 275
80 140 280 230 270 315
90 170 325 270 315 360
100 200 370 315 355 400
110 235 420 330 380 430
120 265 470 360 415 470
130 305 525 390 450 510
140 345 580 420 490 550
Note:

3
2.5 Intersection Sight Distance

Drivers approaching and proceeding through intersections require sufficient sight lines to
appropriately complete their maneuvers. Intersection sight distance (ISD) is a critical design
element of intersection design. ISD is the distance required for a driver approaching an
intersection to see the traffic on the intersecting roadway in order to safely cross or make
a left or right turn on to the intersecting roadway. When two roadways intersect, numerous
traffic movements occur that can create more vehicular conflicts. Providing adequate ISD at
the intersection reduces the likelihood of such conflicts.
The driver approaching the intersection should have a clear view of the entire intersection
and along the intersecting roadway to make the intended maneuver safely. ISD is determined
by using the same principles as SSD, but it incorporates an additional element; driver behavior
at the intersection.
Sight lines for ISD involve varying driver positions along one road, and the object being
avoided – another vehicle on the crossing road. These lines define what are referred to as
sight triangles.
Sight triangles are employed in establishing the ISD. In general, for a typical intersection with
four approaches, there are four quadrants. The sight line establishes a triangular wedge in
each quadrant between the intersection roadways, called sight triangles. The sight triangles
should be clear of obstructions that may block a driver’s view of conflicting vehicles on the
intersecting roadway. The triangle legs shown in Figure 2.5 should be long enough that
drivers approaching the intersection from the two intersecting roadways can see each other
to avoid collision and make the intended maneuver safely.
In Qatar most intersections are priority intersections (T-intersections) with yield control on
the minor approach. Four-legged intersections are rare and designed infrequently. For ISD
sight triangle illustration purposes and to capture all possible maneuvers, thru, left and right
from the minor street, a four-legged intersection is chosen as an example.
The sight line defining ISD in both horizontal and vertical plane is based on an eye height and
object height of 1.08 m.
The dimensions of the sight triangles depend on the design speed of the major roadway,
type of intersection control (yield control, stop control or signal control). QHDM adopts the
AASHTO procedures to determine ISD for the following types of traffic control:
• Case A: Intersections with stop control on the minor road

−− A1: Left turn from the minor road
−− A2: Right turn from the minor road
−− A3: Crossing maneuver from the minor road
• Case B: Intersection with yield control on the minor road
−− B1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road

3
−− B2: Left or right turn from the minor road

• Case C: Intersections with traffic signal control
• Case D: Intersection with all-way stop
• Case E: Left turns from the major road
Figure 2.5 Sight Triangles for a Yield Controlled Intersection
2.5.1 Case A: Intersections with Stop Control on Minor Road

For intersection with stop control on minor roads, sight triangles should be checked for the
following scenarios:
• Case A1: Left turn from minor road

• Case A2: Right turn from minor road
• Case A3: Crossing the major road from minor road
2.5.1.1 Case A1: Left Turn from Minor Road

Figure 2.6 shows the sight triangles at stop-controlled intersections. The decision point
represents the position of the driver’s eye on the minor road where the vehicle is stopped
before carrying out the intended maneuver. The distance to the decision point from the edge
of the major road traveled way should be at least 4.4 m; 5.4 m is desirable. Distances “a1” and
“a2” are from the major road centerline of the lanes to the decision point (location of driver’s
eye) along the minor road as shown in Figure 2.6. Distance b is the required sight distance
along the major road. Distance “a2” is equal to “a1” plus the additional width as required.
Minimum length “a1” is equal to 4.4 m plus the width of pavement from the edge of the
major road traveled way to the centerline of the lane as shown in Figure 2.6 and desirable is

3
equal to 5.4 m plus the width of pavement from the edge of the major road traveled way to
the centerline of the lane
Figure 2.6 Sight Triangles (Stop Controlled)
ISD required on the major road is calculated using the following equation (AASHTO, 2011a):
b = ISD = 0.278x Vmajor × tg

where
ISD = intersection sight distance, m
Vmajor = design speed on the major road, kph
tg = time gap for minor road vehicle to enter the major road, seconds; tg depends on the
design vehicle and also number of lanes on the major roadway and the values in
Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Time Gap—Case A1, Left Turn from Stop
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg, at Design Speed of Major Road (seconds)
Passenger car 7.5

Single unit truck 9.5
Intermediate Semitrailer 11.5
Note:
Time gaps are for stopped vehicle to turn left on to a two-lane highway with no median and with grades of
3 percent or less. The table values are adjusted as follows:
−− For multilane highways—For left turns on to two-way highways with more than two lanes, add
0.5 second for passenger cars or 0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane, from the left, in excess
of one, to be crossed by the turning vehicle.

3
−− For minor road approach grades—if the approach grade is an up grade that exceeds 3 percent, add 0.2
second for each percent grade for left turns.
Table 2.6 lists ISD values. The values shown are minimum values; where practical, consider
using higher values as the basis of design. Table 2.6 provides ISD values for a full range of
potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are
limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However,
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
functional classification through departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25,
Table 2.6 Intersection Sight Distance—Case A1, Left Turn from Stop
Intersection Sight Distance for Passenger

Design Speed (kph) SSD (m)
Cars (m)
20 20 45
30 35 65
40 50 85
50 65 105
60 85 130
70 105 150
80 130 170
90 160 190
100 185 210
110 220 230
120 250 255
130 285 275
140 325 295
Note:
2.5.1.2 Case A2: Right Turn from Minor Road

ISD is required on the major road for the case in which a vehicle is turning right from a stop
condition from the minor road. The ISD is calculated using the same equation as that used
for Case A1, with tg values as given in Table 2.7. Table 2.8 shows the ISD values. The values
shown are minimum values. Where practical, consider using higher values as the basis of
design. Table 2.8 provides ISD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design
speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through
departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process,
of this Manual.

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Table 2.7 Time Gap—Case A2, Right Turn from Stop and Case A3,
Crossing Maneuver
Time Gap, tg, at Design Speed of Major Road

Design Vehicle (seconds)
Passenger car 6.5
Intermediate Semitrailer 10.5
Note:
Time gaps are for stopped vehicle to turn right on to or to cross a two-lane highway with no median and
with grades of 3 percent or less. The table values are adjusted as follow:
−− For multilane highways—For crossing a major road with more than two lanes, add 0.5 second for
passenger cars or 0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed and for narrow medians
that cannot store the design vehicle.
−− For minor road approach grades—If the approach grade is an up grade that exceeds 3 percent, add 0.1
second for each percent grade for left turns.
Table 2.8 Intersection Sight Distance—Case A2, Right Turn from Stop and Case A3,
Crossing Maneuver
Intersection Sight Distance for Passenger Cars

Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) (m) ‘b’
20 20 40
30 35 55
40 50 75
50 65 95
60 85 110
70 105 130
80 130 145
90 160 165
100 185 185
110 220 200
120 250 220
130 285 235
140 325 255
Note:
2.5.1.3 Case A3: Crossing Maneuver from Minor Road

In most instances, the ISD provided for right turns from the minor street is adequate to cross
the major street. However, in the following cases consider checking the ISD:
• Where the crossing maneuver is the only maneuver allowed from the approach
• Crossing six or more lanes of major street
• When truck percentages are high, and the minor road is on a steep upgrade

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Table 2.8 shows the ISD values. Designers should adjust values as needed based on the
minor approach grade and the number of lanes on the major road.
2.5.2 Case B: Intersections with Yield Control on Minor Road

The most prevalent condition in Qatar is a priority intersection with yield control for the
minor road. For intersections with yield control on minor roads, sight triangles should be
checked for two scenarios:
• B1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road

• B2: Left or right turn from the minor road
Most intersections in Qatar are priority intersections (T-intersections) with yield control
and the drivers approaching the intersection can make the intended maneuver (either left
or right) without stopping if there are no conflicting traffic on the major road. There is no
crossing maneuver on priority intersections, but guidance is provided in determining the ISD
for a crossing maneuver (crossing major road) at four legged intersections. See Figure 2.5 for
the sight triangles and approaches.
2.5.2.1 Case B1: Crossing maneuver from minor road

ISD provided for the vehicle on the major road should allow the minor road vehicle to travel
from the decision point to the intersection, cross, and clear the intersection safely. ISD on
the major road is calculated using the following equation:
ISD = b = 0.278Vmajortg
where
b = ISD, length of leg of sight triangle along major road, m

Vmajor = design speed on major road, kph
tg = travel time for vehicle on minor road to reach and clear the major road, seconds; tg is
calculated using the following equation:
+
tg = t a +
.
where
ta = travel time for vehicle on minor road to reach the major road from the decision point
without stopping, seconds
w = width of the intersection to be crossed, m
La = length of design vehicle, m
−− Passenger car (P) = 5.79 m
−− Single unit truck (SU-9) = 9.14 m
−− City bus = 12.19 m
−− Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12) = 13.87 m
Vminor = design speed on the minor road, kph

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The length of the minor road approach leg, the time to travel from the decision point to
the intersection, and the time gap, tg are shown in Table 2.9. Table 2.10 lists the length of
the sight triangle values along the major road for different design speeds. Table 2.9 and
Table 2.10 provide values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10
kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional
classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed other
than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure
process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this
Manual.
Table 2.9 Crossing Maneuver from Yield Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor
Leg and Travel Time from the Decision Point
Minor Road Approach

Travel Time, tgb
Design Speed (kph) Length of Leg (m) Travel Time, ta (seconds)
a
(seconds)
20 20 3.2 7.1
30 30 3.6 6.5
40 40 4.0 6.5
50 55 4.4 6.5
60 65 4.8 6.5
70 80 5.1 6.5
80 100 5.5 6.5
90 115 5.9 6.8
100 135 6.3 7.1
110 155 6.7 7.4
120 180 7.0 7.7
130 205 7.4 8.0
140 230 7.7 8.5
Note:
a
Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the intersection but does not stop.
b
Values shown are for a passenger car crossing a two-lane highway with no median and with grades ≤3%.

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Table 2.10 Length of Sight Triangles along Major Road—Case B1, Crossing Maneuver
from Yield Controlled Intersections
Design Values Minor Road Design Speed (m)

Major Road
Design
Speed (kph) SSD (m) 20 30—80 90 100 110 120 130 140
20 20 40 40 40 40 45 45 45 50
30 35 60 55 60 60 65 65 70 75
40 50 80 75 80 80 85 90 90 95
50 65 100 95 95 100 105 110 115 120
60 85 120 110 115 120 125 130 135 145
70 105 140 130 135 140 145 150 160 165
80 130 160 145 155 160 165 175 180 190
90 160 180 165 175 180 190 195 205 215
100 185 200 185 190 200 210 215 225 240
110 220 220 200 210 220 230 240 245 260
120 250 240 220 230 240 250 260 270 285
130 285 260 235 250 260 270 280 290 310
140 325 280 255 265 280 290 300 315 335
Notes:
1. Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Volume 3, Part 25,
2. Values in the table are for passenger cars and for grades 3 percent or less.
2.5.2.2 Case B2: Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers

Refer to Figure 2.5 for sight triangles. The ISD provided for the vehicle on the major road
should allow the minor road vehicle to travel from the decision point to the intersection and
make the intended maneuvers, left or right safely.
The length of the sight triangle leg on the minor approach is 25 m for both right and left
turns. The distance is established on the assumption that the left and right turns will slow
down to 16 kph without stopping to make the appropriate turn.
The length of the sight triangle on the major approach is calculated using the following
equation and the critical gap time listed in the Table 2.11.
ISD = b = 0.278Vmajortg
where
b = ISD, length of leg of sight triangle along the major road, m
Vmajor = Design Speed on the major road, kph
tg = travel time for the vehicle on the minor road to reach and turn right or left, seconds;
for tg values refer to Table 2.11

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Table 2.11 Gap Acceptance Time for Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers from
Yield-Controlled Intersections
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg (seconds)

Passenger car 8.0
Combination truck 12.0
Note:
Time values shown are for a vehicle to turn left or right on to a two-lane highway with no median. The
values should be adjusted for multilane highways as follows:
−− For right turns no adjustment is required.
−− For left turns add 0.5 seconds for Passenger car or 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane.
Length of the sight triangle values along the major road for different design speeds are shown
in Table 2.12. Table 2.12 provides values for a full range of potential selected design speeds
in even 10 kph increments. By policy design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1, Chapter 1. Designers may, however, select
a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards
Table 2.12 Intersection Sight Distance along Major Road—Case B2, Left or Right Turn
at Yield-Controlled Intersections
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) Length of Leg, b (m)

20 20 45
30 35 70
40 50 90
50 65 115
60 85 135
70 105 160
80 130 180
90 160 205
100 185 225
110 220 245
120 250 270
130 285 290
140 325 315
Notes:
1. Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Volume 3, Part 25,
2. ISD shown for passenger cars making right or left without stopping on to a two-lane highway.
2.5.3 Case C: Intersections with Traffic Signal Control

No sight triangle analysis is needed for intersections with traffic signal control. ISD at the
intersections with traffic signal control is straight-forward; the first vehicle stopped at one
approach should be able to see the other vehicles stopped on the other approaches.

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2.5.4 Case D: Intersections with All-Way Stop Control

ISD at the intersections with all-way stop control is similar to the Intersections with traffic
signal control. The first vehicle stopped at one approach should be able to see the other
vehicles stopped on the other approaches.
2.5.5 Case E: Left Turns from Major Road

Adequate ISD should be provided for the left turning vehicles from the major road, when
permitted, regardless of the type of traffic control. The ISD provided should be based on a
stopped vehicle selecting the appropriate gap in the opposing traffic and completing the
maneuver, as demonstrated in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Left Turns from Major Roads
Table 2.13 shows the time gap for the left turns from the major road and Table 2.14 show
the ISD values required for the vehicles to turn left from major road. The values shown
in the Table 2.14 are for passenger cars turning left from two-lane undivided major road.
Adjust the time and the ISD accordingly if an above average percentage of longer vehicle are
anticipated. Table 2.14 provides values for a full range of potential selected design speeds
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design
speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through
departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process,
of this Manual.

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Table 2.13 Time Gap for Case E Left Turn from the Major Road
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg (seconds)

Passenger Car 5.5
Single-Unit Truck 6.5
Combination Truck 7.5
Note:
For left-turning vehicles that cross more than one opposing lane, add 0.5 second for passenger cars and 0.7
second for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed.
Table 2.14 Intersection Sight Distance—Case E, Left Turn from the Major Road
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) ISD (m)

20 20 35
30 35 50
40 50 65
50 65 80
60 85 95
70 105 110
80 130 125
90 160 140
100 185 155
110 220 170
120 250 185
130 285 200
140 325 215
Note:
2.6 Special Considerations

ISD should be provided at all intersections. If ISD cannot be provided because of environmental
or right-of-way constraints, SSD should be provided at least on the major road along with
additional safety measures, such as advance warning signs or reduced speed limit zones at
the intersection area.
Volume 1, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of this Manual, provides the sight distance
criterion for roundabouts.
2.7 Departures
SSD is a controlling criterion subject to a Departure if not provided. If the required SSD
cannot be provided for the given design speed, a Departure shall be required, per the
process noted in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures and Standards Process, of this Manual.
PSD, DSD, and ISD are not subject to the Departure process.

3

3
3 Horizontal Alignment
This chapter provides guidance for the design of horizontal alignments and their components,
such as horizontal curvature, superelevation, traveled way widening on horizontal curves
and horizontal clearance for SSD.
Horizontal alignment consists of combination of straight lines called “tangents” and arcs
called “curves.” Horizontal curves are circular. They are introduced between the tangents to
eliminate the abrupt deflection and to provide smooth transition between them.
In order to attain a consistent smooth flowing and aesthetically pleasing horizontal alignment,
consideration should be given to the following practices:
• Alignment design should be consistent with topography and be as directional as possible

while preserving community values.
• Use of minimum design criteria should be avoided wherever practical.
• Use of compound curves on high-speed roadways, design speed of 80 kph or higher,

should be avoided and if possible, replace it with a simple curve.
• Length of the curves should be long enough to avoid the appearance of a kink.
• On high and long embankments, avoid using sharper curves.
• On high-speed roadways, design speed of 80 kph or higher, where reverse curves are
used sufficient length of tangent between the reverse curves should be provided to
accommodate the change in superelevation.
• Should be consistent with the design of the vertical alignment.
Planning, of this Manual
3.1 Simple Horizontal Curve and Spirals

Simple Curve: The simple horizontal curve is an arc of a circle, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Three geometric elements define the circular curve – the radius, central angle, and
length of curve. Establishing any two these elements defines the third.

3
Source: Illinois Department of Transportation, 2014
Figure 3.1 Simple Curve Elements
Spiral: The spiral is a transition curve mathematically defined as a curve with radius decreasing or
increasing at a constant rate, as shown in Figure 3.2. The purpose of the spiral is to facilitate the
transitioning of drivers and vehicles in moving between tangents and circular curve.

3
Figure 3.2 Simple Curve with Spirals
3.2 Alignment combinations using simple curves and tangents

Designers establish a horizontal alignment using combinations of simple curves and tangents
as shown in Figure 3.3 through Figure 3.5.
A compound curve is two simple curves with different radii “back to back”. When compound
curves are used in open alignment, the larger radius should desirably be no more than 1.5
times the smaller radius. The use of compound curves for intersection design for larger
vehicles minimizes the pavement area to enable off tracking.

3
Figure 3.3 Compound Curve
Where road space is shared with a railway system the alignment might differ and has to be
adjusted to follow the more conservative alignment.

3
Figure 3.4 shows what is referred to as a broken-back curve in which two curves with
bearings in the same direction are separated by a relatively short tangent. Their use should
be determined case by case.
Figure 3.4 Broken Back Curve
Figure 3.5 shows reverse curves, in which the alignment of the second curve is in the
opposite direction of the first curve. Reverse curves without a tangent between them (upper
part of Figure 3.5) should be avoided by designing the road with a tangent between the
curves as shown in the bottom half of the figure. Drivers operating at design speed cannot
instantaneously change the direction and magnitude of their steering response, which is the
action required in a reverse curve.

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Figure 3.5 Reverse Curve
3.3 General Design Considerations

3.3.1 Maximum Centerline Deflection without a Horizontal Curve
Horizontal curves are introduced between tangents to eliminate the abrupt deflections and
provide smooth transition between the two tangents. For small deflection angles between
the tangents, it may be appropriate to design the alignment without a horizontal curve. As a
guide, the designer may use maximum deflection of 1 degree without a horizontal curve on
lower speed roads in urban areas and 0.5 degree on higher speed roads in rural areas. Low
and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning,
of this Manual.

3
3.3.2 Minimum Curve Lengths

If horizontal curves are used for small deflection angles, curves should be long enough to
avoid the appearance of a “kink.” Minimum curve length for an aesthetically pleasing curve
should be at least three times the design speed (Lmin = 3V). Desirable curve length on
freeways and expressways is six times the design speed (Ldes = 6V).
Lmin = 3V
and
Ldes = 6V
where
Lmin = Minimum length of the curve, m
Ldes = Desirable length of the curve, m
V = Design speed, kph
On roadways with design speeds less than 80 kph, if the minimum curve length (Lmin = 3V)
cannot be attained because of right-of-way or topographic constraints, designers may apply
a minimum length of 150 m for a deflection angle of 5 degrees, with the minimum length
increased by 30 m for each 1 degree decrease in deflection or the greatest attainable length
should be used.
3.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation

Cross slope is defined as the transverse slope across the pavement from the centerline of
an undivided roadway or the edge of the median of a divided roadway to the edge of the
traveled way or the face of the curb. Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent.
Horizontal curve design employs the use of superelevation, which is the banking of the
roadway to counterbalance the centripetal forces on the driver and vehicle as they traverse
the curve. When a vehicle traverses a curve, it is subjected to centripetal acceleration
that acts toward the center of curvature. The centripetal acceleration is balanced by the
component of the vehicle’s weight by banking the roadway. This has the effect of providing
a level of comfort to the driver in traversing the curve, thereby enabling maintaining speed
through the curve.
Horizontal curve design is thus based on providing comfort. Design values reflect studies of
driver behavior in which the vast majority of drivers tracked curves at 0.22 g or less (where
g is the acceleration due to gravity). The combination of curve radius, superelevation, and
lateral acceleration establishes the basis for design.

3
QHDM adopts the methodology, from the DMRB (UK Department for Transport, 2002),
for design of curves and superelevation. The methodology involves the calculating of
superelevation using the following equation:
S= .
where
S = superelevation, %
R = radius of curve, m
The maximum superelevation used for roads in Qatar is set by policy to be 5 percent for
most conditions. Superelevation rates on rural and urban roadways shall not exceed 5 percent,
except at interchange ramps where 6 percent to 8 percent may be used for lower ramp design
speeds. Provision of superelevation is encouraged on all roadways. In urban areas where design
speeds are less than 50 kph, it may not be practical or feasible to provide superelevation, so
superelevation may be optional. For details, refer to Clause 3.9.2 of this Part.
A curve may be designed with full superelevation, or merely the removal of the adverse
normal slope. Table 3.1 lists the minimum radii for various superelevation rates and design
speeds. It also lists the minimum radius for which superelevation is not required or adverse
crown removal.
Table 3.1 Minimum Radius without Superelevation
Minimum Radius (m)

Design Without Superelevation (%)
Speed Superelevation or
(kph) Adverse Slope 2 3.5 5 7 8
30 180 160 90 65 45 40
40 360 320 185 130 90 80
50 510 450 255 180 127 115
60 720 640 365 255 180 160
70 1,020 900 510 360 255 not applicable
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 325 not applicable
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 410 not applicable
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 510 not applicable
110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 610 not applicable
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 720 not applicable
130 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 860 not applicable
140 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 990 not applicable
Note:
Source: DMRB, UK Department for Transport, 2002.
Table 3.2 lists values of the superelevation expressed as a percentage of the difference in
elevation between the rotated edges of pavement over the width of pavement. It is based

3
on the selected design speed and radius of the curve. The values were derived based on the
superelevation equation shown above. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 provide values for a full range of
potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are
limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However,
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
functional classification through the departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25,
Table 3.2 Superelevation for Radii and Design Speed (percent)
Design Speed (kph)

Radius
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
2,600 2.3 2.7
2,400 2.1 2.5 2.9
2,200 2.3 2.7 3.2
2,000 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5
1,800 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.9
1,600 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3
1,400 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.3 5.0
1,200 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0
1,000 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.3
800 2.3 2.8 3.6 4.5
600 2.1 3.0 3.8 4.8
400 2.3 3.2 4.5
200 3.2 4.5
100 6.4
80 8.0
Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure Process per Volume 3, Part 25,
The use of design values for radius of curve and superelevation outside those shown in
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 shall require a Departure from standards.
3.5 Superelevation Transition and Spirals

Superelevation transition is the length needed to change the slope of the pavement from a
normal cross slope section to a fully superelevated section. Most simple curves begin directly
at the end of a tangent alignment. The length of the superelevation transition has two parts:
• Tangent run-out length (TR)

• Superelevation runoff length (LR)
To achieve full superelevation it is necessary to begin rotating the pavement on the tangent
approach. The tangent run-out is the length required to remove the adverse pavement cross
slope by rotating the outside edge of the traveled way. This cannot be too abrupt so the
driver can adjust to the rotation of the pavement.

3
Superelevation runoff length is the length required to change the pavement cross slope from
zero percent to the required superelevation rate by rotating the outside edge of traveled
way.
Before calculating the tangent run-out length and the superelevation runoff length, it is
important to establish the axis of rotation and the rate at which the pavement is rotated to
achieve the change in cross slope.
3.5.1 Axis of Rotation

There are four methods available to establish the axis of rotation and to attain the
superelevation transition, as illustrated on Figure 3.6.
• Method 1: Rotating the traveled way about the centerline of the roadway
• Method 2: Rotating the traveled way about the inside edge of the traveled way
• Method 3: Rotating the traveled way about the outside edge of the traveled way
• Method 4: Rotating straight cross slope about the outside edge of the traveled way
Method 1 is the method most commonly used for undivided two-lane roadways. It could
be used for divided roadways where the divided segments are not crowned, for divided
roadways the inside median edge will act as the axis of rotation. Methods 2 and 3 are used
on divided highways with a crown in the pavement. Method 4 is the method most commonly
used for divided highways with straight cross slope and for interchange ramps where there
is no crown. All four methods are acceptable.
3.5.2 Rate of Rotation

Rate of rotation is the maximum allowable grade difference between the longitudinal grades
at the axis of rotation and the outside edge of the pavement. The grade difference is called
the maximum relative gradient, which varies based on the design speeds. QHDM adopts the
relative gradient values from AASHTO (2011a). Table 3.3 lists the relative gradient values.

3
Table 3.3 Maximum Relative Gradients
Maximum Relative Gradient Equivalent Maximum Relative

Design Speed (kph)
(%) Δ Slope (G Value)
30 0.75 1:133
40 0.70 1:143
50 0.65 1:154
60 0.60 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.50 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
100 0.44 1:227
110 0.41 1:244
120 0.38 1:263
130 0.35 1:286
140 0.32 1:304
Note:
Source: Based on Table 3-15 in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011)

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Source: AASHTO, 2011a
Figure 3.6 Development of Superelevation

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3.5.3 Calculation of Superelevation Transition Lengths

The superelevation runoff and the tangent run-out are calculated using the equations in the
following sections taken from AASHTO (2011a).
3.5.3.1 Superelevation Runoff Length

Superelevation runoff length is calculated using the following equation:
(ed) x (W) x (n) x (bW)

LR = --------------------------------------
(G)
where
LR = superelevation runoff length, m
ed = design superelevation rate, m/m
W = width of one traffic lane, m
G = equivalent maximum relative slope (from Table 3.3)
n = number of traffic lanes rotated
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
The adjustment factors for number of lanes rotated are calculated using the following
equation and the calculated values are listed in Table 3.4 from AASHTO (2011a); examples
are shown in Figure 3.7:
[ + . ( − )]
bw =
where
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
n1 = number of lanes rotated
The adjustment factors listed in Table 3.4 generally apply to undivided roadways with axis
of rotation at the centerline of the roadway. For divided roadways, rotated about the median
edge, and for interchange ramps, the adjustment factor should be 1 regardless how many
lanes are rotated.
Providing longer transition lengths may be desirable. However, designers should establish
transition design with consideration of the longitudinal vertical alignment. The combination
of roadway geometry (both horizontal and vertical) and rotation of the pavement may result
in sections of road that are essentially flat and hence will not drain properly. In these cases,
the designer may opt to use the adjustment factors on the divided roadways to reduce the
length of the transition to avoid the flat areas and still comply with the design criteria.

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Table 3.4 Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated
Number of Lanes Rotated, n1 Adjustment Factor, bw n1 × bw
1 1.00 1.00
1.5 0.83 1.25
2 0.75 1.50
2.5 0.70 1.75
3.0 0.67 2.00
3.5 0.64 2.25
4.0 0.63 2.50
4.5 0.61 2.75
5.0 0.60 3.00
Figure 3.7 Number of Lanes Rotated for Undivided Roadways

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3.5.3.2 Tangent Run-Out Length

Tangent run-out length is calculated using the following equation.
TR = ( )
where
TR = tangent run-out length, m
Sn = normal cross slope, m/m
ed = design superelevation rate, m/m
LR = superelevation runoff length, m
3.5.3.3 Superelevation Transition Length

Superelevation transition length is calculated by adding the superelevation runoff length
and the tangent run-out length.
L = LR + TR
The transition length should have a constant equivalent maximum relative slope (G value)
for the entire length. Superelevation transition creates break points at the beginning and
end of the transition, as shown in Figure 3.8. The break points should be rounded to obtain
smooth edge profiles.
QHDM adopts guidance provided in AASHTO (2011a) in determining the minimum vertical
curve lengths to round the break points. The minimum vertical curve length should be 20
percent of the design speed of the roadway (in kph).
The designer shall plot the edge of pavement profiles to an exaggerated scale at all
superelevation transition areas to determine any drainage issues and low points and the
profiles should be submitted with the conceptual plans.
3.5.4 Spirals
Spirals are transition curves with radius varying from infinity at the tangent end to the value
of the radius at the curve end. The purpose of the spiral is to provide the superelevation
transition from the tangent to a simple curve, or between simple curves in a compound curve.
In addition, spirals are perceived to promote uniform speeds by providing the natural turning
path of a vehicle and minimizing the encroachment on to the adjacent lanes.
Spirals are encouraged to be used on all high-speed roadways to facilitate the development
of superelevation. The Highway Safety Manual (AASHTO, 2010) shows that the use of
spirals on two-lane rural highways has a small but significant effect on reducing run-off-
road crashes. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1,
Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.

VOLUME 1 PARTPART
ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS 3
ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS3
Large radius spirals. A consideration on the guidance suggests that an upper limit on curve
Large
radius can be radius spirals.
established suchA that
consideration on thethis
only radii below guidance
maximum suggests thattoan
are likely upper
obtain limit on
safety
and operational benefits from the use of spiral transition curves. The radii listed in Table 3.5 to
curve radius can be established such that only radii below this maximum are likely
obtainfor
are intended safety
useand operational
by those benefits
designers and from the useOrganizations
Overseeing of spiral transition curves.toThe
that prefer useradii
listed in Table 3.5 are intended for use by those designers and Overseeing
fixed radii for large radius curve transitions. Table 3.5 is not intended to define radii that
Organizations that prefer to use fixed radii for large radius curve transitions. Table 3.5
need the use of a spiral.
is not intended to define radii that need the use of a spiral.
Table 3.5 Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition
Table 3.5 Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition
Design speed Maximum radius
Design speed Maximum radius
(kph) (kph) (m) (m)
20 20 24 24
30 54
30 54
40 95
40 95
50 148
50 148 213
60
60 70 213 290
70 80 290 379
80 90 379 480
100 592
90 480
110 716
100 592
120 852
110 7161000
130
Note: 120 852
130 1000
The effect of spiral curve transitions on lateral acceleration is likely to be negligible for larger radii.
Note:
The effect of spiral curve transitions on lateral acceleration is likely to be negligible for larger radii.
Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual. Source: AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, 2018
Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual. Source: AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, 2018
The maximum length of spiral curve can be calculated using the following equation
derivedlength
The maximum from Exhibit
of spiral3-29 in can
curve AASHTO A Policyusing
be calculated on Geometric Design
the following of Highways
equation derived and
Streets, 2018:
from Exhibit 3-29 in AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018:
Ls,max = ඥ૛૝(࣋࢓ࢇ࢞ )ࡾ
where
where L = maximum length of spiral, m
s,max
Ls,max =࣋max maximum
= length of
maximum spiral,offset
lateral m between the tangent and circular curve (1.0 m)
pmax =R maximum lateral offset betweenmthe tangent and circular curve (1.0 m)
= radius of circular curve,
R = radius of circular curve, m
If the maximum spiral curve length calculated using the equation above is greater than
that shown in Table 3.6 then the values in the table should be used in the design unless
If the maximum spiral curve length calculated using the equation above is greater than that
otherwise agreed with the Overseeing Organization. However, where such longer spiral
shown in Table 3.6 then the values in the table should be used in the design unless otherwise
curve lengths are used, consideration should be given to increasing the width of the
agreed with the Overseeing Organization. However, where such longer spiral curve lengths
traveled way on the curve to minimize the potential for encroachments into the
are used, consideration should be given to increasing the width of the traveled way on the
adjacent lanes.
curve to minimize the potential for encroachments into the adjacent lanes.

VOLUME 1 PAGE 49
3
Table 3.6 Desirable Length of a Spiral Curve Transition
Design speed Spiral length

(kph) (m)
20 11
30 17
40 22
50 28
60 33
70 39
80 44
90 50
100 56
110 61
120 67
130 72
Note:
Source: Table 3-19 in AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018.
3.5.5 Positioning of Superelevation Transition

Once the superelevation transition length or the spiral length is calculated, the next step is
how to position the length with respect to the curve beginning and ending. The following
methodology should be applied:
3.5.5.1 Curves without Spirals

For curves without spirals the preferred method is to place two-thirds of superelevation
runoff (LR) on the tangent and one-third on the curve and the tangent run-out length (TR) be
placed ahead of the two-thirds of the superelevation runoff length, as shown in Figure 3.8.
The ratio of the superelevation runoff length on the tangent and on the curve could be
changed, depending on site conditions and geometrics, such as presence of a bridge approach
or presence of the low point on a sag vertical curve within the limits of the transition. The
maximum superelevation runoff distribution ratio allowed shall be 50 percent on the tangent
and 50 percent on the curve with justification.
3.5.5.2 Curves with Spirals

The entire superelevation runoff length shall be placed over the length of the spiral
(between TS and SC) and the tangent run-out is placed on the tangent. See Figure 3.8 for
the distribution.

3
Figure 3.8 Superelevation Transition for Two-Lane Roadways

3
3.5.6 Superelevation on Compound Curves

Superelevation transition on compound curves depends on the distance between the point
of curvature (PC) of the first curve and the point of compound curvature (PCC) of the second
curve. Guidance is provided for two-lane roadways for two cases. The same guidance should
be applied for multilane roadways (Illinois Department of Transportation, 2014 and California
Department of Transportation, 2014).
• Case I: Distance between the PC and PCC is 90 m or less

• Case II: Distance between the PC and PCC is greater than 90 m
3.5.6.1 Case I: Distance between the PC and PCC is 90 m or Less

Figure 3.9 illustrates the development and positioning of superelevation transition length.
For Case I provide two-thirds of the design superelevation rate of curve 1 at the PC and
provide design superelevation rate of curve 2 at the PCC. The equivalent maximum relative
slope shall be constant for the entire transition length.
Figure 3.9 Superelevation Transition on Compound Curves (Distance between PC

and PCC is less than or equal to 90 m)
3.5.6.2 Case II: Distance between the PC and PCC Greater than 90 m
Figure 3.10 illustrates the development and positioning of superelevation transition length.
For Case 2, provide two-thirds of the design superelevation rate of curve 1 at the PC,
provide design superelevation rate of curve 2 at PCC, and maintain the full superelevation of

3
curve 1 between the PC and PCC for some distance, before transitioning to curve 2 design
superelevation rate, as shown in the Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10 Superelevation Transition on Compound Curves (Distance between PC

and PCC is greater than 90 m)
3.5.7 Superelevation on Reverse Curves

Figure 3.11 illustrate the method for development and positioning of superelevation
transition length between reversing curves. The reverse curves should be separated by
adequate tangent length to enable development of superelevation.
The preferred tangent length should be equal to +
At minimum tangent length should be equal to +

where
LR1 = superelevation runoff length for curve 1
LR2 = superelevation runoff length for curve 2
If there is no tangent present the superelevation, runoff shall be positioned such that zero
percent cross-slope is at the point of reverse curvature.

3
Figure 3.11 Superelevation between Reverse Curves
3.5.8 Shoulder Slopes on Superelevated Roadways

Normal paved shoulder slopes are 2 percent. For two lane roadways, the shoulder slopes
away from the travel lanes. For the divided roadways with open median or raised median, the
left shoulder slopes towards the travel lanes and the right shoulder slopes away from the
travel lanes, see Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13. While developing superelevation the shoulder
slopes are rotated in the same plane as the travel lanes as shown in the Figure 3.12 and
Figure 3.13.
A general guidance is also included in Figure 3.14 showing how to treat the shoulders on
divided roadways if the left shoulder is sloping towards the median. In this case, two critical
areas should be evaluated with respect to the shoulders. The areas are high side of the
shoulder and low side of the shoulder.
On the high side of the shoulder, a break occurs between the shoulder and the travel lane
slope since they slope away from each other. For normal cross slope section, the algebraic
difference in slope is 4 percent between the shoulder and the travel lane (2 percent cross-
slope on shoulder and 2 percent cross-slope on travel lanes, sloping away from each other).
Maximum allowed algebraic difference shall not exceed 7 percent. For example, if the super
elevation is 5 percent, the shoulder slope should be 2 percent sloping away from the travel
lanes to maintain the 7 percent break. On the low side of the shoulder, the slopes of the
travel lane and shoulder are the same, 2 percent, and they should be rotated concurrently to
achieve the design superelevation.

3
Figure 3.12 shows the application of shoulder sloped for rural freeways and expressways
with wide medians, and Figure 3.13 shows the application of shoulder slope on arterials and
collectors with a raised median.
Figure 3.12 Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways

3
Figure 3.13 Superelevation Development for Arterial and Collectors with Narrow
Medians

3
Figure 3.14 Superelevation Development for Freeway and Expressways (Shoulder

Break Option)
3.6 Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves

Depending on the design speed, horizontal curvature, width of the traveled way and the
design vehicle used, additional widening may be necessary on horizontal curves to facilitate

3
the operating conditions of larger vehicles on the curves. On the tangent or straight sections
of the roadway the rear wheels follow or track the front wheels, however on the curves the
rear wheels do not follow or track the front wheels exactly and hence the vehicle occupies
greater width and may need additional widening as compared to the tangent or straight
sections. The width of the additional widening depends on the following:
• Characteristics of the design vehicle, such as, length, width and turning radius
• Radius of the curvature of the roadway
• Width of the lane on the tangent or straight section
The additional width provided will allow the driver to comfortably maneuver through the
curve without encroaching on the opposing lane or shoulder. The additional widths for a
given design vehicle depend on the design speed and the radius of the curvature.
Where road corridor is shared with a rail system the alignment might differ and has to be
Widening is expensive and small amounts of widening, less than 0.3 m per lane, are not cost
effective and may be disregarded. Table 3.7 shows the widening criteria.
Table 3.7 Traveled Way Widening Criteria on Horizontal Curves
Additional width
Lane width Description per lane(m)
Standard
Inside Curve Radius less than or equal to 100 m See Table 3.8
(3.65 m per lane)
Standard
Centerline Radius between 100 m and 150 m 0.3 m
(3.65 m per lane)
Standard
Centerline Radius greater than 150 m None
(3.65 m per lane)
Less than standard (less
Inside Curve Radius less than or equal to 100 m See Table 3.8
than 3.65 m per lane)
Centerline Radius between 100 m and 150 m subject
to maximum roadway widths of 7.9 m for 2 lanes, 0.6
11.9 m for 3 lanes, and 15.8 m for 4 lanes.
Less than standard
(3.65 m per lane)
For all the right turns at signalized intersections, provide lane widening as per Volume 1,
Part 6 Design Priority Intersections, of this Manual, for design vehicle. The design should
maintain the standard lane width for passenger cars and the remaining road width should be
hatched to accommodate design vehicle.

3
Table 3.8 Traveled Way Widening Criteria at Horizontal Curves, Inside Curve Radius
100 m or Less
Two Lane Width for one way

Single Single Lane Width with or Two Way Traffic (excluding
Inside Lane Width provision for passing a shoulder width) (m)
Curve (excluding stationary vehicle (includes
Radius Shoulders) shoulder width) Left Right
Total
(m) (m) (m) Lane Lane
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9
15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6
Curves radii less than 100 m can be used on mainline with a departure from standard
and the additional travel lane widening values required are shown in Table 3.8.
Traveled way widening transition on curves should be applied in gradual manner, on both the
approach end and departing end of the curve. The transition should produce a smooth edge
of traveled way alignments and should fit the natural path of the vehicle. On simple curves
without spirals the widening should be placed on the inside edge of the traveled way. On
curves with spirals the widening may be placed either on the inside edge of the traveled way
or split equally on both sides of the centerline.
The distribution of the widening with respect to the, beginning and end of the curve should
be consistent with the application of superelevation transition methodology specified
in Chapter 3.5. For simple curves without spirals the widening should be developed over
the length of superelevation transition. For curves with spirals, the widening should be
developed over the length of the spiral. The centerline marking after the application of
the widening shall be equidistant to the edge of the traveled ways. Figure 3.15 shows the
widening application on two lane roadways.
Widening values obtained from Table 3.7 and Table 3.8 can be checked and adjusted
accordingly using commercially available truck turning template software.

3
Figure 3.15 Travel Lane Widening on Horizontal Curves

3
3.7 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset

For uncurbed roadways horizontal clearance or lateral offset is defined as the minimum
distance from the edge of traveled way to the face of the vertical obstruction, see Figure 3.16.
For curbed roadways the horizontal clearance or lateral offset is defined as the minimum
distance from the face of the curb to the face of a vertical obstruction, see Figure 3.16. The
lateral offset generally applies to urban areas where right-of-way is limited. In general, curbs
are not desirable along high-speed roads. For further advice see Section 5.3.5 of Volume 3,
Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
Curbs shall not be used in conjunction with vehicle restraint systems. In exceptional
circumstances where the curb cannot be eliminated then particular requirements will be
needed as set in Section 6.7 of Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of
this Manual.
Provision for a sufficient horizontal clearance or lateral offset is intended to negate conflicts
between the opening of car doors, side mirrors of larger trucks and other similar actions. The
design objective is to place roadside elements, such as barriers, bridge piers, sign and traffic
signal supports, trees, landscaping items, and power poles away from the edge of traveled
way.
Minimum lateral offset for uncurbed roadways shall be 1.2 m from the edge of the traveled
way and for curbed roadways; a minimum lateral offset shall be 0.6 m from the face of the
curb. At the curbed intersections and curbed driveway openings, a minimum lateral offset
from the face of the curb to the obstruction shall be 0.9 m.
The verge of urban expressways shall be equipped with a longitudinal safety barrier as
required in Volume 1, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety, of this Manual.

3
Figure 3.16 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset
3.8 Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections

The width of turning roadways at intersections and interchanges is a function of the design
vehicle, design speed, and the radius of the curvature. Selection of the design vehicle is
based on the type, size, and frequency of vehicles expected to use the roadway. The width of
the turning roadway is determined from the track width of the design vehicle in combination
with the radius of the curvature and the design speeds that typically range between 20
kph to 30 kph. The roadway width includes the width of the lane, width of the shoulders or
clearances to the face of curb. See Table 6.2 in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, for
details of typical design vehicles.
Width of turning roadways also depends on the operational purposes of the roadway and
design traffic conditions. Operational purposes of the turning roadways include the following
three cases and are illustrated in Figure 3.17;
• Case I: One way operation without provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case II: One way operation with provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case III: Two way operation.
Design traffic conditions are described as follows:

• Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger cars with few single unit trucks (SU-9
and SU-12).

3
• Traffic Condition B: Includes sufficient number of single unit trucks (SU-9 and SU-12)
that govern the design and consideration is also given to intermediate semitrailers (WB-
12 and WB-15).
• Traffic Condition C: Includes sufficient number of intermediate semitrailers (WB-12 and

WB-15) and interstate semitrailer (WB-20) that govern the design.
The radius of curvature of the inner edge of pavement depends on the design speed and the
expected design vehicles using the roadway. Table 3.9 shows pavement width values for
various design traffic conditions, operational purposes and curvature of the inside edge of
pavement. The values are adopted form AASHTO, 2011a.
Table 3.9 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways
Pavement Width, m
Radius Case I, One-Lane, One- Case II, One-Lane, One-

Case III, Two-Lane,
on Inner Way Operation – no Way Operation – provision
One-Way or Two-Way
Edge of provision for passing a for passing a stalled
Operation
Pavement, stalled vehicle vehicle
R, m
Design Traffic Condition
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9

Note: Only use the turning roadway widths in this table as a guide and check with a turning template or
computer simulated turning template program.

3
Figure 3.17 Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections
3.9 Local and Residential Roads

Local and residential roads serve or give access to private properties. They should be
designed to serve the needs of the community and residents while discouraging through
traffic from using the roads as a short cut.
3.9.1 Special Considerations

Generally, the design of roads in residential areas should consider the following:
• Minimizing pedestrian–vehicular conflict.

• Minimize through traffic movements.
• Road patterns that minimize excessive vehicle travel.
• Schools, mosques, or shopping facilities should be considered in the overall design.
• Uniform intersection spacing to reduce speeds.
• Parking requirements should be provided without reducing sight distance requirements.
• Design that discourages excessive speeds.

3
• Location of street lighting and roadside furniture.

• Specifications for trees and planting.
• Location of public art.
• Relation to topography from the standpoint of drainage, economics, and amenities.
• Routing and details of public utilities. For further details, see Clause 6.2.22 of this Part
and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.
• Arrangements for maintenance and servicing.
3.9.2 Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation

Because the use of straight sections of roadway would be physically impractical and
aesthetically undesirable for many roadways, horizontal curves are essential elements in
the design of local and residential roads. At such locations there is a need to encourage road
users to drive slowly, and therefore superelevation is not recommended.
Table 3.10 shows appropriate minimum radii for horizontal curves for local and residential
roads.
Table 3.10 Minimum Radii for Local and Residential Roads up to 50 kph without
Superelevation.
Vd = 20 Vd = 30 Vd = 40 Vd = 50
E (%) kph kph kph kph
R (m) R (m) R (m) R (m)
-2.0 10 27 60 116
0 9 25 55 104
2.0 9 24 50 94
Source: AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th Ed., 2018
The -2.0 percent row in Table 3.10 provides the minimum curve radii for which a normal
crown of 2.0 percent should be retained. Sharper curves should have no adverse cross slope
and should be superelevated at -2.0 percent or 2.0 percent in accordance with Table 3.10.
The designer shall consider the use of traffic calming measures, such as road humps or speed
tables, to avoid excessive speed at curves.
If the designer and Overseeing Organization agree that superelevation is needed, then
reference should be made to AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
Section 3.2.6 and Table 3-13.

3

3
4 Vertical Alignment
This chapter provides guidance in designing vertical alignment. The components of vertical
alignment include longitudinal grades, vertical curves, and vertical clearances. Another
commonly used term for vertical alignment is the profile of the road.
Design of vertical alignment is typically based on minimizing the total earthwork required for
the roadway, providing drainage, and facilitating the operation of heavier vehicles.
Vertical alignment consists of a series of tangent longitudinal grades connected by vertical

curves. Vertical curves are parabolic, with length symmetrical about the vertical point of
intersection of the two tangents.
Where road corridor is shared with a rail system the alignment might differ and has to be
The design of the vertical curves depends on the design speed, and other factors like drainage,
grades, and existing topography. To attain a consistent smooth flowing and aesthetically
pleasing vertical alignment, consideration should be given to the following practices:
• Vertical alignment developed should be consistent and fit in to the topography.
• A “roller coaster” or “hidden dip” type of profile should be avoided.
• Broken-back vertical curves – two crest or two sag curves separated by a short tangent,
less than 100 m, should be avoided.
• In flat terrain, the elevation of the profile is often is controlled by drainage. The profile
should be developed such that adequate drainage can be provided. In areas where the
surface water can be above the ground level or the groundwater table is immediately
below the surface, the profile of the low edge of the finished shoulder should be at least
1.0 m above the water level. Requirements should be checked and confirmed following
detailed ground investigation and analysis.
• In areas of rock cut, if practical, the profile should be developed so that the low edge
of the finished shoulder is at least 0.3 m above the rock level to avoid excess rock
excavation.
• Avoid sag or crest vertical curves at the superelevation transition areas of the horizontal
curve.
• Avoid sag vertical curves in cut areas unless adequate drainage could be provided. Also,
avoid sag vertical curve low points on bridges.
The road designer needs to ensure that no flat zones are created at road intersections. Where
conflicting longitudinal gradients occur, a “rolling crown” can be used to avoid a flat zone and

3
reduce the risk of aquaplaning when surface water is present. For details and guidance, refer
to Clause 3.2.3 and Clause 4.2.2 of Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.
The following sections describe the components and design requirements of the vertical
curves.
4.1 Terrain
Variations in topography of the site affects both the horizontal and vertical alignments, but
the impact of the topography on vertical alignments is more pronounced than on horizontal
alignments. The variations in topography are classified into three terrain conditions: level,
rolling and mountainous.
Level terrain is generally flat and has minimal effect in developing vertical alignments.
Vertical alignments can be designed with greater degree of flexibility (either long or short)
without much impact on the construction cost. The terrain in Qatar is level and the guidance
provided in this section is based on the level terrain.
4.2 Longitudinal Grades

Roadway longitudinal grades impact the vehicle operations, especially trucks, and therefore
longitudinal grades designed should be consistent to provide uniform operations.
4.2.1 Maximum Longitudinal Grades

Maximum longitudinal grades depend on the functional classification and design speed of
the roadway and Table 4.1 list the maximum grades. Wherever practical use flatter grades
and avoid using maximum grades.
Table 4.1 Maximum Grades
Functional Classification Maximum Grade (percent)
Freeways and Expressways 3
Arterials (Major & Minor) 4
Collectors (Major & Minor) 6
Local & Service Roads 8
4.2.2 Minimum Grades

For uncurbed roadways, minimum longitudinal grade should be 0.5 percent and for curbed
roadways, the preferred longitudinal grade should be 0.5 percent and minimum shall be
0.3 percent to provide adequate longitudinal drainage. For drainage requirements, refer to
Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.

3
4.2.3 Minor Road Grades at Intersections

At intersecting roadways carry the major road cross slope onto the minor road and develop
the minor road profile meeting the established design criteria for the vertical design. The
distance that the major road cross slope is carried onto the minor road depends on the grades
of the minor road and the vertical design. Figure 4.1 shows graphical representation of the
profile on the minor road and provided for guidance only.
Figure 4.1 Minor Road Vertical Alignment Approach at Intersections
A grade change at an intersection without a vertical curve can be utilized; however, it must
be in accordance with Clause 4.3.6 of this Part.
Grade is one of the controlling geometric criteria requiring a Departure from Standards
should the specified criteria not be met. This includes values in Table 4.1 and Clause 4.2.2.
Departures shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards
4.3 Vertical Curves

In highway design, two types of vertical curves are used -- crest and sag. Regardless of the
type of curve, crest, or sag, the vertical curves are defined by three points.
• VPC – Vertical Point of Curvature: point where the tangent grade ends and vertical
curve begins.
• VPT – Vertical Point of Tangency: point where the curve ends and tangent grade begins.
• VPI – Vertical Point of Intersection: points where the two tangent grades intersect.
4.3.1 Crest Vertical Curves

Crest vertical curves are used when the change in tangent longitudinal grades are negative.
Crest vertical curves have a convex shape. There are two forms of crest vertical curves:

3
• Type I: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to negative.

• Type II: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to positive or negative to negative.
4.3.2 Sag Vertical Curves

Sag vertical curves are used when the change in tangent longitudinal grades are positive.
Sag vertical curves have a concave shape. There are two forms of sag vertical curves:
• Type III: Longitudinal grade changes from negative to positive.

• Type IV: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to positive or negative to negative
to negative.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the type and forms of the vertical curves.

3
Figure 4.2 Vertical Curve Elements

VOLUME 1 PART 3
3
The rate
The rate of
of change
change ofof longitudinal
longitudinalgrades
gradesisisdefined
definedasas
the algebraic
the algebraicdifference between
difference between
the intersecting grades divided by the length of the curve. The rate of vertical curvature,
the intersecting grades divided by the length of the curve. The rate of vertical curvature,
aa measure
measure of of vertical
vertical curvature,
curvature, is
isdefined
definedasasthe
thedistance required
distance requiredfor a 1a percent
for change
1 percent change
in longitudinal grade. The rate of vertical curvature is called the K-value. The rate of slope
in longitudinal grade. The rate of vertical curvature is called the K-value. The rate of slope
change and the rate of vertical curvature (K) are expressed using the following equations.
change and the rate of vertical curvature (K) are expressed using the following equations.
࡭ (ࡳ૛ିࡳ૚)
Rate of change of slope = =
ࡸ ࡸ
૚ ૚ ࡸ
K= ࡾࢇ࢚ࢋ ࢕ࢌ ࢉࢎࢇ࢔ࢍࢋ ࢕ࢌ ࢙࢒࢕࢖ࢋ
= (ࡳ૛ିࡳ૚)ൗ = (ࡳ૛ିࡳ૚)
ࡸ
ࡸ
K= ࡭
where
where
KK == rate
rate of
of vertical
vertical curvature
curvature
LL == length of vertical curve, m
AA== algebraic
algebraic difference
difference in
in longitudinal
longitudinal grades,
grades, percent
percent
G1, G2 = longitudinal grades, percent
G1, G2 = longitudinal grades, percent
K values are used in conjunction with the longitudinal grades to calculate the curve
K values are used in conjunction with the longitudinal grades to calculate the curve lengths
lengths for various design speeds.
for various design speeds.
4.3.3
4.3.3 Crest
CrestVertical
VerticalCurve Design
Curve Design
Design of
Design of the crest vertical curve lengths
lengthsdepends
dependson onthe
thesight
sightdistance
distancerequirements
requirementsforfor a
a given
given design
design speed,
speed, primarily
primarily Stopping
Stopping sightsight distance
distance (SSD);(SSD); asaswell
as well as passing
passing sight
sight distance
distance
(PSD) (PSD) asindetailed
as detailed Chapterin2.Chapter 2. Design
Design controls controls
used used in the
in calculating calculating the crest
crest vertical curve
vertical curve
lengths are: lengths are:
1.
1. Eye Height of 1.08
1.08mm for
for both
both SSD
SSD and
and PSD
PSD
2. Object height of 0.6 m for SSD and 1.08 m for PSD
2. Object height of 0.6 m for SSD and 1.08 m for PSD
PAGE 72 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 3
ROADWAY DESIGN
VOLUMEELEMENTS
1 PART 3

3
There are two design conditions to consider when determining the length of the crest
There are
vertical two design
curves. conditions
The lengths are to consider when
determined using determining
the following theequations
length of(AASHTO,
the crest
verticalThere
2011a): curves.
are The
two lengths
design are determined
conditions using the
to consider whenfollowing equations
determining (AASHTO,
the length of the crest
2011a):
vertical curves. The lengths are determined using the following equations (AASHTO, 2011a):
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve (see Figure 4.3)
Condition 1 - When
Condition 1 - SSD
When is SSD
less than
is lesslength of the curve
than length of the(see Figure
curve (see 4.3)
Figure 4.3)
࡭ࡿ૛
L= ࡭ࡿ૛ ૛
L = ૚૙૙(ඥ૛ࢎ૚ ାඥ૛ࢎ૛ )૛
૚૙૙(ඥ૛ࢎ૚ ାඥ૛ࢎ૛ )
or or
or
Condition 2 - When
Condition 2 - SSD
Whenis SSD
greater than length
is greater of the curve
than length of the curve
Condition 2 - When SSD is greater than length of the curve
૛૙૙(ඥࢎ૚ ାඥࢎ૛ }૛
L = 2S – ૛૙૙(ඥࢎ ାඥࢎ }૛
࡭
૚ ૛
L = 2S –
࡭
wherewhere
Lwhere L =
= length length
of the of the
curve, m curve, m
AL == length
A =of the
algebraic curve,difference
difference
algebraic min longitudinal grades, percent
in longitudinal grades, percent
A = algebraic difference
S = stopping sight distance, min longitudinal grades, percent
S = =stopping
h1 height ofsight
eyedistance, m
above roadway surface, 1.08 m
h1
h2 = h1 =
height of height
eye of
aboveeye above
roadway
object above roadway roadway
surface, surface,
0.6mm 1.08 m
1.08
surface,
h2 = height
h2 = ofheight
objectofabove
objectroadway surface, surface,
above roadway 0.6 m 0.6 m

Figure 4.3
Condition 1 is mostStopping
common; Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve
however, condition 2 can occur when the algebraic
Condition 1 is
difference in most common;
longitudinal grades however, condition
is small. The 2 cancondition
values from occur when
1 canthe
alsoalgebraic
be used
with Condition
difference
condition 21without
is most significant
in longitudinal common;
grades however,
is small. The
errors. condition
values
Table 2 can
4.2from
lists occur when
condition
the 1 can
K-values the algebraic
also useddifference
be using
calculated
with condition 2 without
in longitudinal
the equation significant
grades1 is
for condition forsmall. errors. Table
The design
different 4.2
values speeds. lists the K-values calculated using
from condition 1 can also be used with condition
the equation for condition
2 without significant1 errors.
for different
Table design
4.2 listsspeeds.
the K-values calculated using the equation for
Table condition
4.2 also lists
1 forthe K-values
different usingspeeds.
design the equation for condition 1 for passing sight
Table 4.2controls
distance also lists
withtheeyeK-values using
height and the equation
object for condition
height of 1.08 m. 1 for passing sight
distance controls
Table with
4.2 also eyethe
lists height and object
K-values height
using the of 1.08
equation form.
condition 1 for passing sight distance
controls with eye height and object height of 1.08 m.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 73
VOLUME 1 PAGE 73

3
Table 4.2 provides values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph
increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional
classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may, select a design speed
other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure
Manual.
Table 4.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curve Design Based on Stopping Sight
Distance
K-values for K-values for

Design Speed Stopping Sight Passing Sight
Stopping Sight Passing Sight
(kph) Distance (m) Distance (m)
Distance Distance
20 20 120 1 20
30 35 180 2 40
40 50 250 4 75
50 65 290 7 100
60 85 345 11 140
70 105 410 17 195
80 130 460 26 245
90 160 520 39 315
100 185 580 52 390
110 220 630 74 460
120 250 690 95 555
130 285 * 124 *
140 325 * 161 *
Note:
4.3.4 Sag Vertical Curve Design

Design of the sag vertical curve lengths depends on the sight distance requirements for a
given design speed. Stopping sight distance (SSD) requirements detailed in Chapter 2 of this
Part. QHDM adopts AASHTO (2011a) criteria for designing sag vertical curves. Sag curves are
designed using the following criteria:
• Headlight sight distance criteria for roadways that are not lighted.
• Comfort criteria for roadways that are lighted.
4.3.4.1 Headlight Sight Distance Criteria

Headlight sight distance criteria should be used in designing sag vertical curves for the
roadways that do not have roadway lighting. Headlight sight distance criteria uses headlight
height of 0.6 m and a 1-degree upward divergence of the headlight beam from the horizontal
axis of the vehicle to calculate the length of sag vertical curves. The distance between the
vehicle and where the 1-degree beam of light intersects the roadway surface is called the

VOLUME 1 PART 3
ROADWAY DESIGN
VOLUME 1 PART 3 ELEMENTS
3
length
lightofbeam
the curves
distance designed
and is should be longsight
the available enough so thatThe
distance. thelength
light beam
of the distance
curves isdesigned
equal to
should the
length sight
beoflong distance.
enough
the curves Figure
so that
designed 4.4
should illustrates
thebe
light
longbeam the criteria.
enoughdistance is light
so that the equal to the
beam sight
distance is distance.
VOLUME 1 PART 3 Figure
4.4 equal to the sight
illustrates the distance.
criteria.Figure 4.4 illustrates the criteria.
There are two design conditions to consider when determining the length of the sag
vertical
There curves.
There
arearetwo The
two lengths
design
design are determined
conditions
conditions totoconsider
consider using
when the following
determining
when equations
the length
determining the of (AASHTO,
the sag
length of the sag vertical
2011a):vertical curves. The lengths are determined using the following equations (AASHTO,
curves. The lengths
length are determined
of the curves designed shouldusing bethe following
long equations
enough so (AASHTO,
that the light 2011a):is
beam distance
2011a):
equal to the sight distance. Figure 4.4 illustrates the criteria.
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve
Condition 1 - When
There are two SSD is less
design than lengthtoofconsider
conditions the curvewhen determining the length of the sag
vertical curves. The lengths are determined ࡭ࡿ૛ using the following equations (AASHTO,
L = ࡭ࡿ૛
2011a): L = ૛૙૙[ࢎାࡿ(࢚ࢇ࢔૚ ૙
૛૙૙[ࢎାࡿ(࢚ࢇ࢔૚ )
૙)
or or
or Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve
Condition 2 - When SSDSSD
is greater
is greaterthan lengthofof
thethe curve
Condition 2 - When SSD is greater than length࡭ࡿ
Condition 2 - When of the curve
than length curve
૛
L = ૛૙૙[ࢎାࡿ(࢚ࢇ࢔૚૙)
૙ ൯] ૙ ൯]
૛૙૙[ࢎାࡿ൫࢚ࢇ࢔૚
૛૙૙[ࢎାࡿ൫࢚ࢇ࢔૚
or LL== 2S
2S ––
࡭࡭
wherewhereCondition 2 - When SSD is greater than length of the curve
where
L = length of the
L = length of curve, mm
the curve,
L h== height
length of the curve,
of headlight, mm ૛૙૙[ࢎାࡿ൫࢚ࢇ࢔૚૙ ൯]
h = height of headlight, m,m, 0.60.6m L = 2S –
A =halgebraic
A== algebraic
height of headlight, m, 0.6 mgrades,
difference ࡭
difference in in longitudinal
longitudinal grades,percent
percent
S==where
S =Astoppingalgebraic
stopping
sightsightdifference
distance,mmin longitudinal grades, percent
distance,
S = L stopping
= length ofsight
the curve, m m
distance,
h = height of headlight, m, 0.6 m
A = algebraic difference in longitudinal grades, percent

Condition
Figure 4.4 1 isStopping
most common however
Sight the values
Distance fromVertical
at Sag condition Curve
1 can also be used with
condition
Condition 24.4
without
1 is most
Figure
significant
common errors. the
Stoppinghowever
Table
Sight Distance
4.3
valueslistsVertical
at Sagfrom
the K-values
conditioncalculated using the
Curve 1 can also be used with
equation
condition
Condition for
2 withoutcondition
1 is most 1 for
significantdifferent
commonerrors. design
however Tablespeeds.
the4.3 lists the
values fromK-values
conditioncalculated using
1 can also bethe
used with
equation for condition
Condition 1 is 1 for
most different
common design
however speeds.
the values from condition 1 can
condition 2 without significant errors. Table 4.3 lists the K-values calculated using the also be used with
4.3.4.2 Comfort Criteria for Roadways with Lighting
condition
equation 2 without1significant
for condition errors.design
for different Table 4.3 lists the K-values calculated using the
speeds.
4.3.4.2 equation for condition 1 for
Comfort Criteria for Roadways with Lighting different design speeds.
Comfort criteria should be used in designing sag vertical curves for the roadways that
4.3.4.2 Comfort
have Criterialighting.
roadway for Roadways
The lengthwith Lighting
of with
the sag vertical curve can be calculated using the
4.3.4.2
Comfort Comfort
criteria Criteria
should for
beRoadways
used in designingLighting
sag vertical curves for the roadways that
following equation (AASHTO, 2011a).
Comfort
have roadway criteria should
lighting. Thebelength
used ofin designing sag vertical
the sag vertical curve cancurves for the roadways
be calculated that have
using the
Comfort criteria should be used in designing ࡭ࢂ ૛ sag vertical curves for the roadways that
roadway
following lighting.(AASHTO,
equation The length of theLsag
2011a). = vertical curve can be calculated using the following
have roadway lighting. The length of the sag vertical curve can be calculated using the
equation (AASHTO, 2011a). ૜ૢ૞
following equation (AASHTO, 2011a). ࡭ࢂ૛
where L = ૜ૢ૞ ࡭ࢂ૛
L = length of the sag vertical curve, m L = ૜ૢ૞
whereV = design speed, kph
A =where
L = length algebraic
of the sagdifference in longitudinal
vertical curve, m grades, percent
whereL = length of the sag vertical curve, m
L = Vlength
= designofspeed,
the sag vertical curve, m
A = algebraic difference inkph longitudinal grades, percent
VOLUME V A = algebraic
1 = design speed, difference
kph in longitudinal grades, percent PAGE 75
A = algebraic difference in longitudinal grades, percent
VOLUME 1VOLUME 1 PAGE
PAGE7575

3
The K-values derived from the above equation for sag vertical curves are listed in Table 4.3.
The sag vertical lengths calculated by using comfort criteria are almost 50 percent lower than
the values calculated by the headlight sight distance criteria. Based on the sight conditions
of the project, such as urban, rural, roadway lighted or unlighted, residential or commercial
etc., the design should coordinate with the Overseeing Organization in establishing the
appropriate design criteria for designing the sag vertical curves for a given project.
classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed
other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure
Manual.
Table 4.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
Design Speed Stopping Sight K-Values Lighted K-Value

(kph) Distance (m) Roadways Unlighted Roadways
20 20 1 3
30 35 2.5 6
40 50 4.5 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 10 18
70 105 13 23
80 130 17 30
90 160 21 38
100 185 26 45
110 220 31 55
120 250 37 63
130 285 43 73
140 325 50 84
Note:
Lengths of vertical curves are included in the design criteria subject to a Departure if
not met. Designers shall apply the design criteria in Tables 4.2 and 4.3.
4.3.5 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves

Calculated lengths for both crest vertical and sag vertical curves using Clauses 4.3.2 and
4.3.3 should be checked against the minimum curve lengths established in this clause and
use the higher of the two values.

3
Minimum curve lengths should be 0.6 times the design speed in kph (AASHTO, 2011a).
However, for constructability purposes a minimum vertical curve length of 30 m should be
adopted.
Lmin = 0.6 x V
where
Lmin = minimum length of vertical curve, m
4.3.6 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve

Vertical curves are not required when the change in grade is small. The change in longitudinal
grade has an impact on the drivers’ comfort. The impact is more on sag curves compared to
the crest curves due to the centripetal and gravitational forces act in the same direction
rather than opposing directions
Table 4.4 lists the permitted maximum grade change without a vertical curve for various
design speeds. Maximum grade change is calculated based on the comfort control criteria
presented in Clause 4.3.4.2 and it varies with the design speed (Ohio Department of
Transportation, 2014).
L=
A=
where
L = length of the vertical, assume 7.6 m vertical curve
A = change in grade, percent
Table 4.4 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve
Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical

Design Speed (kph)
Curve (%)
50 1.20
60 0.83
70 0.61
80 0.47
90 0.37
100 0.30
110 0.25
120 0.21
130 0.18
140 0.15
Note:
Limit the minimum distance between consecutive grade breaks to 100 m.

3
4.4 Vertical Clearances

The minimum vertical clearance between two roads that are grade separated are specified to
prevent vehicles or their loads from coming into contact with any structures, such as bridges,
lighting, ventilation shafts, sign gantries, overhead cables, or suspended lighting and other
vertical roadside furniture. Table 4.5 lists the minimum vertical clearances. Clearances
less than those specified in Table 4.5 shall require a Departure from Standards as per
The headroom stated in Table 4.5 for structures is between road surface and the structure
soffit above. Lighting may project 300 mm below the bridge soffit; and the vertical clearance
in tunnels (greater than 150 m long) shall be as for bridges except that the designer shall
consider the need for an additional clearance of 250 mm to equipment (lighting, ventilation
plant etc.) in accordance with the guidance in UK DMRB, BD 78/99, Department for Transport,
2002.
The clearance shall be provided across all traffic lanes, including shoulders. The design
should always allow for alternative routes for over-height vehicles so that they can bypass
the structure if needed.
Table 4.5 Vertical Clearance at Structures
Category of Road/Structure Type Clearance Required (m)

High load routes 6.5
Gantries/lightweight structures 6.5
Pedestrian over bridge 6.5
Freeway and expressway bridges 6.5
Camel underpass crossings 6.0
All other road structures 6.0
Pedestrian and bicycle underpasses 3.5
Roads over heavy Rails/all other Rails 7.7a/7.0a
Tunnels 6.5b
a
Unless otherwise agreed with the Railway Authority
b
The vertical clearance in tunnels (greater than 150 m long) shall be as for bridges except that the
designer shall consider the need for an additional clearance of 250 mm to equipment (lighting, ventilation
plant etc.) in accordance with the guidance in UK DMRB, BD 78/99, UK Department for Transport, 2002.
Where a public utility specifies a minimum vertical clearance to its plant, the designer should
check that clearance requirement against Table 4.5 and provide the greater of the two
clearances. Protective measures may be required at overhead cable crossings such as guard
wires. Guidance may be sought from the Overseeing Organization regarding the vertical
clearances when planning work near electricity and water installations.

3
Road designers must work with designers of the bridges or overcrossing structures to provide
the necessary vertical clearances at all points along the width of the roadway including
shoulders. This design process will often be iterative, with the bridge engineer determining
optimal bridge types, configurations and depths of structure; and the roadway designer
adjusting the profiles of the roadways accordingly to establish the required clearances.
Special attention is needed when a roadway with a sag vertical curve underpass structure.
The clearance established in Table 4.5 shall be increased by the values shown in the Table
4.6. The values in the Table 4.6 are established based on a sag radius measured along the
sag vertical curve over a 25 m chord, see Figure 4.5. The 25 m chord is established based on
the average length of the semitrailer and the radius of the sag vertical curve is approximated
using the following formula:
R = 100K
where
R = radius of sag curve, m
K = rate of vertical curvature
Figure 4.5 Additional Clearances at Underpasses for Sag Vertical Curves

3
Table 4.6 Sag Radius Compensation
Sag Radius (m) Additional Clearance (mm)

1000 80
1,200 70
1,500 55
2,000 45
3,000 25
6,000 15
>6,000 nil
Source Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997
Minimum clearances shall be per Table 4.5. Minimum vertical clearance is one of the
controlling criteria for departures and if required clearance per Table 4.5 cannot be
provided, a departure shall be obtained, per the process noted in Volume 3, Part 25,
Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual. The designer shall prepare the
Departure. If the vertical clearance is less than 5.7 m, the designer shall prepare the
Departure along with design considerations in designing over height protection system. The
overhead protection system shall be designed per guidance provided in Ashghal’s Intelligent
Transportation Systems Deployment Manual.
4.5 Special Considerations

One of the main issues confronting the highway engineer in Qatar is the flatness of the
topography in large areas and the associated issues in providing adequate measures to
accommodate surface water drainage see Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual, for
additional details.
During the vertical alignment design, consideration should be given to the following practices
specific to conditions in Qatar.
• Residential and Commercial
−− Preferred maximum slope across housing plots is 1 in 30.
−− Sag curves should be designed such that low points are not in the middle of the
driveway.
−− Road alignment should preferably be kept below adjacent property level.
−− Existing utilities should be considered during the design of the vertical alignments.
−− Sidewalk maximum longitudinal gradient should be 1 in 20 and refer to Volume 3,

Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, for additional details.
−− As a guide, the residential driveway gradients to properties should not exceed

a desirable driveway slope of 1 in 15 (6.67%) to avoid potentially damaging
the underside of low-slung vehicles. However, at constrained locations (e.g.
consideration of an existing gate threshold, geometrical constraints, etc.) an

3
absolute maximum slope of 1 in 8 (12.5%) will be acceptable. To comply with

Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, where a driveway crosses
a sidewalk, the driveway grade should be no more than 2 percent to maintain an
acceptable sidewalk cross slope.
• Industrial
−− Maximum roadway gradients should be limited to 1 in 20 (5.00 percent) due to use

of heavy vehicles.
−− After long or steep down gradients, heavy vehicles may require additional level
areas for braking distance or emergency run-off lanes.
−− Change in transverse or longitudinal grade should not be significant enough to

cause loss of load.
It is important that the designer understand the significance of proper geometric design and
its influence on road safety and the harmonization of horizontal and vertical alignments to
provide safe, functional, and aesthetic roadways.

3
5 General Considerations
5.1 General
Horizontal and vertical alignments are permanent design elements that warrant thorough
study. It is extremely difficult and costly to correct alignment deficiencies after a highway is
constructed. On freeways and expressways, there are numerous controls such as multi-level
structures and costly right-of-way. On most urban roads, heavy development takes place
along the property lines, making it impractical to change the alignment in the future. Thus,
compromises in the design of alignment should be weighed carefully, because any initial
savings may be more than offset by the economic loss to the public in the form of crashes
and delays.
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. They complement
each other, and poorly designed combinations can spoil the good points and exacerbate
the deficiencies of each. Horizontal alignment and profile are among the more important
he permanent design elements of the highway. Excellence in the design of each and their
combination increases usefulness and safety, encourages uniform speed, and improves
appearance, nearly always without additional cost.
It is difficult to discuss combinations of horizontal alignment and profile without reference

to the broader issue of highway location. These subjects are interrelated, and what is said
about one generally is applicable to the other. It is assumed that the general location of
a facility has been fixed and that the task remaining is to develop a specific design to
harmonize the vertical and horizontal lines, such that the finished highway, road, or street
will be an economical, pleasant, and safe facility on which to travel. The physical constraints
or influences that act singly or in combination to determine the alignment are the character
of roadway based on the traffic, topography, and subsurface conditions, the existing cultural
development, likely future developments, and the location of the roadway’s terminals. Design
speed is considered in determining the general roadway location, but as design proceeds to
the development of more detailed alignment and profile it assumes greater importance. The
selected design speed serves to keep all elements of design in balance including curvature,
sight distance, width, clearance, and maximum gradient.
5.2 Harmonizing the Horizontal Alignment

The choice and arrangement of linear elements are crucial factors in whether the road will
look right in its surroundings and pleasing to the driver of the vehicle. The design should
provide a safe road, with the necessary stopping sight distances.

3
The aim of flowing alignment is to combine the various components in a manner that
results in the road being experienced by the road user as a free-flowing, harmonious form
without visual discontinuities. Such a design results in better integration of the road into
the landscape and helps to make the road a construction that is visually pleasing from the
viewpoint both of its users and those outside the road reservation.
The principles of flowing alignment are closely linked with the way in which the driver sees
the road line and in particular with the shape of the road edges.
It is advisable to avoid small changes in direction in a flowing alignment, because these likely
will appear unsatisfactory from the vehicle. Furthermore, small transverse displacements
can present a confusing prospect for the driver.
When two straight road segments are connected, the use of a short horizontal curve is
likely to cause the appearance of a kink, as shown in Figure 5.1, which can be improved
by employing a larger radius. The perception of an improvement is realized only when the
views being compared are taken from the same distance from the vertex of the curve. If
the viewpoint is at the same distance from the start of the curve, then improvement is not
achieved; in fact, the kink will appear to be more pronounced.
Figure 5.1 Example of a Kink and Improvement with Larger Radius
Even with a large radius curve, it is not possible to avoid the illusion of a sharp change
in direction if the approach tangents are sufficiently long. The best results are likely to
be achieved with a flowing alignment, where tangents can be dispensed with. This is not
always possible or even desirable. For example, the sight lines on an undivided roadway
where passing is permitted must be based on passing sight distances, not on stopping sight
distances.
Smooth-flowing alignments are required for sustaining posted speeds. The following are the
principles to be followed in securing a satisfactory alignment.
• Care should be taken to ensure that embankments and cuttings do not make severe
breaks in the natural skyline. This can be achieved by designing the road on a curve
whenever possible to preserve an unbroken background.
• Short curves and tangents should not be used. Adjacent curves should be similar in
length. See Figure 5.3, Sketch L.

3
• Small changes of direction should not be made, as they give the perspective of the road
ahead a disjointed appearance. See Figure 5.1.
• Curves of the same or opposite sense which are visible from one another should not be
connected by short tangents. It is better to introduce a flat curve between curves of the
same sense, or to extend the transition curves to a common point between curves of
the opposite sense. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• Changes in horizontal and vertical alignment should be phased to coincide whenever

possible. See Figure 5.3, Sketches I and J.
• Flowing alignment can most readily be achieved by using large radius curves rather than
tangents. See Figure 5.3, Sketch G.
• The profile of the road over bridges should form part of the easy flowing alignment. See
Figure 5.2, Sketch B.
• At the start of horizontal curves, superelevation should not create large flat areas on
which water would stand. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• Horizontal and vertical curves should be made as generous as possible at interchanges

to enhance sight distance. Refer to Chapter 3 of this Part on Sight Distance.
• Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a pronounced
crest. This is hazardous especially at night, because the driver cannot see the change in
horizontal alignment. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• The view of the road ahead should not appear distorted by sharp horizontal curvature
introduced near the low point of a sag curve. See Figure 5.4, Sketch M.
Typical alignment and profile relationships are shown in Clause 5.4.
5.3 Harmonizing the Vertical Alignment

Vertical curvature plays an equally important part in achieving a harmonious alignment
as horizontal geometry. The designer should aim for a well-balanced alignment and make
use of vertical curvature in preference to tangent gradients where feasible. Inappropriate
combinations of vertical curves and gradients can lead to a disjointed appearance and should
be avoided. The following undesirable combinations of vertical elements should be avoided:
• Either a short crest curve between two grades or a short sag curve between two grades.
See Figure 5.5, Sketch R.
• Either a short grade between crest curves or short tangents between sag curves. See
Figure 5.5, Sketch P.
• Reverse vertical curves causing small changes in height on level or near level sections
of road. See Figure 5.2, Sketch B.
• A consistent gradient containing either a shallow sag curve or a shallow crest curve. See
Figure 5.5, Sketch Q.
• Terracing on which two crest curves can be seen at one time. See Figure 5.5, Sketch S.

3
As is the case with horizontal curves and tangents, vertical curve radii must be large enough
to avoid the appearance of a kink and visual discontinuities. Even large radii will sometimes
give the appearance of an abrupt change in direction if the viewpoint is sufficiently far from
the curve. Driver perception is such that it is not considered visually disturbing until the
driver is within about 500 m from the start.
Typical alignment and profile relationships are shown in Clause 5.4.
5.4 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments

Coordination of the horizontal and vertical alignments should be carefully considered at
the earliest stages of design development when adjustments to either can be made. To
obtain a satisfactory alignment, it is important to consider the road as a three-dimensional
unit to properly integrate the vertical and horizontal aspects of the line. The elements of
horizontal and vertical alignment should be in phase wherever possible. In other words,
the corresponding elements in the horizontal and vertical planes should start and end at
approximately the same points.
If the out-of-phase lengths are small, this is not likely to be significant; in fact, it is probably
advantageous to have an overlap. This may be seen to contribute to the integration of the
two aspects of the road alignment. When an overlap is used, it should be small in comparison
with the length of the element. If prevailing conditions prevent using longer, coincident
curves, it is possible to achieve significant improvement if longer overlapping curves are
implemented.
Ideally, the coordinated use of large radius horizontal and vertical curvature will provide the
best appearance and more readily accommodate solutions to drainage issues arising from the
creation of large flat areas. The following combinations of horizontal and vertical alignment
provide some additional examples of those likely to result in an awkward appearance and
should be avoided if possible.
• A short sag curve within a horizontal curve. This is similar to the case of a short sag
curve occurring along a tangent grade but with a more pronounced impression of a
discontinuity. See Figure 5.2, Sketch E.
• A short vertical curve connecting gradients in a long horizontal curve. This arrangement
is liable to result in the illusion of a pronounced kink in the alignment. Small changes in
direction between tangents are as undesirable in the vertical plane as they are in the
horizontal plane. See Figure 5.5, Sketch T.
• A horizontal curve following a tangent on a sag curve that follows a grade. This
combination tends to give the horizontal curve the appearance of a sharp bend. See
Figure 5.2, Sketch E.
• Sag curves joined by a level length or gradient and occurring along a tangent followed
by a horizontal curve. Sag curves joined by short tangent gradients are undesirable
by themselves but when combined with a horizontal curve in this way the disjointed
appearance is exaggerated. See Figure 5.5, Sketch P.

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• A crest curve followed by a sag curve occurring along a tangent followed by a horizontal
curve. A disjointed effect is liable to result when the beginning of the vertical curve is
hidden from the driver by an intervening summit while the continuation of the curve is
visible in the distance beyond. See Figure 5.4, Sketch M.
A short horizontal curve in combination with a short crest curve. This can be dangerous
since the driver is unable to see the continuation of the curved horizontal alignment. More
unsatisfactory would be the horizontal curve starting immediately beyond the summit of the
crest curve. See Figure 5.5, Sketch U.
• A reverse horizontal curve with the change in curvature situated at the top of a sharp
crest curve. This can be dangerous as the driver is not able to anticipate the change in
direction of the road ahead. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
Examples of these points are shown in the sketches in Figure 5.2 to Figure 5.4
Visualization software should be used to examine the appearance of the proposed
alignment throughout the development of the design.
5.5 Alignment Coordination in Design

Coordination of horizontal alignment and profile should not be left to chance but should
begin with preliminary design when adjustments can be readily made. All aspects of terrain,
traffic operation, and appearance should be considered. Horizontal and vertical lines should
be adjusted and coordinated during the feasibility study stage and before the development
of the detailed design and the preparation of construction plans.
The procedures described above should be modified for the design of typical local roads
or streets, as compared to higher type highways. The alignment of any local road or street
is governed by existing or likely future development, whether for a new roadway or for
reconstruction of an existing roadway. The crossroad or street intersections and the location
of driveways are dominant controls. Even for street design, it is desirable to work out long,
flowing alignment and profile sections rather than a connected series of block-by-block
sections.
Where road corridor is shared with or next to a rail system the alignment has to be coordinated
with the Qatar Rail.

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Source: AASHTO, 2011b.

Figure 5.2 Alignment Relationships in Roadway Design—1 of 4

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3

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6 Cross Section Elements

6.1.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the principles to be followed when designing highway cross sections
for new roads and improvements to the existing road network.
The cross section is made up from a combination of distinct components that vary depending
upon the type of highway and the facilities provided for the various users of the road. Some
decisions relating to the cross section are made during project development, such as the
capacity and number of lanes. Other decisions, such as the road function and its place in the
road hierarchy, are made earlier in the process.
This standard defines and describes the components and presents guidance on details
of their design. The basic components are listed below and identified separately in the
following sections of this section to simplify definition and interpretation as an aid to design
consistency and application.
The cross section of a road includes some or all of the following elements:
• Traveled way and cross slopes

• Lane widths
• Shoulders and hard strips
• Medians
• Curbs and traffic barriers
• Sidewalks and cycle or shared use paths
• Utility and landscape areas
• Drainage channels and sideslopes
• Clear zones and lateral offset
• Frontage or service roads
• Where road corridor is shared with or next to a railway the utility protection and barrier
arrangements together with fencing (restricted access) to be considered
Different arrangements of the components are to be used depending on the functional

classification of the highway. The designer’s role is to decide which of the components to
include and the selection of the appropriate dimensions. Considered together, all these cross
section elements define the highway right-of-way.
This standard provides details of the cross sections and horizontal clearance requirements
to be used for all rural and urban roads, both at and away from structures. The information

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covers freeways, expressways, arterials, collectors, and local roads, both single and divided
roadway, together with associated ramps and service roads.
This standard does not give mandatory requirements for headroom near airports or at power
lines. The designer should contact the relevant authorities to agree on requirements as part
of the design process.
Where existing or proposed land use requirements necessitate amendments to the standard
roadway cross sections, approval from the Overseeing Organization must be sought. In such
instances, amendments to the utilities layout may be required to suit the specific road cross
section proposed. Any proposed revisions to the standardized utility locations must have
the approval of the appropriate utility authorities. For further details on utilities, see Clause
6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.
Certain special routes, such as abnormal or exceptional load routes or scenic routes, may
require specific requirements and in these situations, consultation should be sought with the
Overseeing Organization to agree on appropriate solutions.
6.1.2 Design Principles

Highway components are based on numerous interrelated design decisions. Integrating
these components to satisfy competing demands for highway space and functionality
requires effective decision making from the outset. Designers must balance elements within
the available space to meet safety needs, address environmental impacts, and satisfy cost,
constructability, and operation and maintenance requirements.
Appropriate basic design will allow both new roads and improvements to existing highways
to fit harmoniously into their surroundings. Challenges can be avoided by ensuring that
approximate sizes and locations of detailed design features are identified early so that
space requirements can be determined. During final design, designers must sometimes
accommodate additional detailed design features, such as potential future widening near
structures, into the available highway. It also considers adjacent land users safe access
including the emergency evacuation to and from their facilities.
In general, the different road reservations are intended to provide drivers with adequate
sight distances and allow the public utilities sufficient space for existing and proposed
plant. Where space for utilities is limited, “way leaves” outside the road reservation may be
obtained by contacting the relevant planning authority. For further details on utilities, see
Clause 6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.
Figure 6.12 to Figure 6.45 show typical cross sections depicting the essential elements
for two-way single and divided roadways for urban and rural roads. The final layout of the
reservation should be agreed on with the Overseeing Organization.
The recommended reservation details for rural roads are similar to those for urban roads but
reflect the reduced access and drainage requirements of the rural situation. Generally, for

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rural roads the right side of the roadway would not be curbed, although flush curbing may
be considered at certain locations. Raised curbing to the median of rural divided roadways
should be provided only at specific locations: near bridges and at-grade intersections. In
all cases, an edge strip shall be provided between the curb and lane edge. Verges shall be
designed to fall away from the road in rural settings and thus water will drain to surrounding
ground.
It is recommended that usable traveled way and shoulder be provided for all rural roadways
based on traffic volume. Minimum traveled way is 3.65 m, and shoulder widths are 1.2 meter
for average daily traffic volumes of 400 or less; 1.8 meters for average daily traffic volumes
up to 2,000; and 2.4 meters for average daily traffic volumes over 2,000. Furthermore, it is
recommended that shoulders be paved for high volume roads.
A standard lane width of 3.65 m has been used on typical cross sections and should be
provided for all roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater. Exceptions are permitted
where it is necessary to maintain continuity with an existing road, and for roads providing
access to residential and some commercial and industrial areas. Clause 6.2.1 describes
permitted variations.
A standard cross slope of 2 percent has been applied for roads and medians to achieve
adequate drainage.
Figure 6.1 presents a flow chart depicting the process of cross section design.
Where road space is shared with or next to a railway the safety and protection of the railway
from members of the public road traffic to be assessed and addressed.
6.1.3 Road Network Objectives

The aim is to deliver an economic, accessible, integrated, safe, reliable, efficient, and
environmentally acceptable road network for all users. This includes adapting and improving
some highways for the benefit of nonmotorized users. The designer must consider
maintenance needs, such as ensuring that proposed cross section and lane widths are
adequate for maintenance to be undertaken safely.
In urban areas, numerous items of street furniture and underground utilities are likely to
be found within the highway cross section, offering less scope for coordinating features
than in rural areas. However, coordination with utility owners could be extensive to map,
analyze potential conflicts, and design around or relocate utilities to avoid or minimize
service disruption. The designer must achieve a careful balance among the many competing
demands wherever economically and environmentally practical to do so. For further details
on utilities, see Clause 6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.
Rural areas may have fewer underground utilities, but those that exist are likely to be high-
capacity services that could affect the economical and effective delivery of subsequent
maintenance and operation of the network.

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Figure 6.1 Cross Section Design Flow Chart

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6.1.4 Departures
Occasionally roadway design engineers may face situations where they believe they
cannot develop a road project that would be in accordance with the standards defined for
it, then it may propose a Departure from Standards. They must follow the standard process
for documenting the reasons and providing mitigations for the Departure from Standards
process. Careful consideration must be given to layout options incorporating departures,
having weighed potential advantages and disadvantages. Particular attention must be given
to the safety aspects, including operation, maintenance, construction, and demolition, and to
the environmental and economic advantages and disadvantages that would result from the
use of Departures. The consideration process must be recorded. The preferred option must
be compared against options that would meet full standards.
In these situations, the Overseeing Organization may be prepared to agree to a Departure

from Standard where the Standard is not realistically achievable. Any Departure from
Standard must be prepared in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards
Designers facing such situations and wishing to consider pursuing this course must discuss
the option at an early stage in design with the Overseeing Organization. Proposals to adopt
Departures from Standard must be submitted by the designer to the Overseeing Organization
and formal approval received before incorporation into a design layout.
6.2 Design Requirements

This clause identifies components of the cross section and presents guidance on details of
their design. It applies to all cross sections other than those through or across structures.
Figure 6.12 to Figure 6.45 show sections with detailed dimensions to indicate how the
various components should be brought together to form the cross section of different types
of roads. Numerous changes in highway cross section are not desirable, and a consistent
width along a road is preferred.
In selecting cross section elements and dimensions, designers need to consider the following
factors:
• Safety of users
• Volume and composition of the vehicular traffic expected to use the facility, e.g., the
percent of trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles
• The likelihood that bicyclists and pedestrians will use the road
• Climatic conditions
The presence of natural or manmade obstructions adjacent to the roadway, such as rock
outcrops, large trees, wetlands, buildings, and power lines
• The presence of underground utilities
• Type and intensity of development along the highway section under design

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The most appropriate design for a highway improvement is the one that balances the
accessibility and mobility needs of the motorists, pedestrians, or bicyclists using the facility
with the physical constraints of the corridor in which the facility is located. The likelihood
of pedestrian and cycle traffic is one factor, while the functionality of the facility to provide
access and/or mobility to vehicular traffic is another factor, to consider when designing the
cross section of a facility.
Access is needed for every area served by a highway while mobility is provided to users at
varying levels of service. The primary function of local roads and streets is to provide access
to properties, and the primary function of arterials is to provide mobility to users. Highway
and street cross sections should be designed to serve the primary purpose of the facility and
balance the accessibility and mobility needs of the users accordingly.
Where road space is shared with or next to a railway access to and from the railroad, stations,
and associated facilities to be considered. This can be on the side of the road or in the
median. Such access might be required to provide safe access in case of emergency and
evacuation. Removable barrier systems shall be used.
6.2.1 Travel Lanes

The travel lane is the part of a roadway designated for the movement of vehicles in a single
line, exclusive of shoulders and cycle lanes. It controls and guides drivers to avoid or minimize
conflicts with other vehicles on adjacent lanes or objects near the roadway. Roadways can
have more than one lane in each direction. Some typical roadway sections, including number
and width of lanes, medians, shoulders and other roadside features are shown in Figure
6.12 to Figure 6.45. Standard width of a travel lane is 3.65 m, except under the following
conditions:
• Where existing roads are being reconstructed, lane width may be reduced to 3.30 m for
roads with a design speed of 80 kph or less, provided the percentage of heavy truck
traffic is less than 5 percent. Prior approval of the Overseeing Organization is needed.
• Lane widths can be reduced to 3.30 m for local roads in urban residential areas with
two-lanes or more where traffic volumes are low, speeds are 50 kph and below, and the
percentage of heavy truck traffic is low.
• Single lane one-way roads in urban areas with a minimum width of 5.0 m between curbs
to allow motorists to pass a stalled vehicle.
• Wider lanes on curves with shorter radii to allow for the swept path of long vehicles or
to provide sufficient sight distance. (For further guidance on swept paths, see Clause
6.2.25 of this Part).
Lane widths outside this guidance may be provided under a departure process with full
justification provided by the designer in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process, of this Manual, submitted to the Overseeing Organization.

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Notwithstanding the advice given elsewhere in this manual, variations in cross section may
be encountered over the length of a road. Table 6.1 shows the required mainline rate of
change in width based on a standard 3.65 m lane. This may also be used where a lane is
introduced or terminated far from an intersection; that is, not as part of an auxiliary lane.
The rate of change for introducing a lane is somewhat less than the values in this table. In all
cases where Table 6.1 is used, the transition taper should correspond with the higher design
speed of the two adjoining links under consideration.
Table 6.1 Mainline Rate of Change of Width for a Standard Lane
Transition Taper Rate

Design Speed (kph)
Lane Drop Adding Additional Lanes
40 1:20 1:8
50 1:25 1:10
60 1:30 1:12
70 1:35 1:14
80 1:40 1:16
90 1:45 1:18
100 1:50 1:20
110 1:55 1:22
120 1:60 1:24
130 1:65 1:26
140 1:70 1:28
Note:
Lines marking the edge of roadways are outside the traveled way and are provided within
the shoulder or hard strip. Lane widths within the traveled way include the lane lines.
Public transport strategy for Qatar identifies high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) routes as part of
the road network, but the identification of the need to provide HOV lanes does not require a
change to standard lane widths. Any changes to the standard cross sections to add additional
lanes to accommodate HOV routes shall be addressed in the project-specific documentation.
6.2.2 Shoulders
The shoulder is a contiguous part of roadway used in case of emergency, law enforcement,
and to accommodate stopped vehicles. Shoulders provide structural support for the pavement
edges and side clearance between moving vehicles and stationary objects. Shoulders of
sufficient width provide additional space for access by emergency service vehicles. They
can also be used as temporary lanes to facilitate traffic movement during road maintenance
operations. For these reasons, shoulders should be constructed to the same structural
strength as the adjacent roadway.

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Width of stabilized roadway shoulder (graded shoulder) refers to the roadway width between
the edge of traveled way and the intersection of the shoulder slope and the embankment
slope (foreslope) plane. The usable width of the shoulder is where a motorist can make
emergency or parking stop. Graded shoulder and usable shoulder widths are the same where
foreslopes are 1V:5H or flatter. The normal rounding of 1.5 m will not reduce the useful
width of the usable shoulder. Where the foreslope is steeper than 1V:5H, shoulder width
should be increased to accommodate the barrier and the rounding behind it. Depending on
the width of the barrier, the increased width of the shoulder could be up to 2.5 m.
Normal width of paved shoulder along higher speed and higher volume roads is 3.00 m. On
a freeway rural situation, a width of 3.60 m paved shoulder is preferred on roads carrying
250 or more trucks per hour. On low volume rural roadways, roadway shoulders may be 1.5 m
paved and 1.5 m graded. Alternatively, the full width can be paved but to a lower strength; or
the entire width of the shoulder graded (stabilized) beyond the roadway pavement.
Where shoulders are provided as shown in the standard roadway cross sections, they
should be constructed with a standard cross slope of 2 percent or as extension of roadway
superelevation. Shoulders shall be of the widths listed in Table 6.2.
Where a curb is provided, a lateral offset from the edge of traveled way should be applied.
The lateral offset width varies with the design speed.
Table 6.2 Typical Roadway Cross Sections
Min. Shoulder Width

Roadway Type and Design Lanes Lane Parking
Median
Speed in each Width Left Width
Design Year AADT Width Right
Range (kph) Direction (m) (m)
(m) (m) (m)
4 or more 3.65 7.50 3.00 3.00 —a
Urban expressway
100 to 120 4 3.65 7.50 3.00 3.00 —a
50,000 to 80,000
3 3.65 3.90 1.20 3.00 —a
Major urban arterial
60 to 100 3 3.65 3.90 1.20 3.0 —a
30,000 to 60,000
3 3.65 12.20 0.35 0.35 —a
Minor urban arterial 3 3.65 12.20 0.35 0.35 2.50 a,e
50 to 100
20,000 to 50,000 2 3.65 5.00 — — —a
2 3.30 f
5.70 0.35 0.35 —a
Urban boulevard 3 3.65 12.20 0.35 0.35 —a
50 to 100
30,000 to 60,000 3 3.65 12.20 0.35 0.35 2.50 a
2 3.65 5.00 — — —
2 3.30 f 5.70 0.35 0.35 —
2 3.65 5.00 — — 3.00 e
Major urban 2 3.65 5.00 — — 2.50
collector 50 or 60
10,000 to 50,000 1 3.65 5.00 — — 3.00 e
1 3.65 5.00 — — 6.10 b
2 3.30 f
5.00 — — 2.50
1 3.30 f
5.00 — — 2.50

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Min. Shoulder Width

Roadway Type and Design Lanes Lane Parking
Median
Speed in each Width Left Width
Design Year AADT Width Right
Range (kph) Direction (m) (m)
(m) (m) (m)
2 3.30 f 5.00 — — 2.50
1 3.30 f 5.00 — — 2.50
2 3.65 5.00 — — 3.00 e
2 3.65 5.00 — — 2.50
1 3.65 5.00 — — 3.00 e

Minor urban
collector 50 or 60 1 3.65 5.00 — — 6.10 b
5,000 to 20,000
2 3.65 0.30 c — — 2.50
2 3.30 f 1.80 d — — 2.50
1 3.65 — — — 3.00 e
1 3.65 — — — 2.50
1 3.30 f — — — 2.50
2 3.65 0.30 c — — 2.50
2 3.30 f 1.80 d — — 2.50
1 3.65 — — — 3.00 e
Urban local road 1 3.65 — — — 2.50

30 to 50
Less than 5,000
1 3.30 f — — — 2.50
1 (one
4.00 — — — 2.50
way)
1 (one
3.30 — — — 2.50
way)
Rural freeway
120 to 140 4 3.65 16.00 3.00 3.00 —a
Greater than 8,000
Rural arterial
100 to 120 2 or 3 3.65 10.00 3.00 3.00 —
2,000 to 8,000
Rural collector 2 3.65 6.40 1.20 3.00 —a
60 to 100
1,000 to 2,000 1 3.65 — — 3.00 —a
Rural local road
50 1 3.65 — — 3.00 g —a
Less than 1,000
Notes:
a Parking spaces are only permissible where the posted speed of the adjacent roadway (i.e. mainline,
frontage road, or service road) is 50 kph or less.
b 45-degree angular parking, see Figure 6.8.
c No overtaking pavement marking in accordance with the QTCM, Volume 1, Part 6, Road Markings.
d Dropped curb median/raised refuge island at junctions.
e 3.00 m for industrial land use.
f 3.30 m is for residential land use only.
g Consists of 1.50 m wide paved, and 1.50 m wide unpaved shoulder

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Qatar Rail should be consulted on their requirement for emergency exit access to be
accommodated using the hard shoulder. Qatar Rail should be consulted on their requirement
for emergency exit access to be accommodated where applicable.
6.2.3 Hard Strips

Hard strip is an extra width of the road along the outside edges of the traveled way built
contiguous to and with the same strength and from the same material as the traveled way.
Hard strips provide a safer roadway, facilitate the removal of surface water, and provide
additional roadway width to maneuver around stopped vehicles in case of an emergency.
Hard strips keep roadside debris away from the running width of an outside lane and maintain
pavement integrity and stability.
The hard strip width is included within the standard median width. Hard strips should be
provided adjacent to the outer traveled lanes on all uncurbed roads unless replaced by a
paved shoulder.
Curbs with narrow hard strips or lateral offsets apply to roads with posted speeds less than
80 kph. For roads with posted speeds 80 kph or greater that require a curb for drainage,
the width of the hard strip should be increased or replaced with a wider shoulder, with the
curb located at the outside edge of the widened hard strip or shoulder. On curbed divided
roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater, a hard strip of 0.35 m shall be added to
the outside edge as a gutter.
Table 6.2 includes outside edge and median edge standard widths for shoulders and hard
strips for various road types and speeds.
Lane widths and shoulder widths listed in Table 6.2 are among the controlling design
criteria requiring a Departure, in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from
Standards Process, of this Manual, should the specified values not be met.
6.2.4 Auxiliary Lanes

An auxiliary lane is an additional lane over a short distance that is provided to enable speed
changing, turning, weaving, merging, and diverging, and separation of slower heavy vehicles
from higher speed traffic on steep upgrades. Auxiliary lanes may be used to maintain the
desired speeds, densities, and levels of service on the highway and at intersections.
Auxiliary lanes should have a width equal to that of the through lane or 3.65 m.
A speed change auxiliary lane provides for the acceleration or deceleration of

vehicles entering or leaving through traffic lanes. A speed change lane should be
sufficient in length to enable a driver to comfortably make the necessary speed
change. Design criteria for speed change lanes are shown in Volume 1, Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.

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6.2.5 Medians
A roadway median is a designated space separating traffic moving in opposite directions.
Medians can be open, include traffic barriers, raised with curb, or flush. The width of a
median is that dimension between the left edges of traveled way of the opposing roadways.
Medians serve any of the following traffic functions:
• Separate high-speed traffic in opposing directions, thereby reducing or eliminating

severe head-on crashes
• Control by limiting or eliminating access to adjacent land uses or intersections by left-

turning vehicles
• Provide space for shoulders on the left sides of the roadways
• Provide space for the placement of traffic barriers that may be implemented to prevent
head-on crashes
• Provide space for development of left-turning lanes at signalized intersections
• Provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the roadway
The median space may be used for placement of utilities. Medians may also be designed with
sufficient width to enable the addition of future roadway capacity. Medians also offer the
opportunity to provide landscaping between the roadways. For further details on utilities,
see Clause 6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.
Where road corridor is shared with or next to a railway, sufficient space to be allowed for rail
structures and utility pop ups in the median.
Qatar Rail should be consulted for their requirement for access and type of barriers or lay-bys
required to access/egress (for emergency services) in the median.
The appropriate width of a median depends on the functions served and available right-of-
way. A median may vary in composition from 1.2 m wide with a pedestrian fence to 20 m
wide with street lighting, drainage, and landscaped areas. Consultation with the relevant
planning authority often is required regarding the width and function of the median. See
Table 6.3 for typical median widths.
Table 6.3 Typical Minimum Median Width
Road Functional Classification Urban Rural Remarks
8 Lane Divided 16.00

For median widths less than 20 m wide, a
vehicle restraint barrier shall be provided.
Freeway -
For median widths of 20 m wide or greater
6 Lane Divided 12.40 consider barriers to prevent illegal U-turns.
8 Lane Divided 8.00

Expressway 8 Lane Divided 7.50 - Median with concrete barrier
6 Lane Divided 3.90
Arterial - 10.00 Median with vehicle restraint system

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Road Functional Classification Urban Rural Remarks
Major Arterial 3.90 - Median with concrete barrier
5.00-
Minor Arterial - Raised median
12.20
Boulevard 12.20 - Raised median
Collector - 6.40 Median with vehicle restraint system
Industrial 5.00 Raised median
Major Collector Commercial 5.00 - Raised median
Residential 5.00 Raised median or dropped curb median
Industrial 5.00 Raised median
Minor Collector Commercial 5.00 - Raised median
Residential 5.00 Raised median or dropped curb median
Local Road - -
Pedestrian fences shall be provided in the median where there is a likelihood of pedestrians
crossing the roadway in an inappropriate place. Provision for pedestrian crossings at safe
locations, such as signal controlled intersections, shall be made. Figure 6.2 illustrates an
example of the type of fencing that shall be used.
Figure 6.2 Typical Median Pedestrian Fence
Pedestrian fences shall be rigid panels made of galvanized and polyester or PVC coated steel
wire and must be specified to be selected from the latest version of the Ashghal Traffic
Control Devices manual which lists the traffic control devices accepted for use on roads
managed by the PWA.

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6.2.5.1 Rural Highway Medians

Medians on high-speed rural highways should be of sufficient width to prevent run-off-
road, high-speed, head-on crashes. Curbs should not be used in rural medians because they
contribute to loss of control when struck at high speeds. Low and high vehicle speeds on
roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
Median widths of 20.0 m are generally sufficient to minimize the risk of head-on crashes.
Lesser median widths should incorporate traffic barriers as discussed in Volume 3, Part 23,
Design and Operations for Road Safety, of this Manual. A median width of 16.0 m with a
barrier is sufficient to accommodate left shoulders for an 8-lane divided highway, and a
median width of 12.4 m with a barrier is sufficient to accommodate left shoulders for a
6-lane divided highway. Medians beyond the shoulders should be graded at 1:5 with ditches
for drainage and stormwater retention.
6.2.5.2 Medians on Urban Expressways

Medians on urban expressways shall be designed with sufficient width to accommodate the
shoulders in both directions of the travel; the horizontal stopping sight distance through the
mainline curvature; and provide width for traffic barriers in accordance with the requirements
in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety, of this Manual. Median barriers
should be of sufficient width that left shoulders can be maintained at their full width at
locations that include bridge piers and columns, overhead sign supports and gantries, and
overhead lighting poles.
6.2.5.3 Medians on Urban Arterials and Collectors

Medians on urban arterials and collectors provide access control, width for development of
left-turn and U-turn lanes at signalized intersections, and pedestrian refuge. The selected
median width should reflect both the functional needs and available space. The median
width shall take into consideration the safe system approach as per the Volume 3, Part 23,
Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual. If a median barrier is required to
comply with the Safe System Approach, then the working width of the barrier must be taken
into consideration when choosing the median width. Widths of travel lanes and the roadside
(for pedestrians, utilities, and landscaping) should be maintained with the median width
adjusted to reflect the available right-of-way. The following guidance should be used in
designing medians for their functional requirements:
• A minimum dimension of 1.2 m is sufficient to provide a raised curb and positive separation
island between opposing traffic flows. However, if the raised curbed separation has
traffic signs or signals place on it, then a minimum width of 1.8 m is required.
• A minimum dimension of 2.5 m is needed by pedestrians and users of wheelchairs

and strollers to feel comfortable when using the median as refuge between opposing
traffic on both sides of them. An absolute minimum width of 1.5 m, applicable only at
constrained locations and where pedestrian flows are very low, and provided that there

3
are no traffic signs or signals on the refuge. A greater dimension is always desirable;
3.0 m being a reasonable goal. For further details, refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian
and Bicycle, of this Manual.
• A minimum width of 4.85 m is sufficient to enable development of one 3.65 m wide

left turn lane with a 1.2 m wide raised curb positive protection. A width of 4.50 m can
be used with a 3.30 m wide left turn lane, which would not reduce its effectiveness
or functionality with reference to the guidance provided in Clause 3.6.4 of Volume 1,
Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.
• A width of 5.65 m is the desirable minimum for one 3.65 m wide left turn lane with a
residual median of 2.00 m. A width of 5.30 m could be used with a 3.30 m wide left turn
lane, which would not reduce its effectiveness or functionality.
• A width of 11.50 m is the desirable minimum for two 3.65 m wide left turn lanes, a
3.00 m wide median, and a 1.20 m wide separator between the through lanes and the
left turn lanes. This dimension also enables U-turn movements by passenger cars and
smaller trucks. An absolute minimum median width of 9.80 m could be used with two
3.30 m wide left turn lanes, a residual median of 2.00 m wide median, and a 1.20 m
wide separator between the through lanes and the left turn lanes.
The above guidance is subject to the guidance and minimum dimensions set out in related
clauses and typical cross sections in this Part of the Manual. It should be noted that the
guidance above refers to roadways with a design speed of 50 kph or less, for higher speeds,
refer to Clause 3.6.4 of Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.
In addition, a swept path analysis shall be carried out in accordance with clause 6.2.25 of this
Part, to verify that the median width is sufficient for U-turn movements.
In the design of an arterial, the median may vary to fit the available right-of-way and
minimize land-use impacts and right-of-way acquisition. Narrower widths can suffice
between signalized intersections where left-turn lanes are not being provided. Widening can
occur on approaches to such intersections to provide the dimensions cited above.
Where landscaping is desired, the median width should be sufficient to support the type of
landscaping desired. It is common practice to landscape medians, to provide an aesthetic
environment and to help reduce driver stress. Careful consideration should be given to the
choice of planting to prevent the potential for foliage to block the necessary sight lines. See
Volume 3, Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this Manual, for more details.
If the median is curbed, its surface should be designed to drain toward the center of the
median if unpaved or toward the roadway if paved. Paved medians may require positive
stormwater drainage systems incorporating manholes and pipes. Unpaved medians may be
self-draining, but consideration should be given to providing additional storage capacity or
outlets for storm conditions. Drainage inlets in the median should be designed with the top
flush with the ground, and culvert ends should have safety grates to minimize the risk to
errant vehicles.

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Two abutting sections of highway with different roadway widths should transition together
smoothly. The transition should be as long as possible for aesthetic reasons and preferably
occur within a horizontal curve. For typical median widths and layouts, refer to Table 6.2,
Figure 6.3, and Figure 6.12 to Figure 6.45.
Figure 6.3 Typical Median Layouts
6.2.6 Separator Islands

A roadway separator island is a raised curbed area designed to separate traffic moving in the
same direction. The width of a median is that dimension between the curb faces adjacent
to traffic lanes and excludes any shy or hardstrip. The minimum recommended separator
islands widths are shown in the typical cross-sections in Section 6 of this Part, are for cases
where the separator medians do not contain any street furniture. For separator islands
accommodating any road furniture, its width should be increased accordingly with 600 mm
clearance between the edges of any street furniture and the curb face.
6.2.7 Service Roads

Service roads are roads that run roughly parallel with, and are connected to, the main through
highway. Their function is to provide access to adjacent property and land where only minor

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volumes of traffic are envisaged. They are not intended to be used for through traffic. They
are generally of low design speed and typically one-way.
The provision of service roads reduces the number of access points on to the main highway
and segregates the higher speed through traffic from the lower speed local traffic. This
reduces interruption of traffic flow, makes the best use of road capacity, and improves the
safety performance of the major road.
Service roads may also provide an alternative route if maintenance is required on the through
road or in case of an emergency.
The width of the service road depends on the classification of traffic expected to use it, such
as light vehicles, delivery vehicles, or heavy trucks. It should comply with the lane widths
described in Clause 6.2.2. Further consideration should be given to the turning and passing
requirements of such vehicles, type and number of access points, and type of street parking,
if required.
6.2.8 Frontage Roads

Frontage roads generally run parallel to and on one or both sides of arterials. They serve many
different functions depending on the type of arterial they serve. Most prominent function
of frontage roads is control of access to the arterials. Frontage roads provide access to and
circulation of neighborhood traffic on each side of the arterial. Continuous frontage roads
provide an alternative route to arterials. Typical arrangement of frontage roads is shown in
Figure 6.4 and Figure 6.5.

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Figure 6.4 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—1 of 2

3
Source: Based on AASHTO 2018 Section 4.20 and Figure 4-25

Figure 6.5 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—2 of 2

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6.2.9 Parking Bays and Lanes

The need for on- and off-street parking is determined by the existing and future development
of the immediate surrounding area.
Wherever possible parking should be provided away, off-street from the roadway. In urban
locations, parking may be provided contiguous with the road in designated parking lanes.
Parallel parking lanes should be provided only on roads with posted speeds of 50 kph or
less. On-street parking is most appropriate on low speed, low volume, local roads and service
roads in residential areas. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4
of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
On-street parking along one-way service roads is generally preferred along the right side of
the road. Where driveways and access points are so frequent as to greatly limit the availability
of parking on the right, it may be located on the left side of the service road. Furthermore,
the separator between the service road and main road must consider the safety design
elements; including island width, slope and barrier/railing protection (where necessary.
The lay-out of on-street parking should support the functionality of the road. Parking should
be prohibited:
• Within sight triangles at intersections, in order to maintain visibility.
• Within 6.0 m of the tangent point (PT) of the intersection curb radius and the straight
curb line on the principal road and the end of the parking bay taper on the principal road
(see Figure 6.6).
• Opposite vehicle or pedestrian access points to properties
• At and ahead of pedestrian crossing points.
• Within 5 m of fire hydrants.
Figure 6.6 Minimum Clearance of Parking Lane from Intersection for Low Speed,
Low Volume Local roads in Residential Areas

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Two types of on-street parking are used parallel and angle parking. Guidance on design for
each is provided in the following sections. The dimensions are the minimum requirements
and consideration should be given to increasing these depending on the size and class of
vehicle anticipated.
6.2.10 Parallel Roadside Parking

Parallel parking may be provided adjacent to the right lane of the roadway. Parallel parking
should only be provided on roads with posted speed of 50 kph or less. The bay dimensions
for parallel parking bays should be a minimum of 2.5 m wide by 6.0 m long. This is illustrated
in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7 Roadside Parking Parallel Bay Dimensions
No buffer between the parking bay and travelled way is required for parallel roadside parking.
6.2.11 Angled Roadside Parking

Angled parking on public streets must be pre-approved by the Overseeing Organization. On-
street angled parking should only be provided by forward parking into the parking space.
Therefore, vehicles should enter angled parking spaces only by driving forwards; and exit
the parking spaces only by reversing. Angled parking provided by reverse parking can be
considered in some locations upon approval of the Overseeing Organization.
The decision whether to use angle parking on street should be based on safety and
consideration of:
• Width of road
• Traffic volume
• Type of traffic
• Traffic speed characteristics
• Vehicle dimensions
• Expected turnover
• Land use served
• Functional road classification.
• Pedestrian activity

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Angled parking alignment should only be 45 degrees to the curb line. If other angle is
required; it shall be demonstrated by swept path analysis and approved with Overseeing
Organization.
Figure 6.8 shows the angled parking layout and its constituent dimensions including the
occupied parking width and the hatched area between the parking bay and the through
lane. Road markings should generally be in accordance to the details provided in the QTCM,
Volume 1, Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure 6.8 Roadside Parking in 45 degree Angled Bay Layout
6.2.12 Off Street Parking

Off street parking areas are located outside the roadway right-of-way in parking lots or
garages. Generally off-street parking lots are designed for angled parking. Occasionally some
parking lots may have parallel parking option as well.
Angled parking will require a wider facility. The overall width of facility provided will vary
depending on the angle of parking bays. A larger angle between the direction of flow and
the direction of parking will require a wider lane. Angle of parking will be affected by the
level of parking required and the space available within the right-of-way. There is a need
for adequate space to maneuver into and out of an angled bay, and this usually requires
the adjacent through lane to be widened from the standard widths. For typical parking bay
layouts, refer to Figure 6.9 and Table 6.4. For further guidance, refer to the Qatar Parking
Design Manual (QPDM).

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Figure 6.9 Parking Bay Dimensions

3
Table 6.4 Parking Bay Dimensions

A B C D E F G
2.4 2.4 3.7 7.0 8.5 -
2.6 2.6 3.7 7.0 8.8 -
0 2.7 2.7 3.7 7.0 9.1 -
2.9 2.9 3.7 7.0 9.4 -
3.0 3.0 3.7 7.0 9.8 -
2.4 4.3 3.4 7.1 11.9 9.6
2.6 4.4 3.4 7.6 12.2 9.8
20 2.7 4.6 3.4 8.0 12.5 9.9
2.9 4.7 3.4 8.5 12.8 10.1
3.0 4.8 3.4 8.9 12.8 10.2
2.4 5.0 3.4 4.9 13.4 11.3
2.6 5.2 3.4 5.2 13.7 11.4
30 2.7 5.3 3.4 5.5 13.9 11.5
2.9 5.4 3.4 5.8 14.2 11.7
3.0 5.5 3.4 6.1 14.4 11.8
2.4 5.8 4.3 3.4 15.9 14.2
2.6 5.9 4.1 3.7 15.9 14.2
45 2.7 6.0 4.0 3.9 16.0 14.2
2.9 6.1 4.0 4.1 16.2 14.2
3.0 6.2 4.0 4.3 16.5 14.3
2.4 6.2 5.8 2.8 18.2 17.0
2.6 6.3 5.6 3.0 18.3 16.9
60 2.7 6.4 5.5 3.2 18.3 16.9
2.9 6.5 5.5 3.4 18.4 16.9
3.0 6.6 5.5 3.5 18.6 17.1
2.4 6.3 6.1 2.6 18.7 17.8
2.6 6.3 5.9 2.7 18.6 17.7
70 2.7 6.4 5.8 2.9 18.6 17.6
2.9 6.5 5.6 3.1 18.6 17.6
3.0 6.5 5.5 3.2 18.4 17.4
2.4 6.1 7.6 2.5 19.9 19.4
2.6 6.2 7.3 2.6 19.6 19.2
80 2.7 6.2 7.3 2.8 19.6 19.1
2.9 6.2 7.3 2.9 19.6 19.1
3.0 6.2 7.3 3.1 19.8 19.3
2.4 5.8 7.9 2.4 19.5 -
2.6 5.8 7.6 2.6 19.2 -
90 2.7 5.8 7.3 2.7 18.9 -
2.9 5.8 7.3 2.9 18.9 -
3.0 5.8 7.3 3.0 18.9 -
Source: MMUP, Traffic Division
Notes: E = curb length per car
All measurements in meters F = overall width of double row with aisle between
A = parking angle G = center to center width of double row with aisle
B = stall width between
C = stall depth to curb
D = aisle width

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6.2.13 Off Street Disabled Parking

Disabled parking spaces must be designed so that a disabled person does not travel within
the maneuvering lane for vehicle traffic to reach the safe travel path to a building or other
site location. Disabled parking spaces should be 90 degrees to the curb as shown in Figure
6.10. The gap between the parking spaces must have diagonal striping on a 45-degree
angle, using 0.3 m wide stripe at 0.6 m spacing. Concrete curb stops should be provided for
each parking space. A minimum 1.6 m area must be provided in front of each parking space
leading to handicap ramp. There must be an additional 1.6 m diagonal striped area between
a regular parking space and an adjacent handicap space.
There are no special handicap parallel parking spaces provided on public streets. However,
when angle parking spaces are provided on public streets, it is recommended that the end
spaces adjacent to the corner crosswalks be made available to the handicap access vehicles.
Handicap ramps are not permitted at the curb of the street, unless they are located on both
sides of the street and they must be located within a striped crosswalk. When a visually
impaired or blind person feels a handicap ramp adjacent to the curb of the street, it indicates
to him that he can cross the street within a crosswalk and vehicles will yield to them.
Figure 6.10 Disabled Parking
6.2.14 Curbs
A curb is a raised stone or concrete edging at the edge of pavement that separates the roadway
from another feature, such as a roadside, island, or median. Curbs can be constructed of the
same material as the pavement or from a different material. Curbs may have various design
features and dimensions based on the needs and functions and the type and characteristics
of the road.

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Curbs provide structural side-support for pavement layers, delineate the edges of a road,
collect and channelize storm runoff at the curb face, and confine vehicles to the roadway
area. They can also serve to delineate and protect pedestrian paths and provide erosion
protection from storm runoff. Several variations of curb exist, each designed for specific
uses, as described in the following paragraphs.
When choosing the type of Curb, designers must consider the location, speed of the road and
compliance to the Safe System Approach. Curbs are used on all urban roads. On rural roads,
they are only used on specific locations such as priority intersections for drainage purposes.
Curbs are also used where right-of-way is restricted or there is a need for access control.
Upstand Curbs may only be used on all low-speed urban roads and, except where needed for
drainage purposes, at special locations on rural roads, such as priority intersections where
there is a need to give a clear delineation of the road edge. Low and high vehicle speeds on
Curbs shall not be used in conjunction with Vehicle Restraint Systems (VRS). In exceptional
needed as set in Clause 5.3.5 and Clause 6.7 of Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations
of Road Safety, of this Manual); and the barrier selection and type to be used on Qatar road
networks are only those type approved /accepted by the Overseeing Organization.
Where an existing roadway is to be retrofitted with VRS, the designer shall consider whether
the existing curbing will comply with Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road
Safety, of this Manual and adapt the existing design accordingly. For example, curbs along a
median are generally placed to discourage vehicle overrun and unauthorized U-turns and do
not typically act as a drainage channel. In these cases, the curbing may be removed entirely
as the VRS will fulfill the curbs’ original purpose. In areas where the existing curbing is
provided for the purpose of directing surface water and a clear zone cannot be provided,
then alternative barrier types such as rigid concrete barriers could be considered.
Curb configurations include non-mountable (with vertical face), semi-mountable (with sloping
face) or mountable (with low profile face) types. Curbs shall conform to details, dimensions
and specifications shown in the Ashghal Infrastructure Affairs Standard Details Section 6
Part 8 - Kerbs Footways and Paved Areas. Figure 6.11 presents the various types of curb
used for the purposes summarized in Clauses 6.2.14.1 to 6.2.14.5.

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Figure 6.11 Standard Curb Types
6.2.14.1 Upstand Curbs

There are three types of upstand curbs (see Figure 6.11) – non-mountable, semi-mountable
and mountable as follows:
• A non-mountable upstand curb is used to confine vehicles to the road pavement.

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• A semi-mountable curb is considered to be mountable under emergency conditions

although such curbs will scrape the undersides of some vehicles.
• A mountable curb is designed so vehicles can cross them readily when the need arises.
They are available in a range of sizes and shapes. The vertical face resists vehicle wheel
mounting at low speeds and at a modest impact velocity and angle can form an efficient
hydraulic edge for drainage channel flow.
In general, curbs are not desirable along high-speed roads and the use of non-mountable
curbs is limited to low speed environments where a modest impact velocity and angle is
envisaged since if they are struck at high-speed roads, they will not confine vehicles to the
roadway and can result in the vehicle vaulting (becoming airborne) and the driver losing
control. For further advice see Section 5.3.5 of Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of
Road Safety, of this Manual. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4
Curbs shall not be used in conjunction with vehicle restraint systems (VRS). In exceptional
needed as set in Clause 5.3.5 and Clause 6.7 of Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of
Road Safety, of this Manual. A mountable upstand curb is used where it is less important to
contain vehicles, allowing vehicles to mount the curb if it is struck or in case of emergency.
It retains all other functionality of the non-mountable curb. Vehicle restraint systems may
be used in conjunction with mountable curbs on low-speed roads, if the face of the barrier
is flush with the curb.
6.2.14.2 Drop Curbs

A drop curb has a low, flat profile. It is used to demarcate edges of slightly raised areas
but can allow easy wheel passage at low and high speeds with minimum effect on vehicle
direction. It has very little hydraulic value given the limited curb height. Low and high vehicle
speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual
6.2.14.3 Flush Curb

A flush curb is usually used to separate two types of pavement surfacing, such as asphalt
and concrete blocks. It provides a visual break to delineate the joint between the surfaces
and serves to structurally contain the materials on either side. It has no hydraulic or drainage
value.
6.2.14.4 Edge Curb

An edge curb is used specifically for edging at sidewalks and other similar amenity areas.
It remains flush with the adjacent ground level, provides structural containment of the
pedestrian path construction, and provides a hard, neat edge to the surfaces at either side
of the sidewalk.

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For details and use of containment curbs, refer to Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.
6.2.14.5 Guidelines for Curb Type Application

The following guidelines demonstrate the typical application of the various curb types to
highway design situations.
Non-mountable Curbs apply:
• All urban roads generally that are not high speed roads (Low and high vehicle speeds on
roads as defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.)
• All roads with adjacent pedestrian paths
• Roads that have adjacent pedestrian activity
• All urban intersections, including all channelization and central island roundabout edges
−− Rural intersections that have footways for adjacent pedestrian activity
Semi-mountable Curbs apply:
• All urban roads generally that are not high speed roads (Low and high vehicle speeds on
• Situations where emergency access is required and other vehicle access should be
deterred
• In conduction with a vehicle restraint system, on roads with a posted speed of 70 kph
or less, where curbing is needed for drainage purposes subject to the provisions of
Volume 3, Part 23 Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
Mountable Curbs apply:
• On high speed Urban roads with no pedestrian activity (Low and high vehicle speeds on
• Where guardrail is to be provided
• Rural intersection roadway edges that do not have adjacent pedestrian activity
• Rural minor road splitter islands
−− Central island roundabout edges at rural intersections
Drop curbs apply:
• Rural priority intersections with high speed approaches s for use on central median
physical islands (Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of
Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.)
• At edges of dropped curbs on pedestrian paths and crossings

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• At road edges where private access drives are provided
−− At roundabout situations to delineate where limited long vehicle overrun is allowed

around the central island
Flush curbs apply:
• Delineation of change in surfaces, such as asphalt roadways and block paving for bus
stop areas and parking areas and bays
−− Edge of roadway extra support in flat areas where drainage can only be provided
by allowing roadway runoff over the edge of the pavement
Edge curbs
• Mainly provides edge structural support and delineation of pedestrian paths and other
amenity areas.
Where there is a need to install a vehicle restraint system alongside a curbed section of road,
the vehicle restraint system, curb, and drainage design should be designed as a unit. The
vehicle restraint system will influence the selection of curb type. The combined drainage/
curb facility should not affect the intended operation of the vehicle restraint system when
struck by an errant vehicle.
Dropped curbs enable pedestrians with mobility problems and wheelchair users to navigate
more easily crossing points on roads and at intersections. They should always be located
to direct the user to the crossing point designated by the designer. Breaks in pedestrian
path grades should be consistent with the maximum change in grade not to exceed 8.3
percent (1:12), as this may affect wheelchair clearances. Where a difference of 8.3 percent
is unavoidable, a short length (0.6 m) of flat transition should be used to create two breaks
of gradient, both below 8.3 percent.
6.2.15 Vehicle Restraint System

A vehicle restraint system (VRS) infrastructure comprises longitudinal barriers to protect
motorists and pedestrians from natural or manmade risks in the road reserve. Roadside
barriers are designed to prevent an errant vehicle from leaving the roadway and striking a
fixed object or feature located along the roadside, by containing and redirecting the errant
vehicle.
The requirements of the Safe System Approach require that the risk of Head-on Collisions
and run off (and hit a roadside object) type collisions are reduced. The provision of vehicle
restraint system serves to reduce the risk of serious injury should a vehicle strike a rigid
roadside object in case of a loss of control collision. These vehicle restraint systems also
serve to reduce the risk of head - on collisions between opposing vehicles. For pedestrians
on paths adjacent to the roadway, restraint systems serve to protect them from out-of-
control vehicular traffic.

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The designer must choose the correct containment level for the Vehicle Restraint System
by taking into consideration the function of road, design speed, volume and type of vehicle
traffic. The Vehicle Restraint Systems must take into consideration the required length of
the selected restraint systems in accordance to the manufactures specifications.
The chosen vehicle restraint system must be in accordance to the Ashghal Approved List of
Barrier Systems.
The Vehicle Restraint Systems must have the correct end terminals (in accordance to the
Ashghal Approved List of Barrier Systems) so that it does not present a risk to approaching
traffic. For safety reasons Ramped End terminals should not be used in the direction of
approaching traffic.
The concept of Clear Zone applies to roads in rural environments and those without vertical
face curbs. The Clear Zone dimension is selected for design of the roadside.
Vehicle Restraint Systems and Clear Zones should be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23
Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual, (in particular Clause 5.3.5 and Clause
6.7); and the barrier selection and type to be used on Qatar road networks are only those
type approved /accepted by the Overseeing Organization.
6.2.16 Side Slopes

The most prevalent type of crash on two-lane rural roads is a single-vehicle run-off-road
crash. The severity of the crash, i.e., the outcome as measured by injury or fatality to the
occupants, is influenced by the design of the roadside, which includes the side slope.
Side slopes should be designed to provide a reasonable opportunity for drivers who run off
the road to recover or come to a stop without overturning. Earth cut-and-fill slopes should
be flattened and liberally rounded as fitting with the topography and consistent with the
overall type of highway. Side slope is expressed as a ratio of elevation change to lateral
dimension from the beginning of the slope (V:H). See Figure 6.46 and Figure 6.48.
Vehicle performance during roadside encroachments is better the flatter the slope. Research
that forms the basis for international design standards shows that roadside slopes flatter
than 1:4 can be successfully traversed by vehicles, and in most cases, the driver can maintain
control and fully recover. Roads designed with such slopes may experience multiple roadside
encroachments that are never recorded as crashes, because the driver is able to recover. Side
slopes as steep as 1:3 are generally traversable, but not recoverable.
Where possible, the embankment side slopes should be 1:5 or flatter if conditions permit.
Roadside barriers are considered when side slopes are between 1:5 and 1:3 and the height
of the embankment is greater than 6.0 m. For embankment slopes between 1:2 and 1:3,
a roadside barrier is required when the embankment height is greater than 2.0 m. Where
embankment slopes are steeper than 1:2, roadside barriers are required at all locations for

3
embankments of 0.5 m or more. Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety,
of this Manual, provides details on the applications and type of roadside barriers.
Effective erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and adequate drainage of the subgrade
are depending largely upon proper shaping of the side slopes. The rounding and flattening
of slopes minimize drifting and washout of loose material such as sand, thereby reducing
maintenance costs. Detailed analysis of soil data determines the stability of the slopes and
the erosion potential. The design should reflect not only initial construction cost but also the
cost of maintenance, which is dependent on slope stability. Guidance and standards relating
to side slopes is contained in Volume 2, Part 14, Earthworks, of this Manual.
Slopes in earth cuts should not be steeper than 1:2 and preferably should be 1:3 to allow the
use of mechanical maintenance equipment on the slope. If insufficient width requires slopes
steeper than 1:2, then partial or full retaining walls or some method of slope stabilization
should be used. Retaining walls should be set back from the roadway. Steep-sided cuts
greater than 1:2 must be protected by a roadside barrier.
An adequate geotechnical investigation along the route of the proposed new road works
must be carried out prior to specifying slopes. The investigation will determine the slopes
for long-term stability for cut and fill and the criteria for benching or erosion protection if
required.
Where benching is required, the desirable maximum height is 6.0 m with a horizontal width,
ideally of 4.0 m, and laid to falls of roughly 1:20 to avoid ponding of water and consequential
slip failure.
In rock cuts, ditches and a debris verge can provide a landing and catchment for possible rock
fall and removal of surface water runoff outside the roadway. This additional width provides
a useful area for rock face maintenance. Where rock outcroppings are left in place for reasons
of economy or aesthetics, the conditions described above with respect to steep-sided cuts
apply, and a roadside barrier must be provided if the rock face outcrop occurs within the Clear
Zone. A minimum of 1.0 m space should be provided between the rock face and the rear of
the safety barrier to permit access for the removal of rock debris. Refer to Volume 2, Part 14,
Earthworks, of this Manual, regarding sand slopes, wind-blown sand, and dune control.
6.2.17 Clearances
The Clear Zone is the total width of a traversable land free of objects for the recovery of
errant vehicles measured from the edge of the traveled way. It includes shoulders, cycle
lanes, and auxiliary lanes, unless the auxiliary lane functions as a through lane. The width
of the Clear Zone is a function of the speed, traffic volume, and embankment slope. The
Clear Zone should be clear of any unyielding fixed object including trees, utility poles, sign
supports, and structures. The positioning of signs and other street furniture should be in
accordance with the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM). If it is not possible to position an
object or structure outside the Clear Zone, vehicle restraint systems shall be considered, for
details refer to Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.

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In urban areas where right-of way is limited, it is not practical to provide the required
Clear Zone. Urban areas are characterized by curbs and sidewalks, lower operating speeds,
frequent traffic stops, and turning movements. It is recommended that fixed objects must
have a minimum clearance (lateral offset) from the face of the curb. Fixed objects include
but are not limited to structures, traffic signs, sign supports, light poles, utility poles, fire
hydrants, and roadside furniture. Structures and fixed objects should not be placed within
1.2 m of the edge of hard shoulder or 0.6 m from the face of the curb. For further discussion
on clearances and lateral offsets, refer to Clause 3.7.
6.2.18 Fencing
Many different types of fences can be used within the road right-of-way, each for particular
applications:
• Right-of-way fencing delineates and separates private property from the road right-of-
way.
• Vehicle restraint systems should be erected where considered necessary.
• Animal fencing prevents animals from entering the highway reservation. The size and
type of fencing should be effective to control the type of animal intended to control; for
example, a camel versus a goat.
• Acoustic fencing or sound walls may be required in sensitive designated locations, such
as residential areas, to lower the traffic noise level. The wall forms a barrier, and the
sound is reflected away from the sensitive area.
• Headlight barriers or glare screen may be implemented at locations where it is desirable

to minimize the glare of headlights from oncoming vehicles, such as unlit bends on rural
roads.
• Pedestrian access fencing may be required where pedestrians are numerous, such as
on commercial streets and outside schools or large sports complexes where crowds may
gather. The fencing controls the movement of pedestrian traffic and lowers the risk of a
pedestrian accidentally walking into the roadway.
Where road corridor is shared with or next to a railway the fencing requirements shall be
coordinated and designed to be compatible / integrated. Earthing and bonding must be
considered due to potential of stray current.
6.2.19 Roadside Elements and Verges

The verge or roadside is a width of the right-of-way that facilitates functions essential for
operation of the road. Verges accommodate placement of highway signs, structures, utility
services, drainage, traffic signals, street lighting, landscaping and associated ducting. Where
a verge is adjacent to a development, a setback may be required. For further details on
utilities, see Clause 6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.

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In placing structures, signs, and landscaping the required sight lines shall be maintained.
Additional care should be taken at traffic signals and intersections where extra signage is
often used. Verge widths may vary from a desirable minimum of 3.0 m up to the limits of the
reservation, which could be greater than 15.0 m.
Verges may be paved, landscaped, or graded depending on the intended use. The proposed
width of verges shall be considered if soakaways are to be provided in the verge as part of the
drainage design solution. Detailed investigations for the provision of services and utilities in
verges must be undertaken during the design stage for both new roads and improvements to
existing roads, such that all can be accommodated within the verge provision. Paved verges
should be designed such that they drain to the roadway and not the adjacent property.
Although a traversable and unobstructed roadside is desirable, some items will inevitably
be placed near the traveled way in the urban environment. Manmade fixed objects that
frequently occupy highway rights-of-way include highway signs, roadway lighting, traffic
signals, railway warning devices, intelligent transportation systems, and utility poles.
Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual, contains information
on Clear Zone requirements and roadside safety.
The designer shall consider all fixed objects likely to be present along the roadside. The
design decision process is outlined in the bulleted list below in order of desirability:
• Remove the obstacle
• Redesign the obstacle so it can be traversed
• Relocate the obstacle to a point where it is less likely to be struck
• Reduce impact severity by using an appropriate breakaway device
• Shield the obstacle with a longitudinal traffic barrier designed for vehicle redirection or
impact attenuation
• Delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are not appropriate. This solution is
practicable only where the design speed of the road is ≤ 50 kph.
The first two options are generally preferred but not always practical, especially for highway
signing and lighting, which should remain near the roadway to serve their intended functions.
The use of breakaway or collapsible posts is a preferred solution over shielding with roadside
barrier.
Trees are potential obstructions by virtue of their size and location in relation to vehicular
traffic. Generally, a mature tree with a trunk circumference (girth) greater than 100 mm and
height of about 1.0 m above ground level is considered a fixed object. When trees or shrubs
with multiple trunks or groups of small trees are close together, they may be considered as
having the effect of a single tree with their combined cross-sectional area. Large trees should
be removed from within the selected Clear Zone for new construction and for reconstruction.

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6.2.20 Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian facilities generally are found within the verge and at road-crossing points. The
provision of paved pedestrian areas is related to the function of the roadside development.
To obtain reliable estimates of pedestrian volumes and movements, studies should be
conducted at the concept and preliminary design stage. Urban roads and intersections shall
allow space for pedestrian paths unless the area strictly forbids walking. Further detailed
information on the provision and design of pedestrian paths can be found in Volume 3,
Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.
6.2.21 Bicycle Facilities

The bicycle is an important element for consideration in the highway design process. To
provide safe and effective routes, segregated cycle paths are required for higher capacity
and higher speed roads.
To provide adequately for cyclists, the designer should be familiar with cycle dimensions,
operating characteristics, and needs. These factors determine acceptable turning radii,
grades, and sight distance. Further detailed information on the provision and design of
cycling facilities can be found in Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.
6.2.22 Utilities
Figure 6.12 to Figure 6.45 depict various road corridors. These are intended to provide
adequate space for cross section requirements, while giving public utilities sufficient space
for existing and proposed utilities. Where space for utilities is limited, way leaves outside
the road reservation may be required. Full details for the provision of utilities is given in
Volume 2 Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual, and also in the National Public Realm Guidelines
(Ashghal, 2014).
6.2.23 Right-of-Way
The width of right-of-way for the development of roads and streets is influenced by traffic
demands, topography, land use, cost, intersection design, and the extent of ultimate
expansion. The width of right-of-way should be the summation of the various cross-sectional
elements as described above and, where appropriate, frontage roads, roadside Clear Zones,
side slopes, drainage facilities, utilities, and retaining walls. The width of right-of-way in
developed areas should be based on the practical extent of the preferable dimensions of
each element.
The designer is confronted with the problem of providing an overall cross section that
will give maximum service within a limited width of right-of-way. Right-of-way widths in
urban areas are governed primarily by economic considerations, physical obstructions, or
environmental concerns. Along any road, conditions of development and terrain vary, and
accordingly, the availability of right-of way varies. For this reason, the right-of-way on a
given facility should not be a fixed width predetermined based on the most critical point
along the facility. Instead, designers should strive to provide a desirable right-of-way width
along most of, if not all, the facility.

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Where space for utilities is limited, “wayleaves” outside the road reservation may be obtained
by contacting MME and other relevant planning authorities.
6.2.24 Typical Cross Sections

Figure 6.12 to Figure 6.45 are cross sections depicting the essential elements in typical
sections for one-way and two-way single and divided roadways for urban and rural roads
within predefined right-of-way widths and adjacent land uses. The cross sections shown
are typical. Final dimensions including right-of-way for any project should be agreed to with
the Overseeing Organization. A summary of the cross-section figures provided is in Table 6.5
and Table 6.6. Some of the typical sections can be used for one or two highway functional
classifications depending on the right-of-way width, design speed, and traffic volume.
The minimum recommended separator median width of 1.55 m (including a 0.35 m shy
distance) in number of typical cross-sections between the service roads and the carriageways
depicted in this clause are for cases where the separator medians do not house any road
furniture. For separator medians accommodating the road furniture its width should be
widened accordingly.
The centerline of the main roadway is usually centered within the right-of-way. In
reconstruction projects, it may be appropriate for right-of-way acquisition to occur on only
one side, or in unequal widths based on the uses acquired and costs. In the case of road
centerlines being offset from the reservation, the utilities plan should be revised to suit the
specific road cross section proposed. For further details on utilities, see Clause 6.2.22 of this
Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities, of this Manual.
Utility placement should follow the general principles shown in Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities,
of this Manual. Where changes to the utility cross-section are required, then these must be
agreed with the Overseeing Organization and the relevant stakeholder.
Determination of the typical section is among the very first design decisions made. For
projects in which the recommended widths of either right-of-way or basic cross section
dimensions cannot be achieved, discussion and agreement on the project-specific dimensions
should occur between the designer and the Overseeing Organization.
Certain special routes, such as abnormal or exceptional load routes or scenic routes, may
require individual reservations to satisfy their unique performance criteria. In such cases, the
Overseeing Organization should be consulted.
For public realm dimensions including width, extent, and location of landscaping strips,
sidewalks, cycle paths, shared use paths, utility corridors and so on, refer to Clause 6.2.22 of
this Part, the National Public Realm Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014), Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities,
of this Manual, and Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.

Table 6.5 Typical Cross Sections – Urban Roads
Right of Way Width / Typical Cross Section Figure Numbers

Functional Adjacent
Classification Land Use
10 m 12 m 16 m 20 m 24 m 32 m 40 m 64 m 264 m
Residential 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.18/6.19
Local Road Commercial 6.16 6.20/6.21
Industrial 6.17 6.22
Residential 6.15 6.18/6.19 6.23/6.24
Minor Collector Commercial 6.16 6.20/6.21 6.25/6.26
Industrial 6.17 6.22 6.27/6.28
Residential 6.23/6.24 6.29
Major Collector Commercial 6.25/6.26 6.30
Industrial 6.27/6.28 6.31
Residential 6.29 6.32/6.33
Minor Arterial Commercial 6.30 6.32/6.33
Industrial 6.31 6.32/6.33
Residential 6.34
Major Arterial Commercial 6.34
Industrial 6.35
Boulevard - 6.32/6.33
Expressway - 6.36/6.37 6.38


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PART
127
128
3
PART
Table 6.6 Typical Cross Sections – Rural Roads
Right of Way Width / Typical Cross Section Figure Numbers

Functional
Classification
10 m 12 m 16 m 20 m 24 m 32 m 40 m 64 m 264 m
Local 6.39
Collector 6.40 6.41 6.42
Arterial 6.43
Freeway 6.44/6.45

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Urban Local Road – 10 m ROW Residential

Figure 6.12

3
Figure 6.13 Urban Local Road – 12 m ROW Residential

Figure 6.14 Urban Local Road – 16 m ROW Residential (One lane each direction)

3
PART
131
132
3
PART

Figure 6.15 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 20 m ROW Residential (One lane each direction)a

Figure 6.16 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 20 m ROW Commercial (One lane each direction)
3
PART
133
134
3
PART

Figure 6.17 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 20 m ROW Industrial (One lane each direction)
Figure 6.18 Urban Local Road/ Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Residential (one lane each direction)

3
PART
135
136
3
PART

Figure 6.19 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Residential (Two lanes each direction)
Figure 6.20 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector - 24 m ROW Commercial (One lane each direction)

3
PART
137
138
3
PART

Figure 6.21 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Commercial (Two lanes each direction)
Figure 6.22 Urban Local Road/Minor Collector – 24 m ROW Industrial (One lane each direction)

3
PART
139
140
3
PART

Figure 6.23 Urban Major/ Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Residential (One lane each direction)
Figure 6.24 Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Residential (Two lanes each direction)

3
PART
141
142
3
PART

Figure 6.25 Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Commercial (One lane each direction)
Figure 6.26 Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Commercial (Two lanes each direction)

3
PART
143
144
3
PART

Figure 6.27 Urban Major/Minor Collector - 32 m ROW Industrial (One lane each direction)
Figure 6.28 Urban Major/Minor Collector – 32 m ROW Industrial (Two lanes each direction)

3
PART
145
146
3
PART

Figure 6.29 Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial – 40 m ROW Residential (Two lanes each direction)
Figure 6.30 Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial – 40 m ROW Commercial (Two lanes each direction)

3
PART
147
148
3
PART

Figure 6.31 Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial – 40 m ROW Industrial (Two lanes each direction)
Figure 6.32 Urban Boulevard/Minor Arterial – 64 m ROW (Three lanes each direction without Service Road)

3
PART
149
150
3
PART

Figure 6.33 Urban Boulevard/Minor Arterial – 64 m ROW (Three lanes each direction with Service Road)
Figure 6.34 Urban Major Arterial – 64 m ROW Residential/Commercial with Service Road

3
PART
151
152
3
PART

Figure 6.35 Urban Major Arterial – 64 m ROW Industrial with Service Road
Figure 6.36 Urban Expressway – 64 m ROW (Three lanes each direction with Two lanes service road)

3
PART
153
154
3
PART

Figure 6.37 Urban Expressway – 64 m ROW (Four lanes each direction with service road)
Figure 6.38 Urban Expressway – 264 m ROW (Four lanes in each direction with frontage road)

3
PART
155
3
Figure 6.39 Rural Local – 20 m ROW

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Figure 6.40 Rural Collector – 24 m ROW

3
Figure 6.41 Rural Collector – 32 m ROW (One lane each direction)

3
Figure 6.42 Rural Collector – 40 m ROW (Two lanes each direction)

160
3
PART

Figure 6.43 Rural Arterial – 64 m ROW (Two or three lanes each direction)
3
Figure 6.44 Rural Freeway – 264 m ROW without Frontage Road

3
Figure 6.45 Rural Freeway – 264 m ROW with Frontage Road

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Figure 6.46 Typical Embankment Cross Sections

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Figure 6.47 Typical Cut Cross Sections

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Figure 6.48 Requirement for Barriers on Embankments

Design vehicles are used to carry out swept path analysis on highway layouts, particularly
at intersections, ramps and turning roadways, where lanes may need to be widened to
adequately accommodate a vehicle negotiating the curve.

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Swept path analysis shall be carried out, using appropriate vehicle swept path software, to
verify that adequate clearance is provided at pinch points, such as between channelizing
islands, vehicles bodies and adjacent road signs, lighting columns, and other street furniture.
The main vehicle parameters used in the swept path analysis are as follows:
• Articulation Angle: The maximum angle between a vehicle and a connected trailer
when the vehicle is making a U-turn on maximum steering lock. Refer to Figure 6.49 for
more details.
• Centerline Turning Radius (CTR): The turning arc formed by the turning radius of the
front outside tire of a vehicle.
• Curb-to-curb Turning Radius: The circular arc formed by the turning path radius of the
front outside tire of a vehicle.
• Offtracking: The difference in the paths of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle
when performing a turning maneuver. Offtracking can be minimized by vehicles that
incorporate steerable wheels on multiple axles.
• Steering Angle: The angle between the centerline turning radius and the longitudinal
centerline of a vehicle when the vehicle steering is set to maximum lock position.
• Swept Path Width: The minimum width of roadway space required by a vehicle when
making a U-turn on maximum steering lock.
Minimum roadway radii are often determined by the larger rigid vehicles, whereas minimum
roadway widths and lane widths are often established by the larger articulated vehicles.
The vehicle wheel tracks shall be a minimum of 500 mm from the face of curbs, pavement
edge, safety barrier or centerline. Vehicle overhangs shall remain within the traffic lane
except in exceptional cases that shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization. In these
instances, the designer shall ensure that signage, street furniture and other obstructions are
located outside the vehicle swept path overhangs.
The design of an intersection, ramp or turning roadways shall be checked to ensure the
design vehicle swept path remains within the curb faces.
Where turns in the same direction occur, then a clearance of 1.0 m should be provided
between the swept paths of adjacent vehicles.
Where concurrent opposing left turns occur at intersections, such as a diamond interchange;
separation of the opposing swept width paths shall be between 3 m and 5 m.
Allowance shall be made for the swept turning paths of long vehicles where they can
reasonably be expected to use an intersection. Consideration shall be given to the
maneuvering characteristics of these vehicles in the design of staggered intersections.
Figure 6.49 is an example of the swept path parameters for a typical tractor semitractor

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combination showing the articulation angle as referred to above.
Figure 6.49 Swept Path Parameters for Typical Tractor-Semitrailer Combination
Specific guidance on swept path analysis at priority intersections is provided in Volume 1,

Part 6, Design of Priority Intersections, of this Manual.
Specific guidance on swept path analysis at roundabouts is provided in Volume 1, Part 7,

Design of Roundabouts, of this Manual.
Specific guidance on swept paths at signal-controlled intersections is provided in Volume 1,

Part 8, Design of Signal Controlled Junctions, of this Manual.
Specific guidance on swept paths at interchanges is provided in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges

and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.
The swept paths of light rail systems shall be considered where applicable.

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7 Integrated Road and Landscape

Design
Integrating a road into its landscape and urban context is essential for delivering a road that
is environmentally sensitive, culturally responsive, and economical. An integrated approach
will lead to a better and more acceptable road design that achieves its vision and objectives.
This is particularly important for roads that pass through urban areas, valued open landscapes,
and natural areas. These locations pose many complex issues that need to be considered and
resolved successfully. For details, refer to Volume 3, Part 20, Context Sensitive Design and
Solutions, of this Manual, and Volume 3, Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this
Manual.
Designs for major and large-scale road corridor elements are opportunities to create a sense
of place and to provide interest for the user. Small-scale elements such as signs and lighting
need to be considered early, so that they can be incorporated into the design and not added
at a later stage.
An integrated road design approach requires a collaborative approach across the whole
design team, as well as stakeholders of the project to understand the plans and vision for
the study area and consider them early in the design process. All the design elements need
to be considered by the design team together. It is an approach that can lead to a road
network that fits into its setting, and preserves and enhances accessibility for all landscape,
aesthetic, industrial, cultural, and environmental resources.
Typical features of an integrated design approach could include the following:
• A commitment from senior officials

• A multi-disciplinary team established early, based on the needs to the project
• Consultation of stakeholders early and throughout the lifetime of the project
• A clear vision statement and established project objectives
• A road design process developed to meet the needs of the project
• Effective use of design tools and technology
• An understanding of the landscape, environment, and community resources and needs
before engineering design is started
• A public involvement process that meet the needs of the project
7.1 Integrated Road Design Principles

The following general design principles should be part of an integrated approach:

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• Understand the landscape and urban context and respond accordingly.
• Have a thorough understanding of the functions of the adjacent land use.
• Challenge road design guidance and standards to achieve more creative solutions.
• Respond to existing landform and match earthworks to surrounding slopes.
• Balance earthwork volumes to achieve a more sustainable solution.
• Identify appropriate planting solutions respond to context and are sustainable in the
long term.
• Maintain and improve community access across a range of transport modes.
• Use local materials and styles that can add to and create character.
7.2 Road Siting and Alignment

The successful integration of a road into its landscape or urban context can be achieved if the
siting and alignment of the road is designed to fit into the existing landscape. The selection
of the most appropriate route should include a consideration of landform and minimizing the
effects on earthworks.
7.2.1 Earthworks
The following should be considered in the design of earthworks:
• Select a route that is the least damaging to the landscape and offers the best
opportunities for mitigation.
• Follow the contours to reduce earthworks and to minimize effects on adjacent land uses.
• Use earthwork and slopes to integrate structures into the landscape and reflect the
surrounding topography.
• Respond to topographical patterns to emphasize existing features that create visual

interest for motorists with vistas and views to landmarks.
• Use graded out slopes to integrate and blend earthworks into the adjacent landform.
• Use a variety of slope angles to create visual diversity and a more natural and softer
appearance.
• Consider removing minor landforms adjacent to the roadway beyond the right-of-way
that may result in a better overall fit with the existing landform.
• Consider using surplus materials on-site or close to the site to reduce transport of waste
material off-site.
• Adjust earthwork slopes to retain existing vegetation.
• Use false cuttings or mounding earthworks to create a visual screen in sensitive and
special areas.

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• Use shallow slopes to minimize surface erosion.
• Use appropriate slopes to allow planting to establish.
• Consider splitting the roadway with a wide median to reduce the need for earthworks
and to retain existing features such as trees.
• Take special care with earthworks within grade separated interchanges in considering
the slopes between roadways and the interfaces with structures.
7.2.2 Retaining Walls

In some instances, retaining walls may be required where it is not possible to use steeper
slopes to achieve the required changes in level within the right-of-way or to protect features
next to the roadway. The following should be considered in the design of retaining walls.
• Select structures or slope stabilization techniques that blend into the adjacent landscape
or urban context.
• Provide space for planting at the base or top of the wall to soften the appearance of
the wall.
• Adequate space for planting between terraces.
• Use climbers and trailing plants.
• Stagger or offset alignments of retaining walls to create visual interest.
• Integrate retaining walls into adjacent structures, such as bridge abutments, using
common materials, finishes, and alignments.
• Use bold and decorative patterns and finishing textures on high-speed roads so they are
visible for motorists moving at speed. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined
in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
7.2.3 Rock Cut

Rock cuttings and outcrops can provide interesting features along the roadway and form
features that are characteristics of the local landscape. The following should be considered
in the design of rock cut slopes:
• Understand the geology, site requirements, and landscape context to achieve a slope
natural in form, texture, and color and which matches existing rock features.
• Design terracing, if required, to work with the natural bedding planes of the rock, be
irregular to create variety.
• Avoid planting which looks unnatural and artificial.
• Reduce the need for rock fall protection.
• Blend with natural bedding planes to create a natural appearance.

3
• Provided sufficient land within the right-of-way to design, build, and maintain the rock
face.
• Incorporate soil pockets or benches for planting.
• Integrate structures into rock cuttings by using stone walling and cladding to match
existing rock types and patterns.
7.2.4 Interchanges and Roundabouts

Interchanges and roundabouts can form significant features on a highway both in a wider
landscape and within the urban context. Their landscape and urban design could be
considered as a specific project. Within all interchanges and roundabouts, visibility lines and
sight distances are critical to safety. The following should be considered in the design:
• Develop an overall landscape theme for the interchange as a whole.
• Employ a coordinated aesthetic approach to the whole interchange, covering structures,

walls, bridges, lighting, and landscape considering color and texture to create unity.
• Use distinctive planting to differential the interchange visually.
• Use strong patterns in the layout of planting, either formal or informal.
• Plant trees and palms in larger numbers.
• Use colored gravel mulches, pebbles, and rocks to provide different textures within the
planting providing their use is consistent with the landscape concept.
• Use frangible planting only within Clear Zones and at a low height to maintain visibility.
• Provide adequate space for interchange facilities, such as pumping stations, storm water
features, utility chambers and utility buildings, and provide access to these facilities. For
further details on utilities, see Clause 6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities,
of this Manual.
• Design attractive features, but limit access to them (except for maintenance) by
motorists and pedestrians for safety purposes.
• Minimize features that require regular or extensive maintenance, such as water features.
• Provide safe access for landscape maintenance.
7.2.5 Gateways
Gateways are used to create a sense of arrival to a place. Gateways can take many forms and
use structures within the road corridor such as bridges, interchanges, lighting, landscape, and
public art features. The following should be considered in the design of gateway features:
• Reflect the importance of the place in the gateway.
• Respond to scale of the landscape surroundings and urban context.

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• Respond to the requirement of different users of the highway public realm, for example,
both motorists and pedestrians.
• Asses views on the approach to the gateway to determine the most appropriate location
and form of the feature.
• Reduce visual clutter near the gateways.
• Use trees and other plantings as an integral part of the gateway design to frame views
and increase visibility.
• Use feature lighting to highlight the gateway feature or focal point.
7.2.6 Special Areas

Special areas are those deemed to have particular importance for cultural, historical, or
environmental reasons. The area should have been identified as a special area during the
landscape or urban context appraisal stage. The highway landscape and urban design should
therefore enhance the design of the special area and mitigate any adverse effects identified
during the environmental appraisal. The designer should consider the following:
• Adjust the right-of-way to reduce or eliminate the land take to mitigate effects on
special areas that cannot be replaced once lost.
• Provide land for mitigation or enhancement if the right-of-way must be increased.
• Design a vertical alignment that reduces or eliminates physical damage to underground

features.
• Undertake a detailed appraisal of the special area, and work with stakeholders to define
the objectives and design requirements.
• Identify special landform, ecology, landscape, or public realm requirements.
• Minimize noise and visual intrusion into the setting of heritage buildings or features.
• Open up views towards heritage buildings and features.
7.3 Structures
Structures can be significant features on the highway and can take many forms. Their impact
on the landscapes can be significant and a multi-disciplinary approach is required to integrate
them into the landscape and make a positive contribution to the landscape. Structures shall
be design in accordance with Volume 2, Part 13, Structures Interfaces, of this Manual.
Rigid Structures should be placed away from the roadway Clear Zone and if it cannot be
avoided, a vehicle restraint system shall be considered in accordance with the Safe System
Approach as per Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.

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7.3.1 Bridges
Bridges can be dominant features and can be dramatic and sculptural elements in the
landscape and urban context. They can serve as gateways or landmarks at the local or national
levels. Successful and attractive bridge designs will need a multi-disciplinary approach with
the bridge engineer working with a bridge architect and a landscape architect considering all
the elements of the bridge together with the surrounding landscape. The following should
be considered:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design, and determine if the bridge is to
become a landmark structure or one where a simple low-key design solution is more
appropriate.
• Provide shade and balustrades or barrier fences in conjunction with proposed paths
where pedestrian and cyclist provision is required in accordance with Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Cycle, of this Manual.
• Consider visually lightweight and slender structures rather than bulky structures so
they are unobtrusive.
• Integrate the bridge into the adjacent landform visually, with approach abutments
integrated into the adjacent landform.
• Integrate pattern and texture into surfaces to reduce visual scale and dominance.
• Consider all the bridge elements together in a coherent design.
• Integrate planting into the overall design to enhance the structure.
• Allow views out from the roadway.
• Consider the detailed design of bridge piers, as they are highly visible part of the
structure.
• Select and place planting materials to complement the design of the structure and the
landscape.
• Consider the detail and how the various bridge components work together and
complement each other.
7.3.2 Pedestrian Bridges

Pedestrian bridges are increasingly prominent feature in the landscape and, in particular,
the urban context where they are seen as a way of getting pedestrians and cyclists across
wide roads in a safe manner. The principles of a multi-disciplinary design team considering
the whole of the structure apply equally to the design of pedestrian bridges. The following
should be considered:
• Ensure that the mobility needs of all potential users are considered.
• Design to serve wheelchair users, unless the bridge is at a location inaccessible to

wheelchair users.

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• Design as a safe pedestrian-friendly, and where practical, bicycle-friendly facility.
• Where practical, provide edge protection for bicyclists to prevent handlebars clashing
with bridge parapets.
• Provide lighting appropriate to its location and environment.
• Ensure good visibility to and from surrounding areas.
• Consider the use of slip and skid resistant surfaces.
• Provide shade from sun and shelter from adverse weather.
• Provide barriers to discourage at-grade crossing in the vicinity of the pedestrian bridge.
7.3.3 Tunnels
Tunnels or underpasses can be dominant features for the motorist and can create dramatic
features on the highway. As with bridges, successful designs will rely on a multi-disciplinary
team including landscape architects. The design of the structure should consider the
following:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design to determine if the tunnel is to be a
landmark feature or a simple design solution.
• Integrate the structure into the surrounding landscape.
• Integrate approach walls, medians, and portals with the design of the tunnel itself.
• Avoid monotonous schemes by using decorative treatments with color, texture, and
pattern.
• Integrate artistic features with the potential for cultural, heritage, or iconic landscapes
and other elements.
• Incorporate planting, taking care with irrigation and drainage to reduce or minimize
potentially damaging the structure
• Consider the detail of the structure and how the elements work together to form a
cohesive design.
• Consider how the detail of the structure integrates with adjacent details and features.
• Tunnel interior walls surface must be reflective to assist tunnel lighting; with a smooth
finish to facilitate mechanical cleaning of the tunnel walls and to increase tunnel
ventilation efficiency.
• Any decorative design of the tunnel walls shall be attractive without losing functionality
and being distractive to safe driving.
7.3.4 Pedestrian Underpasses

Pedestrian underpasses are another way of getting pedestrians across wide roads. They
require particular attention to ensure that they are safe and are well used. Crucial to their

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success is the creation of open, visible, and welcoming entrances. Other design considerations
include:
• Design to serve wheelchair users, unless the underpass is at a location inaccessible to

wheelchair users.
• Where practical, include separate ramps or paths to segregate bicyclists from pedestrians.
• Where practical, consider provision of a raised ‘sidewalk’ and lower ‘bicycle way’.
• Where practical, provide edge protection for bicyclists to prevent handlebars clashing
with underpass walls.
• Provide barriers to discourage at-grade crossing near the pedestrian underpass.
• Where practical, include provision of CCTV or other security surveillance.
• Provide effective air circulation.
• Provide good sight lines on approach inclines.
7.4 Fences and Walls

Roadside fences and walls can have a significant effect on the appearance of the road.
Their design should form an integral part of the road design, respond to their context and
appropriate types, styles, and alignments should be used. The following should be considered
in their design:
• Employ alignments that respond to other road features and property boundaries to
achieve the best fit.
• Pay particular attention to fence at bridge abutments and the interface with parapets in
order to create a unified appearance.
• Integrate fences and walls to planting layouts.
• Select materials to match the materials and color of other elements of the road design
and that are of durable and tamper-proof construction.
• Avoid obstructing pedestrian or cycle crossings.
7.5 Water Management/ and Conservation

The increased surface water run-off from a road can be successfully managed through a
sustainable drainage system that is integrated into the adjacent landscape. Typical water
management systems include detention ponds and infiltration systems through swales and

3
ditches. The landscape designer should work with the engineer to achieve an integrated
system that is functional, sustainable, and attractive. The system should be capable of
managing pollution, reducing the impact on the surrounding landscape, filtering silt, and
providing water for planting.
7.5.1 Detention Systems

Detention systems store surface water and release it over time through control structures.
The following should be considered in the design of detention systems:
• Use natural shapes to integrate ponds into the landscape, acquiring additional land to
achieve this if necessary.
• Design the detention facility, where possible and appropriate, as a multi-use facility by
including recreational facilities for walkers or cyclists.
• Understand the proximity to groundwater, and therefore the potential to create wet
ponds with increased habitat and biodiversity value.
• Coordinate the design of structures together and with adjacent structures through
common use of color, texture, pattern, and materials.
• Use planting to screen drainage structures and to create an attractive landscape feature.
• Provide shallow slopes at the edges to allow planting to establish.
• Plantings should not interfere with the drainage function.
• Blend maintenance access into the layout and context of the landscape to be unobtrusive.
• Integrate fencing into the landform and planting.
• Use rock rip-rap to stabilize water flow, and color slopes to blend into the surrounding
landscape.
• Select plant species that are able to withstand variable water levels.
7.5.2 Infiltration Systems

Infiltration systems collect storm water and allow it to filter through the permeable soils at
the base of an excavated basin, swale, or ditch. They are usually level and shallow with the
following other characteristics:
• Place the base of the feature sufficiently below the highway level so that water does
not damage the road structure.
• Provide a very shallow or near flat base to prevent erosion and allow filtration to take
effect.
• Use shallow slopes to reduce the potential for erosion.
• Vegetate the slopes of basins, swales, and ditches to prevent erosion.
• Use gravel or rock for side slopes and the base, providing that it is stable.

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• Coordinate the design of structures together and with adjacent structures through
common use of color, texture, pattern, and materials.
7.6 Landscape and Utilities

Planting requires space both above and below ground, for it to establish successfully and for
it to create the desired design effect in the long term.
The need for space can create conflicts, with underground utilities in particular. Conflicts
need to be resolved through a collaborative approach based on a common understanding of
the vision and design objectives for the highway, urban road, and landscape. The vision and
design objectives should allow clear priorities for the various highway design elements to be
determined. For example, if the vision for the highway is to create a tree-lined road, then the
positioning of utilities should be of a lower priority and their design driven by the need to
locate the trees in the most effective position to create the tree-lined effect. This would not
be possible if the tree positions are determined by the space left over between the utilities.
For further details on utilities, see Clause 6.2.22 of this Part and Volume 2, Part 11, Utilities,
of this Manual.
Tree planting pits should consider the size of the root ball at the time of planting, and the
long-term needs of the tree by providing space that will allow the tree to mature to its
natural size. Adequate soil volume is required so that the root ball can expand to support the
tree with nutrients, water, and sufficient roots to maintain the tree in a stable and secure
position.
Easements and access for future maintenance of the utilities should be considered and
where practicable, the planting design should respond to these. It may be appropriate that
ground cover planting can be located over services in the knowledge that if required, the
planting can be lifted and replaced.
The landscape architect and engineer should explore innovative technical solutions that
would allow trees and utilities to be positioned closer together if space is constrained. Tree
soils and root barriers could be used to help reduce conflicts for example.
7.7 Sustainable Landscape Design

7.7.1 Introduction
The design of urban roads and landscape offers significant opportunities to integrate
sustainability into the design of roads. The designer should establish sustainability
objectives for the project and develop a plan, which sets out how these objectives are to
be achieved. A sustainable urban road and road landscape should adopt a holistic and wide-
ranging approach which addresses environmental, economic and social criteria and consider
minimizing use of energy, conserving water, incorporating native plants, is cost effective to
implement and maintain in the long term while creating high quality, attractive landscapes.

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7.7.2 Urban Street and Landscape Assessment and Planning

The success of sustainable roads starts from an understanding of the existing site, its
context and identifying its constraints and opportunities.
• Cultural landscapes: Identify historical or cultural landscapes and places, understand

their cultural value, and look for ways to protect, conserve, and enhance their value.
• Eco-systems: Understand natural systems and habitats and design the landscape to
protect and enhance them.
• Protected species: Avoid areas that are habitats for protected species and design the
landscape in a way that minimizes disturbance and supports their ongoing protection.
• Minimize use of energy: Reduce the quantity of earthworks and minimize areas to be
disturbed.
• Neighborhood linkages: Connect to existing footways and cycle paths, and link open
spaces and community facilities to support walking and cycling and sustainable local
communities.
• Use of space: Use the right-of-way space effectively and creatively to enhance open
space and to create safe and attractive places for outdoor social interaction.
7.7.3 Soils
Soils should be seen as an important living material which serves a number of functions in
addition to providing a growing medium for plants.
• Storage and filtration of water: The soil structure has a crucial role in retaining water
within the soil for plants and water management.
• Topsoil preservation: Preserve topsoil by stripping for later replication and storing
correctly to prevent damage.
• Damage during construction: Handle soils to minimize damage, prevent compaction

by heavy equipment, and prevent pollution, and store them correctly through careful
construction planning and methods.
• Soil improvements: Enhance soils by relieving compaction and use amendments

through the incorporation of balanced nutrients.
• Soil replacement: Handle soils carefully in placing them in the landscape for plant
success and long-term survival. This should include consideration of the treatment of
subsoils.

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7.7.4 Water Conservation

Water conservation achieved through carefully designed irrigation and drainage offers
significant opportunities for sustainability in the design of roads.
• Drainage: On-site sustainable drainage systems are a cost-effective way to allow storm
water to percolate the soil and reduce the risk to drainage systems.
• Landscape features: Ponds, swales and other storm water drainage features can be
designed to create attractive landscape features and to provide water to support plants.
• Drought tolerant plants: Water-efficient plants reduce the demand and use of water
for planting.
• Efficient irrigation systems: Well-designed systems will manage water demand and
minimize waste.
7.7.5 Plant Species

Plant species that are native or adapted to the regional climate require fewer resources.
Appropriate species can enhance habitats and biodiversity, and to create distinctive
landscapes.
The designer should have careful consideration in the choice of tree species for roadways.
The mature size of tree trunks shall be carefully considered when selecting species to reduce
the severity of an injury if struck by an errant vehicle. All planting shall be designed in
compliance to the safe system approach Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road
Safety, of this Manual.
• Existing trees and vegetation: Identify and seek to protect or incorporate mature trees
into the design of the road landscape.
• Use appropriate species: Use plants appropriate to the climate and conditions, as they
will use fewer resources and reduce maintenance requirements.
• Micro-climate: Use trees to provide shade to pedestrian areas, reduce dust, and reduce
wind speed.
• Mature plants: Provide space to allow trees and plants to achieve their nature size
where their benefits will be greatest.
7.7.6 Materials
Selecting sustainable materials includes sourcing materials, using them efficiently and
considering waste as a potential material.
• Reuse materials on-site where possible; for example, site-won rock for gravel mulches.
• Use energy in production to identify potential materials with a low embedded carbon
value to demonstrate efficient use of energy in their production, including transport.

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• Minimize waste by using materials efficiently, so as not to create waste.
7.7.7 Landscape Maintenance and Management

The designer should consider the ongoing maintenance and management as an important
aspect of sustainable design:
• Provide efficient irrigation systems, ensuring irrigation systems continue to work as

designed to reduce water wastage, flooding of the road, and damage to the highway.
• Employ management plans that implement plans that share the sustainability objective
to help achieve those objectives.
• Employ maintenance activities that reduce the amount of maintenance without

comprising safety to the desired landscape design; for example, annual pruning of
shrubs.

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3
8 Other Elements Affecting

Design
8.1 Erosion Control

Erosion Control is the practice of preventing or controlling erosion due to water or wind.
Depending on the topography of the site, erosion control could be a major factor during
construction and maintenance. Based on the topography and site conditions erosion control
techniques to prevent the erosion should be considered during the early part of planning as
well as during the design process.
For further details on erosion control, refer to the following:
• Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual, for pollution control requirements and
sustainable drainage systems
• Volume 2, Part 14, Earthworks, of this Manual, for dune stabilization
• Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this Manual, for erosion control and contaminated
land
8.2 Rest Areas

Rest areas are areas where the travelers can stop and rest for short periods, giving them a
chance to relax, use washroom, freshen up, reconfirm the trip plan, obtain traveler information,
change drivers, make phone calls, and use other services such as food and refueling. Rest
areas are provided on rural freeways in Qatar.
8.2.1 Spacing of Rest Areas

Recommended spacing interval between rest areas is 100 km, which equates to about one
hour between the stops. However, the exact spacing and location of these facilities shall
be agreed in advance with the Overseeing Organization.
8.2.2 Site Selection

The goal of site selection should be to provide rest area locations to be sites in
attractive surroundings with adequate parking for both cars and trucks.

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The following criteria should be considered in selecting a site suitable for a rest area and
developing the plan for the rest area:
• Available utilities or ability to obtain utilities, such as water, electricity, telephone, gas,
wastewater, and disposal.
• Scenic qualities of the site, cultural or historical features within the site or adjacent to
the site and potential for tourism.
• Soil suitability for construction
• Soil types adequate for wastewater disposal.
• Topography and available right-of-way adequate and suitable for all rest area functions,
including allowance for potential future expansion of the rest area should traffic volumes
increase on the freeway.
• Spacing to the nearest rest area and interchanges.
• Land use adjacent to the site.
• Projected annual average daily traffic 15 years after year of opening of the rest area.
• Projected percent heavy vehicles.
• Potential environmental impacts on human environment such as air, noise, visual, and
land issues.
• Potential environmental impacts on natural resources such as endangered species,

wetlands, or archaeological sites.
8.2.3 Rest Area Design

Access to and egress from the rest area shall only be from the freeway, with ramps designed.
Figure 8.1 shows a design of a typical rest area. The rest area should be screened from the
main roadway, preferably using shaped and landscaped berms with a height of at least 2 m.
Figure 8.1 Typical Rest Area Plan

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Access to and egress from the rest area shall only be from the freeway, with ramps designed
in accordance with Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of
this Manual.
The internal roadway cross section should be in accordance with Chapter 6. With respect to
roadway width, provision should be made to allow traffic to pass a broken down vehicle on
one-way single roadways.
A minimum sidewalk provision of 2 m should be provided on pedestrian desire lines. Where

desire lines cross over the internal roads within the rest area, a pedestrian crossing facility
should be provided with dropped curbs.
Depending on the proposed location, a traffic enforcement area, as highlighted in Figure

8.1 may require to be incorporated into the design of the rest area. The provision and layout
details of the traffic enforcement area shall be agreed with the Overseeing Organization.
On certain sites, a grassed picnic area may be designated to the rear of the site away from
the main roadway. A recommended area of at least 150 square meters should be provided.
The boundary of the rest area should be enclosed by a 2 m high secure fence to prevent animals
straying into the rest area facility and preventing access to the rest area from the adjacent
properties outside the freeway. Public access to the rest area shall only be allowed from the
exit and entrance terminal from the freeway. Access for emergency or maintenance vehicles
may be allowed from a local street with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization. In
such cases, security should be provided to prevent unauthorized entry.
8.2.3.1 Facilities for Users

The following minimum facilities should be provided at rest areas:
• Prayer rooms and ablution areas, men’s and women’s.
• Toilet blocks, including disabled facilities, at least 2 men’s cubicles, 2 women’s cubicles,
1 cubicle for the disabled
• Refuse points
• Petrol stations for refueling
• Picnic areas
• Information point
• Lighting
To inform visitors of local services and tourist attractions, and to provide essential travel
information, each rest area should also include an information center, with an information
board provided as a minimum.

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8.2.3.2 Parking Layout

Adequate parking should be provided within the rest area facilities.
Provision for car, bus, truck, staff and maintenance parking should be considered at the early
stages of the design process to maintain a balanced distribution of spaces.
The general layouts of the car parking should be in accordance to the details provided in
Clause 6.2 of this Part and the QTCM, Volume 1, Part 6, Road Markings. If parallel parking is
to be provided; it should be agreed with the Overseeing Organization. Bus parking, where
required, should be segregated from truck parking. The designer should also refer to Bus
Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit Planning (Mowasalat, 2014) for additional details on parking
dimensions.
Disabled parking bays should be provided at the rate of 5 percent (Irish National Road
Authority, 2013) of the total car parking, the layout should be similar to the detail provided
in Figure 6.10 (AASHTO, 2001). Also refer to Clause 6.2.13, Off-Street Disabled Parking for
additional details.

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Figure 8.2 Bus Parking Details at Rest Areas

3
Figure 8.3 Truck Parking Details at Rest Areas

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8.2.3.3 Capacity
The number of parking spaces needed for the rest area is based on the traffic volumes on
the mainline. Demand will be affected by factors such as traffic flow, rest area spacing, and
proximity to other interchanges.
Provision should be made during the site development for future expansion of parking if
the demand arises. The actual provision should be determined by demand assessment. This
should be taken as a percentage of projected one-way annual average daily traffic, 15 years
after opening of the rest area, in accordance with Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Demand Assessment Guidelines for Provision
Vehicle Type Percent of Mainline One Way Annual Average Daily Traffic
Car 0.40
Trucks 0.80
Buses 0.02
Source: Irish National Road Authority, 2013
Regardless of the demand assessment for parking provision, the minimum number of parking
bays should be provided in accordance with Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Minimum Parking Provision
Vehicle Type Minimum Number of Parking Bays to be Provided
Car 40
Trucks 10
Buses 3
Source: Irish National Road Authority, 2013
8.2.3.4 Signing and Markings

With rest areas at regular intervals, drivers have a choice whether to stop at specific areas.
Good advance signing assists in these decisions. Advance signage indicating parking and the
other available facilities at the rest area should be provided based on consultation with the
Signing and pavement markings at the exit and entrance ramp terminals to the rest area
should be in accordance with the QTCM.
8.2.3.5 Lighting
The rest area, including car, heavy vehicles and bus parking areas and internal roadways,
should be adequately lit to should provide visual security and physical safety to rest area

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patrons. Guidance on the level of lighting required should be determined from Volume 3,
Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual, and through consultation with the Overseeing
Organization.
Lighting installations should be designed to provide a high standard of illumination using

high efficiency light sources with low maintenance costs. Care should be taken to prevent
inconvenience to properties adjacent to the rest area.
8.2.3.6 Landscaping
The design of the rest area should complement the surrounding area, implementing local
design features and materials that blend in with the local environment and thus reducing
visual impact.
The landscaping needs require careful consideration as to type and location of vegetation,
number of picnic tables and waste bins, and any barriers that may be required to protect
pedestrians from natural or manmade objects.
For design guidelines and details on landscaping, refer to Volume 3, Part 22, Landscape and
Planting Design, of this Manual.
8.3 Traffic Control Devices

8.3.1 Signing and Marking
Signing and marking are directly related to the design of the roadway. They are features
of traffic control and operation that the designer should consider in the geometric layout
of such a facility. The signing and marking should be designed concurrently with the road
geometry. Signs and pavement markings specified by the designer depend on the traffic
volume, type of facility, and extent of traffic control appropriate for efficient operation.
Although safety and efficiency of operation depend to a considerable degree on the

geometric design of the facility, the physical layout should be supplemented by effective
signing as a means of informing, warning, and controlling drivers. Signing plans coordinated
with horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance obstructions, operational speeds and
maneuvers, and other applicable items should be coordinated before completion of design.
For details regarding design, locations, and application of signs, refer to the QTCM.
Markings and markers; such as signs, control traffic to encourage safe and efficient
operation. They either supplement regulatory or warning signs or serve independently to
indicate certain regulations or warn of certain conditions present on the highway. Pavement
markings include centerlines, lane lines, and edge markings. These may be supplemented by
other pavement markings, such as approach to obstructions, stop and yield lines, and various
word and symbol markings. For design details, methods and pavement marking criteria refer
to QTCM.

3
8.3.2 Traffic Signals

Traffic-signals are one of the critical elements of traffic control, which need to be considered
during the geometric design of roadways and intersections. The planned signal operation
at the intersections should be integrated with the roadway design to maximize operational
efficiency. The design and layout of the roadway and the intersection should provide good
signal visibility to the drivers to maintain effective operations. For design details refer
Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual and refer to the QTCM,
Volume 1, Part 5, Traffic Signals, for signal warrants, signal phasing and timing details.
8.4 Noise Barriers

Traffic noise is among the significant environmental problems to be addressed in a design.
Noise barriers are used to shield sensitive land uses such as residences, schools, hospitals,
and parks from traffic noise. Coordinate with the Overseeing Organization early during the
project development process to determine the need for noise studies and potential inclusion
of noise barriers in the project. Noise barriers may be constructed along both new and
existing highways.
8.4.1 Placement
Careful consideration should be exercised to ensure that the construction of noise barriers will
not compromise the safety of the highway. Designers should strive to locate noise barriers
to not conflict with sign placement and to provide the horizontal clearances to obstructions
outside the edge of traveled way. For noise barriers to be effective they must be continuous
(i.e., not have breaks) and be of sufficient height to deflect noise from the receptor. Noise
wall design involves the measuring of background noise at key receptors, modeling of noise
for design year traffic, and then modeling of noise from the designed roadway with and
without the barrier.
Sight distance is another important design consideration. Noise barriers designed along the
inside of horizontal curves should be placed outside the horizontal offset that is necessary
for stopping sight distance as given in Chapter 2.
Some designs incorporate a concrete “safety shape” either as an integral part of the noise
barrier or as a separate barrier between the edge of roadway and the noise barrier. Care
should be exercised in the location of noise barriers near intersections. Barriers at such
locations should begin or terminate, as the case may be, at least 60 m from the back of the
nose.
In many locations, noise walls will not be effective because of the need for frequent breaks
for intersections. Certain pavement types, referred to as “quiet pavements”, that mitigate tire
noise, have been proven effective. See Volume 2, Part 12, Pavement Design, of this Manual,
for quiet pavement discussion.

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8.5 Fencing
Fencing delineates the acquired control of access for a highway. Fencing primarily serves to
discourage or prevent pedestrians, vehicles, and animals from entering the right-of-way at
other than legally designated and designed locations. When the fencing is placed to prevent
the animals from entering the highway, the type and size of the fence shall be dependent on
the type of animal the fencing is intended to control, such as camel or goat.
Any part of a highway with full control of access may be fenced except in areas of precipitous
slopes, or natural barriers, or where it can be established that fencing is not needed to
preserve access control. Fencing is usually located at or just inside the right-of-way line or,
where frontage roads are used, in the area between the through highway and the frontage
road (outer separation).
Fencing for access control is usually owned by and the responsibility of the Overseeing
Organization.
8.6 Sand Abatement in Dune Areas

Drifting and blowing sand is quite common in Qatar. Low-level sand dunes are predominant
in southwest and western Qatar and Barchan sand dunes are predominant in southeast
Qatar. Barchan sand dunes are crescent shaped dunes formed under winds that blow in one
direction and are also known as transverse dunes. Sand deposits due to the drifting and
blowing sand have safety implications on the roadway users, especially in rural areas.
Strategies or mitigation measures to control and minimize sand deposits on the roadway
should be considered at the early stages of the design process and roadway design criteria
developed accordingly. The wind patterns may be different at different locations and
mitigation measures may be different depending on the location. It is imperative that each
project should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, with regard to the prevailing wind
direction, wind speeds and topography and geology of the area and mitigation measures
introduced and implemented accordingly.
During the planning studies, avoid planning roadways through the sand dune areas. If it is
not possible, consider the following in establishing the roadway alignment:
• Run the alignment towards the windward side of the dunes.
• Run the alignment parallel to the prevailing wind direction to minimize the sand
accumulation.
• Avoid roadway excavation as much as possible try to raise the profile and build roadway
on an embankment.
• Run the alignment such the prevailing winds can pass through the bridge openings.
Where there is likelihood of sand deposits, consider the following during establishing the
roadway design criteria:

3
• Raise the roadway profile 1.5 m to 2.0 m above the surrounding terrain. The wind across
the paved surface clears the sand on the pavement and minimizes the sand deposits.
• Cut slopes of 1V:10H or flatter.
• Fill slopes of 1V:6H or flatter.
• Limit superelevation to 4 percent maximum.
• Wide shallow medians to eliminate the need of guardrail or concrete median barriers.
• Single span bridges are preferable, and the bridge railings should be open tubular type
instead of concrete parapet.
• Avoid using concrete barrier in lieu use guardrail or cable barriers.
For additional design details and construction of roadways in dune areas, refer to Chapter 6
in Volume 2, Part 14, Earthworks, of this Manual.

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3
References
AASHTO. Guide for Development of Rest Areas on Major Arterials and Freeways. 3rd edition. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC. 2001.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets. 6th edition (the Green Book). Washington DC, United States. 2011a.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets. 7th edition (the Green Book). Washington DC, United States. 2018.
AASHTO. Roadside Design Guide. 4th edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials. 2011b.
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Standards and Specifications. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. In preparation.
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street, Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines. Qatar Public Works
Authority. 2014.
Ashghal. Traffic Control Devices. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). Highway Design Manual. “Chapter 200—Geometric

Design and Structure Design.” 2014.
Department for Transport. “Manual for Streets”. UK Department for Transport .London, UK. 2007.
Department for Transport. “Highway Link Design”. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6,
Section 1, Part 1, TD 9/93. UK Highways Agency: London, UK. February 2002.
Fambro. D. B., K. Fitzpatrick, and R. J. Koppa. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 400:
Determination of Stopping Sight Distances. Transportation Research Board. Washington DC. 1997.
Illinois Department of Transportation. “Chapter 32—Horizontal Alignment.” Bureau of Design & Environment
Manual (BDEM). 2014.
Irish National Road Authority. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6, Section 3, Part 3, NRA TA
70/13, the Location and Layout of On-Line Service Areas. 2013.
Department. 1997.

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National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Intersection Sight Distance. Report 383. By
Q. W. Harwood, J. M. Mason, R. E. Brydia, M. T. Pietrucha and G. L. Gittings. Transportation Research Board:
Washington DC. 1996.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Determination of Stopping Sight Distances.
Report 400. By D. B. Fambro, et al. Transportation Research Board: Washington DC. 1997.
Ohio Department of Transportation. Location and Design Manual, Volume 1, Section 200. Figure 203-2.
2014.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington DC, 2010.

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Volume 1
Part 4
Intersections and
Roundabouts
INTERSECTIONS AND ROUNDABOUTS PART
4
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART INTERSECTIONS AND ROUNDABOUTS
4

4
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1.Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Intersection Type Selection Criteria..................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Intersection Objectives.............................................................................................................................. 2
2 Intersection Types and their Applicability..................................................................3

2.1. Types Related to Functional Classification........................................................................................ 3
2.2. Traffic Flow and Capacity......................................................................................................................... 4
3 Intersection Selection....................................................................................................7
3.1. Operational Quality...................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2. Safety Performance..................................................................................................................................... 8
3.3. Spatial Efficiency and Lifecycle Cost.................................................................................................... 8
3.4. Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection.............................................................................. 8
3.4.1. Rural Intersections...................................................................................................................9
3.4.2. Urban Major Road Intersections.........................................................................................9
3.4.3. Urban Local Road Intersections.......................................................................................10
3.5. Route Designation.................................................................................................................................... 10
3.6. Traffic Flows and Capacity.................................................................................................................... 10
3.7. Local Conditions......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.8. Overview of Operational and Design Trade-offs.......................................................................... 10
3.9. Designation of Priority Intersections................................................................................................ 11
3.9.1. Needs for Traffic Signal Controlled Intersections....................................................12
3.10. Data and Analysis for Intersections................................................................................................... 13
4 Roundabout Type Selection........................................................................................ 15

4.1. Route Designation.................................................................................................................................... 15
4.2. Traffic Flows and Capacity.................................................................................................................... 15
4.3. Data and Analysis for Roundabouts.................................................................................................. 16
5 High-volume At-grade Intersection Types................................................................ 19

5.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 19
5.2. Indirect Left-turn Intersections........................................................................................................... 19
5.3. “Superstreet” Intersections................................................................................................................... 20
5.4. Continuous-flow Intersections............................................................................................................ 21
5.5. Arterial-to-arterial Grade Separations.............................................................................................. 23
References............................................................................................................................... 24

4
Tables
Table 2.1. Basic Forms of Intersection Types..............................................................................................................3

Table 2.2. Permitted Intersection Types on Urban and Rural Roads..................................................................4
Table 3.1. Summary of Basic Trade-offs Among Intersection Types..............................................................11
Figures
Figure 3.1. Progression of Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection.....................................................9

Figure 5.1. Example of an Indirect Left-turn Intersection with Median Uturn..............................................20
Figure 5.2. “Superstreet” Intersection...........................................................................................................................21
Figure 5.3. Continuous-flow Intersection.....................................................................................................................22

4
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
m meter

4

4
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
This part describes the initial process to select the appropriate form or concept for an
intersection of two highways or roadways. When two highways intersect, the movement
of traffic between and crossing them can be handled by at-grade solutions. These solutions
include intersections, signalized and unsignalized, and roundabouts. Another type of solution,
grade-separated interchange, is discussed in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or
Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.
The selection of an appropriate intersection form is based on the following:
• Functional classification of the intersecting roads

• The volume and pattern of traffic
• The terrain and topography
• Existing and planned land use,
• The needs of nonmotorized users, such as pedestrians and cyclists
A brief methodology follows describing the fundamental steps to be undertaken when

assessing intersection type and configuration options prior to the commencement of the
detailed design.
1.2 Intersection Type Selection Criteria

Intersections are a critical element of the highway transport system. They generally are the
primary bottlenecks, producing delay to travelers. In urban areas in particular, most crashes
are associated with intersections. Intersections are also central to the overall distribution
of traffic through the highway network. Therefore, it is vital that appropriate intersection
strategy and selection be considered early in road and corridor planning.
An intersection’s key purpose is to enable the safe and efficient transfer of traffic streams
through the intersection from one road to another as well as across each road. The selection
of the most appropriate type of intersection requires consideration of a number of factors,
the most significant including road classification, traffic flows and capacities and safety.
Decisions will represent trade-offs in operations, design costs and impacts.

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The following are key considerations in the selection of intersections:
• Intersections are by their nature points of conflict. Conflicts can translate into crashes.
Design and operating strategies focus on reducing or eliminating conflicts, or reducing
the severity of crashes.
• The capacity of the road network largely depends on the capacity of the intersections,
particularly in urban areas. The overall traffic-carrying capability of an arterial highway
with multiple lanes is defined not only by the number of lanes in the roadway segments,
but also by the frequency, spacing, type and configuration of the intersections along the
highway.
• In urban areas, intersections also represent points of conflict between pedestrians and
motor vehicles.
Intersections may be between roads of similar functional classification, or roads of varying

functional classification. Intersections involving roads of differing functional classification
should be given particular consideration to provide an appropriate solution. Further guidance
on applicable intersection types for each functional classification is provided in Section 2.1.
1.3 Intersection Objectives

The following are typical objectives for intersections:
• Providing safe passage for all transportation modes and associated movements
• Minimizing congestion and delay
• Minimizing fuel consumption, air pollution and noise
Safety objectives should focus on minimizing the risk of severe crashes—crashes resulting in
one or more fatalities or injuries. These objectives apply to all road and intersection users.
With regard to intersections, the term capacity, refers to the ability of the intersection
to accommodate traffic demand from all approaches. Unlike a roadway segment in which
traffic moves in one direction, an intersection provides for multiple, conflicting through and
turning movements. Each movement will have both design demand and operational capacity.
Designers need to be concerned not only with the overall capacity of the intersection but
also with that of each individual component.
Most importantly, achieving all design objectives requires that trade-offs be made. Basic
configurations and design features will produce conflicting outcomes. A solution that
focuses solely on reducing crashes at the intersection will generally provide less capacity
and operational quality than another solution with a different focus.

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2 Intersection Types and their

Applicability
2.1 Types Related to Functional Classification

Various intersection types are available for use on the highway network. Table 2.1 details
the basic forms to be considered.
Table 2.1 Basic Forms of Intersection Types

Intersection
Description
Type
Priority
At-grade intersection where the minor road terminates at the major road. Traffic
Intersection
control may be controlled by yield or stop signs and markings. Priority intersections
may take various forms, depending on the number of links and their configuration.
These are discussed in Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this
Manual. On divided highways, left-turn maneuvers are normally precluded by design
and the intersection operates in a right-in, right-out mode.
Roundabout At-grade intersection incorporating a circulatory roadway around a central island.

Intersection approaches operate in a “yield to entry” mode in which vehicles within
the circulatory roadway have the right-of-way over those waiting on the approaches.
Roundabouts treat all legs equally, versus favoring of one road over the other in
a priority intersection. As such, they provide more capacity for minor road traffic,
but in doing so impose delay and lower speeds on the major road. Roundabouts are
discussed further in Volume 1, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of this Manual.
Signalized
An at-grade intersection where conflicting movements are separated over time by
Intersection
a signal control that allocates right-of-way in an alternating and regular pattern. In
these intersections, it is the combination of roadway geometry and operation of the
signal that establishes the capacity of the intersection and volume of traffic flow
through it. Signalized intersections are further discussed in Volume 1, Part 8, Design
for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.
Grade-
separated Grade-separated interchanges have the greatest capacity of all intersection types.
Interchange Conflicts are removed by physical separation of traffic, with one or more movements
passing over or under the others. There are many configurations of interchanges, as
discussed in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of
this Manual.

4
In addition to the standard intersection types defined for intersecting roads, other facilities
may be provided, including pedestrian crossings and median openings for U-turns. Information
on pedestrian crossings including mid-block crossings are discussed in Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.
The initial step in the intersection type selection process should involve reference to Table
2.2 2, which describes permitted intersection types for urban and rural roads according
to functional classification of the major route. This table is based on guidance from the
Transportation Master Plan for Qatar (TMPQ) [MMUP, 2008].
Table 2.2 Permitted Intersection Types on Urban and Rural Roads

Grade-
Priority Signalized Separated
Intersection Roundabout Intersection Interchange
Functional Classification of (Volume 1, (Volume 1, (Volume 1, (Volume 1,
the Major Road Part 6) Part 7) Parts 8) Part 9)
Expressway X Xb X ü
Major Arterial ü a
X ü X
Minor Arterial ü a
X ü X
Boulevard üa ü ü X
URBAN
Collector Distributor ü a
X X ü
Major Collector ü X ü X
Minor Collector ü ü ü X
Service Road ü ü ü X
Local Road ü ü ü X
Freeway X X X ü
Arterial
RURAL
X ü ü ü
Collector X ü ü X
Local Road ü ü X X
Legend: ü Recommended X Not recommended
Notes:
a. Right-in/ Right-out priority intersection only
b. Recommended only in limited situations
For many road types, there are multiple possible forms of intersection. For example, for
a boulevard or minor collector, a priority intersection, roundabout, or signal controlled
intersection may be used. Conversely, for certain types of roads, by policy these are restricted
to only specific forms. Urban expressways and rural freeways, as fully access-controlled
facilities, are restricted to only grade-separated interchanges.
2.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity

A critical factor in intersection type selection is the traffic flow and the predicted future
traffic demand. Traffic flow for intersections includes all movements, both through and
turning.

4
Before detailed evaluation can be made, it is important to obtain the best estimate of all
the relevant traffic flows and turning movements for the intersection under design-year
conditions. A preliminary analysis should be undertaken to establish the likely form of
intersection considering the permitted types in Table 2.2.
The composition and turning movements of traffic will influence the geometric layout
adopted. Predicted future traffic flows are required for the following reasons:
• To enable the design to be tailored to provide sufficient capacity to meet the future
traffic flow demands
• To size the intersection
• To enable a decision to be made to constrain the traffic flows at the given location for a
particular reason
• To identify the need to allow for current or future intersections

4

4
3 Intersection Selection
The selection of an appropriate intersection type involves application of the policies
regarding functional classification and the specific attributes of the location being studied.
These include the context as broadly defined and the design-year traffic demand for all
users.
The general approach in selecting an intersection type reflects basic considerations of

operational quality, access and accessibility, safety performance, spatial efficiency (right-of-
way), and lifecycle cost effectiveness.
3.1 Operational Quality

Minimizing delay and providing as high and uniform level of service and safety is central
to intersection type selection and its design. In selecting intersections, the functional
classification of the intersecting roadways is the initial consideration. Priority intersections
are the backbone of the highway network. These are intended to provide necessary access
and traffic distribution within the network while providing primacy of mobility to the higher-
class roadway. For the highest roadway class, expressways and freeways, the requirement
that intersecting movements occur through grade-separated interchanges enables the
highest quality of flow possible for through traffic.
The inherent capacity of each intersection type differs. As traffic volumes and patterns
increase, the appropriate intersection type changes.
• Priority intersections enable major road through traffic to proceed through the
intersection with minimum or no delay. Delays to turning traffic increase with volume.
Priority intersections on multilane roads maintain high quality of service by prohibiting
conflicting left-turn movements.
• Roundabouts provide full turning and access capability. They result in speed reductions
and a reduction of delays to through vehicles as well as turning vehicles. They have
limited traffic-carrying capability; when their capacity is exceeded, higher-capacity
solutions are required.
• Signalized intersections are the highest-capacity, at-grade solutions available. Their

capacity is a function of the number of through and turning lanes provided and signal
phasing and timing strategies employed.
• Grade-separated interchanges are used as discussed above for freeways and expressways.
They may also apply at locations where the traffic demands exceed the capacity of a
signalized intersection.

4
Another important factor regarding operational quality involves the accessibility and mobility
of pedestrians and cyclists. Where these are significant demands, the intersection type
should reflect community needs, and the design details and operation of the intersection
should accommodate these users.
3.2 Safety Performance

Each type of intersection—priority (yield and stop-controlled), roundabout, signalized and
interchange—has inherently different risk profiles, as defined by the frequency, severity, and
types of crashes that should be expected over time. In selecting an appropriate intersection
type, the expected safety performance should be a consideration. Knowledge on the safety
performance of each type is included throughout the Parts describing the intersections, and
guidance is offered using this information.
3.3 Spatial Efficiency and Lifecycle Cost

Each type of intersection requires a certain footprint, right-of-way, and lifecycle cost.
Selection of the appropriate intersection type is thus fundamentally a design decision in
which the above factors are weighed against the spatial needs and costs associated with its
construction. For these reasons, designers may find that a different type of intersection is
the best solution other than that normally used for the traffic conditions.
3.4 Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection

Figure 3.1 shows the progression of thinking and decision making in intersection planning
for both rural and urban conditions. As presented in this Manual, the hierarchy of intersection
types can be generally characterized by location, which implies an expected design speed
condition, and traffic demand.

4
Figure 3.1 Progression of Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection
3.4.1 Rural Intersections

Priority intersections predominate on rural roads. For the two-lane system, these provide
access for turning movements. As traffic demands increase on the major road, the priority
intersection type at some point can no longer process the demand and the safety performance
may degrade. This leads to the need to implement a roundabout. For rural roads with typical
traffic demands, roundabouts should be sufficient. In special cases (and specifically on rural
freeways regardless of traffic demand) grade-separated interchanges may be used. Note
that, because of the crash risks associated with high speed rear-end and angle crashes that
can occur at traffic signals, signalized intersections on rural highways are not employed in
Qatar.
3.4.2 Urban Major Road Intersections

For urban arterials and collectors, the progression of type selection begins with priority
intersections. Depending on the context (spatial availability, presence of pedestrians), as

4
traffic increases, the next type of intersection considered may be either a roundabout or a
signalized intersection. For very high-volume conditions the QHDM offers special intersection
types and arterial-to-arterial grade separations designed for the urban environment.
Expressway intersections should be interchanges.
3.4.3 Urban Local Road Intersections

For intersections on urban local roads, the operating speed of the road should be lower,
and the design and operation of the intersections should place pedestrian safety of primary
importance. The selection of the appropriate intersection type thus follows a progression
that includes not only traffic demand but also pedestrian activity. Priority intersections may
apply, but their design and operation may need to include stop control rather than yield
and, in some cases, may include provision for pedestrian signals. All-stop intersections, not
used for higher classification facilities, may be the most appropriate type because they
support pedestrians crossing any intersection leg. Roundabouts do not apply for local road
intersections (other than the possible use of mini-roundabouts for traffic calming or speed
management). Local road intersections may need to be signalized to fully enable both
vehicular turning traffic and pedestrians.
3.5 Route Designation

The initial step should include determining the traffic flow and capacity of the intersection.
The designer should confirm the functional classification of the intersecting roads and use
that information to identify permitted intersection types as detailed in Table 3.1.
3.6 Traffic Flows and Capacity

Consideration should be given to the expected traffic flows in the current year, the opening
year, and the design year. In general, uncontrolled intersections are suitable only on local
roads and where traffic flows are relatively low.
3.7 Local Conditions

The context, as defined by land use, topography, and natural and manmade constraints, will
influence the physical feasibility of a solution. Other important context features include the
intersection location as part of the local road network. Proximity to adjacent intersections
of different types will influence the selection of an appropriate type of intersection for
a particular location. The existence of or need for access to adjoining properties is also a
factor. Intersection selection clearly is based not only on traffic or functional classification,
but also on the unique site context features.
3.8 Overview of Operational and Design Trade-offs

Selection of the best intersection form will involve a site-specific analysis of the trade-offs.
In most cases, the designer will have choices among the basic permitted forms. The trade-
offs involve the transportation objectives of safety and mobility for the full range of users.
They also involve the costs and impacts of each type of solution.
Table 3.1 is a qualitative summary of these trade-offs. It is intended to assist the designer
in review and consideration of what are the most important objectives, what are the

4
inherent attributes of each type, and what are the typical costs and challenges associated
with implementation. Included in Table 3.1 for perspective is an assessment of grade-
separated interchanges. Refer to Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway
Corridors, of this Manual.
Table 3.1 Summary of Basic Trade-offs Among Intersection Types
Costs and Adverse

Traffic Operations and Safety Effects of
Implementation
Provide greatest total throughput or

Accommodate non-motorized Users
Favor Higher Volume, higher class
Operations and Maintenance Cost

Reduce or Eliminate High-speed
Provide for all movements in all
resultant fuel consumption and
Effect on Access for properties

Minimize stopping, idling and
adjacent to intersection
Minimize Total Delay
Construction Cost
Crossing conflicts
Total Footprint
Visual Impacts
emissions
directions
roadway
Intersection capacity
Types
Priority
Intersection
û û û ü ¢ û ü ü ü ü ü ü
Roundabout ü ¢ ü ¢ û ¢ ü ¢ ü ¢ ¢ ü
Signal
Controlled û ¢ ü û ü ü û ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢
Intersection
Grade
Separated ü ü ü ü û ü ü û û û û û
Interchange
Notes:
ü Performs best
¢ Performs moderately successfully
û Performs worst
3.9 Designation of Priority Intersections

Priority intersections are appropriate where traffic volumes are relatively light; for example,
in many rural areas or where there are few conflicting turning movements, such as a right-
in/right-out intersection. This intersection form favors the major road over the minor road,
requires a minimum footprint, and has low cost of operation. This form has limitations in
capacity associated with traffic movements on the minor road, especially when traffic flow
on the major roadway is high. Left turns are prohibited, and the capacity of the right-turn
discharge decreases as volume increases on the priority road.

4
Typically, there are several options for priority intersections based on the geometric
requirements of the intersecting roads. These include simple intersections and staggered
T-intersections. Further details are provided in Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority
3.9.1 Needs for Traffic Signal Controlled Intersections

Signalized intersections have more capacity than other at-grade intersections. They
allow movements to be treated equally through the allocation of the circular green signal.
Signalized intersections provide the most positive protection for pedestrians crossing
at-grade than the other forms of intersections. Allocation of time to movements and to
pedestrians imposes delay on users. It also increases stopped and idling time compared to
other forms of intersections.
Traffic signal systems include signal installations, controllers, detectors, and other hardware.
These require continual maintenance. The cost of a signalized intersection can be among
the highest of at-grade forms, depending on the number and arrangement of lanes and the
right-of-way needed.
The investigation of the need for a traffic control signal should include an analysis of factors
related to the existing operation and safety at the study location, the potential to improve
these conditions, and the criteria contained in the latest edition of the Qatar Traffic Control
Manual (QTCM, 2020):
• Criterion 1 – Intersection vehicular traffic flow volumes

• Criterion 2 – Pedestrian flow volumes
• Criterion 3 – School or civic amenity access
• Criterion 4 – Coordination and management of traffic flow
• Criterion 5 – Known crash locations
The criteria provide guidance on the types of situations where traffic control signals are
suitable. At least one of these criteria should be met before a traffic signal is considered;
however, satisfaction of a traffic signal criterion shall not in itself require the installation of
a traffic control signal.
For a traffic signal project to be considered, it is the responsibility of the design engineer to
consider the impact that traffic signals may have on the traffic locally and the wider network,
and act to provide the most efficient strategy to minimize network delay. The engineer will
complete a design and operational study that establishes the benefits and costs.
Further details on the design of signal-controlled intersections are provided in Volume 1,

Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.

4
3.10 Data and Analysis for Intersections

Classified traffic counts, including cars/ trucks, pedestrians and cyclists, for proposed
operating conditions, including off-peak, should be conducted to assess the intersection
operation for both opening and design years.
For signal-controlled intersections, it is important that both peak and off-peak flows to be
considered, particularly where part-time signals are to be used. The intersection layout and
arrangement should be designed to achieve an efficient layout and accommodate users and
their desired paths or destinations.
Other basic data that are commonly required include the following:
• Topography at sites
• Adjacent land use, access points to properties, and special site constraints, such as
the location of public utilities, trees, monuments, property boundaries, buildings, and
drainage structures, including pipes
• Compilation and analysis of crash data for the most recent 5-year period. Five years is a
typical period to use in the analysis of crashes; however, no fewer than 3 years should
be used.
• Current traffic, including cyclists and pedestrians
• Special network functions, existing and proposed, such as freight routes and bus routes
• Values of economic factors, such as operating and delay costs, and rates for construction
and maintenance work
• Property values and utility adjustment costs to be used in the analysis stage
• Budget limits
• Special constraints, such as political commitments, flood levels
• The predicted traffic flows and turning movements

4

4
4 Roundabout Type Selection
4.1 Route Designation

Roundabouts are intersections where traffic circulates counterclockwise around a central
island; traffic entering a roundabout is required to yield to vehicles on the circulatory roadway.
In Qatar, new roundabouts incorporate either one or two lanes on the circulatory roadway.
Consequently, new roundabouts with three or more lanes on the circulatory roadway are not
permitted.
Roundabouts can be useful where an intersection requires three or more approaches or

where a transition of roadway cross sections is required. In general, roundabouts minimize
delays for vehicles while maintaining safe passage of all road users through the intersection.
Because vehicular traffic is required to slow down on the approach to a roundabout, these
intersection types can also be a useful traffic-calming feature.
Location constraints are often a dominant factor, particularly in urban areas, and it may
be found that provision of a roundabout is not appropriate due to difficulty in achieving a
suitable geometric layout. Roundabouts also may not be suitable in areas that use urban
traffic control, integrated demand management, or other circumstances where access control
is required.
4.2 Traffic Flows and Capacity

Consideration should be given to the expected traffic flows both in the opening or existing
year and in the design year. In general, roundabouts can accommodate higher traffic volumes
than priority intersections and lower traffic volumes than signalized intersections or grade-
separated interchanges.
A primary value of the roundabout is its elimination of right-angle conflicts, which create the
most severe crashes on higher-speed roads. For this reason, roundabouts are appropriate
solutions on lower-volume, high-speed roads intersecting with other roads with similar
speeds and volumes. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of
Roundabouts are intended to operate in a self-regulating manner. They perform satisfactorily

when flows are balanced on each approach. A roundabout allows traffic from any approach
to navigate through the circulatory roadway under the same basic yield-to-entry protocol.
The operating costs of roundabouts are minimal, as there are no traffic signals to maintain.
When a roundabout operates at traffic volumes well under its capacity, vehicles typically will
be moving constantly, reducing braking, idling, and fuel emissions. However, this operating
condition can be challenging for pedestrians desiring to cross one or more of the approaches.

4
Roundabouts can take considerable space to construct. Access control is necessary on

approaches. With these considerations and the concerns about pedestrians, the following
conditions require special care in considering their use:
• There is an expected or forecast of significant growth in traffic through the roundabout.
• There is an expected or forecast of high or unbalanced demand on one or two of the

approaches.
• Pedestrians are prevalent or expected to become prevalent based on future development.
• Patterns of traffic vary significantly throughout the day.
4.3 Data and Analysis for Roundabouts

Classified traffic counts (including pedestrians and cyclists) for proposed operating
conditions, including off-peak, should be undertaken to assess the intersection operation for
both opening and design years.
The following data should be reviewed to determine the suitability of a roundabout for a
particular situation:
• Whether the approach roads are single lane or multilane
• The speed limit on the approach roads
• The level of traffic flow
• The level of nonmotorized user flow
• Other constraints, such as right-of-way availability and access needs near one or more
approaches
Volume 1, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of this Manual, provides for additional details
regarding the design of roundabouts.
Other basic data that are commonly required include the following:
• Topography at sites
• Land use, access points to properties and special site constraints, such as the location
of public utilities, trees, monuments, property boundaries, buildings, and drainage
structures including pipes
• Compilation and analysis of crash data for the most recent 5-year period. Five years is a
typical period to use in the analysis of crashes; however, no fewer than 3 years should
be used.
• Special network functions, existing and proposed, such as freight routes and bus routes

4
• Values of economic factors, such as operating and delay costs, and rates for construction
and maintenance work
• Property values, utility adjustment costs to be used in the analysis stage
• Budget limits
• Special constraints, such as political commitments, flood levels

4

4
5 High-volume At-grade
Intersection Types
5.1 Introduction
For most corridors and intersections, the solutions in previous sections will be sufficient.
However, as development and traffic volumes increase in Qatar and along certain highways,
the need for creative solutions to intersection design and operations will emerge.
Agencies having to deal with very high traffic volumes on arterial streets have successfully
tested and implemented unique design solutions for at-grade intersections. This section
summarizes a selection of at-grade intersections that have potential applicability to the
urban multilane arterials in Qatar.
A common theme among these solutions is addressing the dilemma created by the combination
of high through volumes and high left-turning traffic volumes. In these situations, there is a
limit to the capacity of a conventional signal-controlled intersection. Increasing the number
of left-turn lanes from two to three often produces little or no net benefit, as the space
needed for the paths of three abreast turning requires operation of the intersection under
highly inefficient “split phasing,” in which each approach has its own phase and simultaneous
opposing movements are not possible.
Three special intersection forms can be implemented to address increased traffic volumes:
indirect left-turn intersections, also known as Michigan left-turn intersections; “superstreet”
intersections; and continuous-flow intersections.
5.2 Indirect Left-turn Intersections

An indirect left-turn intersection is one in which left turns are prohibited. Drivers are directed
by advance signing that their turn is to be made by turning right at the intersection, then
proceeding beyond the crossroad to a median U-turn. From there, drivers proceed through
the intersection again in the desired direction of travel. This treatment can be applied to
both left turns on the crossing road, thus necessitating U-turn roadways on both sides of
the intersection.
By prohibiting left turns, the signal phase for it is eliminated, as is the need for storage of
left turns on the approach. The operational trade-off is that left turns go out of direction and
that traffic actually passes through the intersection twice; once as a right-turn movement
and again as a through movement (Federal Highway Administration [FHWA], 2004).

4
Figure 5.1 illustrates an indirect left-turn intersection. This design is applicable for multi-
lane arterials with sufficient width of median to allow the U-turn to be completed by a
sufficiently large vehicle such as a single unit truck.
Figure 5.1 Example of an Indirect Left-turn Intersection with Median U-turn
The U-turn movement shall be signalized, with crossroad through traffic stopped for the
U-turning traffic. If the median is wide enough, the U-turn movement can operate as a two-
lane movement.
The siting and design of U-turns needs to consider traffic volumes, the separation of the
U-turn from the intersection and storage length requirements. The storage lengths for the
U-turn would be determined using the same design criteria applied to conventional left-turn
storage.
Volume 1, Part 8, Design of Signal Controlled Intersections, of this Manual, provides

guidance regarding the design of signalized median U-turns; in particular Section 3.3.8 and
Section 3.3.9 where geometric design requirements are provided.
5.3 “Superstreet” Intersections

A “superstreet” intersection is very similar to the median U-turn as shown in the previous
page. As shown in Figure 5.2, movements for the crossroad turn right—both through and
left-turning movements, are prohibited. Thus, the U-turn roadways are designed as two-lane
U-turns and are signalized.
The separation from the crossroad should be determined by the length of storage for the
U-turn traffic using each crossover. In most cases, this storage will be 200 m or more as
indicated by a traffic analysis. The operation of the single intersection that in conventional
design would have four phases is translated into three intersections, each of which
operates with only two phases. Note: Pedestrians can be routed through the middle of the
intersection and cross during the signal phase carrying turning traffic from the major road
into the crossroad.

4
Source: FHWA (2004)
Figure 5.2 “Superstreet” Intersection
5.4 Continuous-flow Intersections

A continuous-flow intersection follows the same operational concept as that discussed in
Section 5.3. A single, high-volume intersection requiring four phases for turning movements
is translated into a local network of five coordinated two-phase intersections. In a
continuous-flow intersection, the left turns are “transposed” or cross the opposing through
traffic upstream of the major intersection. This movement is done using a signal. Once on
the opposite side of the through traffic, drivers can continue with the turn to the crossroad
during the same signal phase as the opposing through traffic.
This highly efficient concept can be applied to all four approaches, as shown on Figure 5.3,
or to just one crossroad with conventional left turns operating on the other roadway. The
concept also can be applied to high-volume, three-approach intersections.
With a continuous-flow intersection, the spacing between the central intersection and
approach crossovers should be at least 100 m, with additional storage as indicated by a
traffic analysis. With storage length requirement for the crossover queues, the length of
access control along each approach can be significant—as much as 200 m or more. The
transposed left-turn movements should be physically separated from opposing traffic. The
example continuous-flow intersection, shown on Figure 5.3, with full 3.65 m lane widths and
separation, can require 130 m of total width (including right-turn lanes), possibly requiring
the acquisition of additional right-of-way.

4
Continuous-flow Intersection
Source: FHWA (2004)
Figure 5.3

4
5.5 Arterial-to-arterial Grade Separations

For instances where a high-volume intersection, such as those presented in this section, is not
possible, and traffic demand exceeds the capacity of a conventional signalized intersection,
designers may need to consider an interchange between the two arterials. Volume 1, Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, describes basic arterial-to-
arterial concepts that may have applicability in urban settings.

4
References
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Signalized Intersections: Informational Guide. Report No. FHWA-
HRT-04-091. U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. 2004.

Volume 1
Part 5
Roadway Design
Criteria
ROADWAY DESIGN CRITERIA PART
5
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART ROADWAY DESIGN CRITERIA
5

5
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations................................................................................................... v
1 Urban Roadway Design..................................................................................................1

1.1. Design Criteria for Urban Expressways............................................................................................... 2
1.1.1. Network Connections.............................................................................................................2
1.1.2. Design Vehicle...........................................................................................................................3
1.1.3. Decision Sight Distance.........................................................................................................5
1.1.4. Cross Slope and Superelevation.........................................................................................5
1.1.5. Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset............................................................................5
1.1.6. Median Width.............................................................................................................................5
1.1.7. Parking, Sidewalks, and Cycle Paths.................................................................................6
1.1.8. Interchanges with Arterials and Rural Freeways........................................................6
1.1.9. Collector-Distributor Roads..................................................................................................6
1.1.10. Vertical Clearances..................................................................................................................6
1.1.11. Right-of-Way Widths...............................................................................................................6
1.2. Design Criteria for Arterials, Collector Distributor Roads and Boulevards............................ 6
1.2.1. Network Connections.............................................................................................................7
1.2.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................10
1.2.3. Cross Slope and Superelevation......................................................................................10
1.2.4.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................10
1.2.5. Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance......................................................................10
1.2.6. Median Width..........................................................................................................................11
1.2.7. On-street Parking..................................................................................................................11
1.2.8. Cycle Paths...............................................................................................................................11
1.2.9.Sidewalks..................................................................................................................................12
1.2.10. Intersection Design..............................................................................................................12
1.2.11. Service Roads..........................................................................................................................12
1.2.12.Interchanges...........................................................................................................................12
1.2.13. Vertical Clearances...............................................................................................................12
1.2.14. Right-of-Way Widths............................................................................................................12
1.3. Design Criteria for Collectors................................................................................................................ 13
1.3.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................15
1.3.4. Median Width..........................................................................................................................15
1.3.5.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................16
1.3.6. Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance......................................................................16

5
1.3.8. Cycle Paths...............................................................................................................................17

1.3.9.Sidewalks..................................................................................................................................17
1.4. Design Criteria for Local and Service Roads................................................................................... 17
1.4.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................18
1.4.4.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................19
1.4.5. Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearances....................................................................19
1.4.7. Cycle Paths...............................................................................................................................19
1.4.8.Sidewalks..................................................................................................................................20
1.4.10.Driveways.................................................................................................................................20
1.4.11. Cul-de-Sacs and Turnarounds...........................................................................................23
2 Rural Roadway Design Criteria................................................................................... 26

2.1. Design Criteria for Rural Freeways.................................................................................................... 27
2.1.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................27
2.1.3. Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile...................................................................27
2.1.4. Decision Sight Distance......................................................................................................28
2.1.6. Median Width..........................................................................................................................31
2.1.7.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................31
2.1.8. Roadside Slopes and Clear Zones...................................................................................32
2.1.9.Interchanges...........................................................................................................................32
2.2. Design Criteria for Rural Arterials....................................................................................................... 32
2.2.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................35
2.2.4. Decision Sight Distance......................................................................................................35
2.2.5. Passing Sight Distance........................................................................................................35

5
2.2.7. Median Width..........................................................................................................................35

2.2.8.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................36
2.2.9. Roadside Slopes and Clear Zone.....................................................................................36
2.2.10.Interchanges...........................................................................................................................36
2.3. Design Criteria for Rural Collectors.................................................................................................... 37
2.3.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................38
2.3.4. Passing Sight Distance........................................................................................................40
2.3.6. Median Width..........................................................................................................................40
2.3.7.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................41
2.4. Design Criteria for Rural Local Roads................................................................................................ 41
2.4.2. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................42
2.4.5.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................42
References............................................................................................................................... 45

5
Tables
Table 1.1. Design Criteria for Urban Expressways.....................................................................................................4

Table 1.2. Major Urban Arterial and Collector Distributor Road Design Criteria.............................................8
Table 1.3. Minor Urban Arterial and Boulevard Design Criteria............................................................................9
Table 1.4. Major Urban Collector Design Criteria.....................................................................................................14
Table 1.5. Minor Urban Collector Design Criteria.....................................................................................................14
Table 1.6. Urban Local and Service Road Design Criteria.....................................................................................18
Table 1.7. Recommended Driveway Geometric Elements....................................................................................20
Table 1.8. Minimum Spacing of Driveways................................................................................................................21
Table 2.1. Design Criteria for Rural Freeways..........................................................................................................30
Table 2.2. Design Criteria for Rural Arterials.............................................................................................................34
Table 2.3. Design Criteria for Rural Collectors..........................................................................................................39
Table 2.4. Design Criteria for Rural Locals Roads....................................................................................................43
Figures
Figure 1.1. Channelization for Design Vehicle—Passenger Car and Single Unit Truck...............................22
Figure 1.2. Channelization for Design Vehicle—Semitrailer...................................................................................22
Figure 1.3. Driveway Return Treatments.....................................................................................................................23
Figure 1.4. Cul-de-Sac and Turning Head Layouts and Dimensions..................................................................24

5
AASHTO American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (USA)
Ashghal Public Works Authority of Qatar
DB design-build
H horizontal
ITS intelligent transportation system
m meter(s)
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program (USA)
PSD passing sight distance
Qatar Rail Qatar Railways Company
SSD stopping sight distance
TMPQ Transportation Master Plan for Qatar
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
V vertical
VRS vehicle restraint system

5

5
1 Urban Roadway Design

This chapter presents guidance on the applicable geometric design criteria for urban
roadways. Urban roadways are built adjacent to densely populated areas that may be zoned
for commercial, industrial, recreational, or residential. They have different characteristics
than rural roadways, and provide varying levels of access and mobility. There needs to
be an optimum balance between providing mobility and providing access. The functional
classification is the link that provides this balance.
The following road classifications in an urban environment are defined in Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual:
• Urban Expressway
• Urban Arterials
−− Major Arterials
−− Minor Arterials
−− Boulevards
−− Collector Distributors
• Urban Collectors
−− Major Collectors
−− Minor Collectors
• Urban Local
−− Service Roads
−− Local Roads
This section is further subdivided into four sub-sections:
• Section 1.1: Design Criteria for Urban Expressways
• Section 1.2: Design Criteria for Arterials, Collector Distributor Roads and Boulevards
• Section 1.3: Design Criteria for Collectors
• Section 1.4: Design Criteria for Local and Service Roads
The design criteria for urban roadways presented in this Manual are based on international
best practices, primarily from the United States of America (USA) and the United Kingdom
(UK), using the following references:

5
• American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), A Policy

on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th edition, 2018
• AASHTO, Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition, 2011
• Department for Transport, UK Highways Agency, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
2013
• Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual, 1997
• National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Guide for the Geometric
Design of Driveways, Report 659, 2010
• Ohio Department of Transportation, State Highway Access Management Manual, 2001
• Illinois Department of Transportation, Access to State Highways, 1990
• Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for
Qatar (TMPQ), A Guide to Planning Roads in Qatar, 2008
1.1 Design Criteria for Urban Expressways

Urban expressways carry most vehicle trips into and out of urban areas and generally carry
medium to high traffic volumes (50,000 to 80,000 vehicles per day [vpd]) at high design
speeds (100 to 120 kilometers per hour [kph]). The primary function of an expressway is to
provide mobility. Access is limited to interchanges. The expressways generally are designed
for a level of service (LOS) C. Urban expressways can be of many forms—depressed, elevated,
or a combination of these—depending on the topography and the available right-of-way.
Table 1.1 presents the minimum design criteria for urban expressways. For further guidance
on roadway design criteria and typical cross sections, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual. For further guidance on shoulder widths refer to Volume 1,
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual. The verge of urban
expressways shall be equipped with a longitudinal vehicle restraint system (VRS) as required
in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety, of this Manual.
For typical cross sections for urban expressways, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual. Table 1.1 provides values for a full range of potential selected
design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific
values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual. However, designers may select a design speed other than
specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process
specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.

Details of permitted network connections to other types of urban roads, as well as the
permitted intersection types, are set out in Section 5.7 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and
Section 2.1 of Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this Manual.

5
1.1.2 Design Vehicle

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle on urban expressways.
For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Section 6.3 of Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, and Section 4.2 of Volume 1, Part 6, Priority Intersections, of this Manual.

5
Table 1.1 Design Criteria for Urban Expressways
Vertical
Curve
K Values for Max/
Minimum Radius (m) SSD Preferred
Design Year Design Mina
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% SSD Grades
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superb Superb Superb Superb (m) Crest Sag (%)
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
50,000 to
C 110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 220 74 31 3/0.5
80,000
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 250 95 37
Notes:
For dimensions of lanes, shoulders and median refer to typical cross sections, refer to Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
a
Absolute minimum grade shall be 0.3 percent.
b
Normal Cross Slope, 2 percent.
Super = superelevation

5
1.1.3 Decision Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance (SSD) values in Table 1.1 are derived from guidance in the AASHTO
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2018) and should be provided along
the expressway. As the interchange approaches, additional sight distance referred to as
decision sight distance (DSD) may be provided to enhance the traffic operations. Volume 1,
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, contains guidance
in providing DSD.
1.1.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent, and the maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on urban expressways, as shown in Table 1.1. For further guidance
on calculation of superelevation transition lengths and application of the transition length to
the horizontal curves, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
1.1.5 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset

Lateral offsets and horizontal clearances vary dependent upon the road configuration. For
details of horizontal clearances and lateral offsets, refer to Section 3.7 of Volume 1, Part 3,
The verge of urban expressways shall be equipped with a longitudinal vehicle restraint
system (VRS) as required in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety, of
this Manual.
1.1.6 Median Width

Median width is the distance between the edges of traveled ways of the opposing traffic
and includes the width of the median shoulders. The median width varies and is dependent
on the width of the shoulders, light pole unit foundations, piers or the foundation of the sign
trusses, vehicle restraint system (VRS) or the width needed to accommodate any rail system
that may be placed in the median.
For urban expressways, the minimum widths of the various design elements are shown on
the typical cross sections in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
The design of medians and any VRS shall take into consideration the Safe System Approach
as per the Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, pf this Manual. The
designer should establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project within the
project limits and as well as for the corridor.
Median VRS shall either be double-faced concrete barriers along the centerline where there
are no lighting columns or other hazards in the median. Otherwise single-faced concrete
barriers shall be sited in the median on either side of the hazard.
The minimum recommended widths of any separator islands are defined in Section 6.2.6
of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. For separator islands

5
accommodating any road furniture, its width should be increased according to the
recommendations of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for additional details
on medians.
1.1.7 Parking, Sidewalks, and Cycle Paths

On-street parking is the parking provided adjacent to the traveled way, within the roadway
pavement On-street parking shall not be provided adjacent to the traveled way on urban
expressways. Parking, sidewalks, and cycle paths can be provided, but they must be
segregated from the expressway.
1.1.8 Interchanges with Arterials and Rural Freeways

Expressways are connected to arterials and rural freeways via interchanges. The interchange
design should be in accordance with the design criteria presented in Volume 1, Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.

Collector-distributor roads run parallel to expressways. Design criteria for collector-
distributor roads are presented in Section 1.2 of this Part, and also discussed in Volume 1,
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.
1.1.10 Vertical Clearances

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under urban expressways should
be at least 6.5 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional details
regarding the vertical clearances refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual.
1.1.11 Right-of-Way Widths

For Urban Expressways, the right-of-way width generally varies from 64 m to 264 m. For
further details, refer to Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
1.2 Design Criteria for Arterials, Collector Distributor Roads and

Boulevards
Urban arterials are subdivided into major arterial and minor arterials, based on the function
and service they provide.
Major arterials link the traffic from the expressways to boulevards, major collectors, minor
arterials, and service roads. They connect urban districts and their primary function is mobility
with limited access. They carry medium to high volumes of traffic (30,000 to 60,000 vpd)
with design speeds ranging from 60 to 100 kph.

5
Minor arterials link the traffic between major arterials, boulevards, collectors, and service
roads. They connect urban districts and their primary function is mobility, and their secondary
function is access. They carry low to medium volumes of traffic (20,000 to 50,000 vpd) with
design speeds ranging from 50 to 100 kph.
Urban boulevards link the traffic from the arterials to collectors, service roads, and local roads.
They are a special form of arterial and are used adjacent to high-quality development, where
greater integration of nonmotorized users is required or demanded. Their primary function
is mobility, and their secondary function is access. They carry medium to high volumes of
traffic (30,000 to 60,000 vpd) with design speeds ranging from 50 to 100 kph.
Collector distributor roads distribute traffic between expressway interchanges, their primary
function is mobility, and their secondary function is access. They carry low to medium
volumes of traffic (5,000 to 50,000 vpd). Collector distributor roads are part of the urban
expressway and rural freeway system. As per Clause 3.4.5 of Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges
and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, their design speed should be the same
as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline. Therefore, their
design speeds range from 80 to 120 kph for urban expressways, and 100 to 140 kph for
rural freeways.
For detailed descriptions of these functional classifications, refer to Volume 1, Part 2,

Table 1.2 presents the minimum design criteria for the major arterials and collector distributor
roads; and Table 1.3 presents the minimum criteria for minor arterials and boulevards. For
further guidance on roadway design criteria, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual. For typical cross sections for urban arterials, refer to Volume 1,
Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 provide values for a range of potential selected design speeds in
even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual. However, designers may select a design speed other than those specified
in Table 1.1 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, for a given functional
classification through departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process, of this Manual.

Limited connections to the local roads are permitted, upon justification and approval from
the Overseeing Organization.

5
Table 1.2 Major Urban Arterial and Collector Distributor Road Design Criteria
Vertical
Curve
K Values for
Minimum Radius (m) SSD Max/
Preferred
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10
70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 13
Major Urban
Arterial: 30,000 to C 80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17 4/0.5
60,000
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 21
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 21
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26

D
Collector
(Urban)
Distributor Road: 110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 220 74 31 3/0.5
C
5,000 to 50,000c
(Rural)
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 250 95 37
130 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 285 124 73
140 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 325 161 84
Notes:
a
b
c
Collector distributor roads are part of the freeway or expressway. As per Clause 3.4.5 of Volume 1, Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, their design speed should be the same
as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline.

5
Table 1.3 Minor Urban Arterial and Boulevard Design Criteria
Vertical
Curve
K Values for
Minimum Radius (m) SSD
Max/
Design Year Design Preferred
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% SSD Mina
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superb Superb Superb Superb (m) Crest Sag Grades (%)
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10
70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 13

Minor Arterial:
20,000 to C 4/0.5
50,000
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 21
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10
70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 13

Boulevard:
30,000 to D 4/0.5
60,000
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 21
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
Notes:
a
b

5

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle at the interchange
locations and intermediate semitrailer WB-15, should be used at other locations on the
major arterials. On minor arterial and boulevards, preferred design vehicle is intermediate
semitrailer, WB-15; however, at minimum, intermediate semitrailer WB-12 should be used.

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent and the maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on urban arterials, as shown in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3. For further
guidance on calculation of superelevation transition lengths and application of the transition
length to the horizontal curves, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual.
Superelevation on horizontal curves is advantageous on high-speed arterials and should be

applied. On low-speed urban arterials and boulevards, it may be impractical or infeasible
to provide superelevation because of right-of-way constraints, frequency of crossroads,
driveways, proximity of adjacent properties, control of drainage, and desire to maintain low
speed operations. Therefore, provision of superelevation on low-speed urban arterials and
boulevards may be optional. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4
1.2.4 Curbs
On low-speed urban arterial corridors with posted speeds less than 80 kph, curbs normally
are placed adjacent to the traveled way to control drainage and parking and to minimize
right-of-way impacts.
Curbs are not recommended along roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater. If
curbs are used in conjunction with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater to control drainage,
they should be placed at least 1.2 m from the edge of the traveled way or at the edge of
the paved shoulder, whichever is farther from the traveled way or a vehicle restraint system
(VRS) should be used. The design of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23,
Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
For guidance on curb types, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual.
1.2.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance

On curbed sections, the minimum lateral offset should be 0.6 m. At curbed intersection
locations, lateral offset should be at least 0.9 m to accommodate truck turns. At uncurbed
locations, the minimum lateral offset is 1.2 m. For discussion on lateral offset and horizontal
clearance, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

5
1.2.6 Median Width

and includes the width of the median shoulders. The median width varies; and is dependent
on the width of the shoulders, width needed to accommodate landscaping, vehicle restraint
systems, and development of left turn lanes at the intersections. The designer should
establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project within the project limits, as
well as for the corridor in coordination with the Overseeing Organization.
For low speed urban arterials and urban boulevards, the minimum widths of the various
design elements are shown on the typical cross sections in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause
10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual. The design of medians and any VRS shall
take into consideration the Safe System Approach as per the Volume 3, Part 23, Design and
Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual for additional details on
medians and separators.
1.2.7 On-street Parking

pavement. On-street parking shall not be provided on major and minor arterials or boulevards
adjacent to the traveled way, within the roadway pavement. Parking along the service road
adjacent to the arterial and the boulevard can be provided with adequate separation between
the two roadways. On-street parking along one-way service roads is generally preferred
along the right side of the road. Where driveways and access points are so frequent as to
greatly limit the availability of parking on the right, it may be located on the left side of
the service road. However, the separator between the service road and main road must be
designed to ensure safety is considered; including island width, slope and VRS protection
(where necessary). The design of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23,
For parking dimensions and service roads widths, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
1.2.8 Cycle Paths

On arterials and boulevards, cycle paths shall not be provided within the roadway pavement,
adjacent to the traveled way. Refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this
Manual for further guidance on cycle paths.

5
1.2.9 Sidewalks
Sidewalks may be provided on one side or both sides of the roadway, within the right-of-
way with adequate separation from the traveled way. The sidewalk widths should be in
accordance with Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Volume 3, Part 19,
1.2.10 Intersection Design

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of an arterial. Good intersection
design should provide adequate intersection sight distance, adequate turning radii, and
adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and accommodation of pedestrians and
cyclists within the right-of-way footprint. For design criteria, refer to Volume 1, Part 4,
Intersections and Roundabouts, Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, and
Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual. Markings and signing
shall be per the Qatar Highway Traffic Control Manual.
1.2.11 Service Roads

One-way service roads with parking on one side are common in Qatar. They run parallel to
the arterials and provide access to abutting commercial and retail establishments. Service
roads are physically separated from the arterials by curbed medians, reducing the number
of access points onto the arterial and separating the high-speed arterial traffic from low-
speed service road traffic. Service road connections to arterials should be designed as at-
grade intersections in accordance with the design criteria presented in Volume 1, Part 4,
Intersections and Roundabouts, and Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of
this Manual. Service roads should be designed in accordance with the criteria presented in
Section 1.4 in this Part.
1.2.12 Interchanges
Major arterials are connected to urban expressway by interchanges. Interchange design
should be in accordance with the design criteria presented in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges
and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under arterials should be at least
6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional details regarding
the vertical clearances, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

For Major Arterials, the right-of-way width is 64 m. For Minor Arterials, the right-of-way
width generally varies from 40 m to 64 m, and for Boulevards, the width is 64 m. For

5
1.3 Design Criteria for Collectors

Urban collectors are the links between the local and service roads and the arterials. They
collect traffic from the residential, industrial, and commercial neighborhoods and channel
that traffic into arterial systems. Based on the function and service they provide, collectors
are designated major or minor.
Major Collectors carry low to medium volume traffic (10,000 to 50,000 vpd) and have varying
design speeds ranging from 50 to 60 kph. They give equal importance to both mobility and
access.
Minor Collectors carry low volume traffic (5,000 to 20,000 vpd) and have varying design
speeds ranging from 50 to 60 kph. Their primary function is access, and their secondary
function is mobility.
For detailed descriptions of these functional classifications, refer to Volume 1, Part 2,

Table 1.4 presents the minimum design criteria for the major collectors and Table 1.5
presents the minimum criteria for minor collectors. For further guidance on roadway design
criteria, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. For typical cross
sections for urban arterials, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual.

5
Table 1.4 Major Urban Collector Design Criteria
Vertical Curve
K Values for
Max/
Preferred
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7

20,000 to
D 6/0.5
50,000c
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10
Notes:
a
Absolute minimum vertical grade is 0.3 percent.
b
c
20,000 to 50,000 vpd for industrial and commercial land use frontage, 20,000 to 30,000 vpd for
residential land use frontage and 10,000 to 20,000 vpd for recreational land use frontage.
Table 1.5 Minor Urban Collector Design Criteria
Vertical Curve
K Values for
Minimum Radius (m) SSD Max/
Preferred
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7

5,000 to
D 6/0.5
20,000c
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10
Notes:
a
Absolute minimum grade is 0.3 percent.
b
c
20,000 to 50,000 vpd for industrial and commercial land use frontage, 20,000 to 30,000 vpd for
residential land use frontage and 10,000 to 20,000 vpd for recreational land use frontage.

5


Intermediate semitrailer, WB-12, should be used as the design vehicle for collectors. However,
at minimum, single unit truck, SU-12, should be used. For additional details regarding the
design vehicles, refer to Section 6.3 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Section 4.2 of
Volume 1, Part 6, Priority Intersections, of this Manual.

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent, and maximum superelevation rates of 2 to 5 percent
are applicable on urban collectors, as shown in Table 1.4 and Table 1.5. Refer to Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual for further guidance on calculating
superelevation transition lengths and application of the transition length to the horizontal
curves.
Superelevation is advantageous on high-speed collectors and should be applied. On low-

speed urban collectors in built-up areas it may be impractical or unfeasible to provide
superelevation because of right-of-way constraints, frequency of crossroads, driveways,
proximity of adjacent properties, control of drainage, and desire to maintain low speed
operations. Therefore, provision of superelevation on low-speed urban collectors is optional.
1.3.4 Median Width

Median width is the distance between the edges of traveled ways of the opposing traffic and
includes the width of the median shoulders. The median width varies and is dependent on
the width of the shoulders and width needed to accommodate landscaping or development
of left turn lanes at the intersections. The designer should establish a consistent median
width at the onset of the project within the project limits, as well as for the corridor in
coordination with the Overseeing Organization.
For major urban collectors, the minimum widths of the various design elements are shown
on the typical cross sections in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
The design of medians and any VRS shall take into consideration the Safe System Approach
as per the Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.

5
on medians.
1.3.5 Curbs
On low-speed urban collector corridors with posted speeds less than 80 kph, curbs normally
are placed adjacent to the traveled way to control drainage and parking and to minimize
right-of-way impacts.
curbs are used in conjunction with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater to control drainage
and minimize right-of-way impacts, they should be placed at least 1.2 m from the edge of
the traveled way or at the edge of the paved shoulder, whichever is farther from the traveled
way or a vehicle restraint system (VRS) should be used. The design of any VRS shall be in
accordance with Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual for guidance on curb
types used in Qatar.
1.3.6 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance

locations, the minimum lateral offset is 1.2 m. For more information on lateral offsets and
horizontal clearance, refer to Section 3.7 in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual.

pavement. For major collectors parking shall not be provided adjacent to the traveled way
within the roadway pavement. Parking should be provided along the service road for major
collectors and for the minor collectors, on-street parallel parking adjacent to the traveled way
may be provided in commercial, industrial, and residential areas. On-street parking along one-
way service roads is generally preferred along the right side of the road. Where driveways
and access points are so frequent as to greatly limit the availability of parking on the right,
it may be located on the left side of the service road. However, the separator between the
service road and main road must be designed to ensure safety is considered; including island
width, slope and vehicle restraint system (VRS) protection (where necessary). The design
of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road
Safety, of this Manual.
A parking bay width of at least 2.5 m for commercial and residential areas and 3.0 m for
industrial areas should be provided. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual for further guidance and details on parking bay design details.

5
1.3.8 Cycle Paths

Cycle paths shall not be provided on the roadway pavement, adjacent to the traveled way.
Cycle paths can be provided adjacent to the roadway with adequate separation from the edge
of the traveled way. The width of the cycle paths should be in accordance with Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this
Manual.
Refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, for further guidance on
cycle paths.
1.3.9 Sidewalks
For further guidance on sidewalks, refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this
Manual.

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of a collector. Good intersection
cyclists within the right-of-way footprint. Refer to Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and
Roundabouts, Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, and Volume 1, Part 8,
Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual, for design criteria. Markings and signing

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under collectors should be at least
6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional details regarding
the vertical clearances, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

For Major Collectors, the right-of-way width generally varies from 32 m to 40 m and for
Minor Collectors, the right-of-way width generally varies from 20 m to 32 m. For further
details, refer to Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements
of this Manual.
1.4 Design Criteria for Local and Service Roads

Urban local roads and service roads link residential, industrial, and commercial neighborhoods
and urban collectors. They channel the traffic from the neighborhoods to the collector

5
systems. Access is the predominant function of the local and service roads, while mobility is
minor. Local roads carry low traffic volumes (less than 5,000 vpd) and have varying design
speeds ranging from 30 to 50 kph. Generally, local roads and service roads are designed for
low speeds. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1,
Table 1.6 lists the minimum design criteria for local roads and service roads. For further
guidance on roadway design criteria, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual. For typical cross sections for local roads, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Table 1.6 Urban Local and Service Road Design Criteria
Vertical Curve
Max/
K Values for
Preferred
30 180 160 90 65 35 2 2.5
Less than 5,000 D 40 360 320 185 130 50 4 4.5 8/0.5
50 510 450 260 180 65 7 7
Notes:
a
b


Single unit truck, SU-12, should be used as the design vehicle for local and service roads.

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent. The maximum superelevation rates of 2 to 5 percent
are applicable on local roads, as shown in Table 1.6. On low-speed local and service roads in
built-up areas, it may be impractical or infeasible to provide superelevation because of right-
of-way constraints, frequency of crossroads, driveways, proximity of adjacent properties,
control of drainage, and desire to maintain low speed operations. Therefore, provision of

5
superelevation on local and service roads may be optional. Low and high vehicle speeds on
1.4.4 Curbs
On low-speed local and service roads, curbs normally are placed adjacent to the traveled way
to control drainage, control parking, and minimize the right-of-way impacts. Curbs may be
placed adjacent to the traveled way.
Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for guidance on curb
types used in Qatar.
1.4.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearances

locations, the minimum lateral offset is 1.2 m. For discussion on lateral offset and horizontal
clearance, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

pavement. On-street parking along one-way service roads is generally preferred along the
right side of the road. Where driveways and access points are so frequent as to greatly
limit the availability of parking on the right, it may be located on the left side of the service
road. However, the separator between the service road and main road must be designed to
ensure safety is considered; including island width, slope and vehicle restraint system (VRS)
protection (where necessary). The design of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3,
Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
A parking bay width of at least 2.5 m for commercial and residential areas and 3.0 m for
industrial areas should be provided. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual, for further guidance and details on parking bay design details.
1.4.7 Cycle Paths

Cycle paths shall not be provided on the roadway pavement, adjacent to the traveled way.
Cycle paths can be provided adjacent to the roadway with adequate separation from the edge
of the traveled way. The width of the cycle paths should be in accordance with Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this
Manual.
Refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, for further guidance on
bike paths.

5
1.4.8 Sidewalks
For further guidance on sidewalks, refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this
Manual.

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of a local and service roads.
Good intersection design should provide adequate intersection sight distance, adequate
turning radii, and adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and accommodation
of pedestrians and cyclists within the right-of-way footprint. Refer to Volume 1, Part 4,
Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual, for design criteria.
Markings and signing shall be per the Qatar Highway Traffic Control Manual.
1.4.10 Driveways
Driveways are access points that connect adjacent properties to the roadway. Driveway
geometry depends on driveway type and the volume of traffic. Driveway types include
residential, commercial, and industrial. The type of driveway will dictate the type of design
vehicle to be used. The design vehicle establishes the minimum width of the driveway
and radius dimensions. In commercial areas, the volume of the traffic using the driveway
determines number of lanes on the driveway and will establish the overall driveway width.
Table 1.7 lists the recommended dimensions based on international best practices. See
the references listed in Section 1.0 in this Part. Where the driveway crosses a footway or
cycleway, the crossfall on the footway or cycleway shall be maintained (typically 2 %) except
for the curb ramp area.
Table 1.7 Recommended Driveway Geometric Elements
Width of Driveway, W (m) Radius of Longitudinal

Type of Design Driveway, Ra Driveway Grade
Driveway Vehicleb One-way Two-way (m) (percent)
Residential P 3.65 7.3 4.5 6.67c
Commercial SU-12 5.0 8.0 7.5 6.67
Industrial WB-12 5.0 8.0 10.5 5.00
Notes:
a
Radius drive return treatments are preferred, but flared drive treatment as shown in Figure 1.3 are
acceptable for residential drives.
b
Refer to Table 6.2 in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, for design vehicle details.
C
Absolute maximum grade shall be 12.5% (1 in 8 ). For details, refer to Clause 4.5 of Volume 1, Part 3,
kph = kilometers per hour
m = meters

5
Research has shown vehicle underside dragging can occur where the change in grade is
excessive. The inclusion of sag and crest curves in accordance with the values in Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, is preferred. However, where this is not
possible, a grade break is necessary. The maximum grade change without a vertical curve for
a crest to 10% and maximum grade change without a vertical curve for a sag to 9%.
Driveways shall not be placed within the functional area of an intersection or roundabout.
A minimum spacing between driveways helps reduce the potential for accidents where the
driver on the roadway needs to monitor successive driveways to avoid a collision with a
vehicle exiting a driveway. Table 1.8 shows the minimum spacing of between driveways
depending on the design speed of the roadway.
Table 1.8 Minimum Spacing of Driveways
Design Speed (kph) Minimum Spacing (m)
50 60
60 80
70 105
Source: Austroads, Guide to Road Design Part 4: Intersections and Crossings (2017)
Consideration should also be given to the following elements when designing driveways:
• Location of driveways: The location of a driveway affects the operation of an adjacent

roadway. Driveways should be located where adequate sight distance could be provided,
and they should be visible to the drivers on the roadway. For sight distance requirements,
refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. On local roads
projects related to private accesses and driveways to residences, the designer will
use sound engineering judgement to determine and apply the sight distance required,
considering the traffic volumes and speeds on the major road, the traffic volumes using
the private access/driveway and the level of service required. When proposed drives are
added to an existing corridor, the proposed driveways should be located such that there
is an adequate distance between the existing driveway and the proposed driveway to
provide required sight distance.
• Driveway channelization islands: Channelization at commercial and industrial driveways

controls and directs the traffic to its designated path and defines the merge and diverge
areas, as illustrated in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2. The islands should be designed to
accommodate the design vehicle.
• Driveway profile and cross slope: Driveway profile should be smooth and provide efficient
movements in and out of the driveway; see Figure 1.3. The profile should be flat and still
provide adequate drainage. Table 1.7 lists the recommended longitudinal grades. Cross

5
slope of the driveway should be consistent with grading and the topography and should
provide adequate drainage.
Figure 1.1 Channelization for Design Vehicle—Passenger Car and Single Unit Truck
Figure 1.2 Channelization for Design Vehicle—Semitrailer

5
Figure 1.3 Driveway Return Treatments
1.4.11 Cul-de-Sacs and Turnarounds

Cul-de-sacs and turnarounds are local access roads that are open at one end only and have
a turning area at the closed end. The turning areas can be of various shapes, as shown in
Figure 1.4, the dimensions are shown for information only. The choice and layout of the
turning area depends on the width of the roadway and the position of the properties that
need to be accessed and the available right-of-way.
A circular turning area is desirable, but the other shapes shown in Figure 1.4 are not
precluded. The geometry will depend on the available right-of-way and the design vehicle
expected to use the road. Refer to Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, for choice of
design vehicles and use the appropriate design vehicle to generate the geometry of the
cul-de-sacs and turnaround to determine the required right-of-way needed for construction.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under local roads should be
at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional details
this Manual.

For existing Local Roads, the right-of-way width generally varies from 10 m to 24 m.
However, the minimum right-of-way width for new Local Roads is 20 m. For further details,
refer to Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual.

5
Figure 1.4 Cul-de-Sac and Turning Head Layouts and Dimensions

5

5
2 Rural Roadway Design Criteria

This chapter presents guidance on the application of geometric design criteria for rural
roadways.
The TMPQ defines rural roadways as “Roads that lie adjacent to areas which are predominantly
natural, with little or no adjacent built land use development”. Rural roadways have different
characteristics than urban roadways, and provide varying levels of access and mobility.
The various road classifications in a rural environment are defined in Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual, and are as follows:
• Rural freeways
• Rural arterials
• Rural collectors
• Rural local
This section is further subdivided into four sub-sections:
• Section 2.1: Design Criteria for Rural Freeways
• Section 2.2: Design Criteria for Rural Arterials
• Section 2.3: Design Criteria for Rural Collectors
• Section 2.4: Design Criteria for Rural Local Roads
The design criteria for rural roadways, presented in this Manual, are based on international
best practices, primarily from the USA and the UK, using the following references:
• AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th edition, 2018
• AASHTO, Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition, 2011
• Department for Transport, UK Highways Agency, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
2013
• Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual, 1997
• Transportation Master Plan for Qatar (TMPQ), A Guide to Planning Roads in Qatar,
2008

5
2.1 Design Criteria for Rural Freeways

Rural freeways connect major cities and regions within Qatar as well as internationally. They
carry traffic volumes greater than 8,000 vpd, under free-flowing traffic conditions. Rural
freeways are designed for speeds ranging from 100 kph to 140 kph. The primary function
of the freeway is to provide mobility. Access is limited to interchanges. Rural freeways
generally are designed for LOS B. They carry at least three lanes in each direction with a
varying median width.
Collector distributor roads distribute traffic between freeway interchanges, their primary
function is mobility, and their secondary function is access. They carry low to medium
volumes of traffic (5,000 to 50,000 vpd). Collector distributor roads are part of the urban
expressway and rural freeway system. As per Clause 3.4.5 of Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges
and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, their design speed should be the same
as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline. Therefore, their
design speeds range from 80 to 120 kph for urban expressways and 100 to 140 kph for rural
freeways. Refer to Section 1.2 of this Part for details of collector distributor roads,
Table 2.1, presents the minimum design criteria for rural freeways. For further guidance
on roadway design criteria and typical cross sections, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
classification as shown in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
However, designers may select a design speed other than that specified in Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standard

Details of permitted network connections to other types of rural roads, as well as the

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle on rural freeways and
on designated truck routes. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to
Section 6.3 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Section 4.2 of Volume 1, Part 6, Priority
2.1.3 Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile

Rural freeways are designed for high-speed operation and free flow conditions. The horizontal
alignment and vertical alignment should be smooth with a combination of flatter horizontal

5
curves and gentle longitudinal grades. The horizontal curves are designed with maximum
5 percent superelevation and the vertical profiles with a maximum grade of 3 percent, as
shown in Table 2.1. Sag vertical K values shown on Table 2.1 are for unlighted roadway
conditions as specified in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

The SSD values shown in Table 2.1 are derived from guidance in the AASHTO A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2018) and should be provided along the
freeway. As the interchange approaches, additional DSD should be used to enhance safety
and traffic operations. Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of
this Manual, provides guidance for providing DSD.

5
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5
Table 2.1 Design Criteria for Rural Freeways
Vertical
Curve Roadside
K Values Slopesb
Max/
Minimum Radius (m) for SSD (V:H)
Preferred
Design Design Mina
Year AADT Speed SSD Grades
No 2% 3.5% 5% Fore Back
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superc Super Super Super (m) Crest Sag (%) Slope Slope
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 45
110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 220 74 55
Greater
B 120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 250 95 63 3/0.5 1:5 1:4
than 8,000
130d 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 285 124 73
140d 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 325 161 84
Notes:
a
b
For fore slopes steeper than 5:1, provide appropriate vehicle restraint system along the roadside. For
guidance, refer to Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
c
d
Collector distributor roads are part of the freeway or expressway. As per Clause 3.4.5 of Volume 1, Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, their design speed should be the same
as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline.
AADT = annual average daily traffic
H = horizontal
LOS = level of service
m = meters
SSD = stopping sight distance
V = vertical
vpd = vehicles per day

5

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent, and the maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on rural freeways, as shown in Table 2.1 Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual, provides further guidance on calculating superelevation
transition lengths, and application of the transition length to the horizontal curves.
2.1.6 Median Width

on the width of the shoulders, width of the features that need to be accommodated in the
median such as; light pole unit foundations, width of the piers or the foundation of the
sign trusses, or the width needed to accommodate the rail. The designer should establish a
consistent median width at the onset of the project within the project limits and as well as
for the corridor.
For rural freeways, the minimum widths of the various design elements are shown on the
typical cross sections in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. The
design of medians and any VRS shall take into consideration the Safe System Approach as
per the Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
Open medians generally should be graded with fore slopes of 1V:5H or flatter. The median
should be wide enough when provisions of future lanes are considered. For a future 10-lane
divided rural freeway, the median width should be at least 50.85 m to accommodate three
future lanes in each direction. If there is a master plan for the provision of rail in the median,
the median width should also be adjusted accordingly in coordination with Qatar Railways
Company (Qatar Rail).
on medians.
2.1.7 Curbs
and minimize right-of-way impacts, they should be placed at least 3.0 m from the edge of
the traveled way or behind a Vehicle Restraint System (VRS). The use of curbs should be
limited to isolated locations such as lighted interchange locations to control drainage and
minimize right-of-way. The design of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23,

5
2.1.8 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zones

Since the rural freeways operate at high speeds, the roadside environment should be
designed to be forgiving and to provide adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Slopes
flatter than 1V:5H should be used along the freeway with required clear zones. Clear zones
are a function of traffic volume, design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate clear zone
should be provided as stated in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of
this Manual.
2.1.9 Interchanges
Rural freeways are connected to other rural freeways, rural arterial, rural collectors, and
urban expressways via interchanges. The interchange design should be in accordance with
the design criteria presented in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway
Corridors, of this Manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under rural freeways should
this Manual.

For Rural Freeways, the right-of-way width is 264 m. For further details, refer to Volume 1,
Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
2.2 Design Criteria for Rural Arterials

Rural arterials carry moderate traffic volumes, ranging from 2,000 to 8,000 vpd, and connect
major land uses within a small region. Rural arterials collect traffic from the rural collectors
and channel it to the rural freeways. They are designed for design speeds ranging from
100 kph to 120 kph. The primary function of the arterials is to provide mobility. They have
limited access to freeways by interchanges and to collectors by signalized intersections, or
roundabouts. Rural arterials generally are designed for LOS C. They carry at least two lanes in
each direction and have a divided median of varying width. Design of arterials carrying only
one lane in each direction should not be precluded. Design criteria for two lane undivided
arterials is also presented in this Section.
Table 2.2 presents the minimum design criteria for rural arterials. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for further guidance on the design criteria and on
typical cross sections.
However, designers may select a design speed other than specified in Volume 1, Part 3,

5
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for a given functional classification through
departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standard Process, of
this Manual.


5
Table 2.2 Design Criteria for Rural Arterials
Vertical Vertical
Curve Curve
K Values K Values
Based on Based on
Max/
Design Minimum Radius (m) SSD PSD
Preferred
Year Design Mina
AADT Speed SSD PSD Grades
No 2% 3.5% 5% Crest
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superb Super Super Super (m) Crest Sag (m) (%)
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 45 580 390
2,000
to C 110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 220 74 55 630 460 4/0.5
8,000
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 250 95 63 690 555
Notes:
a
b
m = meters
PSD = passing sight distance
SSD = sight stopping distance

5

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle at the interchange
locations and intermediate semitrailer, WB-15, should be used at other locations on the
rural arterials. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Section 6.3 of
Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Section 4.2 of Volume 1, Part 6, Priority Intersections, of
this Manual.

Rural arterials are designed for high-speed operation at LOS C, which is close to free- flowing
conditions. The horizontal and vertical alignments should be smooth, with a combination of
flatter horizontal curves and gentle longitudinal grades. The horizontal curves are designed
with maximum 5 percent superelevation and the vertical profiles with a maximum grade
of 4 percent and K values, as shown in Table 2.2 for both multilane divided and two-lane
arterials. Sag vertical K values shown on Table 2.2 are for unlighted roadway conditions as
specified in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

The SSD values in Table 2.2 are derived from guidance in the AASHTO A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets (2018) and should be provided along the arterials. As the
interchange approaches, additional DSD should be provided to enhance safety and traffic
operations. Guidance in providing DSD is presented in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and
Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.
2.2.5 Passing Sight Distance

On two-lane undivided rural arterials, sufficient opportunities should be provided for drivers
to overtake slow-moving vehicles. Passing sight distance (PSD) is the design element that
could provide these passing opportunities. PSD is the distance required for a vehicle to pass
another vehicle traveling in the same direction comfortably and safely, without conflict with
vehicles traveling in the opposing direction. PSD is a function of the design speed. For a
detailed discussion on PSD, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual. Table 2.2 provides design values for PSD and the K values for designing vertical
profile based on PSD.

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent, and the maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on rural arterials, as shown in Table 2.2. Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual, provides further guidance on calculation of superelevation
transition lengths and application of the transition length to the horizontal curves.
2.2.7 Median Width

on the width of the shoulders, width of the features that need to be accommodated in the

5
median such as; light pole unit foundations, width of the piers or the foundation of the
sign trusses, or the width needed to accommodate the rail. The designer should establish a
consistent median width at the onset of the project within the project limits and as well as
for the corridor.
For rural arterials, the minimum widths of the various design elements are shown on the
Open medians generally should be graded with fore slopes of 1V:5H or flatter. The median
should be wide enough when provisions of future lanes are considered. If there is a master
plan for the provision of rail in the median, the median width should also be adjusted
accordingly in coordination with Qatar Rail.
on medians.
2.2.8 Curbs
and minimize right-of-way impacts, they shall be placed at least 3.0 m from the edge of the
traveled way or behind the vehicle restraint system (VRS). The use of curbs should be limited
to isolated locations such as lighted interchange or intersections to control drainage and
minimize right-of-way. The design of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23,
2.2.9 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zone

Rural arterials operate at high speeds; the roadside environment should be designed to be
forgiving and to provide adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Fore slopes flatter than
1V:5H should be used along the arterials with required clear zones. Clear zones are a function
of traffic volume, design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate clear zone should be provided
as stated in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
2.2.10 Interchanges
Rural arterials are connected to rural freeways and urban expressways by interchanges. The
interchange design should be in accordance with the design criteria presented in Volume 1,
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual.

5

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges of the arterials over or under rural
freeways should be at least 6.5 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders.
At other locations, the clearance should be at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width,
including the shoulders. For additional details regarding the vertical clearances refer to
Table 4.5 in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of an arterial. Good intersection
cyclists within the right-of-way footprint. Refer to Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and
Roundabouts, Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, and Volume 1, Part 8,
Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual, for design criteria. Markings and signing

For Rural Arterials, the right-of-way width is 64 m. For further details, refer to Volume 1,
Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
2.3 Design Criteria for Rural Collectors

Rural collectors carry traffic volumes ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 vpd, and collect the
traffic from arterials and distribute to the local roads and adjacent rural land uses. They are
designed with design speeds ranging from 60 kph to 100 kph. The collector system gives
equal importance to both mobility and access. Generally, the collectors are designed for a
minimum LOS D. Most rural collectors are two-lane roads with one lane in each direction,
although some may be two or three-lane divided highways.
Table 2.3 presents the minimum design criteria for rural collectors. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3,
typical cross sections.
However, designers may select a design speed other than specified in Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for a given functional classification through
departure process specified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standard Process, of
this Manual.

5


Intermediate semitrailer, WB-12, should be used as the design vehicle on rural collectors.

The horizontal and vertical alignment should be smooth with a combination of flatter
horizontal curves and gentle longitudinal grades. Horizontal curves are designed with
maximum 5 percent superelevation and vertical profiles with a maximum grade of 6 percent
and K values, as shown in Table 2.3, for both multilane divided and two-lane collectors. Sag
vertical K values shown in Table 2.3 are for unlighted roadway conditions as specified in
Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

5
Table 2.3 Design Criteria for Rural Collectors
Vertical
Curve
K Values K Values
Based on Based
Max/
Minimum Radius (m) SSD on PSD
Design Preferred
Year Design Mina
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% SSD PSD Grades
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superb Super Super Super (m) Crest Sag (m) Crest (%)
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 18 345 140
70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 23 410 195
1,000 to
D 80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 30 460 245 6/0.5
2,000
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 38 520 315
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 45 580 390
Notes:
a
b
m = meters
PSD = passing sight distance
Super = superelevation, vpd = vehicles per day

5
2.3.4 Passing Sight Distance

On two-lane undivided rural collectors, sufficient opportunities should be provided for drivers
to overtake slow-moving vehicles. PSD is the design element that could provide these passing
opportunities. PSD is the distance required for a vehicle to pass another vehicle traveling in
the same direction comfortably and safely without any conflict with the vehicle traveling in
the opposing direction. It is function of the design speed. Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual, contains detailed discussion regarding PSD. Table 2.3 provides
design values for PSD and the K values for designing vertical profile based on PSD.

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent. The maximum superelevation rates of 2 to 5 percent
are applicable on rural collectors, as shown in Table 2.3. Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual, provides further guidance on calculation of superelevation
transition lengths and application of the transition length to the horizontal curves.
2.3.6 Median Width

on the width of the shoulders, width of the features that need to be accommodated in
the median such as; light pole unit foundations, landscaping or the foundation of the sign
trusses. The designer should establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project
within the project limits and as well as for the corridor.
For rural collectors, the minimum widths of the various design elements are shown on the
Open medians generally should be graded with fore slopes of 1V:10H, or flatter, are
recommended; but if constraints exist, a maximum slope of 1V:6H can be used. The median
should be wide enough when provisions of future lanes are considered.
on medians.

5
2.3.7 Curbs
and minimize right-of-way impacts, they shall be placed at least 3.0 m from the edge of the
traveled way or behind the vehicle restraint system (VRS). The use of curbs should be limited
to isolated locations such as intersections to control drainage and minimize right-of-way.
The design of any VRS shall be in accordance with Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations
For posted speeds less than 80 kph, curbs should be placed at the edge of the paved shoulder.

In general, the rural roadside environment should be designed to be forgiving and to provide
adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Fore slopes flatter than 1V:5H should be used
along the roadway with required clear zones. Clear zones are a function of traffic volumes,
design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate clear zone should be provided as stated in
Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of his Manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under rural collectors shall be
at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional details
regarding the vertical clearances, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual.

Intersection design has a significant impact on collector operation. Good intersection design
should provide adequate intersection sight distance, adequate turning radii, and adequate
storage lengths for left and right turns, and accommodation of pedestrians and cyclists
within the right-of-way footprint. Refer to Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts,
Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, and Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized
Intersections, of this Manual, for design criteria. Markings and signing shall be per the Qatar
Highway Traffic Control Manual.

For Rural Collectors, the right-of-way width generally varies from 24 m to 40 m. For
2.4 Design Criteria for Rural Local Roads

Rural local roads carry low traffic volumes (less than 1,000 vpd) and provide access to the
adjacent properties. They are generally designed for a design speed of 50 kph. The primary
function of local roads is to provide access to adjacent rural property and land. The local
roads generally are designed for a minimum LOS D and have one lane in each direction.

5
Table 2.4 presents the minimum design criteria for rural local roads. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3,
typical cross sections. Table 2.4 lists design speed values other than 50 kph for information
only.


Single unit truck, SU-12, should be used as the design vehicle on rural local roads. For
additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Section 6.3 of Volume 1, Part 2,

Local road alignments shall be designed to fit the existing topography with flatter curvature
and gentle longitudinal grades. Horizontal curves are designed with maximum 5 percent
superelevation and vertical profiles with a maximum grade of 8 percent and K values, as
shown in Table 2.4. Sag vertical K values shown on Table 2.4 are for unlighted roadway
conditions as specified in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent. Maximum superelevation rates of 2 to 5 percent are
applicable on local roads, as shown in Table 2.4. Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual, provides further guidance on calculation of superelevation transition lengths
and application of the transition length to the horizontal curves.
2.4.5 Curbs
If curbs are used to control drainage and minimize right-of-way impacts, they should be
placed at the edge of the paved shoulder.

5
Table 2.4 Design Criteria for Rural Locals Roads
Vertical Curve
K Values Based
Minimum Radius (m) on SSD Max/
Design Design Minb
Year AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% SSD Grades
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) Crest Sag (%)
30c 180 160 90 65 35 2 6
Less than
D 40c 360 320 185 130 50 4 9 8/0.5
1,000
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 13
Notes:
a
b
c
Design speed values other than 50 kph for information only.
m = meters

5

In general, the rural roadside environment should be designed to be forgiving and to provide
adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Fore slopes flatter than 1V:5H should be used
along the roadway with required clear zones. Clear zones are a function of traffic volumes,
design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate clear zone should be provided as stated in
Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under rural local roads shall
this Manual.

Good intersection design should provide adequate intersection sight distance, adequate
turning radii, and adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and accommodation
of pedestrians and cyclists within the right-of-way footprint. Refer to Volume 1, Part 4,
Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual for design criteria.
Markings and signing shall be per the Qatar Highway Traffic Control Manual.

For new rural Local Roads, the right-of-way width is 20 m. For further details, refer to
Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

5
References
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, United States. 2018.
Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2011.
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street, Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines. Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Department for Transport. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/. 2013.
Illinois Department of Transportation. Access to State Highways. Division of Highways; Springfield, Illinois,
United States. May 1, 1990.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual. Civil Engineering Department:
Doha, Qatar. 1997.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Guide for the Geometric Design of Driveways.
Report 659. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States. 2010.
Ohio Department of Transportation. State Highway Access Management Manual. Version 8-15-03.
Columbus, Ohio, United States. December 2001. Revised March 2008.

5

Volume 1
Part 6
Design for Priority
Intersections
DESIGN FOR PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS PART
6
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART DESIGN FOR PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS
6

6
Contents Page
1 General Design Guidance...............................................................................................1

1.1.Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. General Design Considerations............................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Application of Priority Intersections to the Qatar Road Network............................................. 2
2 Priority Intersection Types............................................................................................3

2.1. Priority Intersection Types....................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Priority Intersections for Two-Lane Collectors and Local Access............................................. 4
2.2.1. Simple T-intersection.............................................................................................................4
2.2.2. T-intersection with Ghost Island........................................................................................4
2.2.3. Channelized Left-Turn Lanes for T-Intersections on Two-Lane Roads
(Single Lane Dualling).............................................................................................................6
2.2.4. Crossroads (Four-Leg) Intersections..............................................................................10
2.2.5. Staggered T-Intersections.................................................................................................12
2.2.6. Skew or Y-Intersections......................................................................................................17
2.3. Priority Intersections for Multi-Lane Arterials and Collector Roads..................................... 18
2.3.1. Priority Intersection with Two-Lane Minor Road.....................................................18
2.3.2. Priority Intersections between Two Multi-Lane Roads.........................................19
2.3.3. Unsignalized Median U-Turns...........................................................................................21
2.4. Accommodating Pedestrians at Multi-Lane Priority Intersections........................................ 23
3 Design Procedure for Priority Intersections............................................................. 24

3.1. Priority Intersection Design Procedure............................................................................................ 24
3.2. Choice of Simple, Ghost or Channelized Left-Turn Priority Intersection............................. 27
3.2.1. Guidelines for the Operational Viability of Priority T-Intersections.................28
3.3. Reconstruction of Priority Intersections.......................................................................................... 31
4 Design Controls for Priority Intersections................................................................ 32

4.1. Design Speed.............................................................................................................................................. 32
4.2. Design Vehicles.......................................................................................................................................... 32
4.3. Swept Path Analysis................................................................................................................................ 34
4.4. Design Level of Service.......................................................................................................................... 34
4.4.1. Level of Service Definitions for Priority Intersections...........................................34
4.4.2. Level of Service Analysis and Intersection Type Selection..................................35
4.5. Locating Priority Intersections............................................................................................................ 35
4.5.1. Major Road Alignment.........................................................................................................36
4.5.2. Minor Road Alignment.........................................................................................................36

6
4.5.3. Skewed Crossroads...............................................................................................................39

4.5.4.Y-Intersections.......................................................................................................................40
4.6. Vertical Alignment.................................................................................................................................... 41
4.7. Spacing of Intersections......................................................................................................................... 42
4.8.Visibility........................................................................................................................................................ 42
5 Geometric Design Details for Priority Intersections............................................... 48

5.1. Corner Radii................................................................................................................................................. 48
5.1.1. T-Intersection Corner Radii...............................................................................................48
5.1.2. Corner Radii for Channelized Right Turns....................................................................50
5.2. Roadway Widths........................................................................................................................................ 52
5.2.1. Through-Lane Widths..........................................................................................................52
5.2.2. Widths of Minor Road Approaches..................................................................................52
5.2.3. Turning Roadway Widths around Corners...................................................................53
5.3. Diverging and Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers.................................................................... 54
5.3.1. Right-Turn Diverge Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers........................................................55
5.3.2. Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers..............................................................................60
5.4. Major Road Left-Turn lanes................................................................................................................... 64
5.4.1. Channelized Major Road Left-Turn Lanes....................................................................65
5.5. Turning Roadways.................................................................................................................................... 69
5.5.1. Turning Roadway Width.....................................................................................................70
5.5.2. Turning Roadway Merge Nose.........................................................................................70
5.5.3. Sight Distance through Turning Roadways................................................................71
5.6. Channelizing Islands................................................................................................................................ 71
5.6.1.Principles..................................................................................................................................71
5.6.2. Function of Islands...............................................................................................................72
5.6.3. Raised versus Flush Island Types...................................................................................72
5.6.4. Design of Islands...................................................................................................................73
5.7.U-Turns.......................................................................................................................................................... 83
5.7.1. Safety at U-Turns...................................................................................................................84
5.7.2. U-Turn Elements....................................................................................................................85
5.8. Service Roads............................................................................................................................................. 88
5.8.1. Service Road Diverge and Merge....................................................................................89
5.8.2. Service Road Direct Connection......................................................................................92
5.8.3. Local Grade Separation........................................................................................................92
5.9. Pavement Markings.................................................................................................................................. 94
5.10. Traffic Control Devices............................................................................................................................ 94
5.11. Intersection Lighting............................................................................................................................... 94
6 Other Design Elements................................................................................................ 95

6
6.1. Driveways and Major Private Entrances.......................................................................................... 95

6.1.1. Location and Classification................................................................................................95
6.1.2. Visibility at Driveways and Private Entrances...........................................................95
6.2. Priority Intersections in Residential Areas..................................................................................... 95
6.2.1. Typical Configurations.........................................................................................................95
6.2.2. Older Residential Areas.......................................................................................................97
6.2.3. Corner Plots at Priority Intersections............................................................................98
6.3. Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities........................................................................................................ 99
6.3.1. Pedestrian Facilities.............................................................................................................99
6.3.2. Wheelchair Ramps and Mobility Impaired Users.................................................... 100
6.3.3. Bicycle Facilities................................................................................................................. 100
6.4.Landscape................................................................................................................................................. 101
6.5. Rail Consideration.................................................................................................................................. 101
6.5.1.General.................................................................................................................................... 101
6.5.2. Grade Separation................................................................................................................ 102
6.5.3. At-grade Crossings............................................................................................................. 102
6.5.4. Horizontal Alignment........................................................................................................ 104
6.5.5. Vertical Alignment............................................................................................................. 104
References............................................................................................................................. 105

6
Tables
Table 2.1. Predicted Annual Crash Frequency Savings by Adding a Left-turn Lane to a Simple
T-Intersection......................................................................................................................................................9
Table 2.2. Minimum Stagger Distance for Right/Left Staggered Intersection............................................14
Table 4.1. Guidance for Selection of Design Vehicles at Intersections..........................................................33
Table 4.2. Level of Service Criteria for Two-Way, Stop-Controlled Intersections.......................................34
Table 4.3. Effect of Intersection Skew Angle on Crash Frequency at Unsignalized Intersections.....36
Table 4.4. Minimum X and Y Visibility Distances from the Minor Road..........................................................46
Table 5.1. Circular Corner Radii.......................................................................................................................................49
Table 5.2. Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Turning Roadway Widths.................................................53
Table 5.3. Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Diverge............................................58
Table 5.4. Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Merge...............................................62
Table 5.5. Taper Length on Priority Intersection Merge.......................................................................................64
Table 5.6. Minimum Channelized Left-Turn Deceleration Length (Ldl)............................................................67
Table 5.7. Guidelines for Estimating Number of Vehicles Stored in Major Road
Left-Turn Lane at Priority Intersections...............................................................................................68
Table 5.8. Stopping-Sight Distance and Horizontal Offset Requirements for Inside of Right-Hand
Turning Roadways..........................................................................................................................................71
Table 5.9. Offset from Traffic Lanes to Island Curbs.............................................................................................74
Table 5.10. Channelizing Island Offset..........................................................................................................................75
Table 5.11. Design of Radius R1........................................................................................................................................75
Table 5.12. Tapers for Divisional Islands.......................................................................................................................78
Table 5.13. Visibility Distances at U-Turns...................................................................................................................84
Table 5.14. Direct Taper Length for U-Turns (d).........................................................................................................85
Table 5.15. Minimum Turning Widths Needed for U-Turns (M).............................................................................86
Table 5.16. Deceleration Length for U-Turns (c).........................................................................................................86
Table 5.17. Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving Length............................................................................................90
Table 6.1. Chamfer Length at Corner Plot..................................................................................................................99

6
Figures
Figure 2.1. Simple T-Intersection.......................................................................................................................................4

Figure 2.2. Ghost Island T-Intersection............................................................................................................................5
Figure 2.3. Layout of Left-turn Lanes for Right/Left Staggered Ghost Island Intersection.......................6
Figure 2.4. Priority T-Intersection on Two-Lane Highway with Major Road Left-Turn
Lane........................................................................................................................................................................7
Figure 2.5. Channelized Left-Turn Urban Priority T-Intersection..........................................................................8
Figure 2.6. Predicted Annual Crash Frequency for Simple Priority T-Intersections.......................................9
Figure 2.7. Crossroads..........................................................................................................................................................11
Figure 2.8. Simple Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections...........................................................13
Figure 2.9. Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersection with Ghost Island Left
Turn Lane............................................................................................................................................................15
Figure 2.10. Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections with Left-Turn Lanes..............................16
Figure 2.11. Priority Left-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes.........................................17
Figure 2.12. Priority Right-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes.......................................18
Figure 2.13. Priority T-Intersection on Multi-Lane Roadway with Median Separation................................19
Figure 2.14. Priority Intersection between Two Multi-Lane Roads.....................................................................20
Figure 2.15. Minor Road Approach Reduced through U-Turn Facility (Urban Use Only)..............................21
Figure 2.16. Unsignalized Median U-Turn.......................................................................................................................22
Figure 3.1. Flowchart Outlining Design Procedure...................................................................................................26
Figure 3.2. Approximate Level of Priority Intersection Provision for Varying Traffic
Flows in Urban Conditions...........................................................................................................................28
Figure 3.3. Level of Service by Delays to the Minor Road Left-Turning Traffic............................................29
Figure 4.1. Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes..............................................37
Figure 4.2. Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes and
Auxiliary Lane for Major Road Right Turns..........................................................................................38
Figure 4.3. Design Solutions for Skewed Crossroads..............................................................................................39
Figure 4.4. Design Solutions for Y-Intersections.......................................................................................................40
Figure 4.5. Y-Intersection Hidden by Crest Curve.....................................................................................................41
Figure 4.6. Minor Road Approach Gradient..................................................................................................................42
Figure 4.7. Visibility Criteria at Priority Intersections.............................................................................................45
Figure 4.8. Visibility Criteria with a Curved Major Road.........................................................................................45
Figure 5.1. Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Tapers............................................................................................49
Figure 5.2. Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Compound Curve.......................................................................50

6
Figure 5.3. Typical Layout of Channelized Right Turn............................................................................................51

Figure 5.4. Minor Road Approaches................................................................................................................................53
Figure 5.5. T-Intersection with Channelizing and Right-turn Auxiliary Lanes..............................................55
Figure 5.6. Right-Turn Auxiliary Lane on Diverge of Multi-Lane Priority Intersection...............................56
Figure 5.7. Alternative Taper Diverge............................................................................................................................60
Figure 5.8. Auxiliary Lane on Merge...............................................................................................................................61
Figure 5.9. Alternative Taper Merge...............................................................................................................................63
Figure 5.10. Right-Turn Approach Where an Auxiliary Lane Is Not Provided...................................................64
Figure 5.11. Priority Ghost Island T-Intersection with Left Turn Lane...............................................................65
Figure 5.12. Priority T-Intersection with Left-Turn Lane.........................................................................................66
Figure 5.13. Turning Roadways at Priority Intersections.........................................................................................70
Figure 5.14. Channelizing Island Design for T-Intersection....................................................................................74
Figure 5.15. Priority Intersection with Skewed Minor Road....................................................................................77
Figure 5.16. Divisional Ghost Island Development......................................................................................................78
Figure 5.17. Divisional Physical Island Development.................................................................................................78
Figure 5.18. Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island with Turning Roadway....................................................79
Figure 5.19. Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island without Turning Roadway.............................................80
Figure 5.20. Typical Urban Divisional Island with Pedestrian Refuge.................................................................81
Figure 5.21. Typical Layout of Corner Island with Turning Roadway..................................................................82
Figure 5.22. Typical Layout of Corner Island without Turning Roadway...........................................................83
Figure 5.23. Unsignalized Median U-Turn.......................................................................................................................87
Figure 5.24. Service Road Diverge/Merge with Taper...............................................................................................89
Figure 5.25. Service Road Diverge/Merge with Auxiliary Lane..............................................................................90
Figure 5.26. Weaving Length...............................................................................................................................................91
Figure 5.27. Turning Roadways at Termination of Service Road..........................................................................92
Figure 5.28. Local Grade Separation.................................................................................................................................93
Figure 6.1. Multiple Access Local Roads Joining a Major Road.............................................................................96
Figure 6.2. Access Roads Consolidated Prior to Access to the Major Road....................................................97
Figure 6.3. Development of Chamfer at Corner Plot................................................................................................98
Figure 6.4. Bicycle Crossings at Minor Roads........................................................................................................... 101

6
CMF crash modification factor
HCM Highway Capacity Manual
HSM Highway Safety Manual
m meter
m/s2 meters per second per second
MOTC Ministry of Transport and Communications
R1 radius
RIRO right-in, right out
WB wheelbase

6

6
1 General Design Guidance
1.1 Introduction
The Qatar road and street system is established to provide a level of mobility in priority
based on the functional classification of each road, within an overall framework that has
traffic safety as its basis. The term “priority” refers to the designation of one roadway over
another in terms of the favoring traffic flow. The safety component of the framework is in
the applicability of the various types of intersections with respect to the most significant
intersection crash risks:
• Crossing conflicts are inherent to intersections. At high speeds, crossing conflicts

produce severe (fatal and injury) crash types.
• Left turns comprise the second most significant multivehicle crash type. Left-turn
movements from both major roads and minor roads represent potential conflicts.
• Vehicle-pedestrian conflicts are a significant concern. Pedestrians crossing intersections

are vulnerable; most crashes involving pedestrians result in severe injury or fatality.
1.2 General Design Considerations

Control at priority intersections is by the provision of either “Yield” or “Stop” signs with
corresponding road markings as necessary. The selection of control to be used for a particular
intersection shall be determined by the ability of the design to meet the applicable geometric
criteria. Where the design criteria are not met or there is a particular safety concern then
stop control shall be provided.
All priority intersections have the advantage that major road traffic is not delayed. However,
care must be taken to ensure that very high speeds and overtaking maneuvers are not
encouraged in the area of the intersection, and that intersection design, particularly where
traffic predictions are uncertain, should allow flexibility for efficient upgrading in the future.
The guidance contained in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, shall be considered in assessing the
appropriate use of major/minor priority intersections within the Qatar roads hierarchy.
This part describes one of the core intersection types applied to the Qatar road network,
it outlines the types of priority intersection utilized on the Qatar road network, their
applicability to a particular location and the geometric design of the individual elements
used in combination to assemble them.

6
Many of the elements of a priority intersection are dealt with separately and the designer
should work systematically through the design procedure prior to assembling the component
parts. This is an iterative process, and it may be necessary to alter part of the intersection
design covered previously in order to achieve a satisfactory solution.
1.3 Application of Priority Intersections to the Qatar Road

Network
As introduced in Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this Manual, the
determination of the priority intersection as the appropriate type of intersection for a
particular location is based on the functional classification of the intersecting roads, design
speeds, and the expected or forecast design-year traffic. The planning process for determining
intersection type favors selection of the priority intersection because of the high quality of
service provided to the major road and the cost and efficiency of the intersection form.
However, there are limitations to the traffic-carrying capability of the priority intersection.
Given the rapid and continuing growth in activity and traffic in Qatar, care should be taken in
the planning and design of priority intersections. Traffic demand forecasts may be uncertain,
thus, flexibility for future upgrading of the intersection may be needed, such as the setback
of the right-of-way reservations to allow for the reconstruction and possible signalization in
the future.

6
2 Priority Intersection Types
2.1 Priority Intersection Types

A priority intersection is one in which both the continuity and traffic control establish and
reinforce the priority of traffic flow for one roadway over the other. At a priority intersection,
the traffic flow for the major roadway is continuous and not stopped by traffic control. The
minor roadway terminates or intersects with the major roadway, with the minor road traffic
controlled by yield or stop control. The major road where traffic is unimpeded is the priority
road.
The figures in this part are drawn with yield control, with the exception of those intersections
where stop control is specifically required.
Priority intersections are central to reinforcing the primacy of traffic flow for the higher
classification facilities.
There are five basic types of priority intersections:
• T-type
• Crossing, or 4-leg
• Staggered
• Skew, or Y-type
• Right-in, right-out (RIRO) divided highway
The Qatar road network is purposely configured to minimize unsignalized 4-leg minor road
crossings of major roads and unsignalized left turns from minor roads to divided priority
roads. With such a network, the T-type priority intersection is the most common intersection
encountered by drivers.
T-type and staggered priority intersections provide a variety of options for the designer
based on approach vehicular volume and type including simple, ghost island and channelized
left-turn lanes for the major road turning traffic.
Y-type priority intersections should be avoided for new roads in Qatar; refer to Clause 4.5.4
for guidance.

6
2.2 Priority Intersections for Two-Lane Collectors and

Local Access
2.2.1 Simple T-intersection
A T-intersection is the simplest form of priority intersection. In this form, a single minor
road gives way to the major road, intersecting at a 90-degree angle. To the extent possible,
the intersecting angle at a T-intersection shall be between 70 and 110 degrees (an angle
of skew of no more than 20 degrees). Simple T-intersections have no painted or physical
islands in the major road and no channelizing islands in the minor road approach. As shown
on Figure 2.1.
This form is appropriate for most priority intersections on two-lane minor rural roads with
lower traffic volumes. Left turns are very infrequent for such roads, and sufficient gaps are
available, assuming the road geometry provides sight distance for such gaps. It is also an
appropriate form of intersection for most local access roads in urban areas, where traffic
flows are, and will remain, low even after full development of the area. Where pedestrian
movements in some urban locations are high, there may be a benefit to adding a raised
channelizing island to the minor road to act as a refuge.
Figure 2.1 Simple T-Intersection
2.2.2 T-intersection with Ghost Island

When a simple T-intersection is no longer the appropriate solution, the next option is to
introduce widening on the major road to accommodate a ghost island, which incorporates an
extra central lane for turning traffic. The minor road approach should also have a channelizing
island to direct vehicles to the correct position for turning movements. Refer to Figure 2.2.
Ghost islands will enhance safety of the intersection by giving shelter to left-turning traffic
from opposing vehicles and vehicles approaching from behind. Measures to discourage
overtaking at ghost island widening could be the use of physical traffic islands, solid yellow
“no overtaking” lines, different colored surfacing and ceramic studs.

6
However, ghost islands shall not be positioned where the overtaking opportunity is restricted
either side of the intersection because drivers may use the wide ghost island hatching and
central lane as a place to overtake. If a ghost island has to be positioned at these locations
then an alternative intersection arrangement such as physical islands and channelizing the
major road left-turn movement should be considered, also known as single lane dualling.
Ghost island intersections shall not be used where traffic turning left out of the minor road
needs to make the maneuver in two stages. This can occur when the major road flow exceeds
18,000 annual average daily traffic (AADT) (two-way). Intersection design is a key element
of the overall design process for road projects.
Figure 2.2 Ghost Island T-Intersection
2.2.2.1 Guidelines for Designing Ghost Islands

For new intersections, the desirable width of a ghost island turning lane shall be 4.0 m, but
a relaxation to 3.0 m is permissible. At urban and suburban intersections, it can sometimes
be advantageous to use a greater width not exceeding 5.0 m to allow a degree of shelter in
the center of the road for large goods vehicles turning left from the minor road to execute
the turn in two separate maneuvers.
For improvements to existing intersections, where space is very limited, a reduced width
may be unavoidable. The width of ghost island shall not be less than 2.5 m.
At right/left staggered intersections, the deceleration lengths would overlap but the width
of the ghost island shall not be increased to make them lie side by side. The starting points
of the left turning section shall be joined by a straight line, which will mean at higher design
speeds, the full width of the turning lane will not be developed until the end of the diverging
section (as shown in Figure 2.3). The width of the turning lane shall be the full width of the
ghost island.

6
Figure 2.3 Layout of Left-turn Lanes for Right/Left Staggered Ghost Island
Intersection
2.2.3 Channelized Left-Turn Lanes for T-Intersections on Two-Lane Roads (Single Lane
Dualling)
When major-road turning traffic or major-road through traffic increases such that the left-turn
movement causes delays and potential rear-end conflicts, a priority intersection designed
with physical islands to protect and channelize left-turn lanes may be necessary. Figure 2.4
shows this form of priority intersection for a two-lane rural highway, and Figure 2.5 shows a
simplified form for a two-lane urban road.
On two-lane rural roads raised, physical islands are used to shelter left-turning traffic on
the major road and prevent overtaking in the opposing direction. The median width shall be
sufficient for a passenger-vehicle turning left out of the minor road to make the maneuver
in two stages: first crossing oncoming traffic from the left, then waiting in the median area
for a gap in traffic from the right to complete the maneuver. The junction shall be checked
for all expected design vehicle movements to ensure that there is sufficient turning space.
The length of the major road left-turn divisional island shall be based on driver deceleration
from the design speed to an assumed stop condition while waiting for a gap in opposing
through traffic to make the turn.
The physical nose of the islands and pavement markings on their approach serves to provide
notice to drivers of the intersection. In cases where the major road approach is on a significant
upgrade such that the intersection is hidden, the divisional island should be lengthened
beyond the crest of the vertical curve to provide advance notice to drivers. Advance warning

6
signs for major road traffic such as “No Passing/Overtaking” shall be coordinated with the
channelization. Where possible, channelized left-turn lanes shall be lit.
Figure 2.4 Priority T-Intersection on Two-Lane Highway with Major Road Left-Turn
Lane
With the introduction of physical islands, roadway widths shall provide for passing of stalled
or otherwise parked vehicles. On rural highways with paved shoulders, a 4 m lane width
and 1 m offset to the median island is sufficient. In urban areas with curbed roadways, 1
m offsets both left and right of the 4 m lane width provide sufficient operating width. See
QTCM for full road marking details.
Right-turning deceleration lanes for traffic from the major road to minor road may be
included with this intersection form, and example of this is illustrated in Figure 4.2. These
are particularly desirable for intersections on roads with design speeds greater than 80
kilometers per hour (kph). Right-turn acceleration lanes from minor roads onto two-lane
major roads are not allowed.
On urban two-lane roads where the density of traffic is higher, speeds are low, and the right-
of-way is limited, this form of priority intersection with a channelized major road left turn can
be reduced in scale to simple raised refuge islands and a reduced width for the major road
left turn. Figure 2.5 shows the form of channelized left-turn urban priority T-intersection.

6
Figure 2.5 Channelized Left-Turn Urban Priority T-Intersection
2.2.3.1 Guidelines for Designing Priority T-Intersections with Left-Turn Lanes

In general, a separate left-turn lane from the major, priority road is desirable because it
provides protection for decelerating, turning vehicles from higher-speed through traffic
approaching in the same lane. Providing a left-turn lane, however, increases the construction
cost of the intersection including right-of-way. The relative importance and value of the left-
turn lane can be characterized by the expected safety performance of the T-intersection
with and without the left-turn lane.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Highway
Safety Manual (HSM) (2010) describes the expected safety performance of unsignalized
(stop-controlled) T-intersections on rural roads. Figure 2.6 shows the modeled crash
frequency per year for the equivalent of a simple T-intersection as a function of the AADT
of both the major and minor roads. For example, a minor road with 1,000 vehicles per day
(vpd) intersecting a major road with 10,000 vpd can be expected to have an average of 2.2
crashes per year. The HSM also suggests that the addition of a left-turn lane from the major
road can reduce total intersection crashes by 44 percent.
Table 2.1 shows the potential savings in crashes per year by designing a priority intersection
with a channelized left-turn lane, as shown on Figure 2.4, compared with a simple
T-intersection, as shown on Figure 2.1.

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Source: HSM Figure 10-4, Volume 2 Chapter 10 (AASHTO, 2010)
Figure 2.6 Predicted Annual Crash Frequency for Simple Priority T-Intersections
Table 2.1 Predicted Annual Crash Frequency Savings by Adding a Left-turn Lane to
a Simple T-Intersection
AADT on a Major Road (vpd)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
500 0.07 0.11 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.40
1000 0.09 0.16 0.22 0.27 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.52 0.57
AADT
on a 1500 0.11 0.19 0.27 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.52 0.58 0.64 0.69
Minor
Road 2000 0.13 0.22 0.31 0.39 0.46 0.53 0.60 0.67 0.73 0.80
(vpd)
2500 0.14 0.25 0.34 0.43 0.51 0.59 0.67 0.74 0.82 0.89
3000 0.16 0.27 0.38 0.47 0.56 0.65 0.73 0.81 0.89 0.97
Notes:
Savings of less than 1 crash in 5 years

Savings of up to 1 crash in 4 years
Savings of up to 1 crash per year
Source: Based on Figure 2.6 above and Table 10-13, “Crash Modification Factors (CMF) for Installation of
Left-turn Lanes on Intersection Approaches” in HSM, Volume 2, Chapter 10 (AASHTO, 2010).
AADT = annual average daily traffic vpd = vehicles per day

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The following guidance is suggested by Table 2.1:
• For cases in which the design-year approach volumes are sufficiently low that the
expected savings for including a left-turn lane are less than one crash in 5 years, as
shown in light green in Table 2.1, a simple T-intersection typically will suffice. For
example, for minor road approach volumes of up to 500 vpd and major road approach
volumes of up to 1,500 vpd the savings are less than 0.2 per year, which translates to
less than one crash in 5 years.
• For cases in which the combination of design-year approach volumes produces potential
savings of up to one crash in 4 years, shown in green in Table 2.1, a simple T-intersection
is generally acceptable. However, designers may choose to incorporate a left-turn lane
where the possibility of exceeding design-year traffic is a concern and when doing so is
readily achievable due to cost and right-of-way availability. A simple T-intersection may
be built, but the right-of-way may be reserved for future improvement.
• For cases in which the combination of design-year approach volumes produces savings of
up to one crash in 3 years, as shown in yellow in Table 2.1, the designer should generally
favor inclusion of a left-turn lane over a simple T-intersection. However, if the costs of
including the right-of-way are significant, the construction of a simple T-intersection
may be acceptable. When such a decision is made, the Overseeing Organization should
be advised so they can monitor the safety performance of the location over a 5-year
time period following its construction.
• For cases in which the combination of design-year approach volumes produces savings
of up to one crash every 1 to 2 years, as shown in orange and red in Table 2.1, the
designer shall design the intersection to include a left-turn lane. In these cases, the
added construction and right-of-way costs clearly will be justified by the improved safety
performance over time.
The Overseeing Organization shall approve the decision to include or not include a left-turn
lane at a two-lane road priority intersection on a case-by-case basis.
2.2.4 Crossroads (Four-Leg) Intersections

A “crossroads” is the crossing of a minor road intersecting with the major road, as shown on
Figure 2.7. Traffic on the major road, shown from left to right on the figure, is through traffic
and is not stopped. A simple crossroads intersection consolidates multiple potential conflicts
at a single location. One conflict in particular is unique to this form, the right-angle crossing
conflict.

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Figure 2.7 Crossroads
As the crossing conflict is potentially among the most severe, the design philosophy in
Qatar is to avoid or minimize the use of priority (unsignalized) crossroads. The occurrence of
crossroads should be limited to lower volume and lower speed (operating or posted speeds).
Staggered T-intersections, discussed in Section 2.6, are a typical means of providing access
to both sides of a major road as an alternative to crossroads.
2.2.4.1 Crossroads on High-Speed Rural Roads

Crossroads intersections produce the potential for serious right-angle crashes. For this
reason, crossroad intersections on rural roads, where the posted speed is 80 kph or greater,
shall not be constructed in Qatar. Existing crossroads intersections are potential candidates
for reconstruction based on observed safety performance. Alternative solutions include
construction of a roundabout or conversion to staggered T-intersections.
2.2.4.2 Crossroads on Lower-Speed Urban Roads

Along local urban roads, posted speeds are 50 kph or lower and rights-of-way are generally
more limited. However, the risk of right-angle crashes at crossroads applies in urban contexts
as well as rural contexts. Roundabouts are often a desirable alternative with regard to
vehicle safety. However, they may not be practical because of land take requirements in
urban intersections.
For cases in which the design-year minor road traffic entering the intersection is less than
15 percent of total entering traffic from all approaches, a roadway with a single crossroad
intersection may be considered.
However, because of the sensitivity of minor road traffic volume to crash risk, care should
be taken when considering or designing crossroad intersections. Future, unforeseen
development that causes traffic increases on minor roads beyond projected flows is likely to
lead to an increase in total crashes. In some instances, all-stop control may be appropriate.

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2.2.4.3 Crossroads with All-Stop Control

There may be cases on minor urban roads where a crossroads intersection should have all-
stop control. In context zones where pedestrians are prevalent and their mobility and safety
is the paramount concern, implementing all-stop control can produce meaningful benefits to
pedestrians. This solution may also apply where intersection sight distance is insufficient
because of immovable buildings, walls or other obstructions outside the right-of-way.
The HSM suggests the following safety benefits of converting a two-way stop controlled
intersection to an all-stop on urban minor roads:
• 75 percent reduction in right-angle crashes (all severities)

• 18 percent reduction in rear-end crashes (all severities)
• 43 percent reduction in pedestrian crashes (all severities)
2.2.5 Staggered T-Intersections

A staggered T-intersection refers to the design of two priority T-intersections with the
minor road forming the T intersecting on opposite sides of the major, priority road. This
design is intended to serve access to land uses on both sides of the major road without
the less-desirable crossroads configuration discussed above. The design and operation of
staggered T-intersections should be viewed as a single unit. Key considerations include the
arrangement of the minor road T-intersections relative to each other, spacing between the
intersections, and the channelization needed for operation of each intersection.
There are two basic configurations for staggered T-intersections, referred to as “left/right”
and “right/left”. The configuration can be used both with and without channelized left-
turn lanes from the major road. Either configuration may be appropriate, depending on the
context. The two configurations differ considerably in their operation and resulting design
requirements. They are illustrated on Figure for simple staggered T-intersections and Figures
2.9 and 2.10 for more complicated T-intersections with a left-turn lane.

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Figure 2.8 Simple Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections

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2.2.5.1 Design and Operation of Left/Right Stagger

With the left/right stagger, the left-turn movements from the major road occur on the
“outside”, i.e., the approach to each minor roadway. The major road left-turn channelization
thus occurs on the “outside”. This allows for somewhat lesser spacing between the
intersections. Stagger distances shall be sufficiently large for drivers to be able to navigate
and make decisions, treating each intersection independently. A center-to-center stagger
distance of 50 m or more is generally the minimum required for simple left/right staggered
T-intersections on local access roads.
The capacity of a staggered T-intersection will be less under the left/right stagger compared
to a right/left stagger. The most critical movements are left turns from the minor road; in the
left/right stagger the left turns from each minor road consist of both the left-turn volumes
and the minor road “through” (minor road to minor road) volumes.
2.2.5.2 Design and Operation of Right/Left Stagger

At right/left staggered intersections, the major road left turns occur on the “inside”, i.e.,
between the two minor road intersections. The left-turn lane requirements, including
deceleration and development of tapers adds up to a much greater minimum stagger
distances between the minor roads.
Minimum dimensions for staggered intersections with channelized left-turns are provided in
Table 2.2, in which the two sets of left-turn lanes are designed essentially back-to-back and
comprise the sum of the two deceleration lengths lying side-by-side plus the turning lengths
and queuing lengths, as appropriate. The minimum dimensions are shown in parenthesis
in Table 2.2 comprising the deceleration length and two turning lengths at each end. The
queuing length is assumed to be 0 m in the minimum case.
The right/left stagger has greater capacity than the left/right stagger in that the critical
left-turn movement from the minor roads only consist of left-turn demand. The minor road
“through” traffic (minor road to minor road) operates as a right turn from the minor road
and a left turn from the major road to the other minor road. Major road left-turn capacity is
generally very high, and additional major road left-turning traffic will not pose significant
Table 2.2 Minimum Stagger Distance for Right/Left Staggered Intersection
Stagger Distance (m) Stagger Distance (m)

Design Speed (kph)
Ghost Island Left-turns Channelized Left-turns
50 70 (10+50+10) Not applicable

60 95 (10+75+10) Not applicable
70 120 (10+100+10) Not applicable
80 150 (10+130+10) 150 (10+130+10)
100 220 (10+200+10) 220 (10+200+10)

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2.2.5.3 Safety Effects of Staggered T-Intersections

Staggered T-intersections have a superior safety performance to crossroads when minor
road traffic is greater than 15 percent relative to total entering traffic.
Figure 2.9 Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersection with Ghost Island Left
Turn Lane

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Figure 2.10 Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections with Left-Turn Lanes

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2.2.6 Skew or Y-Intersections

Skew intersections are created when a minor road joins a major road at an angle of 70 degrees
or less, this is also sometimes referred to as a Y-intersection. Skew intersections may be left
or right handed.
The acute angle of minor road approach creates particular difficulties for vehicle turning
movements and poor conditions for minor road driver visibility. Large vehicles in particular
will require an extensive area of road surface to accommodate their swept path and starting
on an acute turn will also increase the time taken to clear the intersection.
By channelizing the minor road with islands and road markings, the approach can be improved
on safety grounds by increasing the intersection angle to 90 degrees and controlling the
conflict points.
Skew intersections could occur in a variety of combinations including simple, ghost island
and channelized left-turn lanes for the major road turning traffic. Refer to Figure 2.11 and
Figure 2.12 for typical left skew and right skew intersections.
Figure 2.11 Priority Left-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes

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Figure 2.12 Priority Right-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes
2.3 Priority Intersections for Multi-Lane Arterials and Collector

Roads
Design and operation of priority intersections on divided roads is significantly different from
two-lane, un-divided roads. The additional risks associated with greater traffic volumes and
width of exposure to conflicts are such that higher risk left-turn movements are prohibited
at multi-lane priority intersections. The prohibition of left-turn movements is established by
the continuation of a raised median.
The prohibition of left turns into and out of the minor road has implications on local access,
circulation, and street network function. Where multi-lane priority intersections exist, there
must be suitable proximate locations for the prohibited movements to occur. U-turns can be
made at signalized intersections, and roundabouts.
When designing a road network of intersections, the traffic demand effects of such
restrictions should be understood and accounted for in the sizing, design, and operation of
proximate intersections.
2.3.1 Priority Intersection with Two-Lane Minor Road

Figure 2.13 shows a typical multi-lane priority intersection commonly known as RIRO. Major
or minor priority intersections without signalization are only permitted where the left-turn
maneuver to and from the minor road is prevented by the median, and a RIRO configuration
is used. The operation of the right-turning movements will typically yield, except in cases
where the presence of pedestrians along the major road sidewalk is sufficient to warrant a
signalized stop for minor road traffic.

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Figure 2.13 Priority T-Intersection on Multi-Lane Roadway with Median Separation
Right-turning traffic to the minor road is generally provided with a deceleration auxiliary
lane to separate the decelerating traffic from the higher speed through traffic. Similarly, an
acceleration auxiliary lane is generally provided for right-turning traffic entering the priority
roadway.
These auxiliary or acceleration and deceleration lanes to and from the minor road are based
on the design speed of the major roadway. Chapter 5 contains advice on those requirements.
2.3.2 Priority Intersections between Two Multi-Lane Roads

In some cases, a multi-lane road may begin or terminate at a multi-lane major road, with the
intersection being unsignalized. This special case of a priority intersection between two
multi-lane roads is illustrated on Figure 2.14.
Multi-lane roads are generally associated with design year average daily traffic (ADT) of
15,000 vpd or more. Turning movements to/from the minor road will thus be higher volume.
Consequently, the right turn from the major approach forming the diverge leg of the minor
road shall be designed with an auxiliary lane that is dropped at the right turn.
2.3.2.1 Minor Road Approach

The terminating approach to the intersection shall be merged into one lane of traffic on the
approach to the intersection. As major road traffic is not stopped, this right turn shall be
designed as an additional lane wherever possible to maximize discharge capacity. Note that

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the ability to develop an additional lane and the capacity of this right turn will be greatly
influenced by a proximate downstream intersection. In ideal settings, right-turning traffic
will have 400 m or more to merge and change lanes as necessary.
Figure 2.14 shows the taper and geometry of the terminating two-lane section merging
to one lane. The preferred approach is to merge the left lane to the right lane, given that
most traffic will be in the right lane, and the merging maneuver is consistent with the next
maneuver, the right turn.
Upstream of the priority intersection, drivers may expect that they will be able to make a left
turn at the next intersection, given they are on what appears to be a major road (multi-lane).
If a convenient U-turn movement, such as illustrated in Figure 2.15, cannot be provided,
it is important to communicate the turn restriction through signing well upstream of the
intersection, ideally directing drivers to where they can go to make the desired maneuver.
Figure 2.14 Priority Intersection between Two Multi-Lane Roads

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Figure 2.15 Minor Road Approach Reduced through U-Turn Facility (Urban Use Only)
2.3.2.2 Diverge Approach from Major Road

The major road right-turning roadway forms the beginning of the multi-lane minor roadway
departing the intersection. The diverge should include a deceleration auxiliary lane, given
the expectation of substantial traffic volume, but the turning roadway should be designed
for only one lane of right-turning traffic. Development of the second lane can occur at a
convenient location, considering driveways and other intersections, downstream of the
turning roadway.
During periods of high traffic volume, some queue building on the right turn may be
expected. The capacity of a right-turn from an auxiliary lane under ideal conditions will be
approximately 1,000 vph.
2.3.3 Unsignalized Median U-Turns

A system analysis of access and circulation traffic may result in the need to consider midblock
median U-turns.

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However, unless the traffic analysis and studies can demonstrate that the traffic volumes
are low enough and sufficient gaps in the main street are available to safely provide an
unsignalized U-turn, then these median U-turns must always be signalized as set out in
Volume 1, Part 8, Design of Signal Controlled Intersections, of this Manual.
Unsignalized median U-turns, as shown in Figure 2.16. The reasons for such a solution may
include any of the following:
• A downstream signalized intersection is considered too far away, increasing out-of-

direction travel for the left-turning traffic.
• Left-turning demand translated to the next downstream signalized intersection may

require so much additional time for the left-turn/U-turn phase such that the overall LOS
of the intersection is significantly degraded.
• Particular critical land uses or activities are present, requiring more direct access than
through downstream U-turns.
The presence of the U-turn movement as the way to make a left turn shall be signed on the
minor road approach to the intersection. Junction approach sight distance shall be provided
on the major road approach to the location of the U-turn opening from which traffic will enter
the major road. The U-turn opening shall be located so that intersections preceding and after
the U-turn are not affected by queuing traffic that impedes the operation of the intersection.
The Overseeing Organization may choose to implement a median U-turn, given site-specific
needs and conditions. All unsignalized median U-turns shall be approved by the Overseeing
Organization on a case by case basis.
The geometric design of U-turns is covered in Section 5.7 of this Part. Road markings shall
be in accordance with the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure 2.16 Unsignalized Median U-Turn

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2.4 Accommodating Pedestrians at Multi-Lane Priority

Intersections
In many locations, such as boulevards, there may be a significant and continual presence of
pedestrians. Provision for safe pedestrian mobility crossing intersections will be important.
As a minimum, well-marked pedestrian crossings with drop curbs should be provided. Where
pedestrians are present through much of the day, it may be appropriate to implement the
following:
• Pedestrian-actuated signalization, with signal control for both lanes of right-turning

vehicles
• Pedestrian crossing pavement markings, as defined in the latest edition of the Qatar
Traffic Control Manual (QTCM) for pedestrian crossing points.
In low speed locations, these may be combined with raised tables to provide a level crossing
for pedestrians and encourage traffic to approach slowly. Low and high vehicle speeds on
roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning of this Manual.

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3 Design Procedure for Priority

Intersections
The overall aim in designing a priority intersection shall be to provide drivers with layouts
that have consistent standards and are not likely to confuse them. Wherever practical, the
layout shall be designed to follow the traffic pattern with the principal movements being
the easiest paths. This improves the smoothness of operation and makes the traffic pattern
more readily understood by drivers. Unduly sharp radii or complex paths involving several
changes in direction shall be avoided.
Design dimensions, details, and guidance in this part should be sufficient for the detailed
design of most priority intersections. Every intersection is unique with respect to the local
context (e.g., terrain, location, adjacent land uses, and right-of-way availability) and the
volume and pattern of design-year traffic. The design controls described in this part require
development of design-year traffic to a level of detail sufficient to characterize individual
turning-movement demands. Some dimensions are based directly on vehicular demands and,
as such, one single design value cannot be published.
The design speed of the roadway, design level of service (LOS) of the priority intersection,
and the selected design vehicles must also be considered during intersection design. Since
these factors often vary, a tailored intersection design is required.
The final intersection layout shall be looked on as a whole. It is important that on entering
an intersection, drivers should be able to see and understand, both from the layout and
advanced traffic signage, the path they should follow and the likely actions of crossing,
merging, and diverging vehicles.
The designer shall aim to achieve the best balance between the separate design components
to produce an overall intersection that works safely and efficiently. The final assessment of
the design of a priority intersection can only be carried out when looking at the intersection
both as a whole and in the context of those links and adjacent intersections along the route.
The designer shall consider the design from all the potential road users’ point-of-view and
trace through the possible movements. In particular, the demands placed on the driver shall
be considered, keeping in mind what preceded arrival at the intersection and what will follow.
It is particularly important to determine what will be visible to the driver as they approach
the intersection.
3.1 Priority Intersection Design Procedure

In selecting the appropriate form of intersection, designers shall refer to Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, , of this Manual, relating to the permitted form of intersection on each route

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classification. The flow chart in Figure 3.1 shows the design process for major and minor
priority intersections in a series of interrelated design steps.
The most appropriate type of major or minor priority intersection can be chosen from those
described in this part. The decision should be based on a wide range of factors, taking
into account design-year traffic, including the nature and proportions of large-goods and
passenger-carrying vehicles, their geometry, and an initial estimate of entry and turning-
stream capacities. The designer should also consider the particular site characteristics, such
as development and topography.
The next step is to determine the key geometric parameters design controls, for example,
design speed, vehicles, and LOS. Relevant safety issues, such as traffic control and sight lines,
should be considered. The designer should take account of road users’ specific requirements
and incorporation of the preliminary landscape design within the intersection.
Having established the various components of the intersection design, the designer should
size the intersection or verify that the capacity of the intersection will provide the desired
LOS for design traffic. This may include evaluation of multiple times for intersections with
highly variable total volumes or patterns of turning traffic.
In the concept-level design, designers should verify that alignment and channelization details
are appropriate; curbs, edge elevations, and slopes will provide for drainage; and traffic control
devices can be located where necessary to meet the requirements of the latest edition of
the QTCM. Before proceeding to final design, a drivability check should then be performed to
assess first the assembly of the components of the intersection design. This should include
a visual assessment of the intersection on all approaches from the driver’s view. Secondly,
the intersection should be considered within the context of its adjacent links and adjacent
intersections on the route. As a whole, the layout should suit the traffic pattern, with the
principal movements following readily drivable vehicular paths.

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Figure 3.1 Flowchart Outlining Design Procedure

6
3.2 Choice of Simple, Ghost or Channelized Left-Turn Priority

Intersection
For two-lane urban roads, Figure 3.2 provides guidance on the various levels of T-intersection
that may be applicable for different combinations of entry and turning traffic flows and
different roadway geometry and traffic delays.
However, other factors, particularly in relation to route classification and design speed, also
need to be considered before a final decision is made.
There are three types of priority T-intersection applicable in Qatar:
• Simple
• Ghost island
• Physical islands with channelized left turn from the major road
Simple T-intersections apply where the intersection serves a small development or

subdivision with little traffic generation such that the minor road flow does not exceed 300
vehicles per day (vpd), and the major road flow does not exceed 13,000 vpd.
As both major and minor road traffic increases, providing space for major road left-turning
traffic off the through lane becomes more important. A left-turning facility such as a ghost
island should be considered where the minor road flow exceeds 500 vpd. Ghost islands shall
not be installed where major road flows exceed 18,000 vpd, because it will force minor road
left-turning traffic to make the turn in two movements. At this point wide physical divisional
islands will be required to provide protection for minor road left-turning traffic to make the
maneuver in two stages.
T-intersections with physical divisional islands and major road channelized left turns are
appropriate for major road traffic volumes up to 15,000 vpd and minor road traffic of less
than 5,000 vpd.
For situations in which the minor road is a multi-lane road, other alternative intersection
concepts may be more appropriate than a priority intersection.

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Source Design Manual for Roads and Bridges UK TD 42/95
Figure 3.2 Approximate Level of Priority Intersection Provision for Varying Traffic
Flows in Urban Conditions
3.2.1 Guidelines for the Operational Viability of Priority T-Intersections

The capacity of simple T-intersections can be influenced by the presence of upstream
and downstream intersections, including signal-controlled intersections that can alter the
typical traffic pattern of random arrivals at the simple intersection. For major-road traffic
from 12,000 to 15,000 vpd, mainline gaps for turning traffic are fewer during peak periods,
resulting in longer delays for minor-road traffic and the potential for left turn from the major
road to also create delays and rear-end conflicts.
The operational acceptability of a priority intersection is based on two considerations:
1. The ability of left-turning traffic from the major road to do so in a manner that does not
create conflicts with the major road opposing through traffic
2. The ability of traffic from the minor road to select gaps from a stopped position and
enter the major road, accelerating into traffic safely.
Research on gap acceptance behavior at stop-controlled intersections shows that time gaps
of 7.5 seconds are sufficient for most passenger car drivers to make a left turn from a minor,
stopped condition onto the priority road. Drivers of single-unit trucks were observed to
accept longer time gaps of 9.5 seconds.
The Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) (2010) includes
methods for estimating the LOS of stop- or signal-controlled T-intersections. LOS analysis of

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unsignalized intersections is based on the priority of those movements that are controlled
or should yield to higher-priority movements. The two most critical movements evaluated
are the left turn from the major road (which must yield to oncoming traffic in the opposing
direction) and left turns from the minor road (which must yield to major road through traffic
in both directions and to left turns from the major road). LOS is based on estimated time
delays to these movements. Figure 3.3 summarizes the effect of traffic on both roadways
for a typical simple intersection.
Figure 3.3 Level of Service by Delays to the Minor Road Left-Turning Traffic
The HCM methodology assumes the intersection is isolated and arrivals on approaches are
random. The assumed conditions are tangent mainline and approaches, 90-degree angle of
intersection, and unlimited sight distance.
Figure 3.3 provides general, planning-level information to help evaluate the operational
acceptability of T-type priority intersections based on the delay and LOS to minor road traffic

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and left-turning traffic from the major road. The values are based on two assumptions for
turning traffic from the major road:
1. The top table is for a lower volume of turning traffic, 10 percent of approach volume.
2. The bottom table is for a higher volume of turning traffic, 30 percent of approach
volume.
Both tables assume a 50/50 distribution of turning traffic from the minor road. Use of the
table is demonstrated as follows:
For major road approach design hour volume of 500 vehicles per hour (vph; one direction
of travel) and minor road approach volume of 200 vph LOS of the minor road left turn
Vml would be:
• LOS D for the case in which major road left turns, VML are small (10 percent) per the
top table
• LOS E for the case in which major road left turns, VML are greater (30 percent) per the
bottom table
In both cases, the LOS for the left turn from the major road, VML is LOS A.
Note that the LOS is highly sensitive to both major road and minor road traffic volumes. As
major road approach volumes increase beyond 500 vph in one direction, the number of gaps
for minor road left turns decreases such that even relatively low approach volumes of 50 to
100 vph would encounter long delays and LOS E to F. Note also that major road left-turning
traffic can operate reasonably (LOS B) under even high volume conditions.
The approach hourly volumes in Figure 3.3 will typically be approximately 5 to 6 percent of
average daily traffic (ADT). For example, a one-way design year approach volume of 600 vph
may be consistent with a design year volume of 8,300 to 12,000 ADT. The typical practical
capacity of a two-lane road is approximately 15,000 to 18,000 vpd.
Figure 3.3 can be referenced with interpolation to gain an understanding of the operation
of the proposed intersection, but best practices in documenting a design decision are to
conduct a location-specific analysis using the HCM or a similar method and design-year
traffic. Judgment is also necessary to account for potential effects of proximate intersections
or major private accesses and driveways on the pattern of arrivals and flow through the
intersection.

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3.3 Reconstruction of Priority Intersections

When design-year traffic increases such that left turns off the priority road become more
difficult and delays increase, upgrading the design to provide a left-turn lane from the major
road shall be considered. Operation may be acceptable through much of the day, but during
peak traffic periods, LOS E or F may occur, which may not be acceptable. Delays can be
measured, and crash histories can be reviewed to determine the need for adding a left-turn
lane.

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4 Design Controls for Priority

Intersections
4.1 Design Speed

Geometric standards for intersections are related to the traffic speed of the major road.
Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, , of this Manual, to determine the
appropriate design speed.
4.2 Design Vehicles

The design vehicle selected for design of a priority intersection will affect both the radius
of turns and the entry width. Selection of an appropriate design vehicle is a choice by the
designer and shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization. It shall reflect a balance
between providing for the largest vehicles that may use the intersection and shall consider
the costs, right-of-way, crossing distance for pedestrians, entry and exit speeds of vehicles
on the minor road, and how drivers may perceive and drive through the intersection. Further
guidance on typical design vehicles is provided in Volume 1, Part 3, Planning, of this Manual.
The design of every intersection shall enable entry or use by emergency vehicles. In addition,
some form of heavy vehicle or truck will use the intersection, even if only infrequently, for
deliveries and servicing the surrounding properties. In residential areas, a school bus may
use the intersection. For a minor road serving an industrial area, the largest truck, which may
be a semitrailer, would be an appropriate design vehicle.
Table 4.1 shows guidance for selection of the appropriate design vehicle for use in developing
the intersection geometry. Designers shall use design software that replicates the swept-
paths of the design vehicles using appropriate swept path software in accordance with the
general requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements of this Manual and
specific requirements in this Part.
Where lanes are greater than 50 m long, an additional light vehicle passing a stranded design
vehicle shall be considered within the lane geometry.

6
Table 4.1 Guidance for Selection of Design Vehicles at Intersections
Design Condition Roadway Type Design Vehiclea
Parking lot entry/exit Local road, collector road Passenger car
Local road intersection Urban local road, collector road Single-unit truck or bus
(unsignalized)
Local road entry/exit Rural arterial (priority) Single-unit truck or bus
Collector road entry/exit Rural arterial (priority) Single-unit truck or bus
Signalized intersection Minor or major arterials WB-20, single-unit truckb
Two-lane roundabout Minor or major arterials WB-20, single-unit truck
Signalized intersection or Freeway or expressway WB-20

roundabout interchange ramp terminal
U-turn movement Signalized intersection Passenger car or single-unit

truck or bus
Notes:
a
Emergency vehicles shall be able to access all conditions.
b
More than one design vehicle may be used if patterns and types of traffic vary by approach leg.
WB = wheelbase
Geometric parameters for use in the design of a priority intersection allow for a 16.5 m long
articulated vehicle. This type of vehicle has a greater turning width than most other vehicles
that are likely to use these intersections regularly. If the major or minor priority intersection
being designed is in an area where there is likely to be regular use by large vehicles, the
designer shall complete the design to allow for these vehicles.
The composition and turning movements of traffic will influence the geometric layout
adopted. For example, a high proportion of heavy trucks will dictate the minimum lane width
and corner radii to be adopted at the intersection. A high proportion of turning traffic may
require the provision of a segregated or dedicated turning lane at the intersection to provide
adequate traffic capacity.
Where buses or other long rigid vehicles constitute a significant part of traffic during a
typical day, then corner radii and lane widths shall be increased to facilitate their swept
width requirements. See Section 4.3 of the Part for more detailed guidance on swept paths.
In urban situations, where the major road design speed is 80 kph or less and the proportion
of heavy trucks is low, the intersection may be designed for a single unit or smaller truck,
resulting in occasional encroachment onto opposing lanes for the infrequent larger vehicles.
In such cases, increasing the offset of signs, lights, or other roadside furniture shall be
considered as a prudent measure against errors, should a larger vehicle encroach on the curb.
Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, contains further information on the characteristics of design

vehicles.

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4.3 Swept Path Analysis

Turning paths of design vehicles form the basis of the turning widths required at intersections.
All intersection layouts must be checked to ensure that they can accommodate the turning
path envelope (swept path) for the design vehicle plus necessary clearances. The swept path
is the dynamic envelope traversed by the outer extremities of the vehicle. Designers shall
use design software that replicates the swept-paths of the design vehicles.
Elements, of this Manual. Specific guidance on swept paths at intersections is provided in
this Part.
4.4 Design Level of Service

The analysis of capacity and LOS is one of the most important considerations in the design
of intersections. The capacity or traffic-carrying capability of the urban road network largely
depends on the capacity of its intersections.
4.4.1 Level of Service Definitions for Priority Intersections

In new road and intersection design, a selected LOS forms the basis for sizing the roadway
and its elements. For priority intersections, the LOS is based on delays to drivers along the
minor or yield/stopped intersection approaches. With stop-controlled intersections, the main
road traffic undergoes no delay. LOS refers to the ability of minor road traffic to find gaps and
turn onto the major road. Table 4.2 summarizes the definition of LOS for unsignalized, two-
way, stop-controlled intersections replicating the critical operation of priority intersections.
Table 4.2 Level of Service Criteria for Two-Way, Stop-Controlled Intersections
Control Delay (seconds/vehicle) Level of Service by Volume-to-Capacity Ratio
0–10 A
>10–15 B
>15–25 C
>25–35 D
>35–50 E
>50 F
Source: Transportation Research Board. HCM. Exhibit 19-1. 2010.
Each location is unique. Traffic often is not random but is affected by upstream conditions
along both major approaches. Indeed, one potential solution to improve the operation of a
priority intersection is to adjust signal timing of an adjacent signalized intersection to create
time gaps for traffic.

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4.4.2 Level of Service Analysis and Intersection Type Selection

Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, summarizes the LOS for roadway design that
are the basis for planning and design decisions. LOS is not among the 16 criteria subject to
the Departure from Standards process. Although the selection of an appropriate LOS should
follow the guidance in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, the definition of LOS is
different for each facility type and set of conditions. With respect to priority intersections,
the following applies:
• The majority of traffic through the priority intersection is either free flowing, for
example, major road through traffic, or marginally delayed very little, such as, minor road
right-turning traffic and major road left-turning traffic. Such operations are the intent of
the principle behind a priority intersection.
• A LOS less than that specified for the condition (e.g., LOS D versus C) in the case of
priority intersections means that the critical left-turning traffic from the minor road may
undergo 10 more seconds of delay (e.g., 25 to 35 seconds of delay rather than 15 to 25
seconds of delay), as shown in Table 4.2.
• LOS analysis for design purposes is performed for the critical design-hour traffic (typically
workday peak hours). Operation of unsignalized intersections during off-peak conditions
will typically be much better than during the peak hours.
• Strict adherence to the LOS guidance may, in the case of priority intersections, lead to
selection of a more costly solution, when LOS D or even LOS E during short time periods
may be acceptable.
• HCM analysis methodologies include many assumptions. Decisions on the type of

intersection should, to the extent possible, include understanding of site-specific
conditions that may affect the actual operation of the intersection.
• Predicted or expected safety performance may represent a more significant factor in the
design decision making process.
4.5 Locating Priority Intersections

The intent of priority intersections is to allow for local access and turning movements to
occur safely to or from a major road with minimal impact to traffic flow on the major road.
In siting such intersections, the designer shall balance the many physical controls and
constraints with traffic operational and design requirements.
Locating the intersection itself will generally be associated with siting the minor roadway.
For roads on new alignment, locating the new road itself will often be based on following
property lines and avoiding adverse impacts to existing developed land uses.
In locating priority intersections, alignment and geometry that provide clear lines of sight for
drivers on the minor road approaches are the most important considerations.

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4.5.1 Major Road Alignment

Ideally, major and minor priority intersections shall be sited on major road tangents. Research
into human factors demonstrates that drivers misjudge the speed and time gap of oncoming
traffic approaching on a curve. In addition, the turning maneuver and acceleration itself is
more difficult and time-consuming on a curve.
For cases in which a major or minor priority intersection on a curve is unavoidable, the
preferred alignment is for T-intersections to be sited with the minor road on the outside of
the curve, and within a 20-degree skew angle from a right angle to the major road. This is
especially important for intersections in which multiple lanes are approaching on the major
road. In such cases, this provides for clear sight lines to both major road traffic streams from
the minor road traffic.
On two-lane rural highways, passing or overtaking shall be prohibited on the approaches to

and through the priority intersections.
4.5.2 Minor Road Alignment

Intersecting roads shall generally meet at or nearly at right angles. Roads intersecting at acute
angles require extensive turning roadway areas. In addition, drivers have limited peripheral
vision, and acute angles can make the perception of crossing traffic difficult. Research has
shown that older drivers have limited ability to turn their heads and hence have difficulties
with acute-angled intersections. Truck turning maneuvers can also be difficult, because
when a large vehicle turns through an obtuse angle, the driver has areas of poor visibility on
the right side of the vehicle. In addition, acute-angled intersections increase the exposure
time for the vehicles crossing the main traffic flow.
Skewed intersections, ones in which the angle of intersection is significantly different from
90 degrees, present special design challenges. To the extent possible, these should be
avoided. However, context constraints may require a designer to accept some skew. Table 4.3
shows the potential additional crash risk for priority T-intersections designed on skews.
Table 4.3 Effect of Intersection Skew Angle on Crash Frequency at Unsignalized

Intersections
Angle of Skew Crash Modification Factor

Crash Types
(degrees)a 3-Leg 4-Leg
10 Fatal plus injury 1.2 1.4
a
Angle of skew is measured from 90 crossing (0 degrees of skew).
CMF expresses the effect of the angle of skew compared with a base condition, which is 90 degrees
(0 degrees of skew). For example, a crash modification factor of 1.4 means that the intersection is
expected to have a crash frequency of 1.4 times, or 40 percent, more than the base condition
Source: HSM, Volume 2, Chapter 10 (AASHTO, 2010)

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Figure 4.1 illustrates a skewed priority T-intersection with major road left-turn channelization.
Either a left- or right-hand skew may be designed.
In designing the intersection, designers should strive to bring the minor road approach to
as close to 90 degrees as possible right at the intersection. Where a skew is unavoidable,
designers should incorporate left-turn channelization regardless of the approach traffic
volumes in order to provide clarity of the intersection arrangement to drivers through
channelization of the vehicle flows.
The design favors the left-turn movement from the major road over the right turn from the
major road in the opposing direction. For cases in which the left-turn volume from the major
road is significant, the use of an auxiliary deceleration lane for the right-turning movement
should be considered to provide room for queued right turns to yield outside of the through
traffic lane. This is illustrated on Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.1 Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes

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Figure 4.2 Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes and
Auxiliary Lane for Major Road Right Turns

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4.5.3 Skewed Crossroads

Designers should avoid crossroads intersections with skew angles greater than 5 degrees
(i.e., the intersecting angle should be from 85 to 95 degrees). The effect of skew on crash
frequency is even greater for crossroads intersections than for T-intersections, as shown in
Table 4.3. Even a 10-degree skew may produce a 4 percent increase in crash risk.
Designers working on reconstruction projects in which skewed crossroads exist have a range
of design options to address the skew, as shown on Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Design Solutions for Skewed Crossroads

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4.5.4 Y-Intersections
Designers should avoid Y-intersection alignments. Two design options for Y-intersections,
shown on Figure 4.4, may be appropriate. Option A is suitable for cases in which the roadway
on tangent is the major road. Option B is suitable for cases in which the roadway on horizontal
curve is the major road.
Figure 4.4 Design Solutions for Y-Intersections
Y-intersections can create additional visibility problems where the intersection is hidden by
a crest curve; Figure 4.5 illustrates this. In the top part of Figure 4.5, drivers unfamiliar with
the horizontal curve may be misled by the roadway following the tangent, particularly at
night or in other poor light conditions. In addition, drivers approaching on the curve in the
other direction will have difficulty seeing traffic approaching on the other roadway.

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A Y-intersection hidden
by a crest may surprise
the driver.
Source: Federal Highway Administration, 2007.
Figure 4.5 Y-Intersection Hidden by Crest Curve
4.6 Vertical Alignment

The best locations for intersections are on level ground or where the grade of the major road
approach is 2 percent or less. Downhill approaches on the major road exceeding 3 percent,
particularly on high-speed roads, may produce traffic speeds above those desirable through
the intersection and create the potential for drivers on the minor road to misjudge the gap
between vehicles. Steep uphill approach grades are also undesirable, particularly at the minor
road approach. Such grades increase the time and distance to accelerate from a stopped
position to the mainline speed.
Minor road approach grades shall be minimized to the extent possible near the intersection.
A relatively flat platform or zone of 15 to 20 m, or the predicted queue length (as predicted
by traffic analysis) whichever is greater, shall be provided. This may be reduced to 10 m
in residential areas subject to the Overseeing Organization’s approval. Approach gradients

6
within this zone should be limited to a maximum of 3 percent. Grades exceeding 3 percent
within this zone (L) shall require a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3,
Part 25, Departure from Standards Process, of this Manual. Figure 4.6 illustrates the
minor road approach.
The most important considerations regarding grade are the provision of full corner sight
distance and the development of the profile, cross slope, and edge of pavement elevations
to enable appropriate drainage of the intersection approach.
Figure 4.6 Minor Road Approach Gradient
4.7 Spacing of Intersections

Intersection spacing is influenced by the land use environment and by a road’s functional
classification within the road hierarchy. The number of intersections and their spacing
represents a balance between providing sufficient direct access to adjacent properties and
areas, meeting the needs of the local road network, and the desire to minimize potential
points of conflict or sources of delay for major road traffic.
Should the number and importance of existing cross routes necessitate multiple, closely
spaced intersections, consideration shall be given to combining roads before they meet the
main road to mitigate close intersection spacing.
Intersections ideally operate independently of each other. The minimum spacing between
adjacent intersections for the various road classifications should be in accordance with the
values provided in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
4.8 Visibility
Clear visibility on the approach to, at, and traveling through an intersection is essential for the
safe and efficient use of that intersection. In determining the correct visibility requirements
for an intersection, the designer must consider both the layout of the intersection and the
vehicles that will use it.

6
The visibility and intervisibility requirements provided in this section are related to the
design speed of the major road; little benefit is to be gained by increasing the requirements.
However, each intersection must be considered on a site-specific basis, with an assessment
made of additional visibility to be provided due to factors such as:
• Width of major road to be crossed

• Traffic control on the minor approach road
• Turning movements to be made at the intersection
• Gradient of the approaches and departures
• Types of vehicle that will be using the intersection, e.g., large, slow-speed vehicles
require additional visibility
As well as having adverse safety implications, poor visibility reduces the capacity of turning
movements.
Drivers approaching a major or minor intersection from the major road or the minor road
shall have unobstructed visibility in accordance with the following clauses. The envelope of
visibility for driver’s eye height is described in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual.
Major Road
Drivers approaching a major or minor intersection along the major road approaches shall be
able to see the minor road entry from a distance corresponding to 1.5 times the stopping
sight distance (SSD) for the design speed of the major road, as described in Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. This intervisibility allows drivers on the major
road to be aware of traffic entering from the minor road in time for them to slow down and
stop safely if necessary. The concept of adequate visibility to make safe turning movements
also applies to vehicles turning left into the minor road from the major road.
Minor Road
Minor road traffic has to approach the intersection and join or cross the major road when
there are gaps in the major road traffic streams. It is, therefore, essential that minor road
drivers have adequate visibility in each direction to see the intersection layout and oncoming
major road traffic in sufficient time to make their maneuvers safely.

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The principle of providing the required visibility for drivers approaching the intersection from
the minor road has three distinct features; refer to Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8:
1. W: Approaching drivers should have unobstructed visibility of the intersection from a

distance corresponding to the SSD for the design speed of the minor road. This allows
drivers time to slow down safely at the intersection, or stop, if necessary. Where a yield
or stop sign is proposed, the visibility envelope shall be widened to include the sign.
2. Z: A driver approaching the intersection should be able to see the intersection form and
peripheral elements of the intersection layout. This provides the driver with an idea of
the possible movements and conflicts, and possible required action before reaching the
major road. This point is the Z point; it is 15 m back along the centerline of the minor
road measured from the continuation of the line of the nearside edge of the running
roadway of the major road, but not from the continuation of the back of the major road
hardstrip, if this is present.
3. X, Y: The distance back along the minor road from which full visibility is measured is
the X distance. It is measured back along the centerline of the minor road from the
continuation of the line of the nearside edge of the running lane of the major road. The
preferred X distance is 10 m.
From this point, an approaching driver shall be able to see clearly points to the left and right
on the nearer edge of the major roadway at a distance given in Table 4.4, measured from its
intersection with the centerline of the minor road. This is the Y distance.
If the line of vision is partially within the major road, it shall be made tangential to the nearer
edge of the major road running lane, as shown in Figure 4.8.
In difficult circumstances, where major road design speeds are less than 80 kph, the X
distance may be reduced from 10 to 7.5 m for lightly trafficked (less than 5000 AADT) simple
intersections, and, in exceptionally difficult circumstances, to 5.0 m back from the nearer
edge of the major road running lane. In some urban locations where only light vehicles are
involved, the X distance can be further reduced to 2.5 m.
The X distance, from which full Y distance visibility is provided, should preferably be not
more than 10 m, because this induces high minor road approach speeds into the intersection
and leads to excessive land take.
Similarly, although the Y distance should always be provided, there is little advantage in
increasing it, because this too can induce high approach speeds and take the attention of
the minor road driver away from the immediate intersection conditions. Increased visibility
should not be provided to increase the capacities of various turning movements.

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Figure 4.7 Visibility Criteria at Priority Intersections
Figure 4.8 Visibility Criteria with a Curved Major Road
These visibility standards apply to new intersections and to improvements to existing

intersections.
If the major road is one way, a single visibility splay in the direction of approaching traffic will
suffice. If the minor road serves as a one-way exit from the major road, no visibility splays
will be required if forward visibility for turning vehicles is adequate. Vehicles parked within
splay lines can obstruct visibility. Parking and access should be designed to prevent this.
Care should also be taken in the placing of signs, landscaping, and street furniture within the
visibility splay areas so that their obstructive effect is minimized.

6
Table 4.4 Minimum X and Y Visibility Distances from the Minor Road
Design Speed of Major Road (kph) Y Distance (m) Minimum X Distance (m)
120 295 10
100 215 10
80 160 10
70 120 7.5*
60 90 7.5*
50 70 5.0*
<50 50 2.5*
Note:
* In all cases the preferred X distance is 10 m. The minimum X distances given shall only be used in difficult
circumstances, in accordance with Section 4.7.

6

6
5 Geometric Design Details for

Priority Intersections
The geometric design of priority intersections includes corner radii, widths of roadways,
taper and auxiliary lane dimensions, medians and median openings, and traffic islands.
Appropriate dimensions vary by context and functional needs of the intersection.
The geometric parameters used here allow for use by a 16.5 m long articulated vehicle, refer
to Section 4.2, Design Vehicles.
5.1 Corner Radii

Design of intersection corners should accommodate the paths of the largest vehicles that
would typically use the intersection. The ease of turn, desired speeds, and placement of the
vehicle through the turn will vary based on the functional class of the roadways and other
context features.
Corners may be designed with simple radii, compound curves (either two-centered or three-
centered), or simple radii offset from the through edges of pavement with short tangent
tapers. The latter solutions, compound curves and simple radii with tangent offsets,
efficiently fit the swept paths of the larger-design vehicles.
5.1.1 T-Intersection Corner Radii

For simple T-intersections without merge or diverge auxiliary lanes and where no provision
is to be made for larger trucks or buses, the minimum circular corner radius shall generally
be 6 m in urban areas and 10 m in rural areas. These minimum radii are appropriate on urban
local roads and service roads where pedestrian mobility and safety is a priority.
Where provision is to be made for large trucks or buses, the corner radii shall be designed
with larger circular corner radii and a short swept path taper. Figure 5.1 shows circular corner
radii incorporating tapers. Note that the tapers are placed on the departure end of the corner
radius. The recommended combination of corner radii and taper are shown in Table 5.1.

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Figure 5.1 Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Tapers
Table 5.1 Circular Corner Radii
Taper Rate Length of Taper (m) Corner Radius (m)

Intersection Type
T L R
Urban Simple
1:5 30 10
Intersection
Rural Simple
1:10 25 15
Intersection
Staggered Intersection 1:8 32 15
All Other Not applicable Not applicable 20
Where large trucks comprise a significant portion of the turning movements, compound
circular curves shown in Figure 5.2 shall be used together with a minor road channelizing
island.

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Figure 5.2 Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Compound Curve
The design of an intersection shall be checked to ensure the design vehicle swept path
remains within the curb faces using appropriate swept path software in accordance with the
general requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, and
specific requirements in this Part.
Where right-turning acceleration facilities are not provided, the angle of incidence between
the mainline edge of pavement and the line of the vehicle entering shall not be less than
70 degrees when positioned at the yield or stop line. This will enable drivers entering the
mainline roadway to look both ways without relying on mirrors for mainline visibility. The
angle of incidence in this situation is to be controlled by channelizing islands; refer to Figure
5.10.
5.1.2 Corner Radii for Channelized Right Turns

Where right-turn auxiliary lanes are introduced on the major road, channelized right turns are
used at the end of the auxiliary lane.
The merging nose and lane from the minor road shall be introduced to the major road through
a separate turning roadway, with a minimum radius of 25 m where the major road design
speed is 80 kph or lower. At higher speeds the minimum radius shall be 30 m. Figure 5.3
illustrates the layout of a channelized right-turn. The minimum lane width around this corner
will depend on the curve radius selected with reference to Table 5.2.

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Figure 5.3 Typical Layout of Channelized Right Turn
Diverging and merging auxiliary lanes shall be provided to allow vehicles to decelerate from
and accelerate onto the mainline carriageway.
The exit curve radii and diverge lane length shall be designed as set out below.
• Where pedestrians are expected to cross onto the splitter island; regardless of whether
a formal crossing is provided or not, the running speed on the design speed of the exit
curve shall be considered no faster than 30 kph and the exit curve radius and deceleration
length shall be selected from Table 5.1 of Volume 1, Part 9, of the Manual.
• Where particularly high pedestrian flows are expected, such as at school zones, metro
stations, etc., then a stop condition shall be applied to the exit curve design speed as per
Table 5.1 of Volume 1, Part 9, of the Manual.
• Where no pedestrians are expected, then the exit curve radius can either be designed as
per in accordance with Clause 5.3 of this part, or consider the design speed of the minor
road with exit curve radius and deceleration length selected from Table 5.1 of Volume 1,
Part 9, of the Manual.
The merging auxiliary lane shall be designed in accordance with Clause 5.3.2 of this part.

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5.2 Roadway Widths

5.2.1 Through-Lane Widths
The lane widths to be provided through priority intersections are dependent on the
intersection type, as follows:
• At simple intersections and ghost island intersections, the lane width through the
intersection shall be the same as in advance of the intersection.
• Where left-turn channelization with physical islands is included, the through lane in each
direction shall be 4 m wide, excluding shoulders or offsets to the edges of any physical
island, Figure 5.12, dimension - c. Total paved width of through lanes shall be 6 m to
allow traffic to pass a stopped vehicle without leaving the paved width, illustrated in
Figure 2.4.
• At intersections on multi-lane roads, the through-lane widths through the intersection

shall be the same as in advance of the intersection.
5.2.2 Widths of Minor Road Approaches

The width of the minor road approach is dependent on whether a channelizing island is
provided. Where no channelizing island is provided the nominal approach width of the minor
road shall continue up to the tangent point of the corner curve to join the major road.
Where a channelizing island is provided in the minor road approach, Figure 5.4 details the
layout of such approaches. Both lanes of the minor road shall be a minimum 4.0 m wide at
the point where the hatched markings surrounding the channelizing island begin.
At the point where the channelizing island commences the minimum width on either side
shall be as follows:
• On the approach to the major road: 4.0 m wide for a ghost island or 4.5 m wide for
channelized left-turn intersections, exclusive of any shoulder. If the minor road approach
consists of two lanes, then the dimension shall be increased to 5.5 m.
• On the exit from the major road: 4.5 m wide for a ghost island or 5.0 m wide for
channelized left-turn intersections, exclusive of any shoulder.

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Figure 5.4 Minor Road Approaches
5.2.3 Turning Roadway Widths around Corners

Where roadways are taken around short radius corners (R) such as adjacent to channelizing
islands, as shown in Figure 5.3, added width (W) shall be provided to accommodate the swept
area of larger vehicles. Table 5.2 lists the minimum widths of turning roadways for various
inside corner radii based on a 16.5 m design vehicle. On single-lane sections greater than
50 m long, an allowance shall be made for the passing of broken-down vehicles, and the
minimum physical width provided shall be (WT) as listed in the third column, “Single-Lane
Roadway Width with Room to Pass Stationary Vehicles”.
Table 5.2 Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Turning Roadway Widths
Single-Lane Two-Lane Width for One-Way or

Roadway Single-Lane Two-Way Traffic (Excluding Shoulder
Inside Width Roadway Width Provision) - W (m)
Corner/ (Excluding with Room to Pass
Curve Shoulder Stationary Vehicles
Radius – R Provision) - (Including Shoulder
(m) W (m) Provision) - WT (m) Left Lane Right Lane Total
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9

15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3

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Single-Lane Two-Lane Width for One-Way or

Roadway Single-Lane Two-Way Traffic (Excluding Shoulder
Inside Width Roadway Width Provision) - W (m)
Corner/ (Excluding with Room to Pass
Curve Shoulder Stationary Vehicles
Radius – R Provision) - (Including Shoulder
(m) W (m) Provision) - WT (m) Left Lane Right Lane Total
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3

50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6
Where 16.5 m articulated vehicles are expected, but likely to form only a very small
percentage of the total number of vehicles and where conflicts will not occur on bends, the
roadway widths may be reduced to allow for the lower-class vehicles that will regularly use
the intersection with an additional 1 m allowance for variation in vehicle position.
5.3 Diverging and Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers

Auxiliary lanes and tapers at priority intersections provide multiple functions:
• Deceleration from higher-speed major road traffic to make a right or left turn
• Acceleration for the right turn from the minor road yield condition to the higher-speed
major road
• Separation of queued left-turning traffic at priority T-intersections (awaiting a gap in

opposing through traffic)
• Separation of channelized right-turning traffic onto the minor road at priority

T-intersections, yielding to left-turning traffic from the opposing major road direction
of travel
• Separation of queued right-turning traffic from the major road yielding to pedestrians
crossing the intersection
Figure 5.5 shows a typical design of priority T-intersection with an auxiliary lane for right
turning, decelerating and accelerating traffic.

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Figure 5.5 T-Intersection with Channelizing and Right-turn Auxiliary Lanes
Diverging and merging auxiliary lanes and tapers are acceleration and deceleration
lanes and, as such, any reduction in acceleration and deceleration length shall require
a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departure from
Standards Process.
5.3.1 Right-Turn Diverge Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers

Auxiliary lanes at right-turn intersections allow the deceleration of vehicles exiting the
mainline and acceleration of vehicles entering the mainline to occur off the main roadway
and, therefore, with less effect on the mainline flow. Figure 5.6 shows a typical design.

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Figure 5.6 Right-Turn Auxiliary Lane on Diverge of Multi-Lane Priority Intersection
Traffic is introduced to the right-turn lane by an auxiliary lane. Where an auxiliary lane
is present, the hatched road markings are extended along their current path until the
intersection with the centerline of the minor road.
Where a paved shoulder is provided on the major road, this shall be continued along the
auxiliary lanes but shall not be provided in front of the channelizing island along the major
road edge. A setback clearance to the island shall be provided in accordance with Clause
5.6.4.
Where successive priority intersections are introduced on multi-lane roads, the potential for
weaving shall be considered.
5.3.1.1 Guidelines for Application of Right-Turn Diverge Auxiliary Lanes

Removing decelerating traffic from high-speed through lanes improves the safety performance
of the intersection. The HSM (AASHTO, 2010) documents an expected reduction in crash risk
for the addition of a right-turn lane on the approach to a 3-leg unsignalized intersection as
follows (the base condition is a 3-leg intersection with no right-turn lanes):
• Crash modification factor (CMF) of 0.86 for all crash types and severities (14 percent
reduction)
• CMF of 0.77 for all injury crashes (23 percent reduction)

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Diverging auxiliary lanes are appropriate for the following conditions in the design year:
• The volume of right-turning traffic is greater than 600 vehicles AADT (one way)
• The percentage of heavy trucks is greater than 20 percent, and the volume of right-
turning traffic is greater than 450 vehicles AADT (one way)
• The intersection is on an upgrade or downgrade greater than 4 percent, and the volume
of right-turning traffic is greater than 450 vehicles AADT (one way)
Where the major road traffic flow is greater than 7,000 to 8,000 AADT (one-way), the figures
given in the preceding list for turning traffic may be halved.
Diverging right-turn auxiliary lanes shall be used for roads with the following conditions:
• Rural, multi-lane priority intersections, rural arterials, and collector roads
• Urban multi-lane priority intersections with a priority road design speed of 100 kph or
greater; all functional classes
They may be considered on other roads depending on traffic volumes, available right-of-
way and other factors, for example, priority road T-intersections on two-lane roads with
divisional islands and left-turn lanes
Right-turn auxiliary lanes are typically not provided at simple T-intersections, although they
may be used where traffic volumes and patterns suggest a benefit.
Diverging auxiliary lane lengths for right turns shall be in accordance with Table 5.3.

6
Table 5.3 Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Diverge
Minimum Auxiliary Lane Direct Taper Length –b

Design Speed (kph) Length –a (m) (m)
Rural 50 80 5
80 80 15
100 160 25
120 230 30
140 Not applicablea Not permittedd
Urban 50 40 5
60b
50 (40) c
10
70b
65 (40) c
10
80 80 (50) c
15
100 120 (80) c
25
120 Not applicable a
Not applicable
Notes:
a
For auxiliary lanes at interchanges, refer to Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled Intersections, of
this Manual.
b
60 kph and 70 kph design speeds may occur where a diverging auxiliary lane is required from a ramp; refer
to Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.
c
Figures in parentheses may be applied where intersection spacing is a constraint.
d
Direct tapers are not permitted on roads with a design speed of 140 kph.
The diverging auxiliary lane length is defined as being from the beginning of the direct
taper to the start of the radius around the corner, as shown as dimension (a) in Figure 5.6.
Therefore, the direct taper length is included within the auxiliary lane length stated in Table
5.6.
The minimum lengths are based on vehicle deceleration, assuming that 10 percent occurs
on the mainline prior to entering the deceleration facility. In urban situations, because of
the more constrained nature, auxiliary lengths may be reduced further (as indicated by the
number in parentheses in Table 5.3) in situations where intersection spacing is a constraint.
The deceleration rate on the level is assumed to be 2.5 meters per second per second (m/s/s).
However, the minimum auxiliary lane lengths should not be less than 40 m.
The auxiliary lane should be of sufficient length to allow vehicles to slow to a stop at the
end of the lane. Therefore, any reduction from the lengths indicated in Table 5.3 shall
require a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departure
The width of the diverging auxiliary lane shall be 3.65 m. For reconstruction, including
widening projects in which right-of-way or other constraints limit the cross section, right-turn
auxiliary lane widths as narrow as 3.4 m may be acceptable. The benefits of the auxiliary

6
lane are associated with the lane’s presence and length. There is no meaningful loss of
function associated with a narrowing from 3.65 to 3.4 m. Auxiliary lane widths less than
3.65 m shall require a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25,
Departure from Standards Process, of this Manual.
Where the intersection accommodates vehicles making a left turn into the minor road, yield
markings shall be provided at the end of the auxiliary diverge lane. These markings are not
required on multi-lane highways or roads at which left turns from the major road are not
provided.
At the end of the auxiliary lane, a curve radius into the minor road of at least 20 m should
be used where the major road design speed is 80 kph or lower. At higher design speeds, the
minimum radius should be 40 m. The minimum lane width around this corner will depend on
the curve radius selected and is defined in Table 5.2.
Where diverging auxiliary lanes are provided, they should include an adjacent shoulder strip
equal to that of the associated major road. However, because right-turn lanes increase the
footprint of the intersection, they increase the cost and may increase the need for additional
right-of-way. Where space is limited and right-of-way is unavailable, a designer may consider
converting some or all of the shoulder to a right-turn lane on the approach to the intersection,
perhaps with only minor additional widening of 1 to 2 m. Although this reduction in shoulder
width would require a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25,
Departure from Standards Process, of this Manual, it may be demonstrated to have a superior
safety and operational performance compared with the intersection with no right-turn lane.
Right-turn auxiliary lanes at priority intersections will typically not include length for storage.
The right-turning traffic, in most cases, is not stopped through the turn.
For special cases in which pedestrians crossing the priority intersection are prevalent,
designers may provide length for one or two queued vehicles stopped in advance of the
pedestrian crossing. An additional length of 10 to 15 m may be used. In cases of very high-
volume pedestrian activity, the need for a pedestrian signal would produce queuing and
could require additional right-turning lane length.
For cases in which a downstream intersection or other element limits the ability to achieve
the total desirable length of auxiliary lane, designers may foreshorten the direct taper thus
maximizing the length of full lane available for deceleration. Some deceleration can also be
assumed to occur in the through lanes. The minimum length of right-turn lane should be
based on deceleration from a speed no less than 30 kph below the design speed.
5.3.1.2 Through-Lane Continuity and Right-Turn Lanes

Mainline lanes shall continue through intersections and not be dropped at a right turn. Where
substantial turning volume occurs or where the road is to transition its basic number of

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lanes (say, from four lanes to two), a typical diverge right-turn auxiliary lane, such as shown
in Figure 5.6, shall be provided. The reduction in through lanes shall occur at least 200 m
downstream of the intersection.
5.3.1.3 Diverging Tapers

Although the use of diverging auxiliary lanes is the preferred treatment for right-turn lanes
there may be instances where there is not enough width in the right-of-way to include an
auxiliary lane or a substandard auxiliary lane. In these instances, a diverging taper shall be
used as illustrated in Figure 5.7. The length of diverge taper to be the same as the equivalent
auxiliary lane as shown in Table 5.3, or as long as possible within the site constraints.
Figure 5.7 Alternative Taper Diverge
5.3.2 Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers

Merging auxiliary lanes permit minor road traffic to accelerate before joining the faster traffic
streams on the mainline where the joining traffic may otherwise impede flow or produce a
potential rear-end crash. A typical merging auxiliary lane design is shown on Figure 5.8. A
merging auxiliary lane shall not be used at priority intersections on two-lane roads or where
two-lane roads are channelized by divisional islands into two single-lane roadways.

6
Figure 5.8 Auxiliary Lane on Merge
5.3.2.1 Guidelines for Application of Merging Auxiliary lanes

Merging auxiliary lanes shall be used at all rural priority intersections on multi-lane roads,
including all functional classifications. They shall also be used for priority intersections on
all urban multi-lane roads with a design speed of 100 kph or greater, except where their
inclusion is determined to create a weaving problem.
Merging auxiliary lanes shall be preceded by a turning roadway nose, detailed in Clause 5.5.2
and illustrated as (c) in Figure 5.8.
Merging auxiliary lanes may also be considered for lower design speeds when the volume of
right-turning traffic in the design year exceeds 600 vehicles AADT (one-way).
However, where the merging auxiliary lane is for an upgradient of greater than 4 percent
or where the percentage of large goods vehicles exceeds 20 percent, the threshold value is
reduced to 450 vehicles AADT (one-way).
Omission of a merging auxiliary lane in accordance with the above conditions shall
require a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departure from
Standards Process, of this Manual. Merging auxiliary lane lengths, shown as dimension (a)
in Figure 5.8, shall be in accordance with Table 5.4.

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Table 5.4 Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Merge
Design Speed Minimum Auxiliary Direct Taper Nose Length – c

(kph) Lane Length - a (m) Length - b (m) (m)
50 Not applicablea Not applicable Not applicable

80 165 35 40
Rural 100 285 35 40

120 460 35 40
140 Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
50 Not applicablea Not applicable Not applicable
60b 95 35 40
Urban 70b 95 35 40
80 95 35 40
100 150 35 40
Notes:
a
At lower design speeds and where an auxiliary lane cannot be accommodated traffic, shall be required to
yield.
b
60 kph and 70 kph design speeds may occur where merging auxiliary lane is required on to a ramp; refer
to Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled Intersections, of this Manual.
The auxiliary lane lengths indicated allow a typical passenger car to accelerate to an
appropriate speed before merging with the mainline traffic. The lengths provided for rural
roads allow the merging vehicle to accelerate to 10 percent less than the mainline design
speed. In more constrained urban locations, the shorter auxiliary lanes provided allow merging
vehicles to accelerate to 30 percent less than the mainline design speed. Notwithstanding,
the minimum length shall be 95 m to allow sufficient maneuvering opportunity. The auxiliary
lane lengths specified in Table 5.4 include a direct taper of 35 m length at the end of the
parallel section.
Vehicles traveling within an auxiliary lane should have sufficient opportunity to accelerate
adequately to enable comfortable merging maneuver.
A separate turning lane, with a radius of at least 25 m where the main road design speed is
80 kph and lower, and at least 30 m above this speed, shall be used to introduce the merging
auxiliary lane from the minor road. The initial width of the lane will depend on the radius of
the turning lane, determined from Table 5.2.
Auxiliary lanes of lengths less than those specified in Table 5.4 shall require a Departure
from Standard in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departure from Standards Process,
of this Manual.

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5.3.2.2 Merging Tapers

Where an auxiliary merging lane cannot be achieved due to constraints, the designer should
consider a substandard auxiliary lane where the achievable Auxiliary Lane Length (a) in Table
5.4 is greater than the required Merging Taper Length (a) in Table 5.5. Otherwise a taper
layout, as illustrated in Figure 5.9, can be used subject to a Departure from Standards
submission in accordance with Volume 3, Part 25, Departure from Standards Process, of
this Manual.
Merging tapers shall not be used at priority intersections on two-lane roads or where two-
lane roads are channelized by divisional islands into two single-lane roadways.
At some junctions on dual roadways, there may be safety benefits in providing merging
tapers at lower flows.
A separate turning lane, with a radius of at least 25 m where the main road design speed is
80 kph and lower, and at least 30 m above this speed, shall be used to introduce the merging
taper from the minor road. The initial width of the lane, which will depend on the radius
of the turning lane determined from Table 5.2, shall be decreased at a constant taper the
length of which is dependent on the design speed.
The lengths of the tapers to be used are given in Table 5.5. The minimum initial width of a
merging taper shall be 4.0 m.
On dual roadways, with a design speed of 120 kph or greater, the merging taper may be
preceded by a short nose of 40 m length formed between it and the end of the 30 m approach
curve. The back of the nose should have a minimum width of 2 m, illustrated in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9 Alternative Taper Merge

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Table 5.5 Taper Length on Priority Intersection Merge
Design Speed (kph) Merging Length – a (m)
80 90
100 110
120 130
5.3.2.3 Minor Road Right-Turn Approach where an Auxiliary Lane is Not Provided
On multi-lane roads with design speeds of 80 kph and lower, or where merging auxiliary
lanes cannot be accommodated because of weaving constraints, vehicles shall be required to
yield at the intersection. In such circumstances, the angle of incidence between the yielding
traffic and the mainline roadway shall be not less than 70 degrees. Figure 5.10 shows such
a design.
Figure 5.10 Right-Turn Approach Where an Auxiliary Lane Is Not Provided
5.4 Major Road Left-Turn lanes

Left-turn movements from major or minor roads at priority intersections can be separated
from through traffic by divisional ghost or physical islands so that the number of traffic
conflicts is reduced.
Preventing or minimizing conflicts by separation means that drivers have only simple
decisions regarding their movements at any one time. For the separation to be effective,

6
the junction must be large enough for drivers to identify in adequate time those vehicles
that conflict with their intended path. This will enable gaps in the traffic flow to be used
effectively by traffic entering the intersection.
Major road left-turn lanes comprise a number of individual elements combined to enable
the passage of through traffic, left-turning vehicles, and the storage of major road left-
turning vehicles. In addition, they provide space for warning and directional signage at an
intersection.
5.4.1 Channelized Major Road Left-Turn Lanes

Major road left-turn lanes at intersections allow for the deceleration, queuing and turning
of vehicles leaving the major through road and turning left, across oncoming traffic, into the
minor road. This lane allows vehicles to leave the major road through lane and therefore have
less impact on the mainline flows.
Clause 2.2.3 addresses the traffic operational and safety performance guidelines for left-
turn lanes at two-lane priority intersections. Left turns that are unsignalized are prohibited
on multi-lane roads.
Figure 5.11 shows a typical layout for this form of intersection with ghost islands.
Figure 5.12 shows a typical layout for this form of intersection with physical divisional
islands.
Figure 5.11 Priority Ghost Island T-Intersection with Left Turn Lane

6
Figure 5.12 Priority T-Intersection with Left-Turn Lane

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5.4.1.1 Components of Auxiliary and Left-Turn Lane Lengths

The length of the auxiliary and left-turn lanes for turning vehicles consists of three
components:
• Deceleration (or acceleration) length

• Storage or queuing length and turning length, where exiting the major road
• Entering or exiting taper
Ideally, the total length of the auxiliary or left-turn lane shall be the sum of the length for
these three components. Assuming a moderate amount of deceleration occurs within the
through lanes is acceptable, as is assuming that deceleration occurs over the taper length.
Turning Length (Tl)
The turning length is provided to allow long vehicles to position themselves correctly for the
left turn. It is not specifically included within the calculation of left-turn auxiliary lane length
but is required. The turning length shall be 10 m long irrespective of the type of intersection,
design speed or gradient, measured from the centerline of the minor road.
Deceleration Length (Ldl)
Lengths for deceleration are based on an assumed rate of 2 m/s2. The deceleration lengths
on channelized left-turns shall be in accordance with Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Minimum Channelized Left-Turn Deceleration Length (Ldl)
Deceleration Length - Ldl (m)
50 55
60 75
70 100
80 130
100 200
120 Not applicable
Queue Length (Lq)
The left-turn auxiliary lane on facilities exiting the major road shall be sufficiently long
to store the number of vehicles likely to accumulate during a critical period. The queue or
storage length shall be sufficient to avoid the possibility of left-turning vehicles stopping
in the through lanes waiting for a gap in the opposing traffic flow. As traffic arrivals are
random, where possible, designers should estimate queuing requirements based on twice
the mean rate of arrivals, which represents a 95th percentile arrival, as shown in Table 5.7.

6
Table 5.7 Guidelines for Estimating Number of Vehicles Stored in Major Road Left-
Turn Lane at Priority Intersections
Estimated Queue for Average Delay
LOS C LOS D
(15 to 25 seconds (25 to 35 seconds
average delay) average delay)
Left Turn Design Average 2 x Average
Hour Volume Arrivals per Arrivals per
(vph) Minute Minute Average [2 x Ave.] Average [2 x Ave.]
60 1 2 0 [0 to 1] 1 [1 to 2]
120 2 4 0 [1 to 2] 2 [2 to 4]
180 3 6 1 [2 to 3] 3 [4 to 5]
240 4 8 2 [4 to 5] 4 [6 to 7]
300 5 10 3 [5 to 6] 5 [8 to 9]
For most cases, assuming one to four vehicles will be queued at some time during the design
hour to await a gap should be sufficient. Assuming 8 m per vehicle comprising the vehicle
length plus gap, this translates to 8 to 32 m (for example, 30 m) for queuing four vehicles.
Approved traffic analysis software that simulate traffic in the intersection can also be used
to estimate storage requirements. A minimum of 10 m for queuing one vehicle is appropriate
for lower-volume left turns operating at LOS A or B.
Direct Taper Lengths (Ldt)
Direct tapers are to be used at the commencement of deceleration left-turning auxiliary

lanes. Tapers shall be designed to be clearly direct and divergent from the through lanes.
Tapers that are too long take away length for storage and, in the extreme, may inadvertently
attract through traffic into the turning lane.
Direct taper rates are a function of design speed. Deceleration on the taper is assumed at 1.8
m/s2. Table 5.3 provides the required length of direct taper applicable for left turn diverges
in rural and urban locations.
The beginning of a taper shall be adjusted as necessary based on the alignment of the
approach road. Where an intersection is downstream from a crest vertical curve, starting
the taper farther upstream on the upgrade makes it visible to drivers on the approach to
an intersection. Similarly, extending the beginning of a taper on the tangent approach to a
horizontal curve can communicate the impending turn lane and intersection if they are not
visible.
For urbanized areas, short tapers appear to produce better targets for the approaching
drivers and allow drivers to more positively identify an added auxiliary lane. Short tapers are
preferred for deceleration lanes at urban intersections because of slow speeds during peak
periods.

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5.4.1.2 Total Length of Left-turn Auxiliary Lane Including Taper

The total desirable length of left-turn lane, including taper, is given by the sum of the
components:
L total = Lq + Ldl + Tl
Note: Ldl from Table 5.6 is inclusive of Ldt
For cases in which an upstream intersection or other element limits the ability to achieve
the total desirable length, designers may foreshorten the taper thus maximizing the length
of full lane available for deceleration and storage. Some deceleration can also be assumed
to occur in the through lanes. The minimum length of the left-turn lane should be based on
deceleration from a speed no less than 20 kph below the roadway design speed, with no
provision for queue length (Lq = 0).
5.4.1.3 Left-Turn Auxiliary Lane Widths (d)

The width of a left-turning lane shall be 3.65 m. For reconstruction projects in which other
design requirements create constraints, left-turn lane widths as narrow as 3.3 m may be
used. The substantive safety benefit is associated with the presence of the left-turn lane;
marginal differences in width will not adversely affect safety performance. Lane widths of
less than 3.65 m shall require a Departure from Standard in accordance with Volume 3,
Part 25, Departure from Standards Process, of this Manual.
5.4.1.4 Components of Lanes and Divisional Islands (c, f, g, h)

The width of through lanes (c) is discussed in Clause 5.2.1.
The width of left-turn divisional islands (f, g) are discussed in Clause 5.6.4.4.
The width of median opening (h) is discussed in Clause 5.7.2.5.
5.5 Turning Roadways

At priority intersections, turning roadways are most often used in association with auxiliary
lanes and channelizing islands to facilitate right-turning vehicles on and off the major road,
as shown on Figure 5.13. They are also commonly used at roundabouts, as discussed in
Volume 1, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, , of this Manual; and signalized intersections, as
discussed in Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled Intersections, of this Manual, to
remove right-turning vehicles from other conflicts within the intersection.
At priority intersections, turning roadways may be used where auxiliary lanes are provided
on or off the mainline.

6
Figure 5.13 Turning Roadways at Priority Intersections
5.5.1 Turning Roadway Width

In turning roadways, additional width shall be provided to allow for the swept path of heavy
trucks and the cut-in of trailer units. Where auxiliary lanes are provided (both merging and
diverging), they shall include an adjacent paved shoulder equal to that of the associated
major road.
Table 5.2 lists the minimum widths of turning roadways for various inside corner radii.
5.5.2 Turning Roadway Merge Nose

At the start of the merging facility, a short merge nose 40 m long shall precede the merging
auxiliary, formed between the auxiliary lane and the end of the approach curve in a turning
roadway. The minimum width of the back of the nose shall be 2 m, as illustrated in Figure 5.13.
Traffic leaving the right-turn lane shall merge with the major road traffic via an auxiliary
lane. The hatched road markings are extended from the minor road centerline to link with
those for the merge nose and the channelizing island is designed within the hatched road
markings.

6
5.5.3 Sight Distance through Turning Roadways

Obstructions along the roadside may create the potential for sight restrictions to drivers
on the turning roadway. Stopping-sight distance should be maintained, consistent with the
expected speed of drivers on the turning roadway.
Table 5.8 shows that the roadside along the inside of the right-hand turning roadway should
be free of obstructions to the driver’s line of sight up to 2.3 m for turning roadways with
corner radii of 40 to 100 m.
Table 5.8 Stopping-Sight Distance and Horizontal Offset Requirements for Inside of
Right-Hand Turning Roadways
Offset from Right

Edge of Turning
Radius of Turning Stopping Sight Roadway to Physical
Roadway (m) Vehicle Speed (kph) Distance (m)a Obstruction (m)b
20 20 20 0
40 30 35 2.1
60 30 35 0.8
100 40 50 1.3
From Table 2.1 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
a
From Figure 2.1 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
b
Beyond the start of the merge nose, or from the end of the curve radius where no merge
nose is provided, the sight distance shall be in accordance with the design speed of the road
being entered.
5.6 Channelizing Islands

5.6.1 Principles
Channelizing islands that control and direct traffic movements into the proper paths for their
intended use and are an important part of intersection design. Islands may be ghosted or
curbed, a common form of which are divisional islands that serve as a guide around which
turning vehicles operate.
Channelizing islands shall be placed so that the proper course of travel is obvious, easy to
follow, and of unquestionable continuity.
Intersections with multiple turning lanes may need three or more islands to channelize
the various movements. There are practical limitations to the use of multiple islands
for channelizing traffic. Too many islands may cause confusion and result in wrong-
way movements into opposing traffic lanes. Islands inhibit drainage flows and increase
maintenance costs. Fewer large islands are generally preferable to a greater number of
smaller islands.

6
5.6.2 Function of Islands

An island is a defined area between traffic lanes used to control vehicle movement, provide
pedestrian refuge, or locate traffic control devices. Islands accomplish one or more of the
following purposes:
• Separate conflicts
• Control the angle of conflict
• Reduce the size of open pavement areas
• Regulate traffic and indicate proper use of an intersection
• Facilitate or favor a predominant turning movement
• Assist and protect pedestrians
• Protect and separate or store turning and crossing vehicles
• Locate traffic control devices and other fixed elements, such as lighting
• Warn drivers on minor roads that an intersection is ahead
Islands serve to accomplish those purposes through three primary functions:
• Channelize: to control and direct traffic movement, usually turning

• Divide: to divide opposing or same-direction traffic streams
• Deflect: to direct traffic streams
Islands generally are elongated or triangular and are situated in areas not intended for use
by vehicles. Islands shall be located and designed to offer little obstruction to vehicles,
be relatively inexpensive to build and maintain, and occupy a minimum of roadway space.
However, they shall be commanding enough that motorists will not drive over them. The
dimensions and details depend on the particular intersection design and shall conform to the
general principles described in the following section.
5.6.3 Raised versus Flush Island Types

Islands may be delineated by a raised curb or by pavement area marked by paint or
thermoplastic markings. The advantage of raised-curb islands is that they provide a clear,
positive form of channelization, and they provide the opportunity to serve intersection needs
that should be physically separated from vehicle traffic. They are typically more readily seen
at night or in poor light conditions than flush or painted islands. Disadvantages are that
the raised island itself becomes an object that, if struck at high speeds, can create loss of
control of the vehicle. Raised islands also increase the maintenance cost of the intersection.
They may require drainage structures, and the curbs may collect sand that must be routinely
cleaned.
Flush or painted islands delineate paths for drivers. They can be driven over without creating
problems for driver control. They do not interrupt drainage flows. For painted islands to remain
effective, they must be re-painted regularly and cleaned to ensure they are not obscured by
sand and grit.

6
5.6.3.1 Applications of Raised-Curb Islands

The primary use of raised-curb islands is to clearly channelize traffic through an intersection
and provide refuge for pedestrians and space to locate traffic control devices, such as traffic
signals, in locations that meet the design criteria for their placement as per the QTCM. Raised
islands shall have a minimum area of 4.5 square meters.
Raised-curb islands generally shall not be used in rural areas where speeds are high, given
their crash risk potential if struck. In other locations, raised-curb islands shall be accompanied
by intersection lighting, and the curb face should be painted or otherwise delineated. Where
used, raised-curb islands shall be offset from the right edge of roadway as discussed in
Clause 5.6.4.
5.6.3.2 Applications of Flush, Painted Islands

Painted islands can be used in high-speed intersections to delineate vehicle paths. They
also are effective at intersections with very high traffic volumes where spaced is limited,
precluding the ability to construct a raised island of sufficient size. For intersections in
which pedestrians are expected, painted islands shall not be considered usable as pedestrian
refuge.
5.6.4 Design of Islands

Important design dimensions for islands include the approach and departure noses or ends
and the offset from the edges of traveled way. The actual design of the island should
comfortably accommodate and reinforce the swept path of the design vehicle selected for
the intersection using appropriate swept path software in accordance with the general
requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual; and specific
requirements in this Part. Where paved shoulders are continued adjacent to an island, the
curb shall be located to the outside edge of the paved shoulder.
5.6.4.1 Curb Offsets

Raised curbed islands shall be offset from the traveled way or lanes at a distance related to
the design speed of the adjacent roadway. Table 5.9 lists the minimum clearance between
the traveled way or lane and the front face of the island curb. Designers shall place islands
based on the swept path requirements of the selected design vehicle, with offsets from the
path consistent with those in Table 5.9 to the curbed island using appropriate swept path
software in accordance with the general requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual and specific requirements in this Part.

6
Table 5.9 Offset from Traffic Lanes to Island Curbs
Design Speed (kph) Offset (m)
Rural
≥100 1.0
<100 0.50
Urban
≥100 0.5
<100 0.35
Note: On urban local roads and service roads where heavy vehicles are not expected, the clearance may be
reduced to zero.
5.6.4.2 Channelizing Island at Priority T-Intersections

At heavily trafficked intersections, it may be necessary to physically separate left-turning
traffic from the major road from queued traffic waiting to turn left from the minor road.
Figure 5.14 shows the preferred channelizing island layout for T-intersections or staggered
intersections, where the minor road median is inclined to the major road at an angle of
between 70 and 110 degrees. Figure 5.14 shall be used in conjunction with Table 5.10 and
Table 5.11.
Figure 5.14 Channelizing Island Design for T-Intersection

6
Table 5.10 Channelizing Island Offset
Minor Road Inclination, θ˚ Offset d (m)
70 1.5
80 2.0
90 2.5
100 2.0
110 1.5
Table 5.11 Design of Radius R1
Major Road Layout at Intersection Radius R1 (m)
Two-lane road 12
Two-lane road with ghost left-turn lane from 14

mainline
Two-lane road with physical island left-turn lane 22

from mainline
• “Edge of major roadway” means the edge of major road traveled way.
• The circular arc, R1 is tangential to the offset d, from the minor road median and the
outside edge of the through traffic lane on the major road into which left-turning traffic
from the minor road will turn.
• By striking a circular arc of radius (R1 + 2) m from the same center point as arc R1 to
intersect the edge of the major road, point A is established where a straight line drawn
from the center point of arc R to this intersection crosses R.
• The circular arc R2 is tangential to the outside edge of the major road outside diverging
lane and passes through point A.
• Radius R2 is normally the same value as R1 but shall be designed with the island nose
positioned 2 to 4 m from the edge of the main road and the width of the island lying
between 2 to 5 m.
The design is intended to separate left-turning traffic from the major road from queued
traffic waiting to turn left from the minor road.
Left-turn Control Radii (R1 and R2) and Throat Width
Control radii for left turns are based on accommodating the swept path of the design vehicle.
The width of the throat (completion of the left turn into the minor road) is a critical dimension.
Left-turning drivers should feel comfortable completing the turn at a reasonable speed and
thus clearing the opposing through traffic in the minimum time. A width of at least 5 m
will accommodate most larger-turning vehicles, but this dimension should be established
through design analysis using the swept path of the design vehicle using appropriate swept

6
path software in accordance with the general requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual; and specific requirements in this Part.
5.6.4.3 Channelizing Islands at Skewed Intersections

Channelizing islands are particularly necessary at skew intersections to separate movements
and channelize flows. Islands are used to enable vehicles to enter the intersection at
appropriate right angles, facilitating visibility for drivers. Figure 5.15 shows typical layouts
for skewed intersections.
The design of a minor road approach channelizing island for skew intersections is similar to
that for regular T-intersections, with the following exceptions:
• The centerline of the minor road is turned with a radius of at least 50 m to meet the edge
of the major road at right angles.
• For right-hand skew intersections, the island shall be about 15 m long. The left-hand
side of its tail (viewed from the minor-road approach) shall touch the curved minor road
median and be rounded off at a radius of 0.75 to 1.00 m.
• The offset d for right-hand skew intersections is 4.5 m.
• For left-hand skew intersections, the circular arc R touches the curved minor road median
and is tangential to the offset edge of the through traffic lane on the major road into
which left-turning traffic from the minor road will turn.
• The island shall be approximately 15 m long. The tail is offset about 1 m to the left of
the curved minor road median (viewed from the minor road approach) and rounded off
with a radius of 0.75 to 1.00 m.
The design of the major road right-turn and channelizing island shall meet the requirements
of Table 5.9, Table 5.10, and Figure 5.15.

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Figure 5.15 Priority Intersection with Skewed Minor Road
5.6.4.4 Divisional Islands for Left Turns

Figure 5.12 illustrates a major road channelized left-turn with divisional islands. The
desirable width of the divisional island (f) at the crossing point shall be 10.0 m, including
median shoulders. This width will shelter most heavy trucks turning left from the minor road,
except for very long vehicles. In exceptional circumstances, where routine use by very long
vehicles is expected and a roundabout is not feasible, a width of as much as 14.0 m may
be needed to shelter the largest articulated vehicles (16.5 m), or a width of 16.5 m may be
needed if a drawbar trailer combination (20.0 m) is the design vehicle.
The minimum width of a physical divisional island (g), usually at the end of the direct taper,
shall be 3.5 m. The divisional island shall be introduced symmetrically about the major road
centerline by using hatched road markings with a taper.
The opening in the median for intersections at the crossing point (h) shall be based on
providing for the turning paths of left turns from the major road and from the minor road.
For most typical cases (typical design vehicles, 90-degree crossing angles), this width will
be approximately 10 to 15 m. This opening may need to be increased with oversize design
vehicles or where the intersection is on a skew.

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Divisional Island Tapers
Channelized left-turn lanes, whether introduced as ghost islands, Figure 5.16, or physical
islands, Figure 5.17, shall normally be developed symmetrically about the centerline of the
major road to their maximum width at the tapers shown in Table 5.12. The maximum island
width should continue through the junction to the tangent point of the minor road radius and
the edge of the major.
Figure 5.16 Divisional Ghost Island Development
Figure 5.17 Divisional Physical Island Development
Table 5.12 Tapers for Divisional Islands
Taper for Ghost Island and Taper for Multi-Lane

Design Speed (kph) Channelized Left Turns (1:T) Roadways (1:T)
50 1:20 1:40
60 1:20 1:40
70 1:20 1:40
80 1:25 1:45
100 1:30 1:50
120 Not applicable 1:55

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Note: Taper for multi-lane roads is not for use at intersections but for the transition from a two-lane road to
a multi-lane road.
Guidelines for Application of Divisional Islands
Where channelized left-turn lanes are defined with physical islands, the divisional island
should be introduced by means of hatched markings until there is sufficient width to
accommodate the appropriate sign on the nose of the physical island with the required
running clearances to it.
Where intersections are located on sharp curves, islands may be introduced asymmetrically
to suit the circumstances. It is also acceptable to introduce islands asymmetrically in other
circumstances such as to avoid particular site constraints. In such cases, tapers shall be
installed at the same rates as Table 5.12 thus increasing the overall length of the taper.
5.6.4.5 Major Road Right-Turn Islands at Turning Roadways

Right-turn islands may be used to channelize traffic flows and separate conflict points
within an intersection. They have the additional benefit of reserving space for signage and
aiding pedestrian movement by providing a refuge at busy intersections. A typical layout is
illustrated in Figure 5.18.
The corner radii and roadway widths for turning roadways given in Table 5.2 shall be used
to construct the right-turn lane. The raised island at right-turning roadways shall be set back
from the traveled way as required in Table 5.9.
Figure 5.18 Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island with Turning Roadway

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5.6.4.6 Minor Road Right-Turn Island for Direct Entry with No Auxiliary Lane
In instances where right-turn lanes do not lead into auxiliary lanes, corner islands shall
be designed so that vehicles approach the mainline at an appropriate angle (not less than
70 degrees), thus enabling drivers entering the mainline to look up and downstream along
the mainline without relying on mirrors for mainline visibility. Figure 5.19 provides details
for setting out corner islands where turning roadways are not provided.
Where corner islands are provided in areas of pedestrian demand, the designer shall size the
island to provide an acceptable LOS for pedestrians.
Figure 5.19 Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island without Turning Roadway
5.6.4.7 Refuge Islands for Pedestrians and Cyclists

A refuge island for pedestrians or a cycle path at or near a crossing aids and protects
pedestrians and cyclists who cross the roadway. Raised-curb channelizing or divisional
islands can be used as refuge areas. Refuge islands can be used for pedestrians and cyclists
crossing a wide street, and are used primarily in urban areas. The location and width of
crossings and the provision of wheelchair ramps influence the size and location of refuge
islands
An island that serves as a refuge for pedestrians shall be at least 2.5 m wide, preferably 3.0 m
wide, to accommodate wheelchairs, prams, and strollers. The minimum width for a pedestrian
refuge island is 1.5 m, but it is noted that this offers little protection for pedestrians, therefore
is only applicable at low pedestrian flows. The island shall be a raised-curb island. The width
may be increased, depending on anticipated pedestrian flows and associated requirements.
Where the facility is required to accommodate dismounted cyclists, the minimum width

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shall be increased to 2.5 m. The island may have openings in the center at roadway level
to make the crossing easier for pedestrians, as shown on Figure 5.20. Dropped curbs for
accessibility shall be installed opposite the refuge openings and where openings are not
provided. Pedestrians and cyclists shall have a clear path through the island, unobstructed
by poles, signposts, utility boxes, or other items. Care shall be taken that street furniture
does not obstruct drivers’ views of pedestrians.
Refuge islands shall be appropriately sized to provide sufficient space for the comfortable
waiting of pedestrians.
Figure 5.20 Typical Urban Divisional Island with Pedestrian Refuge
5.6.4.8 Corner Islands

Corner islands channelize traffic flows and separate conflict points within an intersection.
They have the additional benefit of reserving space for signage and aiding pedestrian
movement by providing a refuge at busy intersections.
Where corner islands are provided in areas of high pedestrian demand, the designer shall size
the island to provide an acceptable LOS for pedestrians.
Corner Islands with Turning Roadways
The corner radii and roadway widths for turning roadways given in Table 5.2 shall be used
to construct the right-turn lane. The raised island at the right-turning roadway shall be set
back from the traveled way.
Important design dimensions for islands include the approach and departure noses or ends
and the offset from the edges of the traveled way. The actual design of the island should
comfortably accommodate and reinforce the swept path of the design vehicle selected for
the intersection using appropriate swept path software in accordance with the general

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requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual; and specific
requirements in this Part. Where paved shoulders are continued adjacent to an island, the
curb shall be located to the outside edge of the paved shoulder.
Figure 5.21 provides the typical layout for triangular corner islands used in channelization.
The minimum offset dimensions shall be based on the design speed of the major and minor
roads, as referred to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
Figure 5.21 Typical Layout of Corner Island with Turning Roadway
Corner Island for Direct Entry with No Auxiliary Lane
In instances where right-turn lanes do not lead into auxiliary lanes, corner islands shall be
designed so that vehicles approach the mainline at an appropriate angle (not less than 70
degrees), thus enabling drivers entering the mainline to look up and downstream along the
mainline without relying on mirrors for mainline visibility. Figure 5.22 provides details for
the layout of corner islands where turning roadways are not provided.

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Figure 5.22 Typical Layout of Corner Island without Turning Roadway
5.7 U-Turns
The provision of U-turn facilities is appropriate for a limited number of situations on divided
roadways and when combined with other forms of intersection in urban situations.
Generally, rural U-turns shall be provided in advance of or beyond intersections as follows:
• Beyond an intersection to enable drivers to return to an important intersection if they

miss a turn
• Beyond an intersection to accommodate left-turn traffic movements not otherwise

catered for at the intersection
• In advance of an intersection where through and other turning movements would be

hampered by the U-turn movement
• To facilitate maintenance operations and emergency services
The U-turn opening shall be located so that any intersection preceding and after the U-turn
are not affected by queuing traffic that impedes the operation of the intersection.

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Where a U-turn facility is to be provided, consideration should be given to providing a

reciprocal U-turn. This enhances safety by reducing the likelihood of any illegal turning
movements that may have resulted from the provision of a single U-turn facility, and it
presents a consistent layout to drivers.
One of the key requirements for a satisfactory U-turn design is that the width of the roadway,
including any shoulder or turning bay, be sufficient to permit the turn to be made without
encroachment beyond the outer edges of the road pavement. The minimum turning widths
for a U-turn are shown in Table 5.15. In addition, space for the left-turn lane, edge strips and
physical islands between the waiting vehicle and through traffic shall be provided.
5.7.1 Safety at U-Turns

Safety is a major concern at all intersections, particularly on high-volume, high-speed roads.
U-turn facilities shall not be placed on high-volume or high-speed roads.
Designs that enable vehicles to be in a protected position while waiting to turn are safest.
Designs that make the turning vehicle cross and leave the opposing roadway before returning
to the right lane with a standard merge movement along an auxiliary lane are also safer.
The area of median near the U-turn shall be kept uncluttered and free from obstructions
that are over 1.0 m high and wider than 500 millimeters, with the exception of signs. The
visibility requirements are given in Table 5.13.
Table 5.13 Visibility Distances at U-Turns
Design Speed on Major Road S1 S2

(kph) (m) (m)
50 50 5.0
60 75 7.5
80 125 10.0
100 175 10.0
This measure will allow drivers exiting from the U-turn to see vehicles approaching from
their right, and for them to be seen by drivers on the major road.
U-turns shall not be located where the major road gradient is greater than 4 percent.
U-turns contribute to congestion by drawing slow-moving turning traffic into the offside
lane. U-turn movements by heavy or of slow-moving vehicles also add to the crash hazard.
However, U-turns can occasionally provide the best economically available design.

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5.7.2 U-Turn Elements
5.7.2.1 General
The following are the main elements in the production of an acceptable U-turn facility:
• Median width
• Length of the median opening
• Use of acceleration/deceleration lanes and direct tapers
• Nature of the turning traffic
• Design speed of the main road
Figure 5.23 details the standard U-turn layout and arrangements for rural locations. Road
markings shall be in accordance with the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings, of this
Manual.
5.7.2.2 Direct Taper Length (d)

The direct taper length is the length over which the width of a left turning lane is developed.
Left-turn lanes shall be introduced by means of a direct taper whose length is part of the
deceleration length and depends on the design speed. This taper length is given in Table
5.14.
Table 5.14 Direct Taper Length for U-Turns (d)
Design Speed Direct Taper Length - d

(kph) (m)
50 5
60 5
70 15
80 15
100 25
5.7.2.3 Width of Physical Islands in the Median

The width of physical median at the turning point shall be in accordance with Table 5.15.
The total median width will also include the left-turn lane, roadway edge strips and physical
separation between waiting vehicles and through traffic. The minimum width of physical
island separating the storage lane from the through lanes shall be 1.2 m, or a minimum width
of 1.8 m where traffic signage needs to be placed on the physical island.
At intersections where U-turns are allowed, Table 5.15 recommends median widths of 5 m
to 16 m or wider for passenger vehicle and single truck traffic, respectively, to turn from the
inner lane on one road to the outer lane of a two-lane opposing roadway.
U-turns are not recommended from the through lanes.

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Table 5.15 Minimum Turning Widths Needed for U-Turns (M)
M – Minimum Width of Median for Design Vehicle
P SU BUS WB-12 WB-15

Type of Maneuver
Length of Design Vehicle
5.7 m 9.0 m 12.0 m 15.0 m 16.5 m
Inner lane to inner

lane 9m 19 m 19 m 18 m 21 m
Inner lane to outer

lane 5m 15 m 15 m 15 m 18 m
Inner lane to
shoulder 2m 12 m 12 m 12 m 15 m
Inner lane to jug

handle 2m 10 m 10 m 10 m 12 m
Source: AASHTO, 2011
5.7.2.4 Left-turn Lane

The length of the left-turn lane depends on the major road design speed and the gradient. It
consists of a median opening length, a storage or queuing length, and a deceleration length.
The deceleration length shall be provided in accordance with Table 5.16.
Table 5.16 Deceleration Length for U-Turns (c)
Design Speed Rural - c Urban - c

(kph) (m) (m)
50 40 40
60 – 50
70 – 65
80 80 80
100 150 150
5.7.2.5 Median Opening (a)

The opening in the median at the crossing point shall typically be 11.0 m wide, as shown
on Figure 5.23. However, this shall be adjusted to suit long vehicles or those with abnormal
loads.

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Figure 5.23 Unsignalized Median U-Turn
5.7.2.6 Storage or Queuing Length (b)

The storage or queuing length shall be determined. The queuing length shall be separated
from through traffic by a physical island on each side. The queuing lane width shall be a
minimum of 5.0 m.
5.7.2.7 Merging Auxiliary Lane Length (e)

The merging auxiliary lane length shall be constructed in accordance with Clause 5.3.2. The
merge length commences a minimum distance of 45 m from the inside radius of the median
opening. The distance of 45 m is required for the design vehicle to be parallel to the major
road following the U-turn movement.
The shoulder width on the exit of the U-turn shall enable the design vehicle to make the
U-turn without using excessive steering lock while maintaining a 1 m edge strip from the
outside wheel to the edge of surfacing. The shoulder should be marked or studded to guide
vehicles to the merging length.
5.7.2.8 Road Lighting

It is particularly important that U-turns are clearly visible to through traffic. In all cases,
street lighting shall be provided. Refer to Volume 2, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual.
5.7.2.9 Traffic Signs and Road Markings

U-turns shall be clearly signed in accordance with the latest edition of the QTCM. Providing
additional signing for the traffic on the through route to indicate that vehicles may be
crossing the road ahead should be considered.
5.7.2.10 Drainage and Crossfall

To allow for surface water drainage and promote driver comfort, the road crossfall on the
major road shall be continued through the U-turn. Checks shall be made for flat areas at

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all changes in gradient, superelevation, or crossfall. Surface runoff shall not be allowed to
collect in streams and flow from the U-turn across the major through road, or to collect on or
cross the U-turn lane. Surface water runoff should not present a hazard to maneuvering and
braking vehicles. In addition, the rural situation requires the engineer to carefully consider
the maintenance requirements of any drainage system they adopt; refer to Volume 2,
Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.
5.8 Service Roads

Service roads shall be provided in the urban situation where through traffic on an arterial
or higher classification road will be significantly affected by traffic maneuvers from
developments adjacent to the through road. The function of the service road is as follows:
• Collect connecting minor roads and concentrate the entrances and exits to a limited
number of locations along the adjoining road, thereby allowing major road traffic to flow
more freely
• Provide road users with a safer environment adjacent to developments by separating

them from higher speed through traffic
Service roads are typically parallel to major roads. However, their vertical alignment is often
governed by a lower design speed and can be used to match threshold levels in existing
development situations.
Service roads should preferably be connected to major roads by using the major/minor
intersection criteria listed in this Part. However, limited reservation space usually requires
the intersection to connect at a skew to the major road. This creates the following undesirable
situations that the designer should recognize when preparing service road designs:
• Angled diverge off the main roadway encourages high-speed entry into the service road
and is a potential danger to other service road users
• Angled merge onto the main roadway requires the drivers to make use of their mirrors
to affect a safe merge with major road through traffic
These situations can be mitigated by the following:
• Eliminating parking and providing uncluttered visibility in the area of merges and diverges
• Introducing a chicane-type maneuver at the entrance to a service road to slow traffic

entering the service road
• Increasing the intersecting angle to 70 degrees where vehicles entering and vehicles
using the service road meet
• Avoiding long, straight service roads
• Provide auxiliary lanes with satisfactory diverge/merge lengths

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• Siting diverges and merges away from other intersections or traffic generation points
on the major road and service road
5.8.1 Service Road Diverge and Merge

Figure 5.24 show a diverge / merge with taper and direct approach yield or stop condition
and Figure 5.25 shows a diverge / merge with auxiliary lane and direct approach yield or stop
condition for a service road along an urban road with a design speed of 80 kph or lower. The
length of diverge taper shall be in accordance with Table 5.3.
Where design speeds are 100 kph or greater and space permits, the preferred diverge and
merge arrangement for a service road is by auxiliary lanes as shown in Figure 5.25.
The spacing of diverge nose to merge nose is fixed by the design constraints of the facility.
Where space is limited, the major road shoulders are widened to accommodate the auxiliary
deceleration or acceleration lane.
Figure 5.24 Service Road Diverge/Merge with Taper

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Figure 5.25 Service Road Diverge/Merge with Auxiliary Lane
The length of diverge and merge auxiliary lanes shall be in accordance with Table 5.3 and
Table 5.4.
Weaving is the crossing of traffic flows. A weaving section is formed by a merge followed
by a downstream diverge. Careful placement of merges and diverges is essentially to
avoid weaving and hence conflict on the main carriageway. The designer, through careful
consideration, can eliminate weaving by various measures including swapping merges and
diverges, or eliminating merges or diverges.
The minimum weaving length between successive merges and diverges is given in Table
5.17 and shown on Figure 5.26. The minimum length is measured between points in the
respective painted gore areas where the left edge of the ramp-traveled way and the right
edge of the mainline-traveled way meet.
Table 5.17 Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving Length
Design Speed
Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving Length(m)
(kph)
50 208
60 250
70 292
80 333
100 417
120 500

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Figure 5.26 Weaving Length
The minimum weaving length in meters between successive merge/merge or diverge/

diverge measured between the tips of the painted noses (gores) shall be as follows:
Weaving Length (min) = 3.75V

V = design speed of main road (kph)
The distance given by the formula may be increased due to the minimum requirements for
effective signing.
Service roads would generally be one-way, in the same direction as the major road, the major
road always being a divided roadway. However, where space permits, a service road may be
two-way with normal T-intersection entries and exits onto the major road.

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5.8.2 Service Road Direct Connection

Figure 5.27 shows a plan for the case in which a parallel service road connects to the mainline
without provision of an auxiliary lane because a downstream constraint precludes the use of
the merging auxiliary lane.
Figure 5.27 Turning Roadways at Termination of Service Road
To achieve the required minimum angle of incidence, the service road “sweeps” away from
the mainline using curves with minimum radii of 15 m. Traffic-calming measures may be
incorporated upstream of the curves to reduce speeds.
The roadway width through the curve should accommodate the path requirements for the
design vehicle.
A straight section that is at least 5 m long should be provided on the inside channel
immediately in advance of the yield line to allow vehicles to align before turning. The corner
radius shall be in accordance with Clause 5.1.1.
5.8.3 Local Grade Separation

To allow for required traffic movements, T-intersections with median separation shall be
incorporated with other nearby facilities for turning traffic. One method of achieving this is
to provide local grade separations, the principle of which is shown on Figure 5.28. Two right-
in, right-out connections are used with a grade separation. Link roads shall be designed in
accordance with Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. Other solutions
are discussed in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this
Manual.

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Figure 5.28 Local Grade Separation

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5.9 Pavement Markings

Pavement markings are critical at intersections in providing clear guidance for road users.
Advice on pavement markings at intersections is provided in the latest edition of the QTCM.
5.10 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices may be provided at intersections with high vehicle use to improve
operations and reduce the potential for right-angle crashes. The provision of traffic signal-
control devices has an impact on the components and geometric layouts of intersections.
Signal-controlled intersections generally will have greater need for channelization.
Advice on the design of signal-controlled intersections is provided in Volume 1, Part 8,

Design for Signal Controlled Intersections, of this Manual, and the latest edition of the QTCM.
5.11 Intersection Lighting

Lighting can affect the safety of highway and street intersections, as well as the efficiency of
traffic operations. Both visibility and depth perception are impaired at night. For the benefit
of unfamiliar users, lighting at rural intersections is desirable to aid the driver in reading sign
messages during nighttime or low-visibility periods.
The HSM (AASHTO, 2010) indicates that the presence of intersection lighting may have the
following effects on crashes:
• Reduce all nighttime injury crashes by 38 percent

• Reduce pedestrian nighttime crashes by 42 percent
Intersections with channelization, particularly multiple road geometrics, shall include

lighting. Light poles shall be placed with sufficient offsets from the edge of traveled ways
such that even oversized vehicles (greater than the design vehicle) will not strike the poles.
Large channelized intersections especially need illumination because of the higher range of
turning radii that are not within the lateral range of vehicle headlight beams. Intersection
lighting requirements are further addressed in Volume 2, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this
Manual.

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6 Other Design Elements
6.1 Driveways and Major Private Entrances

6.1.1 Location and Classification
Driveways and entrances are, in effect, intersections and shall be designed consistent with
their intended use.
Direct access from freeways, expressways, and arterial roads is prohibited in both urban and
rural situations. Ideally, driveways and private entrances shall be accessed from local roads
and urban service roads. On limited occasions, they may be accessed from collector roads
and boulevards.
Driveways and entrances shall be positioned at locations providing good visibility to and
from the intersection, in line with the principles outlined for priority intersections. Driveways
and entrances located on collector roads and boulevards shall not be positioned within the
mainline stopping sight distance of an adjacent intersection.
Vehicles shall not be required to stop on the main through road to access a private
development. Gateways, barriers, and security points shall be set sufficiently back from the
through road so that adequate storage is provided.
Details on geometric design and spacing of driveways is given in Clause 1.4.10 of Volume 1,
Part 5, Roadway Design Criteria, of this Manual.
6.1.2 Visibility at Driveways and Private Entrances

Visibility triangles from driveways and private entrances shall be in line with the corresponding
requirements for priority intersections outlined in this Part. The Y distances measured along
the mainline shall be determined by mainline design speed. In the case of driveways and
private entrances, the minimum X distance may be further reduced to 2.5 m. Obstructions to
visibility, including property boundaries shall not be permitted within the visibility triangle.
It is also undesirable to allocate designated parking areas within the visibility triangle of a
driveway or private entrance.
6.2 Priority Intersections in Residential Areas

6.2.1 Typical Configurations
Careful consideration must be given to intersections in urban areas and particularly in
residential areas, where there is the likelihood of pedestrians crossing the road and where
there may be on-street parking.
The most commonly used intersection to access developments and the most appropriate is
the T-intersection.

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As shown on Figure 6.1, the major traffic flow is on the through route, typically a minor
collector or local access road, with individual residential access roads joining. To reduce the
degree of access to the through route, it is desirable to consolidate intersections by linking
them to a secondary access road before entering the through route, as shown on Figure 6.2.
This can reduce the number of intersections on the through route, thereby improving
capacity and safety. It can also have the benefit of reducing speeds on residential roads by
introducing additional low-speed corners between the through route and residential areas.
The preferred form of vehicular crossing movement in local access roads is a staggered
T-intersection. The use of simple crossroads is discouraged.
Roundabouts may also be used at intersections in residential areas. Roundabouts are most
applicable where the volume of traffic on the minor road approach is similar to that on the
major road and where the overall volume of traffic is such that vehicles on the minor road
may experience severe delays if a priority intersection is used. Compact roundabouts or mini-
roundabouts may also be appropriate in residential areas. Refer to Volume 1, Part 7, Design
for Roundabouts, of this Manual.
Figure 6.1 Multiple Access Local Roads Joining a Major Road

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Figure 6.2 Access Roads Consolidated Prior to Access to the Major Road
6.2.2 Older Residential Areas

Common issues relating to older residential areas in Qatar include the following:
• Narrow road reservations creating limited sight lines, especially at intersections

• Limited space to meet parking demands
• Street system of ill-defined throughways, crossroads, and rat-runs
• Limited space for pedestrians and nonmotorized users
Enhancements to control traffic movement and to improve environmental conditions may be

considered at existing priority intersections. Improvements shall be carefully planned to meet
the requirements of the area. Traffic shall be restricted from areas where it is undesirable,
rat-runs shall be closed, parking regulated, and surface water effectively collected. The
following are typical actions:
• Closure or partial closure of one or more legs of a crossroads

• Introduction of parking at appropriate locations
• Closure of some minor access roads leading into residential developments from major
and minor arterials
• Identification of schools, shops, mosques, and similar areas that may require specific
consideration for parking
• Addition of appropriate traffic-calming features

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6.2.3 Corner Plots at Priority Intersections

When developing roads in urban situations, adjacent developments shall be completed in
a manner that respects and maintains the road design standards. The primary concern in
development planning is providing sufficient sight lines at urban intersections.
To enable adjacent developments to be planned that provide for road visibility requirements,
planners shall determine the appropriate right-of-way “chamfer” at corner plots. Right-of-
way lines often are not set to allow for full sight lines in accordance with standards, unless
a special design reservation is included, as shown on Figure 6.3. A chamfer is the triangle
formed by a distance from the plot corner to a point along the right-of-way line adjacent to
the roadway.
It may often be the case that development planning precedes the road design. The guidance
herein enables both road planners and site developers to determine appropriate right-of-way
chamfer distances for corner plots, in advance of the road design criteria being determined.
Chamfer distances are determined based on the right-of-way widths provided on the
approaching roads. The development of chamfers is shown on Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 Development of Chamfer at Corner Plot

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The minimum chamfer lengths at corners are as indicated in Table 6.1. The chamfer length
is determined by the right-of-way width of the adjacent road. Therefore, referring to Figure
6.3, dimension D1 is determined by the right-of-way width of Street A, and D2 is determined
by the right-of-way width of Street B.
Table 6.1 Chamfer Length at Corner Plot
Right-of-Way Width (m) Adjacent Chamfer Length, D (m)
<24 8
24–32 12
>32 16
The dimensions listed Table 6.1 are appropriate where the angle of intersecting roads is
between 70 and 110 degrees. If intersection angles are outside this range, further guidance
shall be sought from the relevant planning authority. The dimensions in Table 6.1 apply to
residential roads only. In commercial and industrial areas, further guidance shall be sought
from the relevant planning authority.
6.3 Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities

The needs of nonmotorized users should be considered as part of the overall design of an
intersection. The appropriate level of provision for pedestrians and cyclists will depend on the
nature of the intersection and the relative levels of use. For example, an urban intersection
in a commercial area with high pedestrian use will require greater provision than a rural
intersection where pedestrian numbers are negligible.
6.3.1 Pedestrian Facilities

The requirements of pedestrians shall be carefully considered in the design and choice of major
or minor priority intersections. It is preferable to provide separate pedestrian routes away
from the intersection, where road widths are less and traffic movements more predictable,
but this is rarely practical. In those cases, the following facilities shall be considered:
• A minor-road central refuge at an unmarked crossing place

• Zebra crossing, with or without a central refuge, as shown in the QTCM
• Displaced controlled pedestrian crossing
• Subway or footbridge
The type of facility selected will depend upon the volumes and movements expected of
both pedestrians and traffic. The selected facility shall be designed in accordance with
current recommendations and requirements of Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle,
of this Manual. The use of similar types of pedestrian facilities at the same intersection is
recommended, to avoid confusion to pedestrians and drivers.

6
Controlled at-grade pedestrian crossing points on the minor road shall be sited to reduce to a
minimum the width to be crossed by pedestrians provided they are not involved in excessive
detours from their desired paths. Central refuges shall be used wherever possible on urban
roads but not in the major road in a rural situation.
6.3.2 Wheelchair Ramps and Mobility Impaired Users

When designing a project involving curbs and adjacent pedestrian paths to accommodate
pedestrian traffic, proper attention shall be given to the needs of persons whose mobility
depends on wheelchairs and other devices. Key considerations for wheelchair users include
the following:
• Drop curbs at crossing points

• Limited gradients for ease of use
• Adequate width to provide access
• Textured surfacing for the visibly impaired
6.3.3 Bicycle Facilities

When cycle paths enter an intersection, the intersection design may need to be modified.
Special sight-distance considerations, or special traffic signal designs, such as conveniently
located pushbuttons at pedestrian-actuated signals or even separate signal indications for
cyclists, are potential measures.
Stopping-sight distance shall be provided for drivers approaching the intersection from the
minor road, with clear sight lines to cyclists for turning motorists from the major roads into
the minor road.
Cycle paths shall be aligned to intersect roads at approximately 90 degrees. Dropped curbs
shall be provided on both sides of the road to facilitate bicycle crossings.
At locations where cycle or shared-paths cross a minor, local intersecting street, the design
of the local street shall perform the following:
• Provide appropriate signage and delineation to alert motorists of the existence of the
crossing and the priority that applies
• Encourage safe and correct use by cyclists
• Not impede the safety of motorists turning in from the major road
Unsignalized crossings of local streets shall require cyclists to yield to road traffic. Where
traffic volumes exceed 3,000 vpd, a typical refuge shall be provided. For straight-across
crossing of a minor road, as shown on Figure 6.4, the crossing point shall be positioned to
provide refuge for at least one car length between the crossing point and mainline roadway.

6
Figure 6.4 Bicycle Crossings at Minor Roads
Additional advice on the treatment of cycles at intersections is provided in Volume 3, Part 19,
6.4 Landscape
A landscape plan for a priority intersection shall delineate the corner sight distance
requirements that are determined by the designer. Landscaping using trees or vegetation
that can block sight lines when fully grown should be avoided within the limits of the sight
lines. Decorative walls, art, or other features should also be placed outside the limits of the
corner sight lines. Details on landscaping are given in Volume 3, Part 22, Landscape and
Planting Design, of this Manual.
6.5 Rail Consideration

6.5.1 General
In general, crossing rail lines shall be by grade separation and at-grade crossings shall be
avoided wherever possible. At-grade crossings represent some of the highest level of risk to
rail and road through misuse by users or equipment failures. In particular:
• At-grade crossings of the railway lines for the metro with any kind of road shall not be
allowed
• At-grade crossings of any railway lines with any kind of road with a design speed of
100 kph or greater shall not be allowed
• At-grade crossing of any railway line with any road with controlled access shall not be
allowed.

6
For all works, the Rail-Protection-Zone (RPZ) and Safety Zones are to be obtained from the
Qatar Rail Authority and applied within the design. All relevant railway standards, regulations
and guidelines shall also be complied with.
6.5.2 Grade Separation

Roads designed to cross existing rail lines shall be grade-separated. In most cases, the
roadway will cross over the railroad. The minimum vertical clearance, measured from the top
of the rail to the underside of the nearest part of a structure, for roadway structure over a
rail line depends on the designation of the rail line:
• For heavy rail, the minimum vertical clearance shall be 7.7 m.
• On all other lines, the minimum vertical clearance shall be 7.0 m.
Rail crossings of expressways, freeways, and multi-lane major and minor arterials shall be
grade-separated. New roadways involving rail crossings for which there are two or more sets
of tracks shall be grade-separated. Specific ligh-trail tram systems that operate on streets
within specific developments shall be designed to meet the requirements below and those
of the Qatar Rail Authority.
For roads with at-grade crossings being reconstructed, a design study shall be performed to
determine the right-of-way, access, and construction cost needs associated with converting
the crossing to a grade separation. The Overseeing Organization will determine whether the
road reconstruction project shall include a grade-separated roadway.
The Overseeing Organization may request a design study for roads with at-grade crossings
undergoing a 3R project, but it is not required.
6.5.3 At-grade Crossings

New at-grade railway crossings shall be constructed only with the approval of the Overseeing
Organization, which will establish requirements for a study necessary for such approval and
will be solely responsible for authorizing new at-grade rail crossings. The design of any at-
grade crossing shall be reviewed and approved by the Qatar Rail Authority.
The design of railway or highway at-grade crossings shall be made concurrently with the
determination of type of warning devices to be used.
Traffic control devices for railway or highway at-grade crossings consist primarily of signs,
road markings, and active warning devices, including flashing-light signals and automatic
gates. In determining the need for active warning devices at an at-grade crossing, designers
shall consider the following:
• Rail system and functional classification of the highway
• Volume of traffic
• Volume of railway traffic

6
• Maximum speed of trains
• Design speed of the road
• Presence of pedestrians and cyclists
• Crash history of the at-grade crossing
• Road geometry of the crossing, including sight distance
Where provided, at-grade crossings shall take one of two basic forms:
• Form A: Crossings operated by line of sight, following general regulations for road traffic
• Form B: Crossings operated under signal protection
Crossings following Form A generally will be limited to very infrequent rail traffic, such as
serving a spur to an industrial land use, with low train speeds and road posted speeds of
40 kph or less, with appropriate reduction of the maximum speed on the approach to the
crossing. Form A crossings may be sufficient for local roads and collectors with lower traffic
volumes. Crossings operated by line of sight (Form A) shall have the appropriate warning
signs, road markings, and traffic signals.
Crossings with systems according to Form B are appropriate for roadways with posted
speeds higher than 40 kph and for arterials in both rural and urban areas. Form A crossings
shall be protected by barriers where the crossing is located on the open line of the rail-bound
system and either by barriers or flashing lights where the crossing is within a facility, such
as a freight yard or port.
The potential for complete elimination of at-grade crossings shall be given prime consideration.
When a road with an at-grade crossing is programmed as a reconstruction project, the scope
of work shall include a study of converting the crossing to a full grade separation.
At-grade crossings of railway lines for light rail systems with any kind of road shall have the
following characteristics:
• Road and light rail transit traffic operated by line of sight and regulated by traffic lights.
• Sightlines shall be free of obstacles.
• Light Rail Transit shall have priority over street traffic.
• No barriers are required.
At-grade pedestrian crossings of any railway line for metro shall not be allowed
At-grade pedestrian crossings of the railway lines for heavy rail shall only be allowed in
dedicated areas such as freight yards, depots, intermodal yards, ports etc.

6
6.5.4 Horizontal Alignment

At at-grade crossings the road alignment shall intersect the tracks at as close to a 90-degree
angle as practical. There shall be complete access control, i.e., no public intersections or
private driveways, within a 50 m minimum, and preferably 100 m or more, from the centerline
of the rail line. Crossings shall be located on tangent alignment for both the roadway and rail
line to the extent practical.
For roads parallel to the railway, where such roads intersect another road with an at-grade rail
crossing, there shall be sufficient distance between the tracks and the highway intersections
to enable highway traffic in all directions to move freely. Provision for queuing between the
rail line and intersection is a key design parameter. Where physically restricted areas make
it impossible to obtain adequate queuing distance between the main track and a highway
intersection, the designer shall consider:
• Interconnection of the highway traffic signals with the grade-crossing signals to enable
vehicles to clear the grade crossing when a train approaches
• Placement of a “Do Not Stop On Track” sign on the roadway approach to the grade
crossing
6.5.5 Vertical Alignment

At at-grade crossings the intersection of highway and railway shall be made as level as
practical. Vertical curves shall be of sufficient length to provide an adequate view of the
crossing.
To prevent drivers of low-clearance vehicles from becoming caught on the tracks, the crossing
surface shall be at the same plane as the top of the rails for a distance of 0.6 m outside
the rails. The surface of the highway shall not be more than 75 millimeters higher or lower
than the top of nearest rail at a point 9 m from the rail unless track superelevation makes
a different level appropriate. Vertical curves shall be used to traverse from the highway
grade to a level plane at the elevation of the rails. Superelevated rails or a roadway approach
section that is not level will necessitate a site-specific analysis for rail clearances.

6
References
AASHTO. Highway Safety Manual (HSM). 1st edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington DC, United States. 2010.
Federal Highway Administration. Mitigation Strategies for Design Exceptions. U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC, United States. 2007.
Transportation Research Board. Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington, DC, United States.
2010.

6

Volume 1
Part 7
Design for
Roundabouts
DESIGN FOR ROUNDABOUTS PART
7
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART DESIGN FOR ROUNDABOUTS
7

7
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Definitions and Principles......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1.General..........................................................................................................................................1
1.1.2. Design Principles......................................................................................................................1
1.1.3. Roundabout Key Dimensions...............................................................................................2
1.2. Roundabout Categories............................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.1.General..........................................................................................................................................4
1.2.2.Mini-roundabouts.....................................................................................................................4
1.2.3. Single-lane Roundabouts......................................................................................................5
1.2.4. Two-lane Roundabouts..........................................................................................................6
1.2.5. Grade-separated Roundabouts...........................................................................................8
1.2.6. Signalized Roundabouts........................................................................................................8
1.3. Road Space Allocation and Lane Management................................................................................ 9
1.3.1. Public Transport........................................................................................................................9
1.3.2.Cyclists.......................................................................................................................................10
2 Operational Analysis.................................................................................................... 12
2.1. Traffic Operation........................................................................................................................................ 12
2.1.1. Effect of Geometric Elements..........................................................................................12
2.1.2. Definition of Roundabout Capacity................................................................................12
2.2. Traffic Data.................................................................................................................................................. 13
2.3. Capacity and Performance Analysis.................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1.Capacity.....................................................................................................................................13
2.3.2. Performance Analysis..........................................................................................................13
2.4. Safety Considerations............................................................................................................................. 14
2.4.1.General.......................................................................................................................................14
2.4.2.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................16
2.4.3. Two-wheeled Vehicles........................................................................................................16
2.4.4. Large Vehicles........................................................................................................................16
3 Geometric Design......................................................................................................... 19
3.1.1. Design Objectives.................................................................................................................19
3.1.2. Location of Roundabouts...................................................................................................19
3.1.3. Design Vehicle........................................................................................................................20

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3.2. Key Design Elements............................................................................................................................... 20

3.2.1. Inscribed Circle Diameter....................................................................................................20
3.2.2. Circulatory Roadway............................................................................................................22
3.2.3. Central Island..........................................................................................................................23
3.2.4. Splitter Islands........................................................................................................................23
3.2.5. Alignment of Entry Lanes..................................................................................................23
3.2.6. Entry Curb Radius (r)............................................................................................................24
3.2.7. Approach Half Width (v)......................................................................................................25
3.2.8. Entry Width (e)........................................................................................................................25
3.2.9. Average Effective Flare Length (l’).................................................................................26
3.2.10. Entry Angle (ϕ).......................................................................................................................27
3.2.11. Entry Path Radius..................................................................................................................29
3.2.12. Exit Width.................................................................................................................................34
3.2.13. Exit Curb Radius.....................................................................................................................35
3.2.14. Two-lane to One-lane Exits...............................................................................................36
3.2.15. Free Right-turn Lanes.........................................................................................................36
3.2.16. Entry Layout at Free Right-turn Lanes.........................................................................41
3.2.17. Exit Layout on Free Right-turn Lanes...........................................................................44
3.2.18. Non-physically Separated Free Right-turn Lanes....................................................45
3.2.19. Buses and Free Right-turn Lanes...................................................................................45
3.3. Sight Distance............................................................................................................................................ 45
3.3.1. Approach Visibility................................................................................................................45
3.3.2. Visibility at Roundabouts...................................................................................................46
3.3.3. Forward Visibility at Entry.................................................................................................46
3.3.4. Visibility to the Left at Entry............................................................................................47
3.3.5. Circulatory Visibility.............................................................................................................49
3.3.6. Pedestrian Crossing Visibility...........................................................................................51
3.3.7. Visual Intrusions....................................................................................................................51
3.4. Other Aspects of Design........................................................................................................................ 52
3.4.1. Cross Slope and Longitudinal Gradient.........................................................................52
3.4.2.Curbs...........................................................................................................................................54
3.5. Signing and Marking................................................................................................................................. 55
3.5.1.Signing.......................................................................................................................................55
3.5.2. Road Markings........................................................................................................................55
3.6. Landscaping Recommendations.......................................................................................................... 56
3.7. Lighting Recommendations.................................................................................................................. 56
3.8. Pedestrians and Cyclists......................................................................................................................... 57
3.8.1. Principles for Pedestrian Crossings................................................................................57
References............................................................................................................................... 59

7
Tables
Table ‎1.1. Roundabout Categories and Key Features..............................................................................................4

Table ‎3.1. Minimum Inscribed Circle Diameters for Roundabouts....................................................................20
Table ‎3.2. Turning Width Dimensions for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller Roundabouts...........22
Table ‎3.3. Entry Curb Radius............................................................................................................................................24
Table ‎3.4. Exit Curb Radius...............................................................................................................................................35
Table ‎3.5. Minimum Sight Distance on Free Right-turn Lane (C)......................................................................40
Table ‎3.6. Minimum Curve Radii and Roadway Widths for WB-15 Design Vehicle....................................41
Table ‎3.7. Minimum Diverge and Merge Tapers and Auxiliary Lanes..............................................................42
Table ‎3.8. Minimum Entry and Exit Section Length Factor.................................................................................42
Table ‎3.9. Visibility Distance at Roundabouts..........................................................................................................46
Figures
Figure ‎1.1. Roundabout Key Dimensions........................................................................................................................2

Figure ‎1.2. Mini-roundabout.................................................................................................................................................5
Figure ‎1.3. Single-lane Roundabout..................................................................................................................................6
Figure ‎1.4. Two-lane Roundabout......................................................................................................................................7
Figure ‎1.5. Grade-separated Roundabout.......................................................................................................................8
Figure ‎1.6. Bus Lane Treatment at Roundabouts........................................................................................................9
Figure ‎2.1. Use of Additional Chevron Signing at Roundabouts.........................................................................16
Figure ‎3.1. Turning Width Layout for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller
Roundabouts.....................................................................................................................................................21
Figure ‎3.2. Arc Projected from the Splitter Island to the Central Island at Entry.........................................24
Figure ‎3.3. Approach Half Width, Entry Width, and Entry Radius.......................................................................25
Figure ‎3.4. Average Effective Flare Length.................................................................................................................27
Figure ‎3.5. Entry Angle Measurement on Large Roundabouts............................................................................28
Figure ‎3.6. Entry Angle Measurement at Smaller Roundabouts.........................................................................28
Figure ‎3.7. Entry Path Radius Determination.............................................................................................................30
Figure ‎3.8. Entry Path Radius Determination for a Right-Curving Approach.................................................30
Figure ‎3.9. Entry Path Radius Determination for a Left-Curving Approach....................................................31
Figure ‎3.10. Entry Path Radius Determination for a Typical Three-leg Roundabout....................................31
Figure ‎3.11. Staggering of Roundabout Legs to Increase Entry Path Radius..................................................33

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Figure ‎3.12. Reverse Curves on Approach to Roundabouts....................................................................................34

Figure ‎3.13. Typical Two-lane Roundabout Exit Where Island Length is ≥ 20 m...........................................35
Figure ‎3.14. Differential Acceleration Lane...................................................................................................................36
Figure ‎3.15. Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Merge..........................................................38
Figure ‎3.16. Free Right-turn Lane with Auxiliary Lane Diverge and Merge.....................................................39
Figure ‎3.17. Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Yield Control on Exit.............................39
Figure ‎3.18. Example of Calculation Entry and Exit Section Lengths for a 1.5-m-wide
Island Less than 50 m..................................................................................................................................43
Figure ‎3.19. Termination of Hatched Road Markings at Channelizing Island...................................................44
Figure ‎3.20. Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach...................................................46
Figure ‎3.21. Forward Visibility at Entry...........................................................................................................................47
Figure ‎3.22. Visibility to the Left at the Yield Line.....................................................................................................48
Figure ‎3.23. Visibility to the Left 15 m in Advance of the Yield Line.................................................................49
Figure ‎3.24. Circulatory Visibility.......................................................................................................................................50
Figure ‎3.25. Visibility at Entry to a Pedestrian Crossing at Next Exit.................................................................51
Figure ‎3.26. Cross Slope Design Using 2:1 Ratio Circular Crown Line.................................................................53
Figure ‎3.27. Method of Terminating Edge Strips on Undivided Highway Approach to a Roundabout...54
Figure ‎3.28. Method of Terminating Shoulders on a Divided Highway Approach to a Roundabout.......55
Figure ‎3.29. Shared At-grade Pedestrian and Cyclist Crossing Adjacent to Roundabout............................58

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ϕ entry angle
a entry path radius
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
e entry width
ICD inscribed circle diameter
IES Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
l’ average effective flare length
m meter(s)
r entry curb radius
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
UK United Kingdom
v approach half-width

7

7
1 Introduction
1.1 Definitions and Principles

1.1.1 General
Roundabouts are intersections at which traffic circulates counterclockwise around a central
island and traffic entering the intersection is required to yield to vehicles on the circulatory
roadway. In Qatar, new roundabouts incorporate either one lane or two lanes on the
circulatory roadway. This Part describes the geometric design of new roundabouts and for
upgrading existing intersections.
The use of roundabouts on various road classifications is subject to the permitted intersection
types defined in Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, Table 2.2, of this Manual.
This Part relates to permitted roundabout types on the road network. Recommendations are
given on roundabout type selection, geometric layout, visibility, pavement cross slope, and
the provision of facilities for nonmotorized users.

The principal objective of roundabout design is to provide the safe passage of vehicles
between crossing traffic streams, with minimal delay. This is achieved by a combination of
geometric layout features that are ideally matched to traffic volumes and speeds, as well as
the location-specific constraints that apply. In urban situations, right-of-way constraints have
a significant influence on the design process for improvements to existing intersections.
Roundabouts should be designed to match the forecast traffic demand and are most
efficient when vehicular flows are reasonably well-balanced between legs (UK Department
for Transport, 2007). Consideration should be given to the geometric layout of the approach
legs to achieve a satisfactory design.
Entry width and effective flare length are the most important determinants of capacity,
whereas the entry path radius is the most important parameter for safety, since it governs
the speed of vehicles through the roundabout (Kimber, 1980). The entry path radius is
particularly important when approach speeds are high. Roundabouts may, in some situations,
be successful in calming traffic, by reducing vehicle speeds through the intersection.

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1.1.3 Roundabout Key Dimensions

Roundabouts are made up of a number of distinct but interrelated key elements. When
considering the design of roundabouts, it is essential that these elements are correctly
defined and measured. Key parameters are shown in Figure ‎1.1 and defined in the following
paragraphs.
Figure ‎1.1 Roundabout Key Dimensions
Approach half-width (v) is the width of the traffic lanes on the approach to the roundabout,
upstream of any entry flare. It is the shortest distance between the right edge of traveled
way and the centerline of a two-lane roadway, or in the case of a divided highway, the left
edge of traveled way. Where there are white edge line or hatched markings, the measurement
should be taken between the markings rather than curb to curb. Some capacity models use
approach half-width in order to estimate the capacity of the roadway in advance of the
roundabout.
Central island is the raised island at the center of the roundabout. On smaller roundabouts,
the central island can include a truck apron, allowing larger vehicles to negotiate the
roundabout while maintaining adequate entry path radius.

7
Circulatory roadway is the one-way roadway surrounding the central island or truck apron.
Entry angle (ϕ) serves as a geometric proxy for the conflict angle between entering and
circulating traffic streams. At smaller roundabouts, where entries and exits are closely
spaced, the angle can be measured between the entry and the adjacent exit.
Entry flare is a localized widening at the point of entry. Two-lane roundabouts usually have
flared entries at the yield line in order to increase capacity. Single-lane roundabouts should
also be slightly flared to accommodate large vehicles.
Entry curb radius (r) is the minimum radius of the right curb line at the entry. It is the radius
of the best fit circular curve over a length of 25 meters (m) measured on the curb line from a
point 25 m ahead of the yield line to a point 10 m downstream of it.
Entry path radius (a), or its inverse, the entry path curvature, is a measure of the deflection
to the right imposed on vehicles entering a roundabout. Entry path radius is the most
important determinant of safety at roundabouts as it governs the speed of vehicles through
the intersection and whether drivers are likely to yield to circulating vehicles. To determine
the entry path radius, the fastest path allowed by the geometry is drawn. This is the
smoothest, flattest path that a vehicle can take through the roundabout in the absence of
other traffic. The entry path radius is a measure of the smallest, best-fit circular curve with a
length of 25 m, occurring along the vehicle path in the vicinity of the yield line, but no more
than 50 m in advance of it.
Entry width (e) is the width available on immediate entry to the roundabout, measured
perpendicular to the approaching lanes, between the right curb and the splitter island or
median in the case of a divided highway. For capacity assessment, the measurement should
be taken as the total width of the lanes that drivers are likely to use, which is normally
between any white edge lining or hatching.
Exit curb radius is the exit equivalent to the entry curb radius, and is the minimum radius of
the right curb line at the exit.
Exit width (X) is the width available on the immediate exit measured perpendicular to the
exit lanes, between the right curb and the splitter island, or the median in the case of a
divided highway.
Inscribed circle diameter (ICD) is the diameter of the outside edge of the circulatory
roadway. In cases where the roundabout is noncircular, the local value in the region of the
entry is taken.
Splitter islands are curbed, raised areas on the approaches to a roundabout, located and
shaped to direct and separate traffic movements into and out of a roundabout. They may be
enhanced by road markings to further guide vehicles into the roundabout. Splitter islands
can act as a pedestrian refuge island if they are large enough to give adequate safe standing
space for accompanied wheelchair users and pedestrians with pushchairs.

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1.2 Roundabout Categories

1.2.1 General
Table ‎1.1 summarizes roundabout categories and key features. Information on geometric
parameters is detailed in Chapter ‎3 in this Part.
Table ‎1.1 Roundabout Categories and Key Features
Roundabout Lanes at Urban Rural

Type Entry Classifications Classifications Key Features
Local road only

Fully mountable central
Mini- One lane where single-lane
Not applicable island featuring low-level
Roundabout on all legs roundabout cannot
mountable curb
be accommodated
Single-lane One lane Minor collector, Raised island with

Collector, local
Roundabout on all legs Service, local truck apron
Two lanes Boulevard, major

Two-lane Arterial, collector, Raised island with truck
on at least and minor collector,
Roundabout local apron on smaller layouts
one leg service, local
Grade- Two lanes Expressway, major

Incorporates at least two
separated on at least arterial, collector Freeway, arterial
bridges in layout
Roundabout one leg distributor
To be used only for retrofit on existing roundabouts.

Signalized
Refer to Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, Chapter 4, of this
Roundabout
Manual.
1.2.2 Mini-roundabouts
On local roads in residential or recreational areas where large vehicles are not prevalent,
the provision of mini-roundabouts can be appropriate. The designer shall always use single-
lane roundabouts in preference to mini-roundabouts within the public right of way. Mini-
roundabouts can only be considered with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization.
Mini-roundabouts have reduced inscribed circle diameter in range of 18 m to 22 m and

incorporate single-lane entries and exits on each leg, as shown in Figure ‎1.2.

7
Figure ‎1.2 Mini-roundabout
The central island and splitter islands on a mini-roundabout should be distinguished from the
roadway by alternative paving of contrasting color. In addition, the central island and splitter
islands should incorporate low-level mountable curbs, allowing large vehicle to overrun while
discouraging overrun by passenger cars. Mini-roundabouts featuring a flush painted central
island are not permitted.
1.2.3 Single-lane Roundabouts

Single-lane roundabouts are appropriate on lower-classification, urban and rural routes,
providing an alternative to a crossroad intersection. The nonflared entries and exits give
the designer more flexibility in locating pedestrian crossings. A single-lane roundabout has
single-lane entries and exits on all legs (Figure ‎1.3). The width of the circulatory roadway is
such that it is not possible for two cars to pass one another.
Single-lane roundabouts may have low values of entry and exit radii in conjunction with high
values of entry deflection. This design has less capacity than two-lane roundabouts but is
particularly suitable where there is a need to accommodate the movement of pedestrians
and cyclists.
The maximum width of the circulatory roadway is 6 m. Single-lane roundabout have

a minimum central island diameter of 4 m and should only be selected for use where all
approaches are undivided highways with design speeds of 50 kph or less. A truck apron may
be necessary to provide sufficient entry deflection for vehicles while still accommodating
the turning movements of large vehicles. The apron shall be a maximum width of 2 m.

7
Figure ‎1.3 Single-lane Roundabout
1.2.4 Two-lane Roundabouts

A two-lane roundabout has a curbed central island at least 4 m in diameter, as shown in
Figure ‎1.4. The approaches may be undivided or divided highways. A two-lane roundabout
normally has flared entries and exits, allowing two vehicles to enter or leave the roundabout
simultaneously. The circulatory roadway therefore needs to be wide enough for two vehicles
to travel alongside each other on the roundabout itself. Typically, the circulatory roadway
will be between 6.0 m and 10.0 m in width.
Two-lane roundabouts should be selected for use where at least one of the approaches is a
divided highway. New roundabouts with three or more lanes are not permitted.
Where a two-lane exit reduces to one-lane on an undivided highway beyond the splitter
island, a differential acceleration lane shall be provided on the exit to enable vehicles leaving
the roundabout to overtake slower vehicles as described in Clause 3.2.14 of this Part.
The circulatory roadway on large, two-lane roundabouts can be difficult for cyclists to
negotiate, especially at the roundabout entries and exits; therefore, it is recommended that
consideration be given to the provision of off-street cycle paths around the perimeter of
two-lane roundabouts.

7
Figure ‎1.4 Two-lane Roundabout

Notes:
1. Road markings shown are indicative. Actual markings will depend on turning proportions. Refer to the
latest edition of the QTCM for further details.
2. On two-lane roundabouts, entries and exits are normally flared (tapered) to allow two vehicles to enter
and exit the roundabout simultaneously.

7
1.2.5 Grade-separated Roundabouts

A grade-separated roundabout is one that has at least one approach coming from a roadway
at a different level. This type of roundabout can be used as part of an interchange.
A roundabout can be designed to be at a higher level than the major road, or it can be at
ground level with the major road passing above. It is also possible to provide a three-level
interchange with the roundabout designed to be at the mid-level of two mainlines. Figure ‎1.5
shows a typical grade-separated roundabout.
Figure ‎1.5 Grade-separated Roundabout
Grade-separated roundabouts should be designed as two-lane roundabouts. The circulatory

roadway needs to be wide enough for two vehicles to travel alongside one another on
the roundabout itself. New grade separated roundabouts with three or more lanes are not
permitted.
1.2.6 Signalized Roundabouts

A signalized roundabout has traffic signals on one or more of the approaches and at the
corresponding point on the circulatory roadway itself. Traffic signals may be installed with
either continuous or part-time operation.
It is not permitted to design a new intersection as a signalized roundabout; therefore, an

alternative type of intersection or interchange should be considered. However, signal control
may be installed at existing roundabouts in response to any of the following problems:
• Excessive queuing on one or more of the approaches

• Capacity problems, such as unbalanced traffic flows
• Safety, such as excessive circulatory speeds
In some cases, the desired result may be achieved without traffic signal installation by
making suitable changes to the layout. These changes should be checked using appropriate
modeling software prior to installing traffic signals.

7
At busy traffic signalized roundabouts, there may be insufficient storage space on the
circulatory roadway for all traffic waiting. In such instances, appropriate controls should be
in place, through road markings and signal phasing, so that queuing traffic does not block the
circulatory roadway or entries to the roundabout.
Further details of signalized roundabouts are provided in Volume 1, Part 8, Design for
Signalized Intersections, of this Manual, and the Qatar Traffic Control Manual, Volume 1,
Part 5, Traffic Signals.
1.3 Road Space Allocation and Lane Management

1.3.1 Public Transport
Roundabouts generally should be available for use by all transportation modes, including
buses, taxis, and cars. Where roundabouts are to be located on transit routes, the designer
should liaise with the public transport operators. Options that can be considered include
elements such dedicated bus lanes in advance of and following the roundabout.
Bus lanes should terminate in advance of roundabouts and recommence following the
roundabout, as shown in Figure ‎1.6. Bus stops should be located sufficiently far away from
roundabout entries and exits and never within the circulatory roadway (National Cooperative
Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2010).
Figure ‎1.6 Bus Lane Treatment at Roundabouts

Notes:
1. Where a two-lane exit reduces to one-lane on an undivided highway beyond the splitter island, a
differential acceleration lane shall be provided on the exit to enable vehicles leaving the roundabout to
overtake slower vehicles as described in Clause 3.2.14 of this Part.
2. Lane designation arrows and circulatory road markings not shown for clarity and will depend on turning
proportions. Refer to the latest edition of the QTCM for further details.

7
1.3.2 Cyclists
Cyclists should be encouraged to use off-street facilities at roundabouts, particularly at large
roundabouts where significant operating speeds are experienced on the circulatory roadway.
For further guidance on providing for cyclists, refer to Section 3.8 in this Part and Volume 3,
Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.

7

7
2 Operational Analysis
2.1 Traffic Operation

2.1.1 Effect of Geometric Elements
The geometry of the roundabout should be designed to encourage vehicles approaching the
roundabout to decelerate to a speed that will allow them to safely negotiate the roundabout
avoiding conflicts with other road users. The approach speed is governed by the following
parameters:
• Approach half width (v)

• Entry path radius (a)
• Volume of traffic on the approach
Several geometric parameters influence the rate at which approaching vehicles can enter
the roundabout. The approach half width and the entry width directly influence the number
of vehicles that can queue side by side at the yield line. The width of the circulatory roadway
influences how many vehicles can travel side by side on the roundabout. Extensive research
has found that the following parameters have the most significant effect on entry capacity:
• Approach half width (v)

• Entry width (e)
• Entry angle (ϕ)
• Average effective flare length (l’)
Research has found that the size of the ICD has a relatively insignificant effect on the capacity
and that the entry curb radius has an insignificant effect on entry capacity, providing the
entry curb radius is at least 20 m.
Thus, the geometric design of a roundabout, together with the combined traffic volume, may
significantly influence the operational efficiency of the intersection.
2.1.2 Definition of Roundabout Capacity

The capacity at a roundabout is the maximum rate at which vehicles can enter the circulatory
roadway during a given period under prevailing traffic and geometric conditions. For
operational studies, an analysis period assessing a single “worst-case” 15-minute period is
used, assessing all approaches over the same period. More than one 15-minute period may
have to be assessed to establish the peak; for example, during the morning, midday, and
evening peak periods. Operational analyses are carried out to check the volume-to-capacity

7
ratio of each approach, taking into account the geometric parameters and the traffic volumes
on other approaches and the circulatory roadway.
On a properly designed and well-functioning roundabout, capacity is measured at the yield

line of each leg. On two-lane roundabouts, it is important that the demands on the individual
approach lanes be balanced to avoid lane starvation at the yield line.
2.2 Traffic Data

Traffic data are needed for each approach to the roundabout, including the proportions of
each turning movement. Volumes comprising various vehicle types should be converted to
passenger car equivalents and defined for each 15-minute interval. Traffic volumes should
be collected for at least the morning, midday, and evening peak periods.
Manual data collection at roundabouts can be inherently difficult, and the use of closed-
circuit television cameras should be considered to cover each entry. Where queuing occurs,
the traffic survey should include traffic counts taken concurrently with entry counts and
upstream of the start of the queue, to collect data that are representative of the true demand.
2.3 Capacity and Performance Analysis

2.3.1 Capacity
The capacity of a roundabout and how it is influenced by geometric parameters is discussed
in Section 2.1 in this Part. Similar to other uncontrolled intersections, roundabouts do not
perform in a predictable manner once the ratio of volume-to-capacity exceeds 0.85. For
this reason, it is recommended that the volume-to-capacity ratio at all approaches does not
exceed 0.85.
2.3.2 Performance Analysis

Analysis of roundabouts should be carried out in accordance with the latest version of the
Guidelines and Procedures for Traffic Studies (Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning
[MMUP], 2011). Key performance measures typically used to analyze the performance of
roundabouts include the following:
• Level of service (LOS)
• Volume-to-capacity ratio
• Average delay
• Average queue length
• 95th percentile queue length
• Approach delay and LOS on worst-case movement

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2.4 Safety Considerations

2.4.1 General
The Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) has studied the characteristics of crashes at
roundabouts in relation to geometric layout design and traffic flows. The studies provide
insight into how various aspects of design interact to influence crash type and frequency.
The relationships of crash characteristics constitute the fundamentals of design for safety.
As relationships between differing aspects of design are not always mutually compatible,
minimizing the likely incidence of a particular type of crash may increase the potential for
another. Therefore, design is often a balance between operational efficiency, minimizing
delays at the intersection, and various safety aspects within applicable location constraints.
Location constraints are often the dominating factor when designing improvements to an
intersection, particularly in urban areas.
Numerous studies have shown significant safety improvements when conventional

intersections are converted to roundabouts (Hall and Surl, 1981; Maycock and Hall, 1984;
and Kennedy et al., 1998). Many have shown that crash severity at roundabouts is much
lower than at unsignalized and signalized intersections. This is mainly due to the speed
reducing effects of roundabouts together with a low impact angle of vehicles at conflict
points, which together reduce the forces experienced by vehicle occupants significantly.
The most common factor affecting safety at roundabouts is excessive speed, both at entry
and within the roundabout. The most significant factors contributing to high entry and
circulating speeds are as follows:
• Inadequate entry deflection

• Small entry angles
• Inadequate visibility on approaches
• Inadequate advance warning signing
• Very large ICDs
Additional safety aspects to be considered in designing a roundabout include:
• Gradient: Approach gradients should provide appropriate conditions for vehicles

entering the roundabout. Steep uphill gradients can make roundabout entry difficult,
particularly for large vehicles, while steep downhill gradients may encourage excessive
speeds at entry, thus increasing crash potential.
• Visibility to the left at entry: This has comparatively little influence upon crash risk.
There is nothing to be gained by increasing visibility above the recommended level.
• Crest curves: Roundabouts should not be sited on crest curves where the visibility on
approach to the roundabout is impaired.
• Entry and exit speeds: Roundabouts should be designed to encourage slow entry to
the roundabout and quick exit to leave the roundabout clear for the next users.
• Pedestrian crossings: Location of controlled pedestrian crossings in the vicinity of

entries and exits. Further guidance is given in Section 3.8 in this Part.

7
Based on studies carried out in the United Kingdom, the following measures have been
found to help reduce the crash frequency at roundabouts; however, the designer should
bear in mind that the overprovision of signs can have a detrimental effect on the visual
environment and can dilute important messages to drivers if they result in information
overload (UK Department for Transport, 2013):
• Repositioning or reinforcing advance warning signs.
• Provision of map-type advance directional signs.
• Making the yield line more conspicuous (UK Department for Transport, 2007).
• Extending the central island chevron signing farther to the right, as shown in Figure 2.1,
may aid in emphasizing the amount of deflection at the roundabout (UK Department for
Transport, 2007). On divided highways, additional chevron signing located within the
median area in line with the left approach lane, as shown in Figure 2.1, may also prove
beneficial (UK Department for Transport, 2007).
• When approach speeds are low, such as in urban areas, a ring of contrasting paving can
be laid in a chevron pattern inside the central island perimeter at a gentle slope. Chevron
signs should also be installed at these locations. In rural areas, raised curbed chevrons
on roundabouts are not recommended. Experience has shown that physical obstructions
such as chevron curbing will be struck inadvertently at night by drivers who are unaware
of the intersection ahead. Only chevron signs should be placed in these locations.
• Landscaping in urban areas where approach speeds are high enhance the visibility of
the roundabout.
• Provision of transverse yellow bar markings on high-speed, divided highway approaches

has shown a 57 percent reduction in crashes based on studies in the United Kingdom by
the Transport Research Laboratory. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in
Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
• Provision of appropriate levels of skid resistance on the approaches to roundabouts and

on the circulatory roadways.
• Avoidance of abrupt and excessive superelevation in the entry region.
• Physical adjustment of central island or splitter islands, or both, to achieve compliant

roundabout geometry.
• Provision of “Reduce Speed Now” signs or countdown markers, or both.
High circulatory speeds often cause merging concerns at roundabout entries. Such concerns
normally occur at large roundabouts with excessively long circulatory roadways.
If entry issues are caused by inadequate visibility to the left, good results can be achieved by
moving the yield line forward in conjunction with curtailing the adjacent circulatory roadway
by hatched road markings or extension of the splitter island.

7
Figure ‎2.1 Use of Additional Chevron Signing at Roundabouts
2.4.2 Curbs
Care should be taken with the choice of curb type for roundabout design. Safety concerns
can arise where certain specialized, high-profile curbs are used around the central island.
Observations have shown that striking the curbs can result in loss of vehicle control or
overturning of vehicles unless the approach angle is small and vehicle speeds are low. If
high-profile curbs are used on approaches, consideration should be given to the provision of
pedestrian guardrails. When installing pedestrian guardrails, care should be taken to maintain
visibility sightlines for drivers.
2.4.3 Two-wheeled Vehicles

Roundabouts have a good overall safety record for most users; however, cyclists and
motorcyclists are especially vulnerable in areas of conflict, particularly at large two-lane
roundabouts. Therefore, it is essential that these vehicle types be considered in the design
process. Particular guidance on designing for cyclists is detailed in Section 3.8 in this Part.
2.4.4 Large Vehicles

Crashes involving large vehicles often cause major congestion and delay and are expensive
to clear, especially at major intersections. Roundabouts where large vehicle issues persist
usually exhibit one or more of the following features:
• Long straight, high-speed approaches with inadequate entry deflection leading to

high entry speeds. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of
• Low circulating flow combined with excessive visibility to the left.
• Long straight sections of circulatory roadway leading into deceptively tight curves.
• Sharp turns into exits.

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• Excessive cross slope changes on the circulatory roadway.
• Excessive adverse cross slope on the circulatory roadway.
Load shedding is an inherent problem for some vehicles at low speeds. Research has shown
that a large articulated vehicle with a center of gravity height of 2.5 m above the ground can
overturn on a 20-m radius curve at speeds as low as 24 kph. Particular attention should be
paid to comply with pavement surface tolerances and to avoid abrupt changes in cross slope.
It is good practice to make exit radii greater than entry radii.

7

7
3 Geometric Design

3.1.1 Design Objectives
Designing a roundabout involves selecting the various geometric parameters that find a
balance between safety and capacity. Roundabouts operate most safely when their geometry
forces traffic to enter and circulate at slow speeds. Horizontal curvature and narrow roadway
widths are used to produce this reduced-speed environment. Conversely, the capacity of
roundabouts is negatively affected by low-speed design elements. As the widths and radii
of entries and circulatory roadways are reduced, so too is capacity. In addition, geometric
parameters at roundabouts are also controlled by the swept path width of large vehicles.
Thus, a roundabout is designed to achieve safety while balancing operational performance
and accommodating large vehicles.
3.1.2 Location of Roundabouts

Besides functioning as an intersection, a roundabout can also be helpful in accomplishing
the following:
• Facilitate a change in the roadway cross section; for example, from divided to undivided
highways.
• Emphasize the transition from a rural to an urban or suburban environment.
• Allow U-turns to be executed safely.
• Facilitate heavy left-turn flow.
Most crashes at priority intersections are associated with left turns. The inconvenience of
banned left turns can be mitigated by providing a roundabout nearby.
Roundabouts are preferably located on level ground or in sags rather than at or near crests,
because it is difficult for drivers to interpret the layout when approaching on an upward
grade. However, there is no evidence that roundabouts on crests are intrinsically unsafe if
they are correctly signed and adequate visibility has been provided on the approach to the
yield line. Roundabouts should not be sited at the bottom of or on long descents.
Roundabouts in urban areas often are incompatible with urban traffic control systems. These
systems move vehicles through controlled areas in platoons, or groups, by adjusting traffic
signal times to suit progress. Roundabouts can interfere with platoon movement to the
extent that subsequent inflows to downstream traffic signals cannot be reliably predicted
and, thus, the sequence breaks down. In cases where there is a heavy left-turn flow, the
roundabout may be a better option.

7
Where several roundabouts are to be installed on the same route, they should be of similar
design to the extent possible with the traffic volumes concerned, in order to provide route
consistency and, hence, safety for drivers. For closely spaced roundabouts, the designer
should check queue lengths and storage available on the roadway linking the roundabouts.
Where a proposed roundabout may affect the operation of an adjacent intersection, or vice
versa, the interactive effects should be examined.

The recommended design vehicle for roundabout design is the AASHTO WB-15 tractor-
semitrailer. Further information on design vehicles is given in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of
this Manual.

Turning paths of design vehicles form the basis of the turning widths required at roundabouts.
All roundabout layouts must be checked to ensure that they can accommodate the turning
Elements, of this Manual. Specific guidance on swept paths at roundabouts is provided in
this Part.
3.2 Key Design Elements

3.2.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter
The ICD is the diameter of the largest circle that can be fitted into the roundabout outline.
Table ‎3.1 lists the minimum ICD values for each roundabout type that can accommodate the
WB-15 tractor-semitrailer design vehicle.
Table ‎3.1 Minimum Inscribed Circle Diameters for Roundabouts
Minimum
Roundabout ICD Recommended Design

Type (m) Vehicle Central Island Treatment
Mini-roundabout 18 WB-15 tractor-semitrailer Fully mountable central island

featuring low level mountable curb
Single-lane 28 WB-15 tractor-semitrailer Raised central island with truck

Roundabout apron
Two-lane 28 WB-15 tractor-semitrailer Raised central island, with truck

Roundabout apron on smaller layouts

7
The smallest ICD on a mini-roundabout is 18 m. Provision for large vehicles is provided by

incorporating a fully mountable central island together with a fully mountable splitter islands
on all approaches. The largest ICD value for mini-roundabouts is 22 m.
The smallest ICD for single-lane and two-lane roundabouts is 28 m. On smaller roundabouts,
it may be difficult to provide sufficient vehicle deflection on entry, therefore the provision
of a truck apron is often needed. A truck apron incorporates a low-level mountable curb that
provides adequate deflection for passenger cars while allowing overrun by large vehicles.
Truck aprons should have the same cross slope value and direction as that of the circulatory
roadway. For details of low-level mountable curb, refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Caution should be exercised in the use of roundabouts with large inscribed circle diameters,
as these can have the effect of encouraging high circulatory speeds.
Figure ‎3.1 shows the swept path width for a WB-15 tractor-semitrailer at smaller one-lane
and two-lane roundabouts with inscribed circle diameters in the range of 28 m to 36 m. In
these cases, splitter islands should not extend into the inscribed circle diameter. Table ‎3.2
shows turning width dimensions for WB-15 tractor-semitrailer at smaller roundabouts.
Figure ‎3.1 Turning Width Layout for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller

Roundabouts

7
Table ‎3.2 Turning Width Dimensions for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller

Roundabouts
Central Island
Diameter Radius R1 Radius R2 Minimum ICD
(m) (m) (m) (m)
4.0 3.0 13.0 28.0

6.0 4.0 13.4 28.8
8.0 5.0 13.9 29.8
10.0 6.0 14.4 30.8
12.0 7.0 15.0 32.0
14.0 8.0 15.6 33.2
16.0 9.0 16.3 34.6
18.0 10.0 17.0 36.0
Source: Geometric Design of Roundabouts (UK Department for Transport, 2007)
3.2.2 Circulatory Roadway

Where possible, the circulatory roadway should be circular in plan, avoiding deceptively tight
horizontal curvature. In cases of complex roundabouts of noncircular geometry, tight curves
should be avoided because they can lead to loss of control crashes and increase the risk of
load shedding by large vehicles.
The width of the circulatory roadway on two-lane and grade-separated roundabouts should
not exceed 10 m. On single-lane roundabouts, the width of the circulatory roadway should
not exceed 6 m. A truck apron surrounding the central island can be used to provide additional
width for large vehicles; however, the additional width provided by a truck apron is not
included in the definition of the circulatory roadway width. If the circulatory roadway does
not correspond to these maximum widths, it is considered a Departure from Standard as
per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.
The width of the circulatory roadway should be constant around the roundabout and be
between 1.0 and 1.2 times the maximum entry width. If turning proportions are such that
one section of circulatory roadway has a relatively low flow, it is not considered good practice
to reduce the circulatory roadway width by extending the splitter island into the circulatory
roadway. If the width of the circulatory roadway is not in accordance with this paragraph,
it is considered a Departure from Standard as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from
It is generally considered good design practice to avoid short lengths of reverse curve
between entries and adjacent exits by linking the curves or joining them with straight
segments between the entry curb radius and the exit curb radius.

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3.2.3 Central Island

The central island should be circular and at least 4 m in diameter. The ICD, the width of the
circulatory roadway, and the central island diameter are interdependent: once any two of
these are established, the remaining measurement is determined automatically.
To provide sufficient entry deflection for light vehicles at single-lane or smaller two-lane
roundabouts, a truck apron can be incorporated. A truck apron incorporates a low-level
mountable curb that provides adequate deflection for passenger cars while allowing overrun
by large vehicles. Truck aprons should have the same cross slope value and direction as that
of the circulatory roadway. For details of low-level mountable curb, refer to Volume 1, Part 3,
3.2.4 Splitter Islands

Splitter islands are used on each roundabout leg and are located and shaped to separate
and direct traffic entering and leaving the roundabout. The geometry of a splitter island
is defined by the alignment geometry of entrances and exits, and is generally unique to
each site. Splitter islands are located in the residual area at the approaches to roundabouts
between entrances and exits that is left after the optimum roundabout geometry has been
established.
Curbing is the recommended treatment for splitter islands. If there is insufficient space to
accommodate a full height curbs, as may be the case on a smaller roundabout, the splitter
island should incorporate low-level mountable curbs and alternative contrasting paving to
allow occasional vehicle overrun. Road markings can also be used to extend the splitter
island on the approach, the exit, or the circulatory roadway.
Curbed splitter islands can act as pedestrian refuges if they are large enough to give
adequate standing space for accompanied wheelchair users, pedestrians with pushchairs
and cyclists. A minimum pedestrian island width of 2.5 m should be provided but this should
be increased where nonmotorized user demand is high. Signs and other street furniture can
be located on splitter islands provided adequate clearance to the edge of traveled way is
maintained and visibility is not obscured.
3.2.5 Alignment of Entry Lanes

In order to reduce the likelihood of vehicle paths overlapping on the circulatory roadway, the
alignment of entry lanes is critical.
On rural roundabouts, where design speeds are relatively high, the curb line of the splitter
island, or median in the case of a divided highway, should lie on an arc which, when projected
forward, meets the central island tangentially to reduce the likelihood of vehicle paths
overlapping, as shown in Figure ‎3.2. In urban areas, where design speeds are lower, this is
less important, but should be achieved where possible. Care should be taken to confirm the
resultant entry angle is not too low.

7
Figure ‎3.2 Arc Projected from the Splitter Island to the Central Island at Entry
3.2.6 Entry Curb Radius (r)

Entry curb radius, r, is the minimum radius of curvature of the right-hand side curb line
from a point 25 m in advance of the yield line to a point 10 m downstream of it as shown
in Figure ‎3.3. Minimum values for entry curb radius for the various roundabout types as
detailed in Table ‎3.3. The entry curb radius should not be less than 6 m at mini-roundabouts
and 10 m at single-lane roundabouts. At two-lane roundabout entries, the minimum entry
curb radius is 10 m; however, where regular use by large vehicles is expected, it should not
be less than 20 m.
Table ‎3.3 Entry Curb Radius
Minimum Entry Curb Radius,

Roundabout Type r (m)
Mini-Roundabout 6
Single-lane Roundabout 10
Two-lane Roundabout 10
Two-lane Roundabout (particularly for large vehicles) 20
Source: Based on guidance from Geometric Design of Roundabouts (UK Department for Transport, 2007)
Although entry capacity can be increased by increasing the entry curb radius, once its value
reaches 20 m, further increases only result in very small capacity improvements. Reducing
the entry radius below 15 m reduces capacity.

7
Figure ‎3.3 Approach Half Width, Entry Width, and Entry Radius

Notes:
3.2.7 Approach Half Width (v)

The approach half width, v, is the total combined width of all approaching traffic lanes on the
link upstream of any entry flare, as shown in Figure ‎3.3. Some capacity models use this to
estimate the capacity of the roadway in advance of the roundabout.
3.2.8 Entry Width (e)

Entry width, e, is the width available on immediate entry to the roundabout, measured
perpendicular to the approaching lanes, between the right curb and the splitter island or
median in the case of a divided highway. The entry width is measured from the point of
maximum deflection at point A, as shown in Figure ‎3.3.
It is good practice to have two lanes on all entries to a two-lane roundabout. Therefore,
where the approach road is limited to one lane upstream, an additional lane should be
provided in advance of the roundabout entry. The relationship between entry width and
capacity is significant. Entry width is the largest single factor affecting capacity, apart from
approach half width.
There may be some cases, usually associated with low predicted flows, where increased entry
width is not operationally necessary on a two-lane roundabout, but it is still recommended
that two entry lanes be provided. This will give added flexibility at abnormal flow periods

7
in the future and a passing facility in the event of breakdown, and will ease the problem of
space provision for long vehicles turning.
Lane widths at the yield line should not be less than 3.0 m and not more than 4.5 m. Entry
width at single-lane roundabouts should be 4.5 m. The width of any additional lane should
be tapered back in the entry flare to a minimum width of 2.5 m. Reduction in these widths
is considered to be a Departure from Standard as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
The development of entry lanes should take into account the anticipated turning proportions
and possible lane bias, as drivers often have a tendency to use the right lane. A lane that
widens into two should maximize use of the entry width. The use of short lanes on the left
is not recommended.
3.2.9 Average Effective Flare Length (l’)

Entry flaring is localized widening at the point of entry. Two-lane roundabouts usually have
flared entries with the addition of a lane at the yield line to increase capacity. The average
effective flare length, l’, is the average length over which the entry widens, as shown in
Figure ‎3.4.
The capacity of an entry can be improved by increasing the average effective flare length. A
minimum length of about 5 m is desirable in urban areas, whereas 25 m is adequate in rural
areas. Flare lengths greater than 25 m may improve the geometric layout but have little
effect in increasing capacity. Flare lengths should not be greater than 100 m, as beyond this
the design becomes one of link widening. Where the design speed is high, entry widening
should be developed gradually, avoiding any sharp angles.
The measurement of average effective flare length is shown in Figure ‎3.4 and is constructed
as follows:
• AB = entry width, e
• GH = approach half width, v
• GD is parallel to AH and distance v from AH (v is measured along a line perpendicular to

both AH and GD and, therefore, the length of AD is equal to v only if AB is perpendicular
to the median at A).
• CF’ is parallel to BG and distance one-half BD from the curb line BG.
• Average effective flare length, l’ = CF’

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Figure ‎3.4 Average Effective Flare Length
3.2.10 Entry Angle (ϕ)

The entry angle, ϕ, serves as a geometric proxy for the conflict angle between entering and
circulating traffic streams. Depending on the size of the roundabout, the following methods
should be used to determine the entry angle.
For large roundabouts where links are widely spaced the entry angle is measured as shown
in Figure ‎3.5.
Line BC is a tangent to line EF, which is midway between the right entry curb line and
the splitter or median island, where this intersects the circulatory roadway. Curve AD is
constructed as the locus of the midpoint of the used section of the circulatory roadway,
which is a proxy for the average direction of travel for traffic circulating past the entry.
The entry angle is measured as the acute angle between BC and the tangent to AD at the
point of intersection between BC and AD, as shown in Figure ‎3.5.

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Figure ‎3.5 Entry Angle Measurement on Large Roundabouts
Figure ‎3.6 shows the layout for smaller roundabouts. This construction is used when there is
insufficient separation between entry and adjacent exit to be able to define the path of the
circulating vehicle clearly. The angle between the projected entry and exit paths is measured
and then halved to find the entry angle, ϕ.
Figure ‎3.6 Entry Angle Measurement at Smaller Roundabouts
Line BC is the same as in Figure ‎3.5.
Line GH is the tangent to line JK, which is in the following exit, midway between the right
curb and the splitter or median island, where this intersects the outer edge of the circulatory
roadway.
BC and GH intersect at L. The entry angle, ϕ is then defined by:
ϕ = BLH/2
If the angle GLB exceeds 180 degrees, ϕ is taken to be zero.

7
The entry angle, ϕ, should lie between 20 and 60 degrees with the optimum angle being
between 30 and 45 degrees. High entry angles tend to lower capacity and produce excessive
entry deflection, which can lead to sharp braking at entries accompanied by rear end
crashes, especially on high-speed approaches. Low entry angles force drivers into merging
situations where they will be forced to look over their shoulder or use side mirrors to merge
with circulating traffic. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of
3.2.11 Entry Path Radius

Entry path radius is one of the most important safety factors at roundabouts. It is a measure
of the amount of entry deflection to the right imposed on vehicles at entry to the roundabout.
This governs the speed of vehicles through the roundabout and whether or not drivers are
likely to yield to circulating vehicles.
The entry path radius should be checked for all turning movements. It should not exceed 70 m
at single-lane roundabouts. At other roundabouts, except mini-roundabouts, the entry path
radius should not exceed 100 m (UK Department for Transport, 2007). At mini-roundabouts,
there is no maximum value for entry path radius. Where the entry path radius is greater
than these values, it is considered a Departure from Standard as per Volume 3, Part 25,
Determining the entry path radius is based on the following assumptions and shown in
Figure ‎3.7 through Figure ‎3.10.
• The entering vehicle is 2 m wide so that it maintains a distance of at least 1 m between

its centerline and any curb or edge marking, and that it is continuing straight ahead at a
four-leg roundabout and across the head of the tee at a three-leg roundabout.
• There is no other traffic on the approach and on the circulatory roadway.
• The driver negotiates the site constraints with minimum deflections and that lane
markings by the yield line are ignored.
• The commencement point of the vehicle path is located 50 m in advance of the yield line
and at least 1 m from the edge of traveled way or centerline.
• The vehicle proceeds as follows:
−− First, toward the yield line
−− Then, toward the central island of the roundabout, passing through a point not less
than 1 m from the right-hand curb, the position of which relative to the starting
point depends on the amount of approach flare to the right
−− Then continuing on a smooth path with its centerline, never passing closer than
1 m from the central island, more in some configurations

7
Figure ‎3.7 Entry Path Radius Determination
Figure ‎3.8 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Right-Curving Approach

7
Figure ‎3.9 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Left-Curving Approach
Figure ‎3.10 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Typical Three-leg Roundabout

7
On a layout of the roundabout, to a scale not less than 1:500, draw the centerline of the
most realistic path that a vehicle would take in its complete passage through the roundabout
on a smooth alignment without sharp transitions.
The exact path drawn is a matter of personal judgment. The results should be examined
for compliance and consistency with the appropriate clauses in this section. Any reverse of
curvature in the vehicle path around the central island should be drawn so that there is no
sharp deviation between that curve and the entry curve. Particular care in checking entry
path radius is needed when considering small central island designs.
This tightest radius can be measured by means of suitable templates. The entry path radius
is measured on the curved length of path near the yield line, but not more than 50 m in
advance of it as shown in Figure ‎3.7 through Figure ‎3.10. The entry path radius is the radius
of the best-fit circular curve over a length of 25 m.
At single-lane and smaller two-lane roundabouts incorporating a truck apron, the entry path
radius is measured relative to the outer perimeter of the truck apron rather than that of the
central island (UK Department for Transport, 2007).
One method for increasing entry deflection at roundabouts is to stagger the legs, such that
the centerline of each leg intersects with the roundabout slightly left of center, as shown
in Figure ‎3.11. This method also results in a reduction in the overall size of the roundabout,
minimizing land acquisition, and in addition, helps to provide a clear exit route of sufficient
width to avoid conflicts (UK Department for Transport, 2007).

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Figure ‎3.11 Staggering of Roundabout Legs to Increase Entry Path Radius
Another method for increasing entry deflection at roundabouts, especially on high-speed

divided highways, is to use a combination of reverse curves on the approach as shown in
Figure ‎3.12. This method also has the added benefit of helping to reduce vehicle speeds
on the immediate approach to the roundabout. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are
defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
Where reverse curves are utilized, the designer shall consider that vehicles are slowing on
the approach section of roadway towards the roundabout and provide a broad radius curve
followed moderate radius curve. These radii shall be selected based on the anticipated
approach speeds of a vehicle which reduce as the vehicle approaches the entry curve of the
roundabout. Refence needs to be made to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual. The zones of influence of this Part and Volume 1, Part 3 are shown in Figure ‎3.12.

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Figure ‎3.12 Reverse Curves on Approach to Roundabouts
3.2.12 Exit Width

The exit width is measured similarly to entry width. It is the distance between the right
curb line and the splitter island or, in the case of a divided highway, the median where it
intersects with the outer edge of the circulatory roadway. As with the entry width, it is
measured perpendicular to the right-hand curb line. Values typically are similar to or slightly
less than entry widths; that is, exits have less flaring.
The number of lanes at an exit should be equal to the number of lanes at the corresponding
entry for the straight though-traffic movement. At single-lane roundabouts, only one lane
should be provided. There should be no more than two lanes on an exit.
On undivided highway exits where the length of the splitter island is 20 m or greater, a
minimum width of 6 m, measured perpendicular to the right curb, should be provided adjacent
to splitter island to allow traffic to pass a broken-down vehicle. Figure ‎3.13 shows a typical
two-lane roundabout exit using some of the principles described here.

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Figure ‎3.13 Typical Two-lane Roundabout Exit Where Island Length is ≥ 20 m
3.2.13 Exit Curb Radius

Table ‎3.4 lists acceptable ranges of exit curb radius. For a two-lane roundabout, a value of
40 m is desirable, but for larger roundabouts on high-speed roads, a higher value can better
fit the overall intersection geometry. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in
A compound curve starting with a radius of 40 m, developing to a larger radius, of up to 100 m,

usually offers the best solution. Larger values of exit radii can lead to high exit speeds,
which may not be appropriate where pedestrian crossing facilities are located immediately
downstream.
Table ‎3.4 Exit Curb Radius
Minimum Exit Curb Radius Maximum Exit Curb

Roundabout Type (m) Radius (m)
Mini-roundabout 6 20
Single-lane Roundabout 15 20
Two-lane Roundabout 20 100
Source: Based on guidance from Geometric Design of Roundabouts (UK Department for Transport, 2007)

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The spacing of an exit and the preceding entry should not be less than the combination of
the minimum entry curb radius and the minimum exit curb radius. If a roundabout is to be
modified to include an additional entry, care should be taken so that this does not affect
safety at the preceding entry and the following exit. It may be necessary to redesign the
whole roundabout if adequate spacing between entries and exits cannot be achieved.
3.2.14 Two-lane to One-lane Exits

Where a two-lane exit from a roundabout reduces to one-lane on an undivided highway, a
differential acceleration lane and a hatched (or kerbed) median area shall be provided as
shown in Figure 3.14. Differential acceleration lanes shall be provided on the exit from two-
lane roundabouts.
Figure ‎3.14 Differential Acceleration Lane

Note:
Road markings shown are indicative. Actual markings will depend on turning proportions. Refer to the latest
edition of the QTCM for further details.
The right-hand lane drop shall be marked, with deflection arrow markings, for drivers to merge
with the left-hand lane towards the end of the acceleration lane as shown in Figure 3.14.
The median may either have hatched marking or a kerbed island, subject to sufficient ROW
width, and shall be agreed with the Overseeing Organization. The roundabout approach
lanes shall be extended as a two-lane carriageway as far as necessary, depending upon
roundabout geometry, traffic volumes and resultant queue lenths as determined by traffic
analyis, refer to Clause 2.1 for details. Figure 1.4 indicates these layouts.
3.2.15 Free Right-turn Lanes

Free right-turn lanes are a useful method for providing improved service to vehicles intending
to leave a roundabout at the first exit after entry. Through a free right-turn lane, vehicles
are able to proceed directly to the first exit without having to interact with vehicles on the
circulatory roadway. This is particularly appropriate at two-lane roundabouts.

7
There is a simple procedure to provide guidance to determine if a free right-turn lane would
be beneficial to a roundabout design and merit further investigation. It is based on total
traffic in-flows at entry, vehicle composition, right-turning traffic, and the number of entry
lanes. The inclusion of a free right-turn lane should be considered if the following is true for
the individual approach:
R ≥ F/E
where:
R = flow of right-turning vehicles per hour

F = total entry flow in vehicles per hour
E = total number of entry lanes including the free right-turn lane
Source: Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at Roundabouts (UK Department for
Transport, 2003)
In cases where R and F/E are very close, consideration of other factors, such as safety, should
be included in the appraisal.
The removal of flow from the circulatory roadway can improve the overall performance of the
roundabout, but vehicle composition should be examined when considering the use of these
lanes. If the right-turning vehicles are predominantly light and there are high proportions of
large vehicles leaving the roundabout, there could be problems with different speeds at the
merge, particularly if this is on an uphill gradient. If dedicated lanes are to be used in such
situations, they should finish with a yield line at the exit from the lane.
The use of free right-turn lanes in urban areas where pedestrians are expected is not
recommended. Pedestrians should be channeled using a guardrail to a suitable crossing point.
If this is not possible, the channelizing island should be of sufficient width to accommodate
the anticipated peak number of pedestrians, and the location of pedestrian crossing points
should be carefully considered.
Free right-turn lanes should include a fully curbed channelizing island. Vehicles are channeled
into the right-hand lane by lane arrows and road markings supplemented by advance direction
signs. The operation of the free right-turn lane should not be impaired by traffic queuing to
use the roundabout itself.
Free right-turn bypass lanes should not be designed to encourage high speeds. The curve
radius used for the free right-turn lane will depend on both the design speed of the approach
road and site constraints. The driver’s perception of the approach and free right-turn lane radii
will be a determining factor in their approach speed. Therefore, the designer should consider
the need for speed reduction measures on the approach depending on the minimum curve
radii used. For divided highways, a minimum inside curve radius of 30 m is recommended,

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and in all instances the inside curve radii should not be less than 10 m. The radius at exit
should not be less than the radius at entry.
Superelevation along the free right-turn lane should be designed in accordance with Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, to a maximum value of 5 percent.
Examples of free right-turn lanes at roundabouts are shown in Figure ‎3.15 to Figure ‎3.18.
Figure ‎3.15 Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Merge

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Figure ‎3.16 Free Right-turn Lane with Auxiliary Lane Diverge and Merge
Figure ‎3.17 Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Yield Control on Exit

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Stopping sight distance for the design speed of the main approach road should be provided
to the start of the inside curve radius at the start of the free right-turn lane. Forward visibility
from the main approach road into the free right-turn lane to the start of the exit section,
should be in accordance with Table ‎3.5. The maximum curve radius defined in Table ‎3.5
refers to the maximum radius encountered on the inner edge through the length of the free
right-turn lane. Beyond the start of the exit section, the stopping sight distance should be in
accordance with the design speed of the road being entered. Reduction in stopping sight
distance is considered a Departure from Standard as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
Table ‎3.5 Minimum Sight Distance on Free Right-turn Lane (C)
Maximum Curve Radius on

Free Right-turn Lane, (C) Minimum Sight Distance
(m) (m)
≤20 35
21–40 70
41–80 90
81–100 120
101 ̶ 120 160
>120 215
Source: Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at Roundabouts (UK, DMRB, TD
51/17)
The roadway width should be sufficient to accommodate the swept path of the design
vehicle. Table ‎3.6 provides guidance for minimum roadway widths through the free right-
turn lane for a WB-15 tractor-semitrailer. However, hatched road markings can be provided
on the inside of the curve to reduce the marked lane width to a minimum of 3.65 m.
Where the channelizing island is less than 50 m in length, it is not necessary to make
allowance for broken-down vehicles and, in such cases, the width of the free right-turn lane
should be as detailed in the second column of Table ‎3.6. However, when the island is longer
than 50 m, the lane width should be increased as detailed in the third column of Table ‎3.6,
and a swept-path analysis should be performed to allow passing of a broken-down vehicle.

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Table ‎3.6 Minimum Curve Radii and Roadway Widths for WB-15 Design Vehicle
Free Right-turn Lane

Free Right-turn Lane Roadway
Minimum Curve Radius on Roadway Width for Island
Width for Island Length <50 m
Free Right-turn Lane, (C) Length ≥50 m
(m)
(m) (m)
10 8.4 10.9
15 7.1 9.6
20 6.2 8.7
25 5.7 8.2
30 5.3 7.8
40 4.7 7.2
50 4.4 6.9
75 4.0 6.5
100 3.8 6.3
>100 3.5 6.0
Source: Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at Roundabouts (UK, DMRB, TD
51/17)
The channelizing island should not prevent a right turn at the roundabout in the usual
manner by way of the circulatory roadway.
The maximum longitudinal gradient on a free right-turn lane at a roundabout should be

limited to 5 percent.
The merging between vehicles from a free right-turn lane and other vehicles exiting the
roundabout should take place relatively close to the roundabout, where speeds are still
comparatively low.
Under no circumstances should two right-turn lanes be used together. If right-turning traffic
is very high and cannot be accommodated by a single free right-turn lane, then alternative
forms of intersection should be investigated.
3.2.16 Entry Layout at Free Right-turn Lanes

The two basic forms of entry layout for a free right-turn lane are as follows:
• Direct taper (A) followed by entry section (B), as shown in Figure ‎3.15.

• Auxiliary taper (F) and auxiliary lane (G) followed by entry section (B) as shown in
Figure ‎3.17.
The type of diverge will be dependent on traffic and site constraints. The use of the minimum
values provided in Table ‎3.7 is recommended. The design speeds defined in Table ‎3.7 and
Table ‎3.8 relate to the design speed of the road from which the free right-turn lane diverges,
or onto which it merges.

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Table ‎3.7 Minimum Diverge and Merge Tapers and Auxiliary Lanes
Minimum Auxiliary Minimum Auxiliary

Minimum Direct Taper Length Lane Length
Design Speed Taper Rate (F) and (J) a (G) and (H) a
(kph) (A) and (E) (m) (m)
≤ 60 1:10 30 55
> 60 1:15 45 85
Source: Based on guidance from Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at
Roundabouts (UK Department for Transport, 2003)
Notes:
a
Designers shall compare the minimum length values with the predicted queue length as per traffic
analysis and the greater values, shall be provided in design. Designers are encouraged to lengthen the
dimension in cases where design volumes are high or the costs of doing so are minimal.
The free right-turn lane width should be at least 3.65 m at the beginning of the diverge
nose as shown in Figure ‎3.15 to Figure ‎3.18. Any reduction from this value is considered a
Departure from Standard as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process,
of this Manual.
The recommended length of the entry section should be the larger of the following values:
• The widening needed to accommodate the channelizing island, subject to a minimum

width of 2.1 m, consisting of a 1.5 m wide island plus a 0.3 m road marking offset on
each side, as shown in Figure ‎3.18, multiplied by the appropriate factor in Table ‎3.8.
• The widening needed to accommodate the swept path of a large vehicle as detailed in
Table ‎3.6, multiplied by the appropriate factor in Table ‎3.8.
Table ‎3.8 Minimum Entry and Exit Section Length Factor
Design Speed on Major Roadway Entry and Exit Section Factor

(kph) (B) and (D)
≤70 20
80 and 90 25
≥100 30
Source: Based on guidance from Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at
Roundabouts (UK Department for Transport, 2003)
Figure ‎3.18 shows how to calculate the length of the entry and exit section and for a
1.5-m-wide channelizing island less than 50 m long on an undivided highway approach.

7
Figure ‎3.18 Example of Calculation Entry and Exit Section Lengths for a 1.5-m-wide
Island Less than 50 m
The taper for the chevron road markings on the nose should be developed asymmetrically
on the right-turn bypass lane side, as shown in Figure ‎3.18. The nose edge line marking
should terminate in a position offset 0.3 m from the edge of the physical island, as shown
in Figure ‎3.19.

7
Figure ‎3.19 Termination of Hatched Road Markings at Channelizing Island
3.2.17 Exit Layout on Free Right-turn Lanes

The three basic types of exit layout from a free right-turn lane are as follows:
• Merge consisting of exit section (D), and merge taper (E), as shown in Figure ‎3.15.
• Merge consisting of exit section (D), auxiliary lane (G), and auxiliary taper (J), as shown
in Figure ‎3.15.
• Yield control, as shown in Figure ‎3.17.
Exits with merge tapers or auxiliary lanes consist of a merge maneuver between the traffic
leaving the roundabout circulatory roadway and the free right-turn lane. These layouts
inherently include risks associated with vehicles exiting the roundabout being in the side-
mirror visually impaired spot for traffic using the free right-turn lane. This situation may
contribute to crashes between merging vehicles as well as nose-to-tail crashes, particularly
for motorists with limited ability to look over their shoulders and for some drivers of large
vehicles.
When a free right-turn lane exits onto a divided highway, merge tapers or auxiliary lanes
should be provided, as detailed in Figure ‎3.15 and Figure ‎3.16. In the situation where a free
right-turn lane exits onto an undivided highway, yield control can be provided, as shown in
Figure ‎3.17.
The exit section from the free right-turn lane and the associated merge nose should be
provided in accordance with Table 3.7 and Table ‎3.8. The width of the right-turn bypass
lane should be at least 3.65 m at the end of the exit section, as shown in Figure ‎3.15 and
Figure 3.16. Any reduction in this width is considered a Departure from Standard as per

7
Any widening needed to accommodate the swept paths of large vehicles through the free
right-turn lane should be removed along the length of the exit section. As with the entry
section, the length of the exit section and adjacent merge nose is calculated using the larger
value of the width of the channelizing island and the widening required to accommodate the
design vehicle, as shown in Figure ‎3.18. The angle of the chevron road markings at the nose
should be developed, as shown in Figure ‎3.18, and terminate in a position offset from the
edge of a physical island, as shown in Figure ‎3.19.
At the beginning of a roundabout exit, it is recommended that its width allows for an extra
traffic lane over and above that of the link downstream, provided that the maximum of
two lanes on exit is not exceeded. Where a free right-turn lane is present, the exit width
reduction should be completed upstream of the end of the free right-turn lane exit section.
A yield exit from a free right-turn lane should be located as close as practical to the
roundabout, at a minimum entry angle of 45 degrees between the yield line and the entering
vehicle as shown in Figure 3.17.
Signs and street furniture placed on the physical island near the exit should not obstruct
visibility between the free right-turn lane exit and the adjacent roundabout exit lane.
3.2.18 Non-physically Separated Free Right-turn Lanes

Right-turn bypass lanes separated from the circulatory roadway by no more than a flush,
painted island can be subject to abuse by drivers. Consequently, non-physically separated
free right-turn lanes are not permitted.
3.2.19 Buses and Free Right-turn Lanes

Free right-turn lanes can improve journey time reliability on bus routes, either in isolation
or as part of a larger traffic management proposal. However, the use of bus-only free right-
turn lanes at roundabouts needs careful consideration. Factors including the number of
buses using the dedicated lane and any detrimental impact on the overall capacity of the
roundabout should be taken into account. Bus stops and bus bays should not be located
within the free right-turn lane.
3.3 Sight Distance

3.3.1 Approach Visibility
The forward visibility at the approach to a roundabout should be as indicated in Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, for the appropriate design speed of the
approach. This stopping sight distance is measured to the yield line, as shown in Figure ‎3.20.
Stopping sight distance should be obtainable from a driver’s eye height of 1.08 m to an
object height of 0.60 m.

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Figure ‎3.20 Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach
3.3.2 Visibility at Roundabouts

Table ‎3.9 details the visibility distances applicable at roundabouts of varying size. These
distances should be used when assessing the forward visibility at entry, visibility to the left
at entry, and circulatory visibility. Refer to Figure ‎3.21 through Figure ‎3.25.
Table ‎3.9 Visibility Distance at Roundabouts
Inscribed Circle Diameter Visibility Distance

(m) (m)
<40 Whole Intersection
40 to 60 40
60 to 100 50
>100 70
Source: Geometric Design of Roundabouts (UK Department for Transport, 2007)
3.3.3 Forward Visibility at Entry

Drivers of vehicles approaching the yield line should be able to see to an object height of
0.60 m on the full width of the circulatory roadway for the appropriate visibility distance
indicated in Table ‎3.9, measured along the centerline of the circulatory roadway. Visibility
should be checked from a driver’s eye height of 1.08 m at the center of the right lane and a
distance of 15 m back from the yield line, as shown in Figure ‎3.21.

7
Figure ‎3.21 Forward Visibility at Entry

Notes:
3.3.4 Visibility to the Left at Entry

Drivers of all vehicles approaching the yield line should be able to see the full width of the
circulatory roadway to their left from the center of the left lane at the yield line for a distance
appropriate to the visibility distance, listed in Table ‎3.9, measured along the centerline of
the circulatory roadway and shown in Figure ‎3.22.

7
Visibility should also be checked from the center of the left lane at a distance of 15 m back
from the yield line, as shown in Figure ‎3.23. The envelope of visibility should be obtainable
from a driver’s eye height of 1.08 m to an object height of 1.08 m.
Checks should be made that traffic sign location, street furniture, safety barriers, and other
potential obstructions do not restrict visibility.
Figure ‎3.22 Visibility to the Left at the Yield Line

Notes:
Excessive visibility to the left at entry could result in high entry speeds, potentially resulting
in crashes. This can be mitigated by design, such as through the careful use of landscaping
on the approach to the roundabout, enabling the designer to limit visibility to the left to that
necessary for the safe and efficient operation of the roundabout.

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Figure ‎3.23 Visibility to the Left 15 m in Advance of the Yield Line

Notes:
3.3.5 Circulatory Visibility

Drivers of all vehicles circulating on a roundabout should be able to see the full width of
the circulatory roadway ahead of them for the visibility distance, as indicated in Table ‎3.9.
Circulatory visibility is checked from a point 2 m out from the central island, as shown in
Figure ‎3.24, using a driver’s eye of 1.08 m and an object height of 0.60 m.
It is often useful to improve the conspicuousness of central islands by the use of landscaping
however, any landscaping provided should not interfere with drivers’ sight lines.

7
Once a vehicle has crossed the inscribed circle at the exit from the roundabout, stopping
sight distance should be provided in accordance with Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Figure ‎3.24 Circulatory Visibility

Notes:

7
3.3.6 Pedestrian Crossing Visibility

Where a pedestrian crossing is positioned in advance of a roundabout, approaching drivers
should be able to see the full width of the crossing, from a distance equal to the stopping
sight distance for the design speed of the approach, as detailed in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
At the yield line, all drivers should be able to see the full width of a pedestrian crossing across
the next exit if the crossing is within 20 m of the roundabout at shown in Figure ‎3.25).
Pedestrian crossings should not be positioned between 20 m and 60 m from the yield line.
Refer to Section ‎3.8 in this Part, and Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this
Manual, for further advice relating to pedestrians and other nonmotorized users.
Figure ‎3.25 Visibility at Entry to a Pedestrian Crossing at Next Exit
3.3.7 Visual Intrusions

Where traffic signs are to be erected at roundabouts within visibility envelopes, the mounting
height should not be less than 2 m above the roadway surface.
Traffic signs, street furniture, and landscaping should not obstruct driver’s sight lines,
however, isolated slim objects such as lighting columns, sign supports, and bridge columns
can be ignored provided they are less than 550 millimeters wide (UK Department for
Transport, 2007).

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3.4 Other Aspects of Design

3.4.1 Cross Slope and Longitudinal Gradient
Immediately in advance of the roundabout yield line, steep gradients should be avoided or
flattened. This zone of limited gradient should be within 15 m of the yield or stop line but
may be reduced to 10 m in residential areas. Approach gradients within this zone should
be limited to a maximum of 3 percent. An approach gradient higher than 3 percent is
considered to be a Departure from Standard as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from
On the approaches and exits, superelevation can assist drivers in negotiating the associated
curves. When used, the superelevation value should be appropriate to the speed of vehicles,
and equal to or greater than those necessary for surface drainage, but should not exceed
5 percent. Superelevation should be reduced to 2 percent from a point 20 m in advance of
the yield line, given that, with adequate advance signing and entry deflection, speeds on
approaches should be reducing.
Cross slope and longitudinal gradient combine to provide the necessary slope that will drain
surface water from the roadway. Thus, although the following clauses are for simplicity
written in terms of cross slope, the value and direction of the greatest slope should always
be taken into account when considering drainage flow paths.
Except on large grade-separated roundabouts, where the circulatory roadway should have
appropriate superelevation, adequate cross slope should be provided in order to drain surface
water on circulatory roadways. Cross slope on the circulatory roadway should be 2.0 percent.
In order to minimize surface water ponding, longitudinal edge profiles should be graded at
not less than 0.67 percent, with 0.5 percent considered the minimum. The design gradients
alone do not achieve satisfactory drainage; therefore, the correct positioning and spacing of
gullies is critical.
At two-lane roundabouts on high-speed roads, it is good practice to arrange for cross slope
to assist vehicles maneuvering around the circulatory roadway and to reduce drainage flow
paths. To do this, a crown line is formed. This line can divide the circulatory roadway in the
proportion 2:1 internal to external, as shown in Figure ‎3.26. Alternatively, the crown line
can join the ends of the splitter islands. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in
The conflicting cross slope at the crown lines have a direct effect on driver comfort and may
be a contributory factor in load shedding and large vehicle roll-over crashes. Over a given
section, the maximum recommended arithmetic difference in cross slope is 5 percent. Lower
values are desirable, particularly for roundabouts with a small ICD. There should be no sharp
changes in cross slope and a smooth crown is essential.
At mini-roundabouts and single-lane roundabouts, it is sometimes more appropriate to apply

a constant cross slope in one direction across the full width of the circulatory roadway. At

7
roundabouts where the design speed does not exceed 50 kph on any approach, the cross
slope can slope outwards to ease drainage and help keep speeds down. The cross slope also
makes the central island more conspicuous.
At exits, superelevation should be provided where necessary to allow vehicles to accelerate

safely away from the roundabout. However, as with entries, cross slope adjacent to
the roundabout should not exceed 2 percent. If the exit leads into a left-hand curve,
superelevation should be introduced gradually.
Drainage of the central island should be considered in roundabout design in order to obtain
adequate cross slope and provision for collection. Water from the central island should not be
designed to run on to the circulatory roadway.
Figure ‎3.26 Cross Slope Design Using 2:1 Ratio Circular Crown Line
Notes:

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3.4.2 Curbs
Roundabout entries and exits should be curbed, and shoulders on each approach should
terminate where entry widening begins. Where connecting roads are not curbed, the
simplest procedure is to start the curbs on the approach at the back of the shoulder and then
terminate the edge of traveled way road marking in a short smooth curve or taper, as shown
in Figure ‎3.27 and Figure ‎3.28. On the exit, the curbing can terminate at the end of the exit
curb radius.
Figure ‎3.27 Method of Terminating Edge Strips on Undivided Highway Approach to a

Roundabout

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Figure ‎3.28 Method of Terminating Shoulders on a Divided Highway Approach to a

Roundabout
3.5 Signing and Marking

3.5.1 Signing
Signing, including destination signs, regulatory signs, warning signs, and information signs
should be provided in accordance with the Qatar Traffic Control Manual.
Advance direction signs should be provided on the approach to the roundabout. Generally,
these signs should be a map style sign displaying a plan of the intersection and the
destination or street names of the adjoining roads. Direction signs should also be provided
at exits to provide confirmation of destination or street names to road users as they leave
the intersection.
3.5.2 Road Markings

Road markings are used to channel traffic and, when appropriate, to indicate a dedicated
lane. Lane indication arrows to reinforce the advance map-type direction signs at entries can
be beneficial where heavy traffic flows occur in a particular direction.
Lane dedication by arrows and markings on the circulatory roadway is not normally
recommended. However, where a roundabout is particularly extensive, partially signalized,
and it is tending to a circulatory system, then some degree of channelization by road markings
may prove beneficial in the operation of the roundabout.
Road markings are detailed in the Qatar Traffic Control Manual.

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3.6 Landscaping Recommendations

Roundabouts can form significant features on a road, both within the wider landscape and
in an urban context, and can represent an opportunity to contribute to a sense of place. The
landscape design can be considered as a specific project to develop an overall and coordinated
landscape approach. Roundabouts can act as landmarks and wayfinding features through
distinctive design however, special care is needed in the central island so that this area
does not become used for recreational purposes. Features such as benches, picnic areas, and
fountains should therefore be avoided.
The landscaping design within the roundabout and adjoining approaches should be carried
out by specialists in landscaping design and maintenance. Landscaping design should be
carried out in coordination with the highway designer to avoid obstructing visibility sight
lines.
Other than amenity benefits, the landscaping treatment of roundabouts and its approaches
can have several advantages. Generally, the landscaping on the approaches should accomplish
the following:
• Make the median and roundabout more obvious to approaching traffic.

• Minimize introducing hazards to the intersection, such as trees, poles, walls, guardrail,
monuments, or large rocks.
• Avoid obscuring the form of the roundabout or the signing to the driver.
• Maintain adequate visibility.
• Indicate to the driver that they cannot pass straight through the intersection.
• Discourage pedestrian traffic through the central island.
• Help visually impaired pedestrians locate sidewalks and pedestrian crossings.
Planting on the median or splitter island on the immediate approach to the roundabout, up
to 15 m from the yield line, should be avoided to achieve unobstructed visibility to the left.
On large roundabouts, landscaping and planting should be designed and located to prevent
excess visibility to the right.
Maintenance of landscaping and the safety of maintenance personnel should be carefully

considered. Plants, grass, and trees should be selected with consideration given to the likely
maintenance regime.
In rural areas, where sources of irrigation water may not be available, alternative methods of
landscaping should be considered, but without introducing hazards that would compromise
safety of road users. Further guidance on Landscaping is provided in Volume 3, Part 22,
Landscape and Planting Design, of this Manual.
3.7 Lighting Recommendations

Due to the constrained curvature of roundabouts, the effectiveness of vehicle headlights is
limited. Illumination of roundabouts is therefore an important feature for nighttime visibility

7
of hazards and obstructions (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America [IES], 2008).
Street lighting provides visibility from a distance for users approaching the roundabout
as well as visibility of the key conflict areas improving users’ perception of the layout and
visibility of other users within the roundabout (IES, 2008).
An approaching driver must be able to see the general layout and operation of a roundabout
in time to make the appropriate maneuvers. Adequate lighting should therefore be provided
at all roundabouts (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
[AASHTO], 2011).
It is also important that approaching drivers are not misled by the projection of the lighting
layout beyond the roundabout, particularly when visibility is restricted. The layout of the
luminaires at roundabouts should therefore contrast with that provided on the approaches.
This can be achieved by locating the luminaires around the outer perimeter of the roundabout.
When a roundabout is being modified, the lighting layout should be checked for suitability
with the new road arrangement. Further guidance on the provision of Street Lighting at
roundabouts is given in Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual.
3.8 Pedestrians and Cyclists

3.8.1 Principles for Pedestrian Crossings
Pedestrian crossing locations at roundabouts are a balance between pedestrian convenience,
pedestrian safety, and roundabout operations.
• Pedestrian desire lines: Pedestrians want crossing locations as close to the intersection
as possible to minimize out-of-direction travel. The farther the crossing from the
roundabout, the more likely pedestrians are to choose a shorter route that may put
them in danger.
• Pedestrian safety: Both crossing location and crossing distance are important. Crossing
distance should be minimized to reduce exposure of pedestrian-vehicle conflicts.
Pedestrian safety may also be compromised at a crossing very close to the yield line,
because driver attention is directed to the left to look for gaps in the circulating traffic
stream. Where possible, crossings should be located to take advantage of the splitter
island; crossings should be located at distance from the yield line, as measured in
increments of approximate vehicle lengths to reduce the chance that vehicles will be
queued across the crossing.
• Roundabout operations: Roundabout operations, primarily vehicular, can be affected

by controlled crossing locations, particularly on the exit. A queuing analysis at the exit
crossing should therefore be carried out.
Off-street cycle paths should generally be provided at roundabouts, except on single-lane

roundabouts on low-speed local roads. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in

7
Where off-street cycle paths are provided, at-grade crossings should be configured to be
shared between pedestrians and cyclists. Figure 3.29 shows a typical arrangement.
Figure ‎3.29 Shared At-grade Pedestrian and Cyclist Crossing Adjacent to Roundabout
In rural areas, uncontrolled pedestrian crossings may be appropriate where nonmotorized user
demand is low. At large roundabouts on high-speed roads, grade-separation for nonmotorized
users is the preferred solution. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause
10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
For more detailed and further guidance on the providing for pedestrians, cyclists and other
nonmotorized users, refer to Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.

7
References
Department for Transport. “Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at Roundabouts.”
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 3, Part 5. TD51/03. UK Highways Agency:
London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section3/td5103.pdf. November 2003.
Department for Transport. “Geometric Design of Roundabouts.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 6, Section 2, Part 3. TD 16/07. UK Highways Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/
standards/dmrb/vol6/section2/td1607.pdf. August 2007.
Department for Transport. Reducing Sign Clutter. Traffic Advisory Leaflet (TAL) 01/13. UK Highways
Agency: London, England. http://www.britishparking.co.uk/write/Documents/Library/info%20notes/DfT_
advice_leaflet_-_Reducing_sign_clutter_-_Jan_2013.pdf. January 2013.
Hall, R. D., and R. A. J. Surl. “Accidents at Four Arm Roundabouts and Dual Carriageway Intersections –
Some Preliminary Findings.” Traffic Engineering and Control. Vol. 22, Issue 6: pp. 339-344. 1981.
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IES). Design Guide for Roundabout Lighting. IES DG-
19-08. New York, New York, United States. 2008.
Kennedy, Janet V., R. D. Hall, and S. R. Barnard. Accidents at Urban Mini-Roundabouts. TRL Report 281.
Transportation Research Laboratory (TRL): Wokingham, Berkshire, England. 1998.
Kimber, R. M. The Traffic Capacity of Roundabouts. TRRL Laboratory Report No. LR942. Transport and
Road Research Laboratory: Berkshire, England. 1980.
Maycock, G., and R. D. Hall. Accidents at 4-Arm Roundabouts. TRL Report LR1120. Transportation Research
Laboratory (TRL): Wokingham, Berkshire, England. 1984.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Guidelines and Procedures for Transport Studies.
State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. May 2011.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Roundabouts: An Informational Guide.

2nd Edition. Report 672. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States. 2010.

7

Volume 1
Part 8
Design for Signalized
Intersections
DESIGN FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS PART
8
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART DESIGN FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
8

8
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1. General Design Controls............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1.1. Design Principles......................................................................................................................1
1.1.2. General Design Considerations...........................................................................................1
1.2. Signalized Intersection Design Process.............................................................................................. 2
1.2.1. Intersection Sizing and Cycle Length...............................................................................3
1.2.2.Pedestrians.................................................................................................................................3
1.2.3. Initial Design Efforts...............................................................................................................3
1.2.4. Arrangement and Operations..............................................................................................3
1.2.5. Level of Service.........................................................................................................................5
2 Intersection Types..........................................................................................................7
2.1. Intersection Design Plans......................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1. Signalized Crossroads.............................................................................................................8
2.1.2. Signalized T-Intersections....................................................................................................9
2.1.3. Signalized Staggered Intersections..................................................................................9
2.1.4. Development of Right Turn and Left Turn Deceleration Lanes at
Intersections...........................................................................................................................10
3 Geometric Design......................................................................................................... 16
3.1. General Controls......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.1.Considerations........................................................................................................................16
3.1.2. Design Speed..........................................................................................................................16
3.2. Intersection Visibility.............................................................................................................................. 16
3.2.1. Visibility on Intersection Approach................................................................................16
3.2.2. Intersection Intervisibility Zone......................................................................................17
3.3. Geometric Parameters............................................................................................................................. 20
3.3.1. Corner Radii.............................................................................................................................20
3.3.2. Approach Grades....................................................................................................................20
3.3.3. Cross Slopes.............................................................................................................................20
3.3.4. Roadway Widths....................................................................................................................21
3.3.5. Roadway Widths around Corners....................................................................................21
3.3.7. Simultaneous Left Turns....................................................................................................24
3.3.8. U-Turns at Intersections.....................................................................................................25
3.3.9. Median U-Turns......................................................................................................................26
3.4. Lane Configurations................................................................................................................................. 29
3.4.1. Signalized Approach Lanes................................................................................................29
3.4.2. Storage Lanes.........................................................................................................................29
3.4.3. Lane Continuity......................................................................................................................31

8
3.5. Staggered Intersections......................................................................................................................... 31

3.5.1. Stagger Distances.................................................................................................................31
3.5.2. Storage Length for Staggered Intersections..............................................................32
3.5.3. Left and Right Staggers......................................................................................................33
3.5.4. Right and Left Staggers......................................................................................................33
3.6. Turning Lanes and Islands..................................................................................................................... 33
3.6.1. Right-Turn Lanes with Separation Island (Exclusive Right-Turn Lanes).........33
3.6.2. Acceleration Merging Lanes at Right-Turn Lanes.....................................................34
3.6.3. Signal Control on Right-Turn Lanes................................................................................36
3.6.4. Left-Turn Lanes......................................................................................................................36
3.6.5. Channelizing Islands and Pedestrians..........................................................................38
3.7.Signals........................................................................................................................................................... 43
3.7.1. Visibility and Positioning...................................................................................................43
3.7.2. Signal Head Arrangement..................................................................................................43
4 Signalized Roundabouts.............................................................................................. 46
4.1.General.......................................................................................................................................................... 46
4.1.1. Application of Design...........................................................................................................46
4.1.2. Pedestrian Crossing Facilities..........................................................................................47
4.1.3. Geometric Design Standards.............................................................................................47
4.1.4.Size..............................................................................................................................................48
4.2. Signal Control.............................................................................................................................................. 48
4.2.1. Extent of Signal Control......................................................................................................48
4.2.2. Methods of Signal Control..................................................................................................49
4.2.3. Duration of Signal Control..................................................................................................50
4.3. Geometric Modifications......................................................................................................................... 51
4.3.1.General.......................................................................................................................................51
4.3.2. External Approach Lane on the Outside......................................................................51
4.3.3. External Approach Lane on the Inside..........................................................................52
4.3.4. Internal Approach Lanes.....................................................................................................53
5 Other Design Elements................................................................................................ 56

5.1. Pedestrians and Cyclists......................................................................................................................... 56
5.1.1. General Considerations.......................................................................................................56
5.1.2. Specific Measures for Pedestrians.................................................................................56
5.1.3. Pedestrian Refuges and Separation Islands...............................................................57
5.1.4. Use of Tactile Paving...........................................................................................................58
5.1.5. Crossing Places.......................................................................................................................58
5.1.6. Specific Measures for Cyclists..........................................................................................59
5.2. Transit Facilities at Intersections....................................................................................................... 60
References............................................................................................................................... 61
Bibliography............................................................................................................................ 62

8
Tables
Table 1.1. LOS Criteria for Signalized Intersections..................................................................................................5

Table 2.1. Deceleration Length at Segregated Right- and Left-Turn Approach Lanes.............................13
Table 2.2. Taper Rates........................................................................................................................................................13
Table 3.1. Stopping Sight Distance for Typical Design Speeds.........................................................................17
Table 3.2. Minimum Median Widths Needed for U-Turns.....................................................................................26
Table 3.3. Provision of Merging Acceleration Lanes..............................................................................................34
Table 3.4. Edge of Traveled Way Designs for 90-degree Compound Turns at
Intersections—Three-Centered Curves...................................................................................................41
Table 3.5. Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways.......................................................................43
Figures
Figure 1.1. Example of a Typical Signalized Intersection.........................................................................................4

Figure 2.1. Signalized Crossroads.......................................................................................................................................8
Figure 2.2. Example of a Small Signalized T-Intersection........................................................................................9
Figure 2.3. Signalized Staggered Intersections.........................................................................................................10
Figure 2.4. Deceleration Lanes at Intersection Approaches.................................................................................11
Figure 3.1. Visibility Requirements on Approach to Intersection.......................................................................17
Figure 3.2. Intersection Intervisibility Zone without Pedestrian Crossings...................................................18
Figure 3.3. Intersection Intervisibility Zone with Pedestrian Crossings..........................................................18
Figure 3.4. Major Obstruction to Intervisibility..........................................................................................................19
Figure 3.5. Mitigation of Major Obstruction to Intervisibility...............................................................................20
Figure 3.6. Examples of Swept Paths............................................................................................................................22
Figure 3.7. Islands Set Back from Edge of Intersecting Roadway......................................................................23
Figure 3.8. Stop Lines That Are Set Back to Accommodate Swept Path of Large
Vehicles...............................................................................................................................................................24
Figure 3.9. Localized Widening at T-Intersection to Accommodate Swept Path of Large Vehicles.....24
Figure 3.10. Simultaneous Left Turns..............................................................................................................................25
Figure 3.11. Example of a Median U-turn Intersection.............................................................................................27
Figure 3.12. Roadway Geometry of a Signalized Median U-Turn..........................................................................28
Figure 3.13. Right-Turn Approach Lane...........................................................................................................................29
Figure 3.14. Left-Turn Approach Lane..............................................................................................................................29
Figure 3.15. Displaced Pedestrian Crossing...................................................................................................................30
Figure 3.16. Lane Continuity through Intersection Intervisibility Zone.............................................................31

8
Figure 3.17. Stagger Distance and Storage Length....................................................................................................32

Figure 3.18. Right-Turn Lane without Acceleration Lanes......................................................................................35
Figure 3.19. Right-Turn Lanes with Acceleration Lanes...........................................................................................36
Figure 3.20 . Key Dimensions for Left-Turn Approach Lanes...................................................................................37
Figure 3.21. Details of Corner Islands...............................................................................................................................39
Figure 3.22. Three-centered Compound Curve.............................................................................................................40
Figure 3.23. Typical Rural Turning Roadway Layout with Three-centered Curve..........................................41
Figure 4.1. Intersection Control Area.............................................................................................................................48
Figure 4.2. Large, Signalized Roundabout with Partial, Direct Signal Control...............................................49
Figure 4.3. Signalized Roundabout with Indirect Signal Control.........................................................................50
Figure 4.4. Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Outside.................................................52
Figure 4.5. Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Inside....................................................53
Figure 4.6. Improvement to Internal Queuing Lanes...............................................................................................54
Figure 5.1. Pedestrian Refuge..........................................................................................................................................57
Figure 5.2. Pedestrian Refuge at Dedicated Left-Turn Lanes..............................................................................58
Figure 5.3. Shared Pedestrian and Cyclist At-Grade Crossings at Signalized Intersection.......................59

8
AASHTO American Association of State Transportation and Highway Officials (United States)
CLV critical lane volume
LDL distance traveled before stopping
LDT distance traveled during the lateral movement from the through lane on the tapered turn lane
LQ queue length, or storage length
m meters
m2 square meters
m/m meters per meter
m/s2 meters per second squared
UK United Kingdom
v/c volume to capacity

8

8
1 Introduction
1.1 General Design Controls

Traffic control signals are devices that control vehicular and non-motorized traffic (pedestrians
and cyclists) by indicating the correct route for legal movement through intersections. Traffic
signals are either pre-timed or traffic-actuated, in which case the arrival and presence of
vehicles changes the time interval for each movement through the intersection.
Traffic control signals can be used at several types of intersections. Intersections can be
designed for signal control or signal control can be added to an existing intersection. The
information in this Part shall apply to all new signalized intersections and to all existing
priority intersections or roundabouts modified to operate with signal controls.
Traffic control signal installations include poles, mast arms, and the signal heads that
display the order of priority. The design of traffic signal installations is addressed in the
Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM). This Part of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM)
describes the geometric design of intersections so that they can be signalized in accordance
with the guidance in the QTCM. Among the most important design principles for signalized
intersections is the visibility of the signal heads. Careful consideration should be given to
horizontal and vertical curvature with respect to signal visibility, nonmotorized users’ needs,
and intersection details to provide effective signal operation. Reference shall be made to
Section 4 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, with respect to
vertical alignment at signal-controlled intersections. This Part identifies those aspects of
signal control that have an effect on geometric layout and should be considered throughout
the design process.
This Part provides the standards, methodology, and best practices for the geometric design
of signalized intersections located on roads with a design speed of 80 kilometers per hour
(kph) or less. Traffic signals are not recommended on expressways with speed limits in
excess of 80 kph or on rural roads. The QTCM provides guidance on the method of installation,
signal control, and display sequences. Road and intersection designers should familiarize
themselves with the requirements and guidance provided in the QTCM. Close cooperation,
particularly in the early design stages, is crucial where various engineering staff members
are responsible for different design aspects (for example, geometry, signal control, and
street lighting).
1.1.2 General Design Considerations

Traffic signal control can enhance the efficiency of an intersection by reducing congestion
and separating different vehicle movements to reduce conflict. Therefore, the expected

8
need for traffic control signals should be understood during initial planning and concept
development for new intersections and for the improvement of existing intersections.
Signalized intersections occur on urban roads, including arterials, collectors, and local
roads, and should be considered in association with the route classification requirements in
Consideration of the installation of traffic control signals should be assessed by a needs-

based study, as outlined in the QTCM. This assessment should include the following factors:
• Feasibility and desirability of alternative intersection solutions: priority, roundabout,

and grade-separated
• Road classification and expected traffic speeds
• Crash records for an existing intersection
• Whether the intersection is within an urban traffic control area and, if so, its proximity
to other intersections or roundabouts
Traffic signal controls can be implemented in association with other strategies such as:
• Providing a safer, convenient environment for pedestrians and cyclists

• Giving priority to buses and coaches
• Providing area traffic control
• Accommodating at-grade light rail transit systems
The geometric design of intersections should be coordinated with the development of traffic
control plans early in the project development phases. A concept design layout that illustrates
the provision, number, and type of lanes should be developed, discussed and agreed upon
with the Overseeing Organization prior to developing detailed design plans.
1.2 Signalized Intersection Design Process

Signalized intersection design requires an understanding of the following basic traffic
operational principles for signalized intersections:
• The capacity of a lane is based on the discharge of a queue from a stopped position.
This is a different capacity concept than an uninterrupted flow on roadway segments.
• The number and type of conflicting movements that require their own allocation of
signal priority time dictate the total capacity of the intersection.
• In most cases, the accommodation of left-turning traffic is the determining factor for
intersection capacity and design.
• Design geometry, including turning lane lengths, is based on queuing under peak traffic
conditions during signal phases when each approach is stopped.

8
• The number of signal phases necessary for all legal movements directly affects the total
signal cycle length, and signal cycle length directly affects length of the queues.
1.2.1 Intersection Sizing and Cycle Length

Designers should refer to QTCM, Volume 1, Part 5, Traffic Signals, for details on:
• Traffic data
• Sizing of intersection and number of lanes required
• Signal timings and phasing
1.2.2 Pedestrians
Providing sufficient crossing time for pedestrians, including cyclists walking their cycles,
people using wheelchairs, and people pushing strollers should be considered depending on
the location and approach. In urban arterials and boulevards, medians should be provided
so that crossing can occur during separate phases. Designers should check that their signal
timing assumptions provide sufficient time for pedestrians to cross the intersection. The
QTCM provides details on walking speed assumptions and other input for designing signalized
pedestrian crossings.
1.2.3 Initial Design Efforts

The initial functional design layouts provide the lane arrangements and channelization of
the intersection. Design features that relate specifically to pedestrians, cyclists, and buses
are discussed in Section 5, Other Design Elements, in this Part.
The figures in this Part were developed based on the QTCM and illustrate generalized road
layouts. Guidance regarding traffic signal location, type, aspect, and symbol for particular
circumstances is provided in the QTCM. The application of other design features and turning
restrictions are described in this Part. The inclusion or exclusion of design features is not
intended to suggest applicability to particular intersection arrangements.
1.2.4 Arrangement and Operations

The size and complexity of an intersection depends on the combination of geometric
design features described in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual,
and the number of signal groups, phases, and separately signaled movements. For example,
the number of conflicting vehicular movements increase dramatically as the number of
intersection legs increase. An intersection with four two-way legs has 32 conflict points,
and an intersection with six two-way legs has 172 conflict points. Priority intersections,
such as simple T-intersections and crossroads, have fewer legs and fewer conflict points.
T-intersections can often be modified to accommodate the requirements of signal control
more readily than staggered intersections, skew intersections, or intersections with more
than four legs.
The acute angle of skew intersections when a minor road joins a major road creates particular
difficulties for vehicle turning movements and poor conditions for minor road driver visibility.

8
Where right-turning acceleration facilities are not provided, vehicles shall be required to yield
at the intersection. In such circumstances the angle of incidence between the mainline edge
of pavement and the line of the vehicle entering shall not be less than 70 degrees when
positioned at the yield or stop line. This will enable drivers entering the mainline roadway
to look both ways without relying on mirrors for mainline visibility. The angle of incidence in
this situation is to be controlled by channelizing islands.
Figure 1.1 depicts a typical signalized intersection. Similar principles can be adopted for
other layouts. Features of the signalized intersection layouts can be considered for most
situations.
Figure 1.1 Example of a Typical Signalized Intersection
When designing signalized intersections, the designer shall do the following:
• Provide sufficient advance warning in accordance with the requirements of the QTCM,
so drivers know which route to take at the intersection.
• Guide drivers into intended lanes by using pavement markings and traffic signs in
accordance with the QTCM.

8
• Provide drivers and nonmotorized users a clear view of traffic signals at intersections, in
accordance with the QTCM requirements.
• Give drivers a clear view of pedestrian crossing facilities on approach and on exits.
• Give drivers adequate visibility within the intersection intervisibility zone, see
Section3.2.1 of this Part. Intervisibility represents mutual visibility or sight between:
−− Drivers
−− Drivers and nonmotorized users
−− Road users and traffic control devices including signals and signs
• Develop channelization and turning paths for design vehicles that support the intended
phasing of movements.
The geometric features and layout shall be designed to accommodate the positioning of
signaling equipment, including mast arms where appropriate, pedestrian facilities and
equipment, traffic signs, illuminated bollards, guardrails, and stop lines. During the early
stages of the design process, the designer shall consider the space requirements for
locating signaling equipment and street furniture within sidewalks and islands so that the
islands have sufficient width to provide uncluttered pedestrian crossings. For the minimum
clearance criteria for signs and street furniture, refer to the QTCM.
When developing the geometric design, the designer should also consider development of
traffic control plans and maintenance requirements for the intersection, including traffic
signals, and how the intersection would be used when under police control.

According to the Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board [TRB], 2010), the
level of service (LOS) for a signalized intersection is defined based on the average stopped
delay per vehicle within the period being assessed (usually 1 hour), as shown in Table 1.1.
In addition to the LOS, the design operation shall result in a volume to capacity (v/c) ratio
of less than 1.0 for all movements. The proposed intersection plan, with lane configurations
and phasing plan, shall operate with the selected design LOS and v/c ratio for design hour
traffic. The intersection plan shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization.
Table 1.1 LOS Criteria for Signalized Intersections
Stopped Delay per Vehicle

Level of Service (seconds)
A ≤10
B >10 to 20
C >20 to 35
D >35 to 55
E >55 to 80
F >80
Source: TRB, 2010.

8

8
2 Intersection Types
2.1 Intersection Design Plans

Intersection design plans defined in this Part incorporate specific features applicable to traffic
signal control. These features shall be fully considered when designing new intersections that
require signal control. Subject to some geometric modifications, signal control can be added
to existing intersection layouts designed in accordance with Volume 1, Part 5, Roadway
Design Criteria and Process, of this Manual. Modifications to unsignalized intersections shall
be based on meeting the specific needs of signal head locations, and providing queuing and
storage lengths for turn lanes consistent with their expected operation under signal control.
Lane arrangement is key to the successful operation of signalized intersections. The crossing
distances for vehicles and nonmotorized users should be as short as practical to reduce
exposure to conflicting movements and to reduce clearance intervals, circular yellow and all-
circular-red signal indications, as necessary, and therefore, time lost during the signal cycle.
The number of through lanes at the stop line shall be maintained across the intersection.
Lane widths on the approach to the intersection shall be in accordance with Section 3.3,
Geometric Parameters, in this Part.
The size of traffic islands and pedestrian refuges is also important. Adequate clearance
between the curb and street furniture is necessary to prevent damage by vehicles that have
a lateral overhang. Islands and refuges shall be of a sufficient width to provide uncluttered
pedestrian crossings. References shall be made to the QTCM for minimum clearances.
Acceleration lanes may be needed for a safe merge of the turning vehicles with the through
traffic. The length of the acceleration lane should be sufficient to allow the merge. Refer
to Tables 5.6 and 5.7 in Section 5.1.3 of Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or
Motorway Corridors, of this Manual, for a detailed discussion of merging lanes and for
acceleration length.
Generally, a dimension of 300 meters (m), measured from the stop line to the beginning of a
merging taper, is needed for intersections subject to an 80 kph speed limit. The acceleration
lane can be merged into the through lanes at tapers of 1:20 to 1:40, depending on speed
(See Table 2.2 in this Part).
The need to provide right-turn lanes at the corners of an intersection should be assessed
based on traffic demands, which may allow right-turning traffic to yield or stop rather than
wait for the appropriate signal indication. The needs of pedestrians should also be considered.
If U-turns are to be permitted at the intersection, lane widths and turning movements of
different vehicles should be considered, and the position of pedestrian refuges checked for

8
possible conflicts. Section 3.3.8, U-Turns at Intersections, in this Part provides the geometric
criteria for U-turns.
On multi-lane highway intersection approaches, dedicated left-turn and U-turn lanes should
be physically separated from through lanes by islands for the forecasted queuing length.
Similarly, on two-lane highway intersection approaches, entering and departing traffic in
opposing lanes should be separated by a median or physical island.
Section 3.2, Intersection Visibility, in this Part, provides the minimum visibility requirements
for primary signals. Refer to the QTCM for information about the equipment required at all
new traffic signals and the operation of the equipment.
2.1.1 Signalized Crossroads

A crossroad is an at-grade intersection of two roads that cross at roughly right angles.
Figure 2.1 shows a small, simple crossroad intersection. Significantly larger crossroads
can be required, particularly in densely populated cities and at the intersection of divided
roadways. These roadways are likely to incorporate additional features, such as channelizing
islands and designated turning lanes, which are discussed in this Part.
As described in Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this Manual, four-
approach intersections are generally not designated as priority intersections. Four-approach
crossroad intersections are appropriate where signal control will be provided to manage
crossing conflicts.
Figure 2.1 Signalized Crossroads

8
2.1.2 Signalized T-Intersections

Figure 2.2 shows a simple, small signalized T-intersection, typical of a situation where road
space may be restricted and heavy trucks in significant proportions are not expected. Refer
to Chapter 3, Geometric Design, of this Part for details of geometric design features including
intersection intervisibility and storage length. Refer to Chapter 5, Other Design Elements, in
this Part for details of pedestrian crossing provision. In Figure 2.2, it is assumed that the low
number of pedestrian movements and the requirement to provide a left turn from approach C
to B have led to a decision not to provide a pedestrian crossing on Approach C. The following
specific design features are incorporated into the example:
• Circular corner radii without tapers, with no provision for swept paths of heavy trucks
• Displaced pedestrian crossing on approach B linked to the intersection signals
• In-line pedestrian crossing on approach A
Figure 2.2 Example of a Small Signalized T-Intersection
Left turns on multi-lane roads may be provided at signalized T-intersections.
2.1.3 Signalized Staggered Intersections

Signalized staggered intersections may be a left/right or right/left configuration, as shown on
Figure 2.3. Both configurations have unique signal control issues. Closely spaced, staggered,
and signalized intersections should have coordinated signals to control queue lengths within
the stagger area. No two intersections are alike; therefore, only general guidance is provided
in this Section.

8
The combination of turning movements from each traffic lane and the geometric constraints
imposed by the intersection can cause blocking within the stagger area where there is
insufficient storage length. This length can result in traffic congestion and conflicts if not
dealt with properly. In such cases, queuing and storage lengths may be provided on the
outside approaches to both intersections. Refer to Section 3.5.2, Storage Length, in this Part
for more information.
Figure 2.3 Signalized Staggered Intersections
2.1.4 Development of Right Turn and Left Turn Deceleration Lanes at Intersections
On high-volume and high-speed roads, dedicated right turn or left turn lanes are needed
upstream of intersections to enhance safety and for operational purposes. Low and high
vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this
Manual.
Providing deceleration lanes for right or left-turn movements at intersections allows drivers
to slow down and veer off the mainline with minimal impact to the through traffic, and stop
at the signal if required. As shown on Figure 2.4, the length of the turn lane consists of the
following components:
• Distance traveled during the lateral movement from the through lane on the tapered
turn lane (LDT)
• Distance traveled in the turn lane to come to a stop (LDL).
• Queue length, or storage length (LQ)

8
Deceleration Lanes at Intersection Approaches

Figure 2.4

8
For discussion on storage lengths, refer to Section 3.4.2, Storage Lanes, in this Part. Table
2.1 and Table 2.2 provide values for deceleration lengths and taper rates for various design
speeds. The deceleration length values are calculated based on the following assumptions
(American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2011):
The speed differential between the through traffic and the turning traffic when the turning
vehicle clears the through traffic lane is 15 kph.
Deceleration rate for the vehicle moving laterally from the through lane into the turn lane is
1.8 meters per second squared (m/s2) and average deceleration rate traveling in the turn lane
to come to stop is 2.0 m/s2.
The values in the Table 2.1 are calculated using the following equations:
−
=
=
[ ]
.
−
= + = +
[ . ]
where:
LD = deceleration length, m
LDT = distance traveled during the lateral movement from the through lane on to the turn
lane, m
LDL = distance traveled to before stopping, m
V = design speed, m/s
U = speed of the left turn vehicle after completing the lateral movement, m/s; 4.2 m/s
a1 = deceleration rate, m/s2; 1.8 m/s2
a2 = deceleration rate, m/s2; 2.0 m/s2

8
The values provided in the table could be used for tangent grades less than or equal to
3 percent. If the downgrades or upgrades exceed 3 percent, the designer may need to adjust
the values in Table 2.1 using the following equation:
−
= + = +
[ . ± ]
where:
G = grade, meters per meter (m/m) and ± is the upgrade or downgrade
Table 2.1 Deceleration Length at Segregated Right- and Left-Turn Approach Lanes
Design Speed (kph) Deceleration Lengtha (m)
50 50
60 75
70 105
80 135
100 210
a = rounded up to nearest 5 m
Table 2.2 provides taper rates to calculate the required length to develop the required
width prior to introducing left turn lanes at intersections, as shown in Figure 2.4. The same
taper rates also can be applied to calculate the required length to drop lanes beyond the
intersections as shown in Figure 3.13. The lane-add taper rates are used to introduce lanes
on the left or on the right as shown in Figure 2.4.
Table 2.2 Taper Rates
Design Speed (kph) Taper Rate* Lane Add Taper Rate
20 1:10 1:5
30 1:15 1:5
40 1:20 1:5
50 1:25 1:5
60 1:30 1:5
70 1:35 1:5
80 1:40 1:10
90 1:45 1:10
100 1:50 1:10

8
Design Speed (kph) Taper Rate* Lane Add Taper Rate
110 1:55 1:10
120 1:60 1:10
130 1:65 1:10
140 1:70 1:10
* - Taper rates provided also are applicable to calculate the required length to drop lanes at the
intersections.

8

8
3 Geometric Design
3.1 General Controls

3.1.1 Considerations
This Section summarizes the geometric features to be considered in the design of signalized
intersections. Many features are considered separately, and designers should adopt a
systematic approach to incorporate the appropriate features.
3.1.2 Design Speed

Several design criteria are dependent on the approach speed of vehicles. Refer to Volume 1,
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, to determine appropriate design speeds
for each intersection approach. Where the design criteria cannot be achieved, speed control
measures should be implemented to reduce the approach speed to an appropriate level for
the available stopping sight distance.
Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual,
provide guidance for determining posted speeds and design speeds, respectively.
Drivers traveling at even moderately high speeds on roads where signal controls are installed
can face difficult decisions when the circular green signal indication changes to circular
yellow signal indication. Drivers choose between attempting to stop and continuing through
the intersection. Because of the increased braking distances needed at higher speeds,
drivers need adequate warning that they are approaching a signalized intersection.
3.2 Intersection Visibility

3.2.1 Visibility on Intersection Approach
The minimum visibility on the immediate approach to a signalized intersection shall be the
stopping sight distance (SSD) for the approach design speed as described in Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. Any reduction in the SSD on the immediate
approaches to the intersection shall be considered a Departure from Standards as per
The minimum sight distance to the primary signal is governed by the SSD. Table 3.1 lists
typical design speeds and SSD values for the design of new signalized intersections.
Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, provides SSD values for other
design speeds, such as when modifying existing intersections on roads.

8
Each traffic lane shall have intervisibility equivalent to the SSD for at least one primary
signal associated with its particular movement. The visibility envelope shall be increased to
include the height of the signal head, as shown on Figure 3.1.
Table 3.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Typical Design Speeds
Design Speed (kph) Stopping Sight Distance (m)
80 130
70a 105
60a 85
50 65
Note:
a
Sight distances apply to interchange ramps only.
Figure 3.1 Visibility Requirements on Approach to Intersection
Once the control strategy for the intersection has been established and queue lengths
determined, additional checks should be made to so that the appropriate SSD is provided
to the back of the queue. Where the SSD cannot be achieved, measures should be taken
to reduce queue lengths and to provide signs warning drivers of potential stopped traffic
ahead.
The visibility requirements for non-signalized elements of the intersection shall be in

accordance with Volume1, Part5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this Manual.
Visibility requirements for pedestrians using crossings are discussed in Section 5, Other
Design Elements, in this Part.
3.2.2 Intersection Intervisibility Zone

The intersection intervisibility zone is the area used for assessing visibility within the
intersection between drivers at each stop line, or between drivers and pedestrians. Such
an assessment helps identify measures to mitigate the effects of obstructions in the
intersection. The intervisibility zone extends from 2.5 m behind the stop line across the full
roadway width for each approach, as shown on Figure 3.2.

8
To help drivers entering the intersection see the full extent of the pedestrian crossing and
its approach, the intersection intervisibility zone should be extended to include the full
width of the tactile paving laid parallel to the edge of the roadway, as shown on Figure 3.3
(Approaches A and B). For a description of tactile paving, refer to Volume 3, Part 19,
Figure 3.2 Intersection Intervisibility Zone without Pedestrian Crossings
Figure 3.3 Intersection Intervisibility Zone with Pedestrian Crossings

8
The intersection intervisibility zone does not have to be extended to include a midblock
pedestrian crossing, which is not at an intersection.
At a staggered intersection, the design will result in two independent intersection

intervisibility zones. As the stagger length reduces, the intersection intervisibility zones will
overlap, forming a single intersection intervisibility zone.
Where a staggered pedestrian crossing is provided, the portion of the crossing immediately
adjacent to the intersection should be included in the intersection intervisibility zone.
At new signalized intersections, major obstructions to intervisibility within the intersection

intervisibility zone, such as those caused by buildings, should be avoided. Under these
conditions, each obstruction shall be considered as a Departure from Standards, as per
Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual, and measures
shall be taken to mitigate their effects on intervisibility.
Figure 3.4 shows the reduction in intervisibility for a vehicle at the stop line on the right-
turn approach lane (approach C) and the departure lane and pedestrian crossing (approach D)
caused by a major obstruction. Figure 3.5 shows how the intervisibility between approaches C
and D can be mitigated by moving the stop line forward and providing an inline pedestrian
crossing on approach C. When adjusting the position of the stop line and the pedestrian
crossing, the effect of the position of the pedestrian refuge area on vehicle-swept paths
shall be checked, and its effect on pedestrians, particularly the visually impaired, shall be
considered.
Figure 3.4 Major Obstruction to Intervisibility

8
Figure 3.5 Mitigation of Major Obstruction to Intervisibility
Minor obstructions to visibility caused by slim objects within the intersection intervisibility
zone, such as lighting columns, sign supports, signal posts, controller cabinets, and
guardrails, can be unavoidable in the optimum design. When placing signs, street furniture,
and landscaping at the intersection, the designer should consider minimizing the obstructive
effect. Minor obstructions are not considered a Departure from Standards.
3.3 Geometric Parameters

3.3.1 Corner Radii
Corner radii and associated provision for heavy trucks shall be in accordance with Volume 1,
Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this Manual.
3.3.2 Approach Grades

For details on the design of approach grades; refer to Clause 4.5 of Volume 1, Part 6, Design
for Priority Intersections, of this Manual.
3.3.3 Cross Slopes

Designers need to ensure that adequate drainage is provided in the intersection whilst
avoiding potential areas of ponding.
Checks shall be made for flat areas at all changes in gradient, superelevation, or crossfall.
Surface runoff shall not be allowed to collect in streams and flow across the major through
road. Surface water runoff should not present a hazard to maneuvering and braking vehicles.
In addition, the rural situation requires the engineer to carefully consider the maintenance
requirements of any drainage system they adopt; refer to Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of
this Manual.
In addition, the intersection platform should have a maximum cross slope not exceeding 2
percent, as needed for comfort of crossing vehicles and accessibility of pedestrians.

8
3.3.4 Roadway Widths

When new intersections are designed as signalized intersections, approach lane widths shall
be equal to the through lane widths. Any reduction in width at new signalized intersections
shall be considered a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
If a signalized intersection or an uncontrolled intersection is being improved or modified and

available road space is restricted, the permitted lane widths for straight ahead approach
lanes may be reduced to 3.3 m if the design speed does not exceed 50 kph and the reduced
width enables a necessary extra lane to be provided on multi-lane entries. Any reduction
below these widths at an existing intersection shall be considered a Departure from
Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.
Pavement markings should be provided to channelize traffic. Diagonal crosshatch markings

should be used on areas of roadways that would otherwise result in excessively wide lanes
or that could cause driver confusion.
3.3.5 Roadway Widths around Corners

Where provision is to be made for heavy trucks, buses, and coaches, roadways or lanes may
require widening around curves, in accordance with Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority

Turning paths of design vehicles form the basis of the turning widths required at signal-
controlled intersections. All signal-controlled intersection layouts must be checked to ensure
that they can accommodate the turning path envelope (swept path) for the design vehicle
plus necessary clearances. The swept path is the dynamic envelope traversed by the outer
extremities of the vehicle. Designers shall use design software that replicates the swept-
paths of the design vehicles.
Elements, of this Manual. Specific guidance on swept paths at roundabouts is provided in
this Part.
Computer based swept path analysis can help the designer minimize the required widening
within the intersection and identify surplus pavement areas that can be removed, as shown
on Figure 3.6.
Signalized intersections with associated splitter islands and pedestrian refuges can restrict
the movement of vehicles, particularly large trucks. Where provision is to be made for large
trucks, an allowance should be made for the swept paths of the design vehicle. The swept
paths should be checked for all permitted turning movements. Figure 3.6, Figure 3.8 and
Figure 3.73.9 show examples of swept paths that illustrate the general requirements for
design vehicles that are defined in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, and Volume 1, Part 6, Design
for Priority Intersections, of this Manual.

8
Figure 3.6 Examples of Swept Paths
Where an intersection approach has multiple channelized turning lanes for a single
maneuver, such as two adjacent left-turn lanes, the swept paths shall be checked so that
adequate space is provided for the design vehicle and a passenger car, or cars if there are
more than two lanes, to turn simultaneously from the adjacent lanes. Where the number of
large vehicles is high and simultaneous turns are anticipated, a larger swept path may need
to be considered.
The most efficient intersection phasing plan involves simultaneous operation of opposing
left turns. Placing stop lines on both approaches and designing the departure lanes to
include a median island nose should allow these movements to occur without overlapping.
The median noses and pedestrian refuges should be set back at least 1.5 m from a line
extended from the edge of the intersecting road as shown in Figure 3.7.

8
Figure 3.7 Islands Set Back from Edge of Intersecting Roadway
Adequate clearance between the edge of roadway and any street furniture, including signal
heads, signal backplates, subsidiary signal heads, mast arms, and safety barriers, is needed
to prevent damage by vehicles that have a lateral overhang. In addition, the clearance should
be of a sufficient width to provide uncluttered pedestrian crossings. A minimum clearance of
0.6 m should be provided, but designers should refer to the QTCM for guidance. Additional
clearance may be required where the cross-slope of the roadway is greater than 2.0 percent.
Special care should be taken to provide sufficient clearance on high-speed roads where
road restraint systems may be required or where supports for structures such as pedestrian
bridges or overhead sign gantries must be accommodated. Refer to Volume 3, Part 23,
Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads
are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
Without specific provisions for large trucks, drivers can have difficulty completing a turning
maneuver without encroaching upon opposing lanes. Where this is likely, it may be necessary
to set the stop line and pedestrian crossings if present, back from the intersection, as shown
on Figure 3.8. Stop lines on adjacent approach lanes should not be staggered because heavy
trucks in the inside approach lane can prevent drivers in the outside approach lane from
seeing the primary signal to the right or pedestrians. Where adjacent lanes are controlled
by different signal groups and have independent primary signals, staggered lanes may be
acceptable, but intervisibility shall be maintained.
In difficult confined situations and at small intersections, the channel and sidewalk opposite
the minor road may be set back to provide additional width for the swept path of large trucks
and other long vehicles, as shown on Figure 3.9.

8
Figure 3.8 Stop Lines That Are Set Back to Accommodate Swept Path of Large
Vehicles
Figure 3.9 Localized Widening at T-Intersection to Accommodate Swept Path of

Large Vehicles
3.3.7 Simultaneous Left Turns

Sufficient space should be provided for adequate separation between two design vehicles
carrying out simultaneous left-turn maneuvers. At least 2.0 m of clearance should be

8
provided between opposing turning vehicles (refer to Figure 3.10). The clearance should be
increased to 3.0 m where turning volumes and speeds are likely to be high; for example, at
single-point urban diamond interchanges. Pavement markings should be in accordance with
the QTCM, and the alignment of opposing lanes should allow vehicles to turn safely and
clearly identify the travel path.
Figure 3.10 Simultaneous Left Turns
Opposing left-turning approach lanes may be aligned and channelized to facilitate

simultaneous left turns. Median (separator) can be introduced to separate left turning traffic
from the through traffic based on operational and safety considerations.
Where signal phasing is initially intended to separate left-turn maneuvers at crossroad

intersections, these requirements shall still be applied to allow flexibility in future signal
phasing.
3.3.8 U-Turns at Intersections

At intersections where U-turns are allowed, the roadway including shoulders and median
should be sufficiently wide to allow the design vehicle to turn from the left-turn lane around
the median (including curb, if any) and into the roadway of the opposing traffic lanes.
AASHTO (2011) recommends median widths of 5 m to 16 m or wider for passenger vehicle
and single-unit truck traffic, respectively, to turn from the inner lane on one road to the
outer lane of a two-lane opposing roadway. U-turns are not recommended from the through
lanes. The minimum width of medians to accommodate U-turns by different design vehicles
turning from the lane adjacent to the median is given in Table 3.2.

8
Table 3.2 Minimum Median Widths Needed for U-Turns
M – Minimum Width of Median for Design Vehicle
City
P SU-9 WB-12 WB-15
Bus
Type of Maneuver
Length of Design Vehicle
5.79 m 9.0 m 12.19m 13.87m 16.77m
Inner lane to inner

9m 19 m 19 m 18 m 21 m
lane
Inner lane to outer

5m 15 m 15 m 15 m 18 m
lane
Inner lane to
2m 12 m 12 m 12 m 15 m
shoulder
Inner lane to jug

2m 10 m 10 m 10 m 12 m
handle
Source: AASHTO, 2011
3.3.9 Median U-Turns

The volume and pattern of traffic or other special considerations can suggest the need for
U-turning between signalized intersections or interchanges on multi-lane roads. The reasons
for such a solution can include any of the following:
• A downstream signalized intersection is considered too far away, increasing out-of-

direction travel for the left-turning traffic.
• U-turning demand translated to the next downstream, signalized intersection may

require so much additional time for the left-turn/U-turn phase such that the overall LOS
of the intersection is significantly degraded. This can occur, for example, in association
with a multi-lane minor road priority intersection.
• Particular critical land uses or activities are present requiring more direct access than
through downstream U-turns.
• Regularly spaced emergency openings are needed on controlled-access highways

and divided highways where openings facilitate U-turns during highway-related
maintenance, law enforcement activities, and emergency situations including medical
and fire emergencies and natural or manmade disasters.

8
Midblock median U-turn is generally utilized to improve safety and operation at signalized
intersections by eliminating left-turning movements. However, median U-turns can also be
provided to accommodate motorist on minor roads at priority intersections (T-intersections)
desiring to go through or turn left where neither the through nor the left-turn movements
are provided.
At signalized intersections, the left turning vehicles on the major street are directed through
the intersection to make a U-turn movement at a downstream directional crossover (usually
signalized), proceed back in the opposite direction, shift to the right lane, and make a right
turn onto the minor street at the intersection. Similarly, left-turning vehicles on the minor
street at a signalized intersection with the major street, are directed to turn right onto the
major street, shift to the left lane of the major street, make a U-turn movement at the same
directional crossover, and proceed in the opposite direction through the intersection. See
Figure 3.11.
Design and layout of Median U-turn intersections are generally influenced by right-of-way
availability and traffic volumes and can have different variation including the following:
• Placing the directional crossover control either on the major road or the minor road
• Placing the directional control on both major and minor roads
• Placing additional pavement opposite of crossovers on the outside edge of the travel
lane to accommodate vehicle swept path and reduce median width
Figure 3.11 Example of a Median U-turn Intersection
At T-intersection of a minor and a major road, where through and/or left turning movements
are not provided, motorists can use the median U-turn to go to their intended destination.
Figure 3.12 shows a U-turn solution suitable for passenger car operation on multi-lane
arterials with raised median widths of 6 m or more. Left-turning traffic from a minor road at
an upstream intersection, where a left turn is either prohibited or not provided, turns right,
shifts to the left through lane, then accesses the U-turn opening, completes the U-turn,

8
and continues on the major road toward the intended destination. Refer to Section 5.7 of
Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this Manual, for further design details.
Road markings shall be in accordance with the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure 3.12 Roadway Geometry of a Signalized Median U-Turn
The U-turn design may accommodate passenger vehicles only, with signing prohibiting
trucks; or it may be designed for larger vehicles. If the median U-turn is designed for larger
vehicles, additional pavement to accommodate the swept path of a larger design vehicle
(single-unit truck or city bus) shall be provided.
The presence of the U-turn arrangement as the way to make a left turn is signed on the minor
approach to the intersection to inform drivers. Decision sight distance should be provided on
the major road approach to the location of the U-turn opening, from which traffic will enter
the major road.
Implementation of the U-turn arrangement shall be limited to roads with 80 kph or lower
posted speed. The U-turn lane should be stop controlled. It should be located a sufficient
distance upstream of the next signalized intersection or roundabout so as not to interfere
with its operation. The U-turn opening shall be located so that any intersection preceding
and after the U-turn are not affected by queuing traffic that impedes the operation of the
intersection. An analysis of the median and 95th percentile stopped queues on the signalized
intersection approach should govern the location decision.
The unique aspects of an unsignalized median U-turn are such that it should be closely
monitored following its opening to traffic. Locating the opening as described above should
enable implementation of signal control should this be necessary.
The Overseeing Organization may choose to implement a median U-turn given site-specific
needs and conditions.

8
3.4 Lane Configurations

3.4.1 Signalized Approach Lanes
Approach lane widths shall be in accordance with Section 3.3.4, Roadway Widths, in this Part.
Intersection capacity can be increased by widening the road near the intersection to provide
dedicated right- or left-turn approach lanes. Vehicles in the dedicated turn lanes often move
independently from those in other lanes, and sufficient lane width and length should be
provided to allow this. Additional turn lanes shall be developed with tapers of 1:5, as shown
on Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14. Physical segregation of turning lanes by channelizing islands
is addressed in Section 3.6, Turning Lanes and Islands, in this Part.
Figure 3.13 Right-Turn Approach Lane
Figure 3.14 Left-Turn Approach Lane
Dedicated left-turn lanes or U-turn lanes shall be signalized. Dedicated right-turn lanes,
which are discussed in Section 3.6, Turning Lanes and Islands, in this Part, may be signalized
or controlled by yield road markings and signs.
3.4.2 Storage Lanes

The storage length is the length of the full-width approach lane to an intersection, measured
from the stop line, over which vehicles can queue without obstructing or being obstructed
by vehicles in the adjacent lane.

8
The storage length of right and left-turn approach lanes should be designed to meet the
capacity requirements of the intersection based on a traffic analysis of the intersection
operation. To prevent turning traffic from blocking the adjacent lane, the approach lane should
be of sufficient length to accommodate the longest queue of stopped traffic, regardless of
whether that traffic is turning or going straight through the intersection. Similarly, traffic
may be prevented from entering the right- or left-turn lane where there is a high proportion
of straight-ahead traffic queuing in the adjacent lane. The storage length may be extended
to enable traffic to enter the turning lane unobstructed (Department for Transport, 2004).
As a general guide in initial plan development, the following equation can be used:
length of 95th percentile queue in a lane (m) =

design hour volume for the turning movement (vph)/3
where:
m = meters
vph = vehicles per hour
Left-turn storage lanes should be separated for their full length by a channelizing island, as
described in Section 3.6, Turning Lanes and Islands, in this Part. Provision of storage lanes
or acceleration lanes for right-turning traffic is optional; their provision and length should be
justified based on traffic demands and operational conditions.
Where midblock or displaced pedestrian crossings are installed as shown in Figure 3.15,
designers should provide adequate storage length to avoid traffic queuing in the crossing.
Figure 3.15 Displaced Pedestrian Crossing

8
3.4.3 Lane Continuity

The number of straight-ahead intersection approach and departure lanes for a traffic stream
should be balanced to reduce conflicts caused by traffic merging or diverging within the
intersection intervisibility zone. In exceptional circumstances, where it is necessary to reduce
the number of lanes on the departure, the lane reduction should be beyond the intersection
intervisibility zone over a distance of at least 100 m for a single-lane reduction measured
from the limit of the intersection intervisibility zone, as shown on Figure 3.16.
The lane reduction should normally be done from the edge of the right lane, but may depend
on traffic conditions (Department for Transport, 2004). The greater the distance of the lane
reduction, the more drivers will use the lane before merging. The length required to drop a
lane depends on the design speed of the road. See Table 2.2 in Section 2.1.4 of this Part, for
taper rate.
At major intersections where a merging acceleration lane for right-turning traffic is

incorporated on the departure, lane reduction shall begin a minimum of stopping sight
distance from the end of acceleration lane taper. Refer to Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this Manual, for stopping sight distance requirements.
The use of lane markings within the intersection intervisibility zone, as shown on Figure 3.16
may be beneficial to direct traffic streams and reduce conflicts where intersection approach
and departure lane widths vary or the alignment through the intersection is not a direct path
(Department for Transport, 2004).
Figure 3.16 Lane Continuity through Intersection Intervisibility Zone
3.5 Staggered Intersections

3.5.1 Stagger Distances
The stagger distance at an intersection is the distance along the major road between the
centerlines of the two minor roads, as shown on Figure 3.17. Stagger distance has a major
influence on safety and capacity. If the stagger distance is large, the arrangement may

8
need to be treated as two independent, signalized intersections. If the stagger distance is

small, possibly with a banned turn, the intersection may be treated as a simple signalized
crossroad. The stagger distances will determine the signal groups, phases, and timing of the
traffic signals.
Figure 3.17 Stagger Distance and Storage Length
Where the stagger distance is greater than 250 m, the intersections shall be considered two
independent, signalized T-intersections.
With a stagger distance between 75 and 250 m, the intersections should generally be
treated as two separate, signalized T-intersections with local linking and coordination of the
traffic signals to favor the following major flows of traffic through the intersection (refer to
Figure 3.17):
• Straight ahead on the major road (approach A to C and approach C to A)
• Flow to and from the two staggered approaches (approach B to D and approach D to B)
• A combination of these two traffic flows
Where the stagger distance is less than 75 m, the intersections should generally be
considered a single signalized intersection.
3.5.2 Storage Length for Staggered Intersections

The storage length is the distance between the inner stop lines, as shown on Figure 3.17.
The available storage length depends on the stagger distance and whether pedestrian
crossing facilities are provided within the stagger distance.

8
When the stagger distance is less than 75 m, it becomes more difficult to provide for inner
stop lines, pedestrian crossing facilities, and associated signals. The shortest effective
storage length is 15 m. With a storage length less than 15 m, the intersection should be a
signalized crossroad with special consideration for the longer clearance distances.
Queuing and storage of turning vehicles can be designed on the outside approaches when
the stagger distance is small. An analysis using suitable traffic modeling software can verify
the satisfactory operation of the staggered intersections.
3.5.3 Left and Right Staggers

Depending on the volumes and distribution of traffic and the left and right stagger distance,
the inner stop lines are of varying importance. With a stagger distance of 75 m or greater,
inner stop lines should be included to eliminate the very long clearance distances and
extended intergreen periods that would otherwise be necessary.
Where a significant volume of pedestrian movement is anticipated, the staggered

intersections can require pedestrian crossings at each stop line. Where the pedestrian
movement volume is lower or it is not anticipated that pedestrians will desire to cross the
roadway and the stagger distance is not great, a reduced number of pedestrian crossing
facilities may be justified.
3.5.4 Right and Left Staggers

A right and left stagger will usually have difficult traffic conflicts that could have an adverse
effect on safety. Two-phase signaling is not permitted on right and left staggers; therefore,
three-phase signaling is used with separate signal groups for each staggered approach.
3.6 Turning Lanes and Islands

3.6.1 Right-Turn Lanes with Separation Island (Exclusive Right-Turn Lanes)
Right-turn lanes with a separation island should be considered where:
• Right-turn traffic movement is high
• Delays for right-turn vehicles would otherwise be significant
• Right-turn traffic capacity requirements would extend the green time (circular green
signal indication) required for the straight-ahead traffic movement signal group
A traffic analysis of intersection design options should be conducted to assess the need for
right-turn lanes and to determine a suitable layout, including the provision of approach lanes
and merging acceleration lanes.
Dual Right Turn lanes are not appropriate for all situations especially where there is
significant volumes of pedestrians and cyclists, they should be provided only if absolutely
necessary and their use should be supported by an operational analysis and designed to
the parameters provided in this Part, and other related Parts of the QHDM, Volume 1, of this
Manual.

8
Right-turn lanes incorporating islands should be at least 3.65 m wide, where the island is
up to 50 m in length and 5 m wide if the island is longer than 50 m. The lane width and
approach and departure radii should be checked based on the swept path analysis of the
design vehicle and the requirements in Volume 1, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections,
of this Manual.
For reconstruction projects where right-of-way constraints exist and space is limited, subject
to agreement with the Overseeing Organization, right-turn lane widths of 3.3 m for speeds
50 kph or less on urban roads and 3.4 m for 80 kph or less on urban roads may be used.
When right-turn lanes are used in conjunction with islands, the swept path of the design
vehicle should dictate the turning width through the turn. Use of marginally lesser widths
than 3.65 m has a minor effect on the capacity of the turn and no adverse effect on the
expected safety performance.
3.6.2 Acceleration Merging Lanes at Right-Turn Lanes

The provision of merging acceleration lanes in association with right-turn lanes at signalized
intersections depends on a number of criteria, as summarized in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Provision of Merging Acceleration Lanes
Road
Entered Number Signal
Design Road Entered of Turning Control on Pedestrian
Speed (kph) Roadway Type Lanes Departure Priority
Without acceleration
<80 Single or divided 1 or more Permitted High
lane
Not
With acceleration lane ≥80 Divided only 1 Low
permitted
When entering a road of design speed 50 kph or less, a simple yield plan should be provided,
not a merging acceleration lane. A signalized right-turn lane may be incorporated with a
pedestrian crossing where there is high pedestrian demand. Signal control is likely to be
required to facilitate operation of two right-turn lanes.
Figure 3.18 shows a right-turn design without acceleration lanes. The right-turn slip lane
should be designed to allow drivers to yield at an angle of 70 degrees before merging with
the intersecting road. Generally, this plan seeks to provide a balance between vehicles
and pedestrians and may be suitable for areas such as central business districts or tourist
districts where there may be a significant pedestrian demand.

8
Figure 3.18 Right-Turn Lane without Acceleration Lanes
Figure 3.18 shows a right-turn design with an acceleration lane that facilitates a high proportion
of right-turning traffic. The provision of and the length of a dedicated right-turn lane on the
intersection approach should be based on the traffic demands and operational conditions, as
described in Section 3.4, Lane Configurations, in this Part, as well as the availability of right-
of-way and the ability to develop the design in three dimensions. Acceleration length design
values are provided in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of
this Manual, where Table 5.6 refers to minimum acceleration lengths and Table 5.7 refers to
adjustment factors as a function of grade.
A merging acceleration lane should be provided only when intersecting a multi-lane road
with a design speed of 80 kph or more. This plan should not be signalized and should be
limited to the provision of only a single lane.
The geometric criteria for the turning roadway layout, including details of merge nose,
acceleration lane, and taper lengths, are provided in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and
Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this Manual. The right-turn with acceleration lanes layout
generally favor vehicles rather than pedestrians and other nonmotorized users. The larger
turning radii can accommodate higher vehicle speeds. Because of this, care should be taken
in areas where there may be pedestrian demands. In urban areas, a raised crossing may
be appropriate to reduce vehicle speeds on the approach to the pedestrian crossing. The
crossing, whether raised or not, should be designed in accordance with Volume 3, Part 19,

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Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011).
Figure 3.19 Right-Turn Lanes with Acceleration Lanes
3.6.3 Signal Control on Right-Turn Lanes

Segregated right-turn lanes without merging acceleration lanes may be either signalized or
a yield to suit the overall intersection operation.
A consistent approach should be adopted for the layout of the right-turn lane and their
associated pedestrian crossing facilities. Individual intersection designs should not mix
uncontrolled and controlled crossings where they combine to form a single pedestrian
crossing route.
Uncontrolled right-turn lanes may make pedestrians crossings more difficult because of
increased vehicle speeds; therefore, it is important to consider the whole effect of the
geometric layout on pedestrian crossing facilities. The effect of the taper, crossing lengths,
and pedestrian desire lines should be considered when identifying locations for pedestrian
crossings.
3.6.4 Left-Turn Lanes

Left-turn lanes shall be separated from through traffic by islands. The use of non-separated
left turn lanes requires approval from the Overseeing Organization. Left-turn lanes may also
accommodate U-turn traffic and, in certain circumstances, dedicated U-turn lanes may be
provided. Dedicated left-turn or U-turn lanes shall be signalized. Figure 3.20 shows the key
dimensions for left-turn approach lanes.

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Where U-turns are required due to roadway geometry, localized widening similar to that
shown on Figure 3.12 may accommodate the movement, particularly when turning into a
roadway with only two lanes. In addition to providing localized widening, signs prohibiting
certain large vehicles from making U-turns should be considered, in accordance with the
QTCM, Volume 1, Part 2, General Road Signs.
Figure 3.20 Key Dimensions for Left-Turn Approach Lanes
The left turn storage lanes shall be introduced with a deceleration length comprising
of a tapered section and parallel approach lanes. These lengths are derived from
Tables 2.1 and Table 2.2 in Clause 2.1.4 in this Part.
The storage length is based on the queuing expected at the approach during all-circular-
red signal indication phases. The storage length is a function of the nature of the arrivals
(that is, random versus platoon); signal cycle length and the length of the circular red signal
indication needed for the movement; and the demand volume for the movement. The left-
turn lane should be long enough that it does not cause queuing of traffic to block the left-
most through lane.
Ideally, storage length should be designed in accordance with the guidance in Section 3.4.2,
Storage Lanes, in this Part. However, as a general guide for initial plan development, the 95th
percentile queue length can be approximated by dividing the approach design-hour-volume
per lane of the turning movement by three. The median or 50th percentile queue is about
half the length of the 95th percentile queue. For example, the storage length for a design
hour demand per lane of 400 vph would be 130 to 135 m for the desirable 95th percentile
queue and 65 to 70 m for the 50th percentile queue. Where space is limited, this lesser
design criterion may be used. Note: These approximations are based on signal cycle lengths
of 90 to 120 seconds and random arrivals.
The length of segregation island between the left-turn and through traffic shall be equal
to the storage length calculated above. The segregation island shall have a chevron taper
marking on approach to island between left and through traffic to be in accordance with
Section 3 of the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings. The minimum island length upstream
from the signal stop line should be 10 m.

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The width of the segregation island shall be sufficient to ensure that the clearance between
the edge of any traffic signal or traffic sign is at least 0.6 m from the curb face. The island
shall have adequate curb offset from traffic lanes provided in accordance with Volume 1,
Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria, of this Manual.
For reconstruction projects where right-of-way constraints exist and space is limited, subject
to agreement with the Overseeing Organization, left-turn lane widths of 3.3 m for 50 kph or
less and 3.5 m for 80 kph or less may be used.
An initial design plan based on this guidance should be refined using a microsimulation
analysis of the intersection. The analysis should take into account adjacent traffic signals
because these will influence the pattern of arrivals to the approaches.
Where a single-lane left-turn or U-turn facility is separated from the through lanes, the
minimum pavement width between the island and median should be 5 m.
3.6.5 Channelizing Islands and Pedestrians

In roadway design, an island is an area between traffic lanes for controlling vehicle movements
and providing a refuge area for pedestrians. Islands are normally delineated in low-speed
environments by raised curbs or painted by using thermoplastic marking. Channelization
occurs where islands direct traffic into a definite path. Islands are often used at the corners
of urban intersections and occasionally at rural intersections to direct right-turning vehicles
and to provide a refuge for pedestrians. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in
In terms of size, islands are generally categorized small, intermediate, or large. A small-
curbed corner island will have a minimum area of 5 square meters (m2) in urban areas and 7
m2 in rural areas; the desirable minimum area of a small island is 9 m2 for both urban and rural
areas. A large-curbed corner island is one with side dimensions of at least 30 m. The size of
intermediate islands is between the size of small and large islands.
Curbed corner Islands should be located and designed to offer little obstruction to vehicles,
eliminate confusing traffic movements, and command the attention of motorists so that they
will not drive over them. See Figure 3.21 for details regarding curbed corner islands.

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Figure 3.21 Details of Corner Islands

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Three-centered Curves: Design for angles of turn more than 90 degrees usually results in
intersections with large paved areas, of which portions are often unused. This situation may
lead to confusion among drivers and may create longer crossing paths for pedestrians. These
conditions may be alleviated to a considerable extent by using three-centered asymmetric
compound curves. This is described by its three radii as shown in Figure 3.22. Figure 3.23
illustrates a typical rural turning roadway layout with a symmetric three-centered curve at
the intersection.
Figure 3.22 Three-centered Compound Curve
Turning movements should be checked with modeling software.
The roadway width for a turning roadway, as distinct from pavement width, includes the
shoulders or equivalent lateral clearance outside the edges of pavement. On roadways
without curbs or those with sloping curbs, the adjacent shoulder should be of the same type
and section as that on the approach highway. However, if verge space is limited, utilities are
unduly affected, or budget economics are a concern; then the shoulder width, adjacent to
the turning roadway, may be reduced to between 0.6 to 1.2 m, subject to the Overseeing
Organization’s approval. The widths shown are for usable shoulders. Where roadside barriers
are provided, the width indicated should be measured to the face of the barrier, and the
graded width should be about 0.6 m or greater (reference AASHTO 2018).
A typical application for 90-degree turns is set out in Table 3.4.

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Table 3.4 Edge of Traveled Way Designs for 90-degree Compound Turns at
Intersections—Three-Centered Curves
Three-centered Symmetric Three-centered Asymmetric

Compound Curve compound Curve
Curve Radii Offset Curve Radii Offset

Design Vehicle (m) (m) (m) (m)
P 30-6-30 0.8 — —
SU-9 36-12-36 0.6 — —
SU-12 61-9-61 2.1 18-14-61 0.3–1.4
WB-12 36-12-36 1.5 36-12-60 0.6–2.0
WB-19 120-21-120 3.0 48-21-110 2.0–3.0
WB-20 134-20-134 3.0 61-21-183 0.3–3.4
Source: Table 9-16 of AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th Ed., 2011
Note: For details of design vehicles refer to Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of the Manual.
Figure 3.23 Typical Rural Turning Roadway Layout with Three-centered Curve

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Islands and Pedestrians: Separation islands that serve as refuges for pedestrians should
be designed to accommodate pedestrian crossing facilities and associated equipment.
Separation islands can provide safe crossings for pedestrians and other nonmotorized users
and can improve traffic capacity by incorporating pedestrian call phases into the traffic
signal.
All channelizing, separation, and refuge islands shall be appropriately sized for an acceptable
LOS for pedestrians. Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, provides
details regarding the criteria for a pedestrian LOS.
Section 5.1 provides guidance regarding geometric requirements for pedestrian refuges.
Width of Turning Roadways: The width of turning roadways at intersections and interchanges
is a function of the design vehicle, design speed, and the radius of the curvature. Width
of turning roadways also depends on the operational purposes of the roadway and design
traffic conditions. Operational purposes of the turning roadways include the following three
cases:
• Case I: One-way operation without provision for passing a stalled vehicle,

• Case II: One-way operation with provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case III: Two-lane one-way operation.
Design traffic conditions include:
• Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger cars with few single unit trucks (SU-9
and SU-12).
• Traffic Condition B: Includes sufficient number of single unit trucks (SU-9 and SU-12)
that govern the design and consideration also is given to intermediate semitrailers (WB-
12 and WB-15).
• Traffic Condition C: Includes sufficient number of intermediate semitrailers (WB-12 and

WB-15) and interstate semitrailer (WB-20) that govern the design.
The radius of curvature of the inner edge of pavement depends on the design speed and
the expected design vehicles using the roadway. Table 3.4 shows pavement width values
for various design traffic conditions, operational purposes, and curvature of the inside edge
of pavement. The values are adopted from AASHTO, 2011a. For additional details refer to
Section 3.8, in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.

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Table 3.5 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways
Pavement Width, m
Case I, One-Lane, One- Case II, One-Lane,

Way Operation – no One-Way Operation – Case III, Two-Lane,
provision for passing a provision for passing a One-Way or Two-Way
Radius
stalled vehicle stalled vehicle Operation
on Inner
Edge of Design Traffic Condition
Pavement,
R, m A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9

Note: Only use the turning roadway widths in this table as a guide and check with a turning template or
computer-simulated turning template program.
3.7 Signals
3.7.1 Visibility and Positioning
Signal heads and secondary signals should be positioned in accordance with the QTCM. Care
should be taken that street furniture is not located where it would obstruct the path of
pedestrians crossing the intersection or obscure the intersection intervisibility for drivers.
Where traffic signals on mast arms are being considered, the requirements for the mast
arm foundation, maintenance requirements, and technical approval requirements should be
determined early in the design process.
3.7.2 Signal Head Arrangement

Duplicate primary signals are recommended on all approaches. At some sites, signal visibility
may be improved by installing additional signal heads on tall posts, above the primary signal
head, or on mast arm brackets above the roadway. If mast arm signals are used, the designer

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should check route characteristics and associated vertical clearances. When designing the
signal head arrangement, the following two issues should be addressed:
• Potential maintenance issues

• Signal visibility as drivers travel toward the stop line
It is important that standard height signals are visible to all drivers on the approach and that
the requirements of the QTCM are incorporated into the intersection design.

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4 Signalized Roundabouts
4.1 General
4.1.1 Application of Design
Roundabouts are designed to operate freely, without traffic signals. One solution for
reconstruction projects with a roundabout operating with a v/c ratio greater than 1.0 and
an LOS F may be to signalize the roundabout. The guidance in this Section regarding the
provision of traffic signals at roundabouts is applicable only to existing roundabouts that
may require such an improvement. By policy, signalized roundabouts shall not be a design
solution for new intersections.
The issues that may prompt the designer to consider installing traffic signals at a roundabout
are described in Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this Manual, and
further detailed in the QTCM. These issues include specific traffic concerns associated
with certain roundabouts that may be resolved by installing traffic signals with or without
geometric changes. For a roundabout that may require or benefit from signals on most or all
approaches, traffic microsimulation software is generally necessary to characterize the level
of improvement and enable development of design details.
When traffic flows exceed the level at which a roundabout can no longer self-regulate,
that is when the v/c ratio is greater than 1.0, the throughput of particular entries can be
restricted. The provision of traffic signals at one or more approaches can provide capacity for
the affected roundabout approach movements in the following manner:
• Where delays are excessive because of imbalanced flows, signals can alter the natural
priority to better address the imbalance.
• Where throughput is inadequate because of high circulating speeds rather than high
flow, signals can achieve an overall improvement in throughput.
• Where significant pedestrian traffic crosses one or more approaches, providing dedicated
pedestrian crossing time through signalization can provide for pedestrian’s safe crossing.
• Where it is possible to coordinate the roundabout as part of an overall urban traffic

control network, usually fixed-time urban traffic control, traffic signals can reduce overall
delays by eliminating the random element of yield control.
A combination of physical improvements, pavement markings, and signaling can increase

capacity, provide better balance and stability of queues, and reduce traffic speed. Lane control
at signalized roundabouts may be improved by the effective use of route indications on the
external and internal approaches to direct traffic to the appropriate departure lane. Where

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used in this Section, external approach pertains to approaches into the roundabout and
internal approach pertains to approaches within the circulatory roadway of the roundabout.
Roundabouts are self-regulating under normal priority control at each approach. However,
signalized roundabouts have signal control on one or more of the external approaches and
on one or more of the internal approaches. Signalized roundabouts may operate in a self-
regulating manner, depending on a combination of the extent, method, and duration of the
signal control conditions and the roundabout size.
4.1.2 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities

In urban areas, care should be taken to provide mobility to pedestrians. Where pedestrian
volumes are high, crossing facilities should be designed in accordance with the guidance in
Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual.
Signals for traffic on the external approaches give pedestrians a natural point of focus.
Ideally, the pedestrian route across the rest of the circulatory roadway should be related to
pedestrian desire lines and will affect the signal system that is adopted. Pedestrians may
be directed onto the central island of the roundabout or to crossing facilities provided on
the departure lanes of the roundabout. Pedestrian crossings on departure lanes should be
sufficiently far from the circulatory roadway to minimize the likelihood of queuing vehicles
interfering with circulating traffic. This will depend on traffic flow, overall roadway circulation,
and the length of traffic stop time at pedestrian signals.
Traffic signals at approaches to the roundabout help reduce conflicts between vehicular and
pedestrian movements.
4.1.3 Geometric Design Standards

This Section provides guidance on the application of geometric design standards for
signalized roundabouts.
The geometric design of the key elements described in Volume 1, Part 7, Design for
Roundabouts, of this Manual, should be applied to external and internal approaches to a
roundabout that always operate in a self-regulating manner; that is, approaches without
signal control or with part-time signal control. The guidance in Volume 1, Part 7, Design
for Roundabouts, of this Manual, should also be applied to approaches with indirect signal
control. Refer to Section 4.2, Signal Control, in this Part, for more information.
The geometric design standards in Section 4.3, Geometric Modifications, in this Part, should
be applied to external approaches to a roundabout that operate with direct full-time signal
control (refer to Section 4.2, Signal Control, in this Part). These standards should also be
considered for external approaches that operate with direct part-time signal control; however,
under these circumstances, the standards in Volume 1, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of
this Manual, take priority.

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For signalized roundabouts, the intersection intervisibility zone on the circulatory roadway
should be measured to a point 2.5 m beyond the secondary signal, as shown on Figure 4.1.
The requirements for intersection intervisibility apply to internal and external approaches to
a roundabout that operate under signal control at any time.
Figure 4.1 Intersection Control Area
4.1.4 Size
The engineering challenges in designing a signalized roundabout are usually greater for
a small roundabout than a large one. The physical constraints on the internal link lengths
between each signalized approach affect the interaction between the individual approach
signals. Signal control can often not be appropriate on smaller roundabouts.
4.2 Signal Control

4.2.1 Extent of Signal Control
A roundabout is fully controlled when signal control is provided on all internal and external
approaches.
A roundabout is partially controlled when one or more of the approaches remain under priority
control. Partial control can be used where traffic congestion does not occur on all external
approaches. It can be easier to coordinate the signals of a four-approach roundabout if one
external approach is priority controlled.

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4.2.2 Methods of Signal Control

Direct signal control consists of traffic signals situated on one or more of the external
approaches and the internal approach immediately to the left of each signalized external
approach. Figure 4.2 shows a large, signalized roundabout with partial, direct signal control
where traffic flow on the minor roads is light and continues to operate in a self-regulating
manner under normal priority control.
Figure 4.2 Large, Signalized Roundabout with Partial, Direct Signal Control
Indirect signal control consists of signals situated at such a distance away from the roundabout
approach that the external approach continues to operate in a self-regulating manner under
normal priority control. Figure 4.3 shows an example of a signalized roundabout with indirect
signal control on approaches A, B, and C.
Indirect signal control may be used where an external approach with a very heavy traffic
flow is preceded to the right by an external approach with a very light traffic flow. Heavy
traffic flow into and circulating the roundabout can proceed virtually uninterrupted, possibly
with high circulatory speeds. This situation causes an unbalanced traffic flow that adversely

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affects the capacity of the roundabout and can lead to excessive queue lengths and
substantial delays to other external approaches, which in turn can result in congestion at
preceding intersections or on-ramps.
Figure 4.3 Signalized Roundabout with Indirect Signal Control
Indirect signal control can be introduced to control approach flows on one or more external
approaches and can provide a gap in the circulatory traffic to favor external approaches
where previously there were excessive delays and queues, as shown on Figure 4.3. The
capacity of the external approaches can then be balanced, but increases in vehicle gap
distances can be detrimental to cyclists and pedestrians crossing the approaches.
4.2.3 Duration of Signal Control

Full-time signal control is provided by permanently operating traffic signals. Under full-
time signal control, the yield pavement marking across signalized entries to the roundabout
should not be provided. Installing traffic signals for full-time signal control often involves
making geometric modifications as an integral part of improving throughput in ways that
might not necessarily be effective or improve safety on a roundabout with priority control.
These modifications are described in Section 4.3, Geometric Modifications, in this Part.
Part-time signal control is provided by traffic signals that are switched on only at set times,
generally peak flow periods, or by queue detectors under certain traffic conditions. When

8
traffic flow is light, the signals are turned off and the roundabout operates under normal
priority control. When traffic flow is strongly directional, signal control can be used on
different external approaches at different times of day.
Part-time signal control often causes lower off-peak delays. In addition, part-time signal
control allows limited ability for the designer to make geometric changes as part of the
signal installation because the physical layout suitable for priority control must be retained.
Part-time control can cause confusion because of the need for associated permanent signing
and striping, which can increase crashes when the traffic signals are not in use. For these
reasons, full-time signal control is preferred to part-time control. Part-time signal control is
not suitable where any of the following apply:
• Requirement for pedestrian crossing facilities on the circulatory roadway

• Potential benefit from incorporation in a linked system
• Significant queues form throughout the day, not just during peak periods
The roundabouts shown on Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 could operate under either full- or part-
time signal control.
4.3 Geometric Modifications

4.3.1 General
The following geometric modifications may be required for signalized roundabouts to:
• Increase capacity on external approaches

• Increase capacity on the circulatory roadway
• Accommodate queues at internal stop lines on the circulatory roadway
• Improve forward visibility and intervisibility in the intersection intervisibility zone
• Provide alignment improvements and lane control measures
• Provide specific measures for pedestrians, cyclists, and buses
These modifications may take the form of the following:
• Additional external approach lanes

• Additional internal approach lanes within the circulatory roadway
• Increased size of splitter islands to achieve longer internal approaches
• Segregated facilities or signaled crossing facilities
4.3.2 External Approach Lane on the Outside

The provision of an additional external approach lane on the left, as shown on Figure 4.4, is
appropriate where:
• Sufficient space is available within the central median.
• An approach lane to the right side would result in inadequate internal queuing capacity
on the internal approach.
• The additional external approach lane does not significantly reduce queuing capacity on
the internal approach to the left.

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Figure 4.4 Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Outside
4.3.3 External Approach Lane on the Inside

The provision of an additional external approach lane on the inside (right), as shown on
Figure 4.5, is appropriate where:
• Sufficient space is available on the inside.
• An external approach lane on the inside would result in inadequate queuing capacity on
the internal approach on the left side.
• The additional external approach lane does not significantly reduce queuing capacity on
the internal approach to the right.

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Figure 4.5 Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Inside
4.3.4 Internal Approach Lanes

As shown on Figure 4.2, the internal queuing capacity on the circulatory roadway to the right
of approach E is limited by the width of the median on the multi-lane approach. Similarly,
internal queuing capacity is severely limited to the right of approach F by the size of the
deflection island. Internal approach lanes less than 15 m in length may result in the blockage
of the departure lane, particularly where large vehicles are present. The effect of internal
queues on circulation should be considered when assessing the roundabout performance.
Under full-time signal control, the capacity on the internal approaches to approaches E
and F shown on Figure 4.2 could be improved by geometric modifications such as shown for
approach F on Figure 4.6 by significantly reducing the approach radii.
Under part-time signal control, the scope for geometric modifications is reduced because the
design is required to comply with Volume 1, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of this Manual.
Figure 4.6 shows how the queuing capacity on the internal approach to the left of approach F
may be improved by increasing the size of the splitter island and realigning the external
approach.

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Figure 4.6 Improvement to Internal Queuing Lanes

8

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5 Other Design Elements
5.1 Pedestrians and Cyclists

5.1.1 General Considerations
When signal control is being considered for an intersection, the extent of pedestrian crossing
movements, cyclist usage, and bus movements should be determined and specific measures
included, unless site-specific considerations warrant their exclusion. Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, contains guidance for accommodating pedestrians,
cyclists, and buses. Provisions for pedestrians, cyclists, and buses may require additional
signing, in accordance with the QTCM.
5.1.2 Specific Measures for Pedestrians

Signalized facilities should be provided for pedestrians as appropriate.
Pedestrian crossings should normally be located beyond the limits of the intersection radius
(inset crossings) to minimize the road crossing distance. In some circumstances, it may not be
possible to provide an inset pedestrian crossing, and the crossing may need to be positioned
within the limits of the intersection radii (in-line crossing). In that case, the refuge should
be located at a minimum offset of 1.5 m, as measured from a line extended from the edge
of the intersecting roadway. In-line pedestrian crossings will result in longer pedestrian
crossing distances. Particular consideration should be given to the problems associated with
vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians with disabilities.
Pedestrian curb ramps shall be provided where pedestrians are expected to cross the
approaches of an intersection. Tactile paving and tactile devices, audible signals, pedestrian
curb ramps, and guardrail are all mobility aids designed to assist and guide pedestrians with
disabilities to access and use the pedestrian crossing.
Pedestrians should be encouraged to use defined points to cross the road. Preferably,
crossings should be located to minimize crossing distances and to avoid excessive detours.
It may be desirable to restrict pedestrian crossings to certain approaches at a signalized
intersection because of limitations on intervisibility or conflicts with private accesses.
The following measures can contribute to improved safety and convenience of pedestrian
crossings at signalized intersections:
• Fit crossing routes to the pedestrian desire lines

• Provide pedestrian guardrails
• Provide tactile surfaces to assist pedestrians with impaired vision
• Provide pedestrian curb ramps to assist wheelchair users

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• Provide pedestrian signal phases

• Provide good intervisibility between pedestrians and drivers
• Provide sufficient crossing width and space on refuge islands for safe and comfortable
use.
Where intersections are being modified, buildings may obstruct intervisibility. Refer to
Section 3.2.2, Intersection Intervisibility Zone, and Section 3.2.3, Intersection Intervisibility,
in this Part, for guidance on intersection intervisibility. Where buildings obstruct intervisibility,
the designer should consider moving the stop line forward. Moving the stop line may
require that pedestrian crossing routes be diverted away from the immediate intersection
intervisibility zone, or that inset pedestrian crossings be provided. The effect on pedestrian
desire lines should also be considered.
5.1.3 Pedestrian Refuges and Separation Islands

Where a pedestrian crossing phase is timed to permit pedestrians to cross the whole roadway
in one movement, the minimum width of the pedestrian refuge (W on Figure 5.1) shall be
1.5 m where pedestrian flows are low. Where pedestrian flow is expected to be high or
cyclists are anticipated, the minimum width shall be 2.5 m.
Pedestrian refuges and separation islands shall be appropriately sized for an acceptable LOS
for pedestrians. Volume 3, Part 19, Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, contains further
detail on the criteria for pedestrian LOS.
Figure 5.1 Pedestrian Refuge

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5.1.4 Use of Tactile Paving

Complex patterns or large areas of tactile paving should be avoided because they may
confuse pedestrians with visual impairments. A consistent approach should be adopted for
all separation islands within an individual intersection layout.
Tactile surfacing shall be laid on the sidewalk in an L-shaped pattern at each side of a
pedestrian crossing. Tactile surfacing is not recommended within separation islands, where
signal staging is intended to allow pedestrians to cross the whole width of the roadway in
one movement. However, tactile surfacing should be provided where pedestrians must cross
in two stages, and, therefore, wait on the island.
Dedicated left- or U-turn lanes may create a significantly wider pedestrian crossing. In such
cases, an additional pedestrian refuge should be incorporated into the separation island, as
shown on Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Pedestrian Refuge at Dedicated Left-Turn Lanes
5.1.5 Crossing Places

Crossing places should be indicated by pavement markings in accordance with the layout and
dimensions provided in the QTCM. The width of a crossing depends on site conditions but is
normally 3.0 m to 5.0 m. Crossings that have heavy pedestrian use may require a width of
up to 10.0 m.
Pedestrian crossings should be perpendicular to the edge of the roadway to assist

intervisibility and to benefit pedestrians with visual impairments. In some situations, it may
be necessary to provide the crossings at a skewed angle. Tactile paving layouts should be
aligned to direct pedestrians with visual impairments safely across the crossing. To achieve

8
this, the upright of the L-shape is aligned in the direction of the crossing. Volume 1, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual, contains further guidance on the design of tactile
paving.
For staggered pedestrian crossing facilities, the preferred orientation is that pedestrians
within the median face oncoming traffic as they approach the crossing. This may not be
achievable in some circumstances because of geometric or capacity constraints and
pedestrian desire lines.
5.1.6 Specific Measures for Cyclists

On multi-lane roads, or heavily traveled two-lane roads, cyclists should be provided with
adjacent facilities and discouraged or prohibited from sharing the roadway with motorized
traffic. Where bicycle facilities are provided adjacent to signalized intersections, controlled
crossings shall be provided across the side roads, with suitable dimensions to accommodate
cyclists and other nonmotorized users. Figure 5.3 shows a typical plan to provide facilities
for cyclists and pedestrians at an intersection of multi-lane roads.
Figure 5.3 Shared Pedestrian and Cyclist At-Grade Crossings at Signalized

Intersection
Controlled crossings for cyclists and pedestrians may be combined. Alternatively, grade-
separated crossings may be provided for cyclists and pedestrians.

8
On roads with a design speed of 50 kph or less, and where no separate cycle path is provided,
the designer should consider cyclist movements through the intersection.
Cycle detection should be incorporated in signal control systems where feasible. Signal
timing optimization may also address the needs of cyclists.
5.2 Transit Facilities at Intersections

The following traffic management methods may be used to assist buses and other public
transportation vehicles at signalized intersections:
• “With-flow” bus lanes that terminate in advance of the stop line, so that the full width
of the stop line is available to all traffic during the circular green signal indication phase,
thereby minimizing delays to other traffic and accommodating right turns
• Turning exemption, which allows buses to make a turn that is prohibited to other traffic
• Selective detection, which gives priority to buses
• Separate traffic signals at the termination of a “with-flow” bus lane in advance of the
main intersection intervisibility zone, and providing a bus advance area between the
two sets of signal control
Contraflow bus lanes shall not be provided unless they are physically separated from the
main traffic flow for their full length.
Other vehicle classes may be permitted to use bus lanes in certain circumstances. These
include emergency vehicles, motorcycles, taxis, and heavy trucks.
Further guidance on provisions for buses and transit vehicles are contained in the QTCM.

8
References
AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th edition (the Green Book). American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2011a.
Department for Transport. “The Geometric Layout of Signal-Controlled Junctions and Signalised
Roundabouts.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6, Section 2, Part 3: TD 50/04. UK Highways
Agency: London, England: November 2004.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Design Manual. Washington, DC, United States. 2010.

8
Bibliography
AASHTO. Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. 2009 edition.
Including Revision 1 dated May 2012 and Revision 2 dated May 2012. U.S. Department of Transportation:
Washington, DC. 2012.

Volume 1
Part 9
Interchanges and Freeway
or Motorway Corridors
INTERCHANGES AND FREEWAY OR MOTORWAY CORRIDORS PART
9
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART INTERCHANGES AND FREEWAY OR MOTORWAY CORRIDORS
9

9
Contents Page
1 Qatar Expressway and Freeway System.....................................................................1
2 Principles of Freeway and Expressway Planning and Design..................................3

2.1. Background on Principles.......................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Maintain Route Continuity........................................................................................................................ 3
2.3. Maintain Basic Number of Lanes........................................................................................................... 4
2.3.1. Establishing Basic Lanes.......................................................................................................4
2.3.2. Application of Auxiliary Lanes............................................................................................5
2.4. Provide Lane Balance................................................................................................................................. 5
2.5. Provide All Movements in All Directions............................................................................................. 6
2.6. Provide Appropriate Interchange and Ramp Spacing.................................................................... 6
2.7. Select Appropriate Interchange Types................................................................................................ 8
2.8. Select Appropriate Design Speeds for Ramps.................................................................................. 8
2.9. Design Right-hand Exits and Entrances Only................................................................................... 9
2.10. Prefer Single-Exit Designs..................................................................................................................... 10
2.11. Provide Decision Sight Distance in Advance of Exits................................................................. 10
2.12. Avoid Designing Weaving Sections.................................................................................................... 11
2.13. Develop Designs That Can Be Simply Signed................................................................................ 11
3 General Design Requirements for Interchanges..................................................... 13

3.1. Elements of Interchanges...................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.1.Mainline.....................................................................................................................................13
3.1.2.Ramps........................................................................................................................................13
3.1.3. Weaving Sections..................................................................................................................13
3.1.4. Collector-Distributor Roads...............................................................................................14
3.1.5. Service Roads..........................................................................................................................14
3.1.6.Crossroad..................................................................................................................................15
3.2. Swept Path Analysis................................................................................................................................ 15
3.3. Capacity and Level of Service for Freeways and Interchanges.............................................. 15
3.3.1. Overview of Operations and Level of Service for Freeway and
Expressway Elements.........................................................................................................16
3.3.2. Guidance for Selection of Level of Service Criteria for Interchange
Design........................................................................................................................................17
3.3.3. Improving the Performance of Interchanges.............................................................22
3.4. Basic Freeway and Interchange Design Criteria........................................................................... 23
3.4.1. Mainline Alignment Design................................................................................................23

9
3.4.2. Interchange Types and Functional Classification.....................................................25

3.4.3. Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps........................................................26
3.4.4. Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps........................................................28
3.4.5. Design Speeds for Collector-Distributor Roads.........................................................28
3.4.6. Vertical Relationship of Crossroad to Expressway or Freeway..........................28
3.4.7. Vertical Clearance..................................................................................................................29
4 Interchange Types and their Geometric Design...................................................... 31

4.1. Considerations in Interchange Type Selection.............................................................................. 31
4.2. Service Interchange Types.................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1. Diamond Forms......................................................................................................................34
4.2.2. Other Diamond Forms..........................................................................................................42
4.2.3. Diverging Diamond Interchange......................................................................................42
4.2.4. Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges........................................................................................43
4.2.5. Full Cloverleaf Interchanges.............................................................................................48
4.2.6. Three-Level Service Interchange Forms......................................................................49
4.3. System Interchange Types.................................................................................................................... 51
4.3.1. Three-Leg System Interchanges.....................................................................................52
4.3.2. Four-Leg System Interchanges........................................................................................55
4.3.3. Special Design Issues for System Interchanges.......................................................56
5 Geometric Design Requirements for Interchange Ramps...................................... 62

5.1. Elements of Ramps................................................................................................................................... 62
5.1.1.Diverge......................................................................................................................................62
5.1.2. Ramp Proper............................................................................................................................67
5.1.3.Merge.........................................................................................................................................72
5.1.4. Ramp Design for High Volumes and Lane Balance..................................................77
5.2. Ramp Cross Section Dimensions......................................................................................................... 81
5.2.1. One-Lane Ramps—Typical..................................................................................................81
5.2.2. Two-Lane Ramps—Typical..................................................................................................82
5.2.3. Loop Ramp and Sharp Radius Lane Widths.................................................................82
5.3. Crossroad Design Considerations........................................................................................................ 83
5.3.1. Access Control and Proximate Intersections..............................................................83
5.3.2. Entrance Ramp Location and Advance Notice to Drivers......................................83
5.3.3. Wrong -way Driving Mitigation........................................................................................84
5.3.4.Pedestrians..............................................................................................................................85
6 Service Road Interface with Ramps and Crossroad................................................. 87
7 Design of Closely Spaced Interchanges and Ramps............................................... 89

7.1. Effects of Adding Unplanned New Interchanges to the Existing Network....................... 89

9
7.2. Operational and Safety Implications of Weaving and Closely Proximate Ramps............ 90
7.3. Methods for Evaluation of Operations on Freeways with Closely Proximate
Ramps........................................................................................................................................................... 90
7.4. Design Solutions to Elimination or Reduction of Weaving....................................................... 92
8 Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges............................................................................... 95
8.1. Quadrant Interchanges........................................................................................................................... 95
8.2. Innovative Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges.................................................................................. 96
References............................................................................................................................... 99
Tables
Table 2.1. Guide Values for Designing the Basic Number of Freeway Lanes for Design
Year Average Daily Traffic and Selected Design Level of Service..................................................4
Table 2.2. Decision Sight Distance Design Criteria for Approach Alignments to Freeway and
Expressway Exit Ramps...............................................................................................................................11
Table 3.1. Overview of Level of Service Definitions and Factors Influencing Level of Service for
Freeway and Expressway Design Elements.........................................................................................16
Table 3.2. Recommended Design Levels of Service for Elements of Qatar Freeways, Expressways,
and Interchanges.............................................................................................................................................18
Table 3.3. Design Speeds and Horizontal Curve Design Controls for Qatar Freeways; Expressways,
and Interchange Ramps................................................................................................................................24
Table 3.4. Freeway Mainline Grades.............................................................................................................................25
Table 3.5. Recommended Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps...................................................27
Table 3.6. Minimum Curve Radii for Service Interchange Entrance Loop Ramps Only.............................27
Table 3.7. Recommended Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps...................................................28
Table 5.1. Deceleration Distances for Taper and Parallel Exit Ramps.............................................................66
Table 5.2. Recommended Minimum Design Values for Location of Controlling
Horizontal Curve on Exit Ramps—Painted Gore to Point of Curvature, in
meters..................................................................................................................................................................68
Table 5.3. Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves on Ramps at Interchanges................................................69
Table 5.4. Horizontal Sight Distance and Curvature for Ramps on Structure..............................................70
Table 5.5. Interchange Ramp Grades............................................................................................................................71
Table 5.6. Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades
of Two Percent or Less.................................................................................................................................75
Table 5.7. Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade................................................76

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Figures
Figure 1.1. Qatar Freeway and Expressway System (Existing and Planned)...................................................2
Figure 2.1. Principle of Lane Balance for Freeway and Expressway Exits and Entrances..........................5
Figure 2.2. Recommended Minimum Ramp Terminal Spacing on Freeways and Expressways.................7
Figure 2.3. Appropriate Interchange Types for Range of Contexts......................................................................9
Figure 3.1. Definitions and Terminology Associated with Weaving and Weaving
Sections.............................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 3.2. Collector-Distributor Road and Service Road.......................................................................................15
Figure 3.3. Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Merging Traffic on Conventional Entrance
Ramps..................................................................................................................................................................20
Figure 3.4. Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Diverging Traffic on Conventional
Exit Ramps.........................................................................................................................................................21
Figure 4.1. Interchanges—General Forms and Types...............................................................................................32
Figure 4.2. Basic Diamond Interchange Forms...........................................................................................................33
Figure 4.3. Examples of Tight and Single-Point Diamond Interchanges.........................................................34
Figure 4.4. Tight Diamond Interchange........................................................................................................................35
Figure 4.5. Single Point Diamond Interchange...........................................................................................................36
Figure 4.6. Elevation View of Single Point Diamond Interchange with Crossroad
under an Expressway....................................................................................................................................39
Figure 4.7. Diamond with Roundabout Ramp Terminal Intersection................................................................40
Figure 4.8. Examples of Roundabout Diamond Interchanges (Dumbbells)....................................................41
Figure 4.9. Split Diamond Interchange..........................................................................................................................42
Figure 4.10. Three-point Diamond.....................................................................................................................................42
Figure 4.11. Diverging Diamond Interchange................................................................................................................42
Figure 4.12. Diverging Diamond Interchange................................................................................................................43
Figure 4.13. Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges.................................................................................................................44
Figure 4.14. Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A.....................................................................................................................45
Figure 4.15. Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B.....................................................................................................................46
Figure 4.16. Two-Quadrant Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A.......................................................................................46
Figure 4.17. Two-Quadrant Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B.......................................................................................46
Figure 4.18. One-Quadrant Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO)...........................................................................................47
Figure 4.19. Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) AB..................................................................................................................47
Figure 4.20. Full Cloverleaf Interchange.........................................................................................................................48
Figure 4.21. Example Full Cloverleaf Interchange.......................................................................................................49

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Figure 4.22. Three-Level Diamonds..................................................................................................................................50

Figure 4.23. Example Three-Level Roundabout...........................................................................................................51
Figure 4.24. System Interchange between Two Urban Expressways.................................................................52
Figure 4.25. Directional T- and Y-Interchanges............................................................................................................53
Figure 4.26. T- and Y-Interchanges—Trumpet Form....................................................................................................54
Figure 4.27. Fully-Directional System Interchanges..................................................................................................55
Figure 4.28. Directional Interchange Types with Two Loops..................................................................................57
Figure 4.29. One Loop System Interchange...................................................................................................................58
Figure 4.30. Example of System and Service Interchanging with Full Design and
Operational Separation of Ramps.............................................................................................................59
Figure 4.31. Transposed Ramps (Avoid)..........................................................................................................................59
Figure 5.1. Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-flow Ramp Exit Terminal.........................................62
Figure 5.2. Alignment Considerations in Location of Exits...................................................................................63
Figure 5.3. Typical Exit Gore Area Detail......................................................................................................................64
Figure 5.4. Guidelines for the location of the Controlling Horizontal Curve on Exit
Ramps Proper....................................................................................................................................................67
Figure 5.5. Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-Flow Ramp for Entrance
Terminal..............................................................................................................................................................72
Figure 5.6. Typical Single-lane Entrance Ramp..........................................................................................................73
Figure 5.7. Two-lane Exit Design.....................................................................................................................................78
Figure 5.8. Two-lane Entrance Design .........................................................................................................................79
Figure 5.9. Diagram of Major Forks.................................................................................................................................80
Figure 5.10. Diagram of Major Merge...............................................................................................................................81
Figure 5.11. Typical Sections for One and Two-lane Ramps...................................................................................82
Figure 5.12. Access Control along the Crossroad in Proximity to Interchange Ramps.................................84
Figure 6.1. Exits and Entrances Transposed...............................................................................................................87
Figure 6.2. Frontage Road Design Elements...............................................................................................................88
Figure 7.1. Relative Difference in Crashes...................................................................................................................91
Figure 7.2. Operational Analysis and Design Process.............................................................................................91
Figure 7.3. Design Solutions to Weaving......................................................................................................................92
Figure 8.1. Quadrant Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges..........................................................................................96
Figure 8.2. Innovative Interchange: Michigan Urban Diamond............................................................................97
Figure 8.3. Innovative Interchange: Center Turn Overpass...................................................................................97

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Appendixes
Appendix A . Tables for Using Weaving Methodology.............................................................................................. 102

Appendix B . Typical Exit and Entrance Ramps........................................................................................................... 120
Appendix C . Requirements for New Access to Existing Highway System..................................................... 126

9
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (United States)
CD collector-distributor
EN entrance ramp
EX exit ramp
DDI diverging diamond interchange
FHWA Federal Highway Administration (United States)
L length of weaving section
m meter(s)
N number of lanes (in a weaving section; on a mainline)
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program (United States)
RDI roundabout diamond interchange
PARCLO partial cloverleaf
SPDI single point diamond interchange
SPUI single-point urban interchange (referred to in this Manual as SPDIs)
TDI tight diamond interchange
TRB Transportation Research Board (United States)

9

9
1 Qatar Expressway and

Freeway System
Urban expressways and rural freeways are the highest functional classification of roads in
Qatar. These facilities are designed to safely accommodate high volumes of traffic over long
distances at high speeds. The design of such facilities requires complete control of vehicle
access at designated locations referred to as interchanges.
Figure 1.1 shows the existing and planned Qatar Expressway and Freeway System. The
system is the main arterial network of the roadway system in Qatar. Careful planning, design,
and construction will contribute to safe and efficient traffic flow on the entire Qatar roadway
network.
The planning and design criteria for Qatar’s expressways and freeways are based on best
practices and criteria from core international agencies with experience in operating high-
volume fully access controlled systems. Three primary sources are the American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ (AASHTO’s) A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets (2011 and 2018), the Institute of Transportation Engineers’
Geometric Design Handbook for Freeways and Interchanges (Leisch, 2005), and the Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges (Department for Transport, 2013). Another important source
of information is research conducted for AASHTO to support its Highway Safety Manual
(2010). In particular, research completed in 2011 developed methods for predicting the
safety performance of freeways, interchanges, and their design elements in terms of crash
frequency and severity. In developing technical guidance, and in some cases recommended
values for design, direct reference is made to this research. Design criteria related to the
quality of traffic flow are based on methods and procedures published in the Highway
Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board [TRB], 2010).

9
Figure 1.1 Qatar Freeway and Expressway System (Existing and Planned)

9
2 Principles of Freeway and

Expressway Planning and
Design
2.1 Background on Principles

The planning and design of high volume expressways and freeways should consider certain
inherent characteristics, constraints, and conditions associated with such facilities. These
facilities are intended to serve drivers and vehicles at speeds of 100 kilometers per hour
(kph) or more in relatively dense traffic (The maximum design speed for an urban expressway
is 120 kph). The driving task in such conditions is complex. Even a small number of unfamiliar
drivers can greatly influence the quality and safety of traffic flow.
Traffic flow is most efficient when drivers and their vehicles stay in their lanes. Any design,
operational, or other condition that promotes or requires lane changing can degrade the
quality of flow, reduce the capacity of the facility, and potentially lead to crashes. The
following principles are intended to minimize the chances or frequency of lane changing
along the expressway or freeway.
Expressways and freeways are expensive facilities. They have the greatest right-of-way
needs and potentially adverse effects on surrounding land uses. Great care should be taken
to design the most efficient and safest facility possible, correcting unforeseen problems that
could be highly disruptive to road users in Qatar.
Expressways, freeways, and interchanges are planned for forecast traffic volume and flow
patterns. In a state as dynamic as Qatar, there is uncertainty in future forecasts. Thus,
corridors and interchanges should be designed with built-in flexibility to facilitate operation
under conditions that may differ from those originally forecast.
The planning for the needs of drivers, respecting the significant investment in and impacts of
roads and operational flexibility, are all central to the following basic principles in expressway
and freeway corridor planning and design.
2.2 Maintain Route Continuity

Route names and numbers are assigned to roads to facilitate navigation, primarily for
unfamiliar drivers. They will use the numbering and naming scheme to plan and complete
trips. A fundamental expectation of drivers is that once on a specific route, they will stay on
that route until they choose to leave it, at an interchange for a controlled access road. The
principle of route continuity is based on meeting and reinforcing driver expectations. The

9
designation of a route on an expressway or freeway should be carried forward through the

mainline. Should a marked or designated primary route make a turn through the interchange
rather than proceed straight through, the design of that interchange shall directly incorporate
that turn. This would be done by providing horizontal geometry at the full design speed of
the marked route and maintaining continuity of the basic lanes, as discussed below.
2.3 Maintain Basic Number of Lanes

Expressways and freeways should be designed for a fixed number of basic lanes that are
continuous over very long distances. Every expressway and freeway must be designed with
at least two basic lanes of traffic in each direction. Such facilities are referred to as a four-
lane freeway or expressway. Design traffic volumes may vary from segment to segment, but
the continuity of a basic lane is established through multiple interchanges over a significant
length of the facility.
2.3.1 Establishing Basic Lanes

The Overseeing Organization responsible for long-range planning of the Qatar Highway
Design Manual (QHDM) roadway and freeway network establishes the basic number of lanes
for the roadway system based on the most current and approved forecasts of land use and
vehicular traffic demand. This information should be referenced and applied in developing all
interchange and freeway projects, both new and reconstructed.
A fundamental planning decision is to establish the basic number of lanes for a corridor. This
decision should be based on the general level of forecast traffic volume and the selected
design level of service (LOS) for the design year. Table 2.1 provides guide values for ranges
of average daily traffic volume and LOS, based on typical peak hour patterns of traffic.
Table 2.1 Guide Values for Designing the Basic Number of Freeway Lanes for
Design Year Average Daily Traffic and Selected Design Level of Service
Basic Freeway/Expressway Lanes

Both Directions of Travel
Design Year Average Daily Traffic
(vehicles per day)
LOS C LOS D
< 25,000 4 4
25,000–50,000 4 4
50,000–75,000 6 4
75,000–100,000 6–8 6
100,000–125,000 8 8
125,000–150,000 8–10 8–10
Based on Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2010.

Assumptions: Free-flow speed of 130 kph, terrain level, design hour traffic is 10% of daily traffic,
directional traffic is 60% of design hour traffic, 5% heavy vehicles.

9
2.3.2 Application of Auxiliary Lanes

An auxiliary lane may be provided for a short segment of road to facilitate traffic operational
flow. In the context of expressway planning and design, auxiliary lanes are used to
accommodate brief “bulges” or increases in traffic demand, such as those between two
interchanges. The freeway corridor planning process involves consideration of such lanes as
needed to maintain the intended density and speeds and to facilitate high volume merging
and diverging traffic.
Auxiliary lanes should be added only to the right side of the freeway. Auxiliary lanes can be
designed for short lengths (1 km to 2 km) between closely spaced entrance and exit ramps,
or through an interchange to the next interchange. Best practices for freeway design include
the use of special pavement markings (refer to the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings)
that communicate to the driver that the lane is an auxiliary lane, and as such it will terminate
at some point downstream.
2.4 Provide Lane Balance

The term “lane balance” refers to the arrangement of lanes at the points of exit or diverge
and entrance or merge. Figure 2.1 illustrates the principle of lane balance.
Source: Derived from Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Figure 2.1 Principle of Lane Balance for Freeway and Expressway Exits and
Entrances
The addition and dropping of an auxiliary lane formed within a cloverleaf interchange is
considered by AASHTO to be lane balancing.

9
At exits, the sum of the number of lanes going away from the exit—that is, the lanes on the
ramp and the lanes on the freeway downstream of the ramp—should be one more than the
number of lanes approaching the exit. At entrances, the sum of the number of lanes of the
two roadways merging or joining should be equal to, or one less than the number of lanes on
the departing roadway after the merge.
Lane balance serves to minimize lane changing in advance of an exit, and to provide a better
balance of traffic volume and speed distribution across the lanes at both exits and entrances.
Applying the principle of lane balance means some exit ramps with low to moderate traffic
volumes should be designed as two-lane exits. Recent research has confirmed that lane
balance, when properly applied, produces a net reduction in freeway crashes. Lane-balanced
designs can reduce high-speed, multi-vehicle crashes involving vehicles in the merging lanes
by as much as 32 percent compared with unbalanced designs (AASHTO, 2010).
2.5 Provide All Movements in All Directions

Interchanges should serve and distribute traffic to the arterial network and surrounding land
uses. Appropriate locations for interchanges will reflect sufficient demand for access in all
directions that the local roadway system serves. Interchanges accordingly should provide for
all movements of traffic in all directions.
An important consideration is the use of interchanges by drivers with interim destinations.

Drivers needing to refuel, to stop for a meal, or to rest expect that if they exit the expressway
or freeway at a crossroad, they will be able to reenter and continue their trip at the same
location. This principle provides for meeting these expectations.
Some interchange forms, such as the split diamonds shown in Figure 4.1 in Section 4 of this
Part, provide a ramp pair at one crossroad (exit and complementary entrance), and another
ramp pair for the other direction of freeway at a different crossroad, with the crossroads
connected by service roads. Such designs may be considered complete interchanges under
this principle (see Clause 4.2.2.1 of this Part).
By policy of the Overseeing Organization, all interchanges shall provide movements in all
possible directions of travel.
2.6 Provide Appropriate Interchange and Ramp Spacing

The location and design of entrance and exit ramps have a significant influence on the
operating efficiency and safety of the facility. There is a balance to be struck between
providing access and egress ramps, and maintaining a high quality of traffic flow.
Appropriate interchange and ramp spacing reflects the desired behaviors of drivers and the
operations necessary at interchanges. Drivers desiring to exit at a downstream ramp will
position themselves in the right-hand lane (referred to as “lane one”) well in advance of the
exit. Drivers merging or entering a freeway will do so in lane one. Some drivers will prefer to
remain in lane one, but many will prefer to change to lanes two or three.

9
Sufficient spacing provides length for all drivers to change lanes readily and in a measured
manner. It also produces even distribution of traffic density across the lanes, which in turn
results in lesser speed differentials across the lanes. When ramps are spaced too close
together, lane one will become very congested, with speeds dropping and braking occurring.
This will encourage some through drivers to move out of the lower speed lane one abruptly
into higher speed lane two, creating the potential for conflicts and crashes.
Figure 2.2 shows recommended minimum ramp terminal spacing and is intended to serve as
preliminary guidance in interchange planning and design. For any project, the planning and
design process will involve use of site-specific design traffic to evaluate lane one and two
operations. The values are with reference to the physical noses (points of physical merge
and diverge), which are important design controls for the freeway.
Source: Based on Figure 10-70 in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018).
Figure 2.2 Recommended Minimum Ramp Terminal Spacing on Freeways and

Expressways
Figure 2.2 lists dimensions for minimum spacing between successive entrances (EN-EN) or
exits (EX-EX), an exit followed by an entrance (EX-EN), and weaving sections (EN-EX). It also
has guidance for turning roadways for which ramps may be combined or split. The basis for
this guidance is the accommodation of the driving tasks of navigation and route choice (for
the ramp split) and merging or joining another road before once again performing a merging
maneuver. Spacing in these cases provides for the human factors associated with reading
and comprehending signs that accompany these decision points (National Cooperative
Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2012).
The values shown as minimums are as published in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets (AASHTO, 2018). Designers should accept minimum spacing only under highly
constrained conditions. The values shown in Figure 2.2 are for design guidance, and so

9
they are not subject to a Departure from Standards. Traffic operational analyses will be the
ultimate basis for establishing ramp locations. Provision of appropriate density, speed, and
LOS is the primary basis for ramp location and spacing.
2.7 Select Appropriate Interchange Types

Interchanges are the sole means by which drivers access and egress an expressway or
freeway. Interchanges generally require substantial investment in right-of-way, construction
cost, and ongoing maintenance. The wide range of interchange types appropriate for different
conditions are discussed below. An important principle of expressway and freeway planning
and design is the selection of the most appropriate interchange forms for the context as
defined by functional classification and location (urban vs rural). Figure 2.3 summarizes the
designation of appropriate interchange types.
Section 4 and Section 5 of this Part describe the attributes and design of service and system
interchanges. The selection of an appropriate interchange requires a carefully performed
planning and design study process, as summarized in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this
Manual.
In the special case of system interchanges, the Overseeing Organization shall approve the
basic configuration selected for design before initiating detailed design.
2.8 Select Appropriate Design Speeds for Ramps

A unique feature of interchanges is the design of ramps between the interchanging
roadways. Ramps are transition roads, and as such, speed behavior on them is expected
to vary. Although the design process requires the selection of a design speed to enable
alignment design, the characteristics of interchanges and their operation and feasibility
makes such selection a critical success factor.
A basic principle of interchange design is the selection of a design speed appropriate for
the context. This is not necessarily the highest achievable speed. Indeed, in some cases
lower design speeds are preferred, as they allow for the most efficient interchange type and
avoid unnecessary conflicts with adjacent landowners, conditions that are prevalent at many
urban expressway interchanges.
Ramp design specifics and details, including guidance for selection of design speeds for all
ramp types, is covered in Section 3 of this Part. Selected ramp design speeds outside the
ranges specified for service and system interchanges presented in Section 3 of this Part
shall require a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from

9
Adapted from: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011).
Figure 2.3 Appropriate Interchange Types for Range of Contexts
2.9 Design Right-hand Exits and Entrances Only

All interchanges must be designed with right-hand exits from and entrances to the freeway
or expressway mainline. The mixing of left- and right-hand ramps forces multiple lane
changing and weaving. International practice since the early 1980s has discouraged the use
of left-hand ramps for these reasons. Many agencies with freeway systems containing such
ramps have invested considerably in reconstructing and removing left-hand ramps. Recent
research on the effects of ramp location on freeway crash frequencies confirms that left-
side exit ramps can be expected to experience crash frequencies twice that of comparable
right-hand exits, and left-side entrance ramps can be expected to have crash frequencies of
almost twice that of right-hand entrances (AASHTO, 2010).
By policy, interchanges shall not be designed with left-hand ramps. Any interchange designed
with left-hand exit or entrance ramps submitted for consideration by the Overseeing
Organization must document the specific conditions and reasons for the design. An analysis
of the traffic operational impacts and expected safety performance impacts shall be provided.

9
2.10 Prefer Single-Exit Designs

The principle of single-exit design reinforces two positive aspects of freeway operations.
First, the most common interchange forms (diamonds) are single exit. Drivers unfamiliar with
the freeway and not knowing the interchange configuration will expect a single exit. Single
exit design breaks up the complex navigational and exiting decision tasks. Drivers first
recognize and decide to exit at the desired location; then, once off the high speed mainline
in a slower speed environment, they decide which direction to go on the crossroad. Low and
high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this
Manual.
Single exit design reduces the number of exit ramps along the mainline, facilitating
appropriate ramp spacing. It also facilitates simpler and more readily understood signing by
unfamiliar drivers.
For special cases, typically associated with high volume system interchanges, the combined
exiting traffic demand volumes for both directions of travel may require a three-lane exit,
which can be difficult to design or prove to be impractical. In such cases, two exits may be
the only reasonable solution. This condition should be understood and fully investigated
during the interchange design process.
The preference for single-exit design does not extend to single entrances. Interchanges may
be designed with one or two entrances for each direction of travel.
2.11 Provide Decision Sight Distance in Advance of Exits

The concept of additional sight distance for decision-making reflects the relative complexity
of this driving task. A desirable aspect of alignment design and interchange exit ramp
location is the provision for what is referred to as decision sight distance (DSD).
Table 2.2, derived from guidance in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
(AASHTO, 2018), provides sight distance values as a function of design speed that are based
on a navigational maneuver. DSD is considered a desirable feature that should be provided
wherever possible. Lack of full DSD does not require a Departure from Standards.

9
Table 2.2 Decision Sight Distance Design Criteria for Approach Alignments to
Freeway and Expressway Exit Ramps
Distance for Avoidance Maneuver (m)a

Mainline
Design Speed (kph) Rural Road Suburban Road Urban Road
50 145 170 195
60 170 205 235
70 200 235 275
80 230 270 315
90 270 315 360
100 315 355 400
110 330 380 430
120 360 415 470
130* 390 450 510
140* 420 490 555
* The maximum design speed for an urban expressway is 120 kph.

a
Speed, path, and direction change.
Source: Based on Table 3-3, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018).
2.12 Avoid Designing Weaving Sections

Weaving is the crossing of traffic flows. Weaving traffic produces the single most adverse
influence on traffic operational quality and safety performance on high volume expressways
and freeways. A weaving section is that part of a mainline roadway segment in which an
upstream entrance ramp is followed closely by a downstream exit ramp. Alignment and
interchange design should focus on eliminating weaving sections to the extent possible.
Traffic operations analyses should be performed for all weaving sections using Highway
Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) methods or their equivalent. The presence of a weaving
section that does not meet the specified LOS for the mainline roadway or collector-
distributor (CD) road shall require a Departure from Standards in accordance with
Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual. Weaving LOS is
presented in Appendix A.
2.13 Develop Designs That Can Be Simply Signed

Navigational signing is a critical feature of high-volume expressways and freeways.
Unfamiliar drivers rely on advance signing and exit signing to place their vehicles in the
appropriate lanes.
Drivers are occupied primarily with the task of driving, which includes paying attention
to vehicles around them, and adjusting speed and location accordingly. They have limited
ability to read and absorb the information conveyed on signs. Traveling at 100 kph or more,

9
their ability to read a sign from a distance may be only a matter of seconds. Signing is for
unfamiliar drivers. Signing requirements stated in the Qatar Traffic Control Manual should be
followed. These are intended to facilitate information handling.
The manner in which alignment, crossroad bridges, and interchange ramps are assembled
will dictate the placement of signs and their messages. Designers should understand signing
requirements and strive for designs that limit the number of signs and messages at any one
location. Ideally, no more than two navigational sign panels should be provided at any one
location. Ramp arrangements and design features contribute directly to the need for such
signs. The Qatar Traffic Control Manual contains guidance and requirements for freeway and
expressway navigational signing.
The criteria and rationale described above for ramp spacing, all right-hand exits, and single
exit design all contribute to facilitating signing. The recommended design process for
interchanges includes the development of concept signing plans as part of the interchange
and freeway study to confirm that signing can be accomplished.

9
3 General Design Requirements

for Interchanges
3.1 Elements of Interchanges

Freeway and expressway elements include the mainline, ramps, weaving sections, and
collector-distributor (CD) roads. Service roads and crossroads are elements of the roadway
network that interface at interchanges.
3.1.1 Mainline
The mainline is the core or basic expressway or freeway alignment and cross section. It
comprises at least two lanes of traffic in each direction and may comprise both basic lanes
and auxiliary lanes. Basic lanes remain the same both through and on approaches to the
interchange. Basic lane numbers more than six in each direction of travel may present special
concerns, depending on the spacing of interchanges and the type of trips on the freeway.
Some drivers may not be able to take advantage of the leftmost lane if their trip is short, as
reaching that lane from the entrance and then positioning the vehicle for the exit requires
multiple lane changes.
3.1.2 Ramps
A ramp is a roadway that connects two interchanging facilities. Ramps are labeled based
on the highest functional class of roadway being interchanged. An exit ramp (EX) carries
traffic leaving the expressway or freeway mainline to a lower-class crossroad, or to another
expressway or freeway. An entrance ramp (EN) carries traffic from an arterial or collector
crossroad to an expressway or freeway mainline. Design criteria for exit and entrance ramps
differ, as discussed in Section 5 of this Part.
3.1.3 Weaving Sections

Weaving is the crossing of traffic flows. A weaving section is formed by an entrance ramp
followed by a downstream exit ramp. The definition of a ramp is provided in the Glossary of
this Manual. Weaving sections can occur within or between interchanges. Weaving operations
and safety analyses are based on the definitions of geometry and traffic in Figure 3.1. The
key parameters are the length of weaving section, number of lanes within the section, and
volume of weaving traffic.
The technical definition of a weaving section, as described in Figure 3.1, is that established
in the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010), which contains the accepted methodology for
evaluation of freeway and interchange operations in Qatar. The length of weaving section
(Lweave) is defined by the point where the traveled lanes of the merging and diverging
roadways converge. The number of lanes (N) in the weaving section will include an auxiliary
lane if it is part of the cross section.

9
The volume of weaving traffic is the traffic that is actually crossing or conflicting. It does
not include mainline through traffic, nor traffic that may be entering and then immediately
exiting. In Figure 3.1, the volume of weaving traffic is 1,500 vehicles per hour (vph).
Source: Based on Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2010
Figure 3.1 Definitions and Terminology Associated with Weaving and Weaving
Sections

A CD road is a one-way road segregated laterally but typically parallel to the freeway
mainline. It is fully access controlled and connected to the mainline by intermediate transfer
roadways. CD roads collect and distribute traffic from multiple closely spaced entrances and
exits. Much of this traffic is typically lower speed weaving traffic. A CD road provides for
physical separation of higher speed through traffic from the lower speed weaving traffic. A
CD road may have one to three lanes; see Figure 3.2.
CD roads are designed to freeway/expressway standards for cross section and alignment. CD
roads may be a part of an overall corridor plan, or they may be used in specific locations along
a freeway. In the former case, continuous CD roads may apply where freeway traffic volumes
are near capacity and too many conflicting movements and weaving degrades operational
level of service and safety of the system. In the latter case, a CD road may be used in one
direction of traffic but not the other. Incorporating CD roads within an interchange removes
weaving from the main roadway; reduces number of conflicts on the main line; allows for the
development of single exits and entrances; maintains uniform pattern of exits; and simplifies
signing.
3.1.5 Service Roads

A service road is a lower class roadway that runs adjacent to the mainline. It is not within
the designated access control of the freeway. A service road may intersect with other local
roads. Interchange ramps may terminate at service roads. The term service road is not
interchangeable with CD road, as shown in Figure 3.2.

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Service
Road
Collector
Distributor
Road
Figure 3.2 Collector-Distributor Road and Service Road
3.1.6 Crossroad
The term crossroad refers to the lower-class roadway in the interchange. An interchange
may be designed over the crossroad or under it, depending on the context. In many cases,
design decisions and interchange type selection will depend on the location of the crossroad.
3.2 Swept Path Analysis

Turning paths of design vehicles form the basis of the turning widths required at interchanges.
All interchange layouts must be checked to ensure that they can accommodate the turning
Elements, of this Manual. Specific guidance on swept paths at interchanges is provided in
this Part.
3.3 Capacity and Level of Service for Freeways and

Interchanges
Design of all elements of freeways and interchanges shall be based on providing the intended
operational quality or LOS. The term “level of service” is a qualitative descriptor of the quality
of traffic service provided by a roadway, reflecting how well travel demands are met for

9
performance in terms of speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and
convenience to the driver. Levels of service are classified A through F, with E representing
the capacity of a roadway (TRB, 2010).
The accepted methodologies for evaluating traffic operations and performing LOS analyses
are contained in the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010). Interchange planning and design
guidance in this Section is based on the methods contained in the Highway Capacity Manual
for freeway segments, ramp exit and entrance ramp operations, weaving, and ramp terminal
intersection operations. Although LOS pertains to all elements of a freeway and interchange,
the operational definition of LOS and critical factors affecting it vary for each element. The
following is a summary of basic concepts of traffic operations and LOS as related to freeways
and interchanges
3.3.1 Overview of Operations and Level of Service for Freeway and Expressway Elements
Table 3.1 summarizes the basis for LOS determination for various freeway and interchange
elements.
Table 3.1 Overview of Level of Service Definitions and Factors Influencing Level of
Service for Freeway and Expressway Design Elements
Freeway or
Expressway Definition of Factors Influencing
Design Element LOS LOS Comments
Demand volume and Freedom to maneuver/

Based on density
Freeway Segment composition of traffic; change lanes decreases with
of traffic within
(Uninterrupted number of lanes, width of high densities; at densities
the freeway
Flow) lanes, presence and width approaching the capacity of
segment.
of shoulders, and grade. a segment speeds decrease.
High densities of traffic in

Based on density Demand volume of exiting right-hand lanes produce
of traffic in two traffic and total demand lower speeds in these lanes;
Exit Ramp (Diverge) right-hand lanes volume in segment and potentially significant
in advance of the upstream of the exit; speed differentials between
exit. composition of traffic. right-hand lanes and other
lanes with lower densities.
High densities of traffic

Based on density Demand volume of in right-hand lanes at
of traffic in two entering traffic and the merge produce lower
Entrance Ramp right-hand lanes total demand volume in speeds in those lanes, and
(Merge) immediately segment downstream of potentially significant speed
downstream of the entrance; composition differentials between right-
the merge. of traffic; number of lanes. hand lanes and other lanes
with lower densities.
Number of vehicles
weaving and crossing;
Based on density Weaving traffic degrades
number of lanes in
Weaving Sections of traffic in the both capacity and safety
weaving section, and
weaving section. performance of the freeway.
length and type of
weaving section.

9
Freeway or
Expressway Definition of Factors Influencing
Design Element LOS LOS Comments
Total demand by In addition to throughput and

movement, number of delay, queuing and queue
Signalized Total delay by all
signal phases and cycle lengths at exit ramp terminal
Ramp Terminal vehicles at the
length; number of lanes approaches to signalized
Intersections signal.
for each turning and intersections are a design
through movement. control.
Average control In addition to LOS, average

Roundabout Total demand by
delay per vehicle delay, queue length, and
Ramp Terminal movement, number of
at the roundabout volume/capacity ratio are
Intersections lanes at ramp terminal.
yield line. design controls.
3.3.2 Guidance for Selection of Level of Service Criteria for Interchange Design
Interchange design will be based on provision of a selected of service for the forecast
design year, typically 20 to 30 years hence. According to Highway Capacity Manual (TRB,
2010) definitions, LOS E represents the ultimate or maximum capacity of a design element.
Demand or arrival traffic volumes that exceed the capacity of a segment or element will
result in significant speed reductions, delay, potential for conflicts and crashes, and queuing
upstream of the segment in which this occurs.
Freeways and interchanges are designed for high-speed traffic and are intended to provide
the highest and most reliable service of all roadways in Qatar. Recognizing the uncertainty
of design year forecasts, the design basis for Qatar freeways and interchanges should be
for levels of service higher than ultimate capacity. The guidance, summarized in Table 3.2,
reflects the tradeoff between providing such traffic service and the right-of-way, cost, and
other disruptive impacts of additional lanes and capacity to serve traffic demands in urban
settings.

9
Table 3.2 Recommended Design Levels of Service for Elements of Qatar Freeways,
Expressways, and Interchanges
Level of Service
Rural Freeway Mainline Segments Ca
Urban Expressway Mainline Segments C design/D minimum a
Urban Expressway Collector-Distributor (CD) Road Segments Da
Rural Freeway Segments and Ramps (EX and EN) C
Rural Freeway Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C
Urban Expressway Segments and Ramps (EX and EN) C design/D minimum
Urban Expressway Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C design/E minimum
Ramps (EX and EN) Associated with Rural Major Arterials C
Ramps (EX and EN) Associated with Urban Major Arterials C design/D minimum
Rural Major Arterial Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C
Urban Major Arterial Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C design/E minimum
Notes:
a
Includes both uninterrupted flow and weaving if it occurs within the segment
Level of service is as defined in and determined by procedures and methods published in the Highway
Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010).
With respect to intersection operations at ramp terminals, delay, which is the basis for
intersection operations, is highly sensitive to signal phasing and cycle lengths and to
roundabout capacity, both of which may be influenced by such factors as provision for
pedestrians.
The design LOS is a fundamental design control. Although LOS C is desirable in urban
settings, project-specific constraints may preclude the ability to provide sufficient capacity
or interchange type that produces this LOS. LOS for CD roads reflects the fact that their
operation is primarily based on weaving traffic, which will be lower speed with greater
densities.
3.3.2.1 Providing Level of Service for Freeway Segments between Interchanges

Table 2.1 lists basic number of lanes for traffic volumes associated with LOS for uninterrupted
flow on freeway segments. These values assume no operational effect of interchange
ramps. They are based on typical traffic peaking and directional distribution values. They
are intended to provide guidance on establishing basic lane numbers over significant length
of freeway or expressway. Where interchanges are closely spaced such that traffic volumes
increase for short distance or where weaving and lane changing between interchanges is
expected, providing the desired LOS may require the addition of one or more auxiliary lanes.
Capacity and operational analyses of such locations using Highway Capacity Manual (TRB,
2010) methods and site-specific traffic characteristics should be performed to confirm the
intended LOS and need for auxiliary lanes as appropriate.

9
3.3.2.2 Ramp Operational Level of Service Guidance

Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 provide planning level guidance for the maximum design hour
volumes associated with conventional merging (Figure 3.3) and diverging (Figure 3.4)
operations on freeways and expressways. The values given are based on ideal cross section
and alignment conditions and on design, traffic peaking, and distribution characteristics
identical to those assumed for Table 2.1. They assume that the entrance and exit ramps are
in isolation; that is, beyond the influence of upstream or downstream adjacent ramps. They
were developed using the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) methods for ramp merging
and diverging. Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 can be referred to for general planning and initial
design reference in interchange studies. In Figures 3.3 and 3.4, VF refers to the flow rate of
the freeway immediately upstream on the ramp; VR is the flow rate of the ramp; VFO is the
flow rate on the freeway immediately downstream of the merge/diverge; LA and LD are the
length of acceleration lane and deceleration lane, respectively.
In refining the design of an interchange, the designer should perform Highway Capacity
Manual (TRB, 2010) or compatible analyses using site-specific traffic data and characteristics,
and accounting for the effects of closely proximate ramps.

9
Figure 3.3 Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Merging Traffic on Conventional Entrance
Ramps

9
Figure 3.4 Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Diverging Traffic on Conventional Exit
Ramps

9
3.3.2.3 Weaving Level of Service Guidance

Weaving and weaving sections typically are the critical, controlling operational constraint
for higher volume freeways. Weaving operations are a function of the number of lanes on
the approach and in the weaving section, the approach freeway volume, the volume on the
entrance ramp, and the exiting volume. Weaving analysis may apply to a freeway mainline
as well as a CD road.
The complexities and interaction of traffic with design elements are such that there is no
one single weaving length dimension that can produce acceptable operations under all
conditions, other than the complete elimination of weaving, which is desirable but may in
some cases be impractical.
Appendix A contains a series of look-up tables that were developed using the methodology
for weaving from the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010). The tables express the weaving
LOS as a function of the number of lanes (the tables include from 2 to 4 lanes), the length
of the weaving section (as defined in the Highway Capacity Manual) from 500 to 1,500 m,
total one-way approach volumes of 1,500 to 3,000 vph, and ranges of entrance and exit
ramp volumes from 250 to 2,000 vph.
Appendix A can be referred by designers, interpolating as necessary to confirm the operation

of a design or test the effect of changing the design features. Designers are encouraged to
perform, or have performed for them, location-specific analyses using the project’s design
traffic and weaving dimensions to confirm operational acceptability.
Design for weaving is of sufficient importance to require a Departure from Standards should
acceptable operations per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) methods not be met
through the design process for a freeway or expressway weaving section. If this is the case,
a Departure from Standards shall be submitted as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
3.3.3 Improving the Performance of Interchanges
3.3.3.1 Auxiliary Lanes and Two-lane Ramps

Special design solutions may be necessary for situations in which the LOS of a conventional
merge or diverge does not meet the selected design criteria. For entrance ramps, the entrance
may be of an add-lane design forming an auxiliary lane. In urban contexts, the auxiliary lane
may extend to the next downstream exit ramp. For both exits and entrances, the design hour
traffic volume may require consideration of two-lane ramps. These should be designed to
provide lane balance (see Section 2.4 of this Part).
3.3.3.2 Ramp Relocations and Weaving Sections

Where the presence of a proximate ramp upstream or downstream adversely affects the
operation of a ramp, one ramp may need to be relocated during the design process to increase
spacing, perhaps in combination with one of the above solutions. The presence of weaving

9
traffic should be fully investigated, with attempts made to avoid or minimize weaving as
the limiting operational condition along the freeway. Appendix A contains look-up tables
with traffic volume and LOS values for conventional weaving sections of varying lengths
for a range of freeway lanes and ramp volumes for conventional entrance and exit ramps.
Geometric design solutions to weaving are discussed below.
3.3.3.3 Ramp Metering

One solution to providing a selected LOS to the freeway or expressway is the implementation
of ramp metering. Metering is the placement of traffic signal control on entrance ramps to
limit or meter the volume of traffic entering the facility. Metering is most effective when
multiple entrances along a corridor are all metered, and when the total unmetered demand
volume is such that it would result in LOS E operation. Ramp metering restricts the flow
of traffic such that it can be handled by downstream sections in a way that maintains
reasonable density and speeds.
A metered ramp requires special design solutions. The stop bar must be sufficiently
downstream from the intersection or roundabout so that queuing does not back up into it.
As traffic will be accelerating from a stopped condition when metered, the ramp proper or
acceleration lane may need to be lengthened. For these reasons, best practice in design is
to consider whether the interchange should be designed to be metered. Metering can be
implemented at a later date, but the design when first developed and constructed needs to
account for it.
3.4 Basic Freeway and Interchange Design Criteria

Interchanges are designed in accordance with the basic alignment and cross section criteria
presented in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Volume 1, Part 5, Roadway
Design Criteria, of this Manual. This section provides specific design guidance on ramps for
all types of interchanges.
3.4.1 Mainline Alignment Design

Freeways and expressways will be designed based on the fundamental design criteria for
alignment and cross section discussed in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual.
3.4.1.1 Design Speeds

Freeways and expressways will be designed and posted using the criteria in Table 3.3.

9
Table 3.3 Design Speeds and Horizontal Curve Design Controls for Qatar Freeways;
Expressways, and Interchange Ramps
Minimum Radius of
Anticipated Posted Speed Curvature for Mainline
(kph) Design Speed (kph) Design Speed (m)
60 80 450
70 90 575
80 100 720
90 110 860
100 120 1,020
110 130* 1200
120 140* 1,390
Notes:
Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure from Standards process
according to Volume 3, Part 25, Departure from Standards Process, of this Manual.
3.4.1.2 Horizontal Alignment

The radius of curvature for horizontal alignment of mainline geometry is based on the
maximum superelevation rate of 5 percent; see Table 3.3. Consistent high speeds through
curves should be maintained on these facilities. Spiral transition curves are encouraged for
use on freeway and expressway mainline alignment.
Occasionally the use of horizontal curves for mainline geometry requires up to 7 percent
superelevation. Any curve with superelevation greater than 5 percent shall require a
Departure from Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process,
of this Manual.
3.4.1.3 Design for Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance (SSD) associated with the selected design speed shall be provided
in three dimensions throughout the length of mainline alignment. Decision sight distance
(DSD) ahead of all exit ramps is encouraged. Alignment and cross section that does not
provide SSD at any point shall require a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3,
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual. Designers may choose not to
provide full DSD; such choice does not require a Departure from Standards.
Provision for horizontal SSD presents a special design challenge along the inside of
horizontal curves. Where raised median barriers are used to separate opposing traffic flows
and such barriers are of sufficient height that, in combination with the horizontal curve and
vertical alignment, the driver’s sight line is obstructed, the design may not provide for full
SSD per design policy. Depending on the SSD required and the length of the curve, the sight
restriction may begin on the approach to the curve.

9
3.4.1.4 Vertical Alignment

Maximum grade criteria for freeway and expressway mainline alignment is 3 percent.
Minimum grades to enable drainage of pavements are 0.5 percent desirable and 0.3 percent
minimum. See Section 4 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Volume 1,
Part 5, Roadway Design Criteria, of this Manual. Design of grades outside these values
Table 3.4 Freeway Mainline Grades
Maximum Grade Desirable Minimum Grade Absolute Minimum Grade

3% 0.5% 0.3%
3.4.1.5 Cross Section

Lane widths for the mainline, auxiliary lanes, and CD roads with more than one lane shall
be 3.65 m. However, the width of the turning roadways should be in accordance with the
design values in Section 3 of Volume 1, Part 5, Roadway Design Criteria, of this Manual.
Shoulders are the initial and most important part of the roadway’s Clear Zone. Shoulders
may be used by drivers whose cars break down and for law enforcement activities. The
right shoulder is used primarily for recovery from run-off-road events to prevent them from
becoming serious crashes. Shoulders should not be used for parking except in an emergency,
and in such cases the vehicle should be moved as soon as possible as its presence is a fixed
object close to the edge of traveled way.
Shoulder widths for mainline shoulders shall be as shown in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this Manual. Left shoulders may be widened to increase offset along
horizontal curves to provide additional SSD, as discussed above. Minimum shoulder widths
for CD roads shall be 3.0 m for the right shoulder and 1.2 m for the left.
Full width shoulders should have at least 1.5 m of paving, either partial depth or full. This
allows for placement of rumble strips that aid in alerting drivers who may wander off the
road. The paving of the full shoulder including potential full-depth paving may be considered
by the Overseeing Organization. Such a strategy envisions future use of the shoulder
as a temporary lane to help maintain traffic during reconstruction or major maintenance
activities. However, experience in some corridors has been that paving the shoulder invites
unauthorized parking on it, which is discouraged. A full graded shoulder width with only partial
paving may be suitable if illegal parking is a concern. Where full width paving is incorporated
the designer may wish to post no-parking signs intermittently along the shoulder.
3.4.2 Interchange Types and Functional Classification

The functional classifications of the two interchanging roads influence the selection of
design criteria. There are two types of interchanges: service interchanges and system
interchanges.

9
3.4.2.1 Service Interchanges

Service interchanges are between a fully access controlled roadway and a lesser functional
class of road with limited access control. Urban service interchanges are between an
expressway and a major or minor arterial. Rural service interchanges are between a freeway
and a major arterial.
3.4.2.2 System Interchanges

System Interchanges are between two full-access controlled roadways. Per the functional
classification definitions for Qatar, all interchanges between two expressways, two freeways,
or a freeway and an expressway are referred to as system interchanges.
3.4.2.3 Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges

Arterial-to-arterial interchanges are between two major urban arterials. These may be
constructed where traffic demands and physical constraints preclude the ability to provide
an at-grade intersection or roundabout solution that provides the desired LOS. Arterial-to-
arterial interchange design criteria and solutions differ from those for interchanges serving
freeways and expressways.
3.4.2.4 Temporary Roads

Roads designated as temporary roads may never interchange with freeways or expressways.
New roads, for which construction of a new interchange is requested, shall be designed
in accordance with full design criteria contained in the QHDM and shall not be considered
temporary.
3.4.3 Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps

Ramps serve as transition roadways between the two interchanging highways. The expected
and desired speed behavior on a ramp will thus vary depending on the type of ramp and type
of interchange.
For service interchanges, driver speeds will transition from the low speed or stop condition
associated with crossroad to the high speed of the mainline for entrance ramps, and from
high speed mainline roads to low speed or stopped condition at the crossroad for exit
ramps. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2,
3.4.3.1 Application of the Design Speed Concept to Ramps

In designing the alignment of service interchange ramps, the selected design speed applies
to the horizontal alignment closest to the high speed mainline. The design speed does not
necessarily apply to the entire alignment, as transitioning speed behavior is expected, and
for some interchange forms drivers either begin from or end in a stopped (0 kph) condition.

9
Table 3.5 summarizes recommended service interchange design speeds per the above.
These are based on the design speed of the expressway or freeway mainline. In general,
the lower end of the range may be appropriate for urban conditions and higher end of the
range for rural conditions. Selection of a design speed lower than the values in Table 3.5
Table 3.5 Recommended Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps
Mainline Freeway or Expressway Design Speed

(kph) Service Ramp Design Speeds (kph)
100 40–70
120 50–80
140* 60–90
Note:
3.4.3.2 Service Interchange Loop Ramps

Service interchange configurations offer advantages that others do not have. Loop ramps
require substantial right-of-way when designed to maximum superelevation of 5 percent.
To facilitate the design of a service interchange using loop ramps, in addition to the ranges
shown above, designers may use a horizontal curve associated with a superelevation policy
of 8 percent for design of service interchange loop entrance ramps only. This opportunity
recognizes that the entrance loop ramp will carry traffic from the lower speed road to the
higher speed road. Table 3.6 shows the range of curvature for loop ramps based on the lower
design speeds in Table 3.5, which may apply to loop ramps.
Table 3.6 Minimum Curve Radii for Service Interchange Entrance Loop Ramps Only
Design Speed of Entrance Loop Ramp Minimum Radius of Curve (m) with 8percent
(kph) Superelevation
40 80
50 115
60 160
70 170

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3.4.4 Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps

Drivers traversing system interchanges expect and experience different speed behaviors
from service interchanges. On a system interchange, the driver moves from one high-speed
roadway to another. Exiting drivers expect a lowering of speed, and then to accelerate to the
higher speed associated with the roadway they are joining. The extent of speed reduction
and the cost and feasibility of maintaining a high ramp design speed varies with the context
(rural vs. urban). Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1,
Another important consideration in speed selection in system interchange design is the

provision for horizontal stopping sight distance. System interchange ramps may be on second
or third level structures. The bridge rail may create a continuous sight obstruction along
a horizontal curve on structure. The expense and design difficulty of widening structures
to provide horizontal sight distance is considerable. Lower design speeds produce lesser,
more manageable horizontal offsets. Because driver comfort is the basis for horizontal curve
design, best practices are to select a design speed for system interchange ramps that strikes
a balance between the desire for higher speed operation and the resultant sight obstruction
required by the design speed.
Table 3.7 summarizes recommended desirable and minimum system interchange ramp design
speeds. Selection of a design speed lower than the values in Table 3.7 shall require a
Departure from Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process,
of this Manual.
Table 3.7 Recommended Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps
Mainline Freeway or Expressway Design Speed (kph) System Ramp Design Speeds (kph)
100 50–80
120 60–100
140* 70–110
Note:
3.4.5 Design Speeds for Collector-Distributor Roads

CD roads are part of the freeway or expressway. As such, their design speed should be the
same as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline. For example,
the minimum design speed for a CD road along a 120 kph mainline should be 100 kph. Design
speeds for CD roads less than this minimum shall require a Departure from Standards as
per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.
3.4.6 Vertical Relationship of Crossroad to Expressway or Freeway

The geometric design of a service interchange will be influenced by the vertical relationship
between the freeway or expressway and the crossroad. In some cases, this will be fixed or

9
given based on the surrounding land use or an existing crossing. In other cases, the designer
may have the ability to establish the relationship.
All other factors being equal, placing the crossroad over the freeway is preferred for the
following operational and other reasons:
• With the crossroad over the freeway, the designer takes advantage of gravity. Exiting
traffic, which transitions to slower speeds, will be uphill, and entering traffic, which
transitions to higher speeds, will be downhill.
• The crossroad over the freeway provides a strong visual cue to drivers, as it can be
seen in the foreground. Similarly, the exit ramp will be clearly visible and its alignment
in the driver’s field of view. Conversely, with crossroad under, the crossroad itself will
not be visible, and often the exit ramp may be hidden from view because of the vertical
alignment of the mainline.
• In most cases, the spans and costs of the bridge will be less for crossroad over than for
crossroad under. In the latter case, there may be two freeway bridges over the crossroad,
each carrying both lanes and full left and right shoulders.
• The costs and disruption associated with major bridge maintenance and repair will be
borne by the crossroad rather than freeway, which will generally be higher volume and
more critical in terms of maintaining traffic flow during such periods of maintenance or
reconstruction.
• The crossroad will be designed to a lower design speed, allowing shorter vertical curves
and less earthwork than may be required for freeway alignment over the crossroad.
For a new interchange to be constructed along a road with existing development and local
access, elevating the crossroad over the freeway may be too disruptive and costly. In such
cases, the freeway alignment should be designed over the crossroad and the interchange
built accordingly.
Establishing the vertical relationships of the freeway and crossroad is an important early
decision. Some interchange forms have design requirements that are heavily influenced by
the relationship between the crossroad and freeway. These are discussed in Section 4 of
this Part.
The stated preference of crossroad over freeway is based on the advantages noted above,
the importance of which may vary by location. As the above discussion is advisory in nature, a
Departure from Standards is not required should the interchange be designed with crossroad
under the freeway.
3.4.7 Vertical Clearance

Vertical clearance requirements are dealt with in Clause 4.4 and shown in Table 4.5
of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. They are based on the
functional classification of the roadways, which roads cross over and which under. The

9
dimensions provide for potential future pavement overlays for newly constructed roadways
or interchanges. The minimum clearances should be provided across all mainline lanes and
shoulders of the undercrossing roadway. Ramp crossings may occur on horizontal curves
with superelevation. Crossroads or mainline alignments or both may be on curves with
superelevation. Care should be taken in establishing profiles of all roadways to provide the
clearances as required.
Clearances less than those specified in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual shall require a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25,

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4 Interchange Types and their

Geometric Design
The selection of an interchange type is a critical decision in the development of expressways
and freeways. The appropriate configuration is one that fits the context as defined by
functional classification and location, reflects consideration and respect for adjacent
land use and environmental constraints, and meets the traffic demands as expressed by
the volume and pattern of design year traffic. This section summarizes the full range of
interchange types for all design conditions that may occur in Qatar. Figure 4.1 depicts the
typical interchange forms applicable for the freeway and expressway system. These and
other special forms are discussed in detail below.
4.1 Considerations in Interchange Type Selection

The context of a location will drive the determination of a best fit/best value interchange
solution. The unique characteristics of each location that will influence the solution can be
summarized as follows:
• What is the volume and pattern (interchanging turning movements) of traffic under
design year conditions?
• What is the availability of right-of-way in each quadrant of the proposed interchange?
• What does the roadway network comprise in all three or four directions at the location?
How close are proximate interchange ramps in both directions along the freeway? How
close are intersections and major driveways along arterial crossroads?
• What is the natural or most likely vertical relationship between the expressway or
freeway and the crossing facility?
• Will pedestrian or bicycle travel require accommodation along the crossroad of the
interchange? If so, what are important origins, destinations, and trip patterns for these
road users?
• What environmental factors, such as presence of cultural or historic features or sites,

noise receptors, and visual impacts, are significant near the interchange?
• What will be the initial costs of construction and the long-term maintenance costs
required for the interchange?

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Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Figure 4.1 Interchanges—General Forms and Types

9
4.2 Service Interchange Types

Clause 3.4.2.1 defines the term service interchange as being an interchange between a
freeway and a lower functionally classed facility. Basic service interchange types include
diamonds and diamond forms, partial cloverleaf (PARCLO) interchanges, and full cloverleaf
interchanges (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Basic Diamond Interchange Forms

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4.2.1 Diamond Forms

The diamond is the most common interchange globally. The form is simple, cost-effective,
and highly adaptable to a wide range of traffic volumes and context. Figure 4.2 shows the
full range of diamond interchange types.
4.2.1.1 Conventional Diamonds

The diamond has a single exit and single entrance in each direction of travel. The ramps
intersect with the crossroad at either a signal-controlled, or roundabout intersection. Stop-
controlled ramp terminal intersections at diamond interchanges are not used in Qatar.
Diamonds can be designed with the crossroad over or crossroad under. A conventional
diamond interchange typically used in rural or otherwise unconstrained locations will have
ramp terminal intersections spaced 250 m or more apart or roundabout intersections with
similar spacing.
The conventional diamond interchange requires three-phase signal operation, that is,
exit ramp traffic, left-turning traffic from crossroad entering, and through traffic on the
crossroad. Queuing for left-turning traffic occurs between the ramp terminal intersections. In
many cases, the signaling of two intersections is coordinated. Diamond interchanges readily
accommodate pedestrians along the crossroad, allowing safe crossing at the signalized
approaches.
The safety performance of the roundabout diamond is superior to that of the signal-
controlled diamond. Severity of turning movement conflicts is minimized by the roundabout
configuration. This form generally is preferred where traffic volumes can be accommodated
by the roundabout ramp terminals.
In many urban locations, the right-of-way may be limited or restricted. Special diamond
design solutions reflecting such constraints may apply. These include compressed or tight
diamond interchanges (TDI) and single-point diamond interchanges (SPDI). Figure 4.3 shows
photos of each in their typical settings of constrained right-of-way.
Figure 4.3 Examples of Tight and Single-Point Diamond Interchanges

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4.2.1.2 Diamonds in Constrained Locations—Tight Diamond Interchanges

A TDI will have spacing between the ramp terminal intersections of 90 to 150 m. With such
short spacing, queuing for left turns occurs on the outside approaches to each intersection.
The TDI must be signalized, and the signals must be coordinated. Signal timing is set so that
left-turn queuing does not occur in the short spacing between the ramp terminals. Figure 4.4
illustrates a TDI with the crossroad over the expressway. Crossroad under solutions will have
similar geometry and operations.
Figure 4.4 Tight Diamond Interchange

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4.2.1.3 Diamonds in Constrained Locations—Single Point Diamond Interchanges

The other constrained diamond is the SPDI also known as single-point urban interchanges
(SPUIs). In this form, the ramp terminals are brought together to one location along the
crossroad, thus combining all turning traffic into one rather than two intersections.
Proper design of this single intersection is critical. The left-turning movements from the
crossroad should be designed to operate simultaneously to achieve operational efficiency. In
high volume locations, one or both movements may require double or more left turns. Figure
4.5 shows an SPDI with frontage or service roads and the crossroad under the freeway.
Figure 4.5 Single Point Diamond Interchange

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Single Point Intersection Design Details
With most typical intersections, left-turning vehicles pass to the left of opposing left-turning
vehicles. However, due to the size and distance between opposing approaches, the path of
left-turning vehicles does not resemble a quarter of a circle found at typical intersections, but
rather resembles a quarter of an ellipse. To provide positive guidance for this non-traditional
path, various features have been developed. At a minimum, dashed lane lines should be
painted through the intersection.
A skew angle between the two roadway alignments has an adverse effect on SPDIs because
it increases clearance distances and adversely affects sight distance. Severe skew in
alignments may also increase the length of the bridge and widen the distance between the
stop lines on the local streets. Extreme care should be exercised in planning SPDIs when the
skew angle approaches 30 degrees. It is important to provide visibility between exit ramp
traffic and cross street traffic approaching from the left. For left-turn movements from the
main line’s ramp to the cross street provide a clear cornering sight line with no obstructions
from bridge abutments, pilasters, signal/ light poles, signing, or landscaping.
Several basic design considerations can optimize the geometry and operation of an SPDI. It
is desirable that the left-turn curve be a single radius. This will, however, typically result in
additional right-of-way, a larger bridge structure, or both. Where it is not practical to provide
a single radius and curves are compounded from a larger to a smaller radius, the second curve
should be at least half the radius of the first. Another important design feature is to provide
stopping sight distance on the left-turn movements equal to or exceeding the design speed
for the curve radius involved. A design feature that can improve intersection operation is
to provide additional median width on the cross street. The stop line location on the cross
street is dependent on the wheel tracks from the opposing ramp left-turn movement.
By widening the median, the stop line on the cross street can be moved forward, thus reducing
the size of the intersection and the distance each vehicle travels through the intersection.
The results include greater available green time and less potential driver confusion due to an
expansive intersection area. Another design feature that can improve intersection operation
is to provide a minimum clear distance of 3.0 m between opposing left turns within the
intersection.
Frontage roads should be one way in the direction of the ramp traffic. A slip ramp from the
main line to the frontage road provides access to and from the intersection. This ramp should
connect to the frontage road at least 200 m, and preferably greater than 300 m, from the
crossroad. The traffic signal needs a fourth phase to provide through movements on the
frontage roads. A free-flow U-turn movement may be desirable to expedite movements from
one direction on the frontage road to the other. The combination of SPDIs and frontage
roads may result in additional signal phases, increased intersection size, increased vehicle
clearance times, and an impact on access control measures.

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The single point intersection configuration and requirement to separate opposing left
turns creates an operational challenge that designers of the SPDI must understand when
developing this interchange form. Left turns should be designed so the opposing movements
are 3.0 m to 5.0 m apart for maximum efficiency. In most applications, the left-turn volumes
require double or more left-turn lanes. The details of this design are similar to what is shown
in Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual.
The intersection design shall be checked using appropriate swept path software in
accordance with the general requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual, and the specific requirements in this Part. The implications of such a large open
intersection are that it requires substantial yellow and all-red times to clear the intersection
between signal phases, see Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, and Volume
1, Part 5, Roadway Design Criteria, of this Manual. Long clearance times create inefficiencies
in the operation of the intersection, because for normal signal cycle lengths the percentage
of time unavailable for moving traffic can become significant. To counteract this effect,
agencies that have constructed and operate SPDIs employ cycle lengths of 120 seconds
or longer, greater than the optimal lengths for typical three-phase signals (NCHRP, 1991).
Longer cycle lengths produce greater delays, longer queues, and lower LOS. Because of the
unique intersection challenges, the maximum number of left-turn lanes that can be designed
is two in each direction along the crossroad, and two for left turns from the ramps.
The lengths for left-turn queuing will be substantial given the long cycle lengths needed. Fully
channelized left-turn lane design, including tapers, queue lengths, and median separations,
will require access control for significant lengths along the crossroad approaches. The
acceptability of this design may be based on the extent to which access can be consolidated,
relocated, or closed on the crossroad approaches.
The primary advantage of the SPDI is its space efficiency. Its disadvantages include the
operational issues noted above, and the generally higher cost as typified in large and unusual
bridges and extensive retaining walls. This interchange should only be considered in urban
locations where right-of-way is unavailable or very limited.
Crossroad Over vs. Under
Design execution of the SPDI form is highly influenced by the location of the crossroad
relative to the freeway. The major issue of concern is the structural requirements. For a
crossroad over design (Figure 4.5), the intersection conflict area is on the structure over
the freeway. The geometry of the intersection channelization results in either a complex
structure with special framing, or a very large structure with much wasted space. The
structure depth, however, can be relatively compact, assuming there is sufficient median
dimension in the expressway for bridge piers.
In the case of a crossroad under design, the single intersection is beneath the mainline
(Figure 4.6). Traffic signals must be hung beneath the bridge to meet location requirements
for signal heads in relationship to the stop bar and driver eye locations. Most importantly, the
single intersection precludes the ability to design the bridge with a median pier. This results

9
in very long spans of 80 m or more over the crossroad, and resultant bridge depths typically
on the order of 2.4 m to 2.7 m.
The greater bridge depth, along with the additional signal head requirements, increases
the elevation difference between the two crossing roadways, increasing earthwork and
retaining wall costs. Accordingly, a crossroad under SPDI will always require additional
1.0 m to 1.5 m difference in elevation between the two crossing roadways compared with
other conventional designs. For these reasons, a crossroad under SPDI generally should be
considered only in cases of new alignment construction for an elevated mainline for which
the vertical alignment can be set to allow for the extra clearance. In all other cases in which
there are existing alignments for both roadways, the SPDI crossroad under solution will
require the costly and disruptive vertical realignment of one or both roadways.
Figure 4.6 Elevation View of Single Point Diamond Interchange with Crossroad
under an Expressway
Other Design Issues
For crossroad over design conditions, the very large open intersection creates special profile
design requirements. The crest vertical curve will typically be within the intersection. For
higher crossroad design speeds, this may create significant open area with limited grade
or flat spots. Special care is needed to warp pavement edges and provide sufficient cross
slopes, so the pavement drains properly.
Another important consideration for the SPDI is the angle of crossing. The geometry, cost,
and operational quality of the SPDI are very sensitive to the angle of skewed crossing.
Designers generally should avoid the use of an SPDI when the angle of skew is greater than
5 degrees, that is, outside the range of 85- to 95-degree crossing (NCHRP, 1991).

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The SPDI typically will have complex and costly bridges and significant lengths of retaining
wall. The form itself is not adaptable to upgrading or widening of either roadway. In planning
an SPDI, it is preferable to design the crossroad left turns for double turning lane operation
regardless of the demand volume. The useful life of the structures should greatly exceed the
nominal design life of the interchange; it is likely that double turn lane operations may be
necessary in the future.
4.2.1.4 Summary Comparison of TDI and SPDI

Where a diamond in a constrained location appears appropriate, the TDI and SPDI both
should be studied to determine the best value solution. Designers should not select one
form without performing a design and traffic study of the other form to determine the
best-value solution. The quality of traffic flow and LOS will vary for each solution. In some
cases, the TDI is clearly preferred, and in others the SPDI. Just as important to the decision
is the design footprint, which will often be similar but not identical. The SPDI will usually be
the more costly solution to construct. Availability of right-of-way often will be the critical
consideration.
The SPDI does not accommodate through movement to a frontage or service road. Where
this may be desired, other diamond forms should be used.
4.2.1.5 Diamonds with Roundabout Ramp Terminal Intersections (Dumbbells)

Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8 shows a
diamond form in which the ramp terminal
intersections are roundabouts. This form,
also known as a “dumbbell” interchange,
is applicable where traffic volumes are low
to moderate, well within the capacity of
a single- or double-lane roundabout. The
form thus applies for two- and four-lane
crossroads with moderate traffic volumes. Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Its primary advantage over the others is its
safety performance. All interchange turning Figure 4.7 Diamond with Roundabout
movements proceed through the safer Ramp Terminal Intersection
roundabout intersections. Another major
advantage is in construction cost. In the most common application with the crossroad over
the freeway as shown, the crossroad bridge need only be the width of the crossroad through
lanes. By comparison, in conventional, TDI, and SPDI diamond forms the crossroad bridge
will carry additional width associated with left turn lanes, which may add 7.3 m to 14.6 m of
additional width to the structure.

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Special care is required in selecting this interchange form. The most important concern is the
operation and queuing along the exit ramp approaches to the roundabouts. As roundabout
(also known as dumbbells) operation involves “yield to entry”, it is not possible to control the
approach queue, as would be the case with a signalized ramp terminal intersection. Given
this, designers should perform sensitivity analyses by varying design traffic flows. They may
also choose to lengthen the exit ramp to enable longer queues that may occur from time to
time. Figure 4.8 shows examples of these interchanges in suburban and rural settings.
Bottom photo courtesy of the Wisconsin Department of Transportation.
Figure 4.8 Examples of Roundabout Diamond Interchanges (Dumbbells)

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4.2.2 Other Diamond Forms

Special diamond forms include split diamonds, three-point diamonds, and diverging diamonds.
4.2.2.1 Split Diamonds

A split diamond interchange is one in
which one pair of ramps interchanges
with a crossroad connected to one or more
additional crossroads by service roads
(Figure 4.9). The service roads can be two-
way or one-way, but in most applications, Figure 4.9 Split Diamond Interchange
they are one-way. Split diamonds are a
highly efficient means of interchanging
with a street network and distributing traffic to multiple arterials with few ramps along the
mainline. This form generally is associated with higher ramp demand volumes. The ramp
terminal intersections may be stop controlled or signalized. Signing for the split diamond
should include all major crossroads accessible by the service road.
4.2.2.2 Three-point Diamonds

For cases in which a crossroad is on a heavy
skew angle, a three-point diamond may be
considered. Ramps are designed to form
three signalized, coordinated intersections,
but crossroad traffic need only stop for
two in each direction. The configuration
is applicable where the skew presents Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
challenges in acquiring the right-of-way Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
for a conventional diamond. Figure 4.10 is Figure 4.10 Three-point Diamond
a diagrammatic example of a three-point
diamond.
4.2.3 Diverging Diamond Interchange

The diverging diamond interchange (DDI)
is a relatively new form now in widespread
use internationally (Figure 4.11 and
Figure 4.12). In the DDI the crossroad
through movements cross over at skewed
signalized intersections, resulting in
transposed operation between the ramp
terminal intersections. The transposing
enables the left-turning movements onto
the freeway or interchange to become free Figure 4.11 Diverging Diamond
from conflicts with opposing crossroad Interchange
through traffic. The form results in the

9
elimination of the left-turn conflict with opposing through traffic, which should improve its
safety performance. Because the number of these in place is few, sufficient data do not
yet exist to characterize their safety performance. The other advantage of transposing the
movements is that the traffic signal operates in simple two-phase manner. The DDI thus has
the operational advantages of the PARCLO (see discussion in Clauses 4.2.4 and 4.2.5) and
the spatial and footprint advantages of the diamond.
Figure 4.12 Diverging Diamond Interchange
The first DDIs were constructed in Europe. The DDI underwent substantial testing in the
U.S. before widespread implementation there. Driver acceptance and understanding of the
transposing of traffic movements was laboratory tested and found to be readily understood
by drivers (FHWA, 2007). The interchange form is now widely used where space is limited
and turning volumes high.
The DDI may be constructed with crossroad under, as shown in Figure 4.12, or crossroad
over. Key design issues include the availability of right-of-way and access control along the
crossroad approaches to provide both width and length for separating the opposing directions
of travel, allowing development of two skewed crossover intersections. This interchange
form may be particularly appropriate in a reconstruction setting where development has
precluded the ability to develop loop ramps, but both ramp and through traffic volumes are
higher than can be accommodated by conventional or constrained diamond forms.
4.2.4 Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges

A partial cloverleaf (PARCLO) interchange is one in which there are at least one and no more
than three loop ramps. Figure 4.13 shows the various forms of PARCLO interchanges.

9
In the context of service interchanges, a loop ramp serves to improve the capacity and
operational efficiency of the interchange by eliminating a left-turning movement at a
signalized intersection. For high volume service interchanges with traffic signal control this
has the significant benefit of eliminating the need for one signal phase, resulting in simple
and highly efficient two-phase signal operation. The two basic forms with this advantage
are referred to as PARCLO A and PARCLO B.
Figure 4.13 Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges

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4.2.4.1 PARCLO A
The PARCLO A interchange employs a loop ramp for left-turning traffic from the crossroad to
the freeway or expressway. The ramp terminal intersections thus operate with only simple,
two-phase signals (ramp traffic, and crossroad traffic). With PARCLO A, the loop serves left-
turning traffic from the lower speed to higher speed highway. There are no left-turn lanes
for interchanging traffic. This allows a reduction in the median dimension that has both
right-of-way and structure cost benefits. In the typical case of a crossroad over freeway
PARCLO A, the loop ramp eliminates the need for left-turn storage on the structure over the
freeway, such as would be the case for a diamond, thus potentially reducing structure width
and cost by as much as four lane widths (assuming double left-turn lanes in both directions
of travel). For a crossroad under freeway PARCLO A, the lengths of the freeway bridges and
potentially the span lengths can be reduced, which presents profile benefits and reduced
structure costs compared with a diamond.
There are no left-turn conflicts with opposing through traffic with the PARCLO A.
The tradeoffs associated with the PARCLO A are its requirement for right-of-way in the two
quadrants in which loops are constructed, and the location of the ramp terminal intersection,
which may be farther along the crossroad than with a diamond ramp. Loop ramps offer the
opportunity for plantings and landscaping or storage of stormwater. Many agencies with
high volume service interchanges employ the PARCLO A as a standard design solution.
The critical design feature of a PARCLO A is

the loop ramp. The radius, its relationship
to the merge, and the width of loop ramp
all require careful consideration.
The PARCLO A may be designed with two

entrance ramps, as shown in Figure 4.14,
or with one. In the latter case, the loop
ramp is joined by the diamond ramp for
right turning traffic, which is then merged Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
as one entrance ramp to the expressway.
Figure 4.14 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A
4.2.4.2 PARCLO B
The PARCLO B interchange employs a loop ramp for left-turning traffic from the freeway to
the crossroad. With this configuration, all exiting traffic can operate as free (unsignalized)
movements. The loop ramp carries traffic from the higher speed to lower speed roadways. As
with the PARCLO A, the ramp terminal intersections operate under two-phase signalization.
The difference is that one phase handles left turns from the crossroad, and the other the
conflicting crossroad traffic. This configuration has the highest capacity of any two-level
interchange form. Crossroad through traffic encounters only one potential signal in either
direction.

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The preferred design for PARCLO B is

a single exit design (Figure 4.15). The
exit splits for right turning traffic and
the loop, with a stem road alignment
serving to help deceleration from the
high-speed expressway to the design
speed of the loop ramp. Because the loop
ramp carries traffic from higher speeds
to lower, PARCLO B is better suited to
crossroad over conditions for which the Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
loop ramps will be on upgrades rather Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
than downgrades. Figure 4.15 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B
The tradeoffs associated with the

PARCLO B as compared to the diamond involve its higher cost and right-of-way requirements.
These will exceed cost and right-of-way
for PARCLO A. In the preferred single exit
design, the structure over the freeway
must be longer as it crosses over the exit
ramps. The structure is the same width as
would be used for a diamond, as it must
carry queued left-turning traffic. As with
PARCLO A, there is right-of-way needed
in two quadrants (the opposing ones from
PARCLO A). Finally, the design criteria for Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
the PARCLO B loop ramp call for greater Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
radii, given that it is serving high speed to Figure 4.16 Two-Quadrant Partial
low speed traffic. Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A
4.2.4.3 Two-Quadrant PARCLO A and PARCLO B

Another variation of the PARCLO form is
the two-quadrant PARCLO (both A and B)
shown in Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17.
Directional ramps are not provided. Instead,
both the movements use the loop ramps.
For the two-quadrant PARCLO A, left turns
off the crossroad use the entering loops.
Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
For the two-quadrant PARCLO B, right Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
turning movements from the freeway use
Figure 4.17 Two-Quadrant Partial
the loop ramps and turn left at the ramp
Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B
terminal intersection.

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The two-quadrant forms should be used only to avoid expensive or otherwise unavailable
right-of-way in the quadrants in which the directional ramps are removed. They have the
disadvantages of increasing traffic volume on the lower capacity loop ramps and requiring
three-phase signalization. These forms may pose greater risk of wrong-way entry to the
freeway, as entering channelization is adjacent to the exit ramp terminal intersection.
4.2.4.4 One-Quadrant PARCLO

A PARCLO with one loop may be the best-
value solution in certain contexts. This
alternative may be considered if only
one left-turning movement is particularly
critical, or if right-of-way is available
for a loop in one quadrant but not the
corresponding one. Figure 4.18 shows an
example one-loop interchange. Operation Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
of the crossroad will require one ramp
terminal intersection to be two-phase and Figure 4.18 One-Quadrant Partial
the other to be three-phase. Cloverleaf (PARCLO)
In cases where the loop is a B loop (serving left-turning traffic from the freeway), it is
important that sufficient deceleration distance be provided through either single exit design
or placement of the loop ramp exit nose in advance of the structure, with a stem road of
80 m to 120 m.
4.2.4.5 PARCLO AB
The PARCLO AB form has two loops (Figure 4.19), with one serving crossroad left-turning
entering traffic as in PARCLO A, and the other serving freeway or expressway left-turning
traffic as in PARCLO B. This special form
has two basic applications. It may be
appropriate where the interchanging
crossroad has a parallel constraint, such
as a river or rail line, or if the right-of-
way along one side of the crossroad is
unavailable. The other application is for
situations in which a closely proximate
interchange occurs in one direction along
the freeway. PARCLO AB in effect shifts Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
both the potentially conflicting ramps Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
away from the proximate interchange—exit Figure 4.19 Partial Cloverleaf
in one direction, entrance in the other— (PARCLO) AB
thereby increasing weaving distance.

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4.2.5 Full Cloverleaf Interchanges

A full cloverleaf interchange (Figure 4.20)
employs loops for all four left-turning
movements. In this form, all traffic
is unstopped. The loop ramps form
weaving sections that generally are the
controlling traffic operational feature of
the interchange. Where traffic volumes
are even moderate, the full cloverleaf
creates the potential for substantial
Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
speed differentials along the high speed Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
mainline. In such cases, the use of CD roads
Figure 4.20 Full Cloverleaf Interchange
is considered a best practice. Operating
experience in many places demonstrates
that full cloverleaf interchanges produce greater frequencies of multi-vehicle crashes along
the mainline weaving sections than other forms that do not have weaving.
Full cloverleaf interchanges require substantial right-of-way in all four quadrants. Full
cloverleaf interchanges are difficult for pedestrians to navigate along the crossroad, as
traffic is unstopped and there are four ramps for them to cross if walking along the crossroad.
Given their space inefficiency and limited capacity associated with weaving, as well as the
difficulties posed to pedestrians, the full cloverleaf interchange is not recommended for
urban expressway service interchanging.
A full cloverleaf may be considered as a service interchange for rural freeways with moderate
volumes, less costly. Where a cloverleaf service interchange is designed, the use of CD roads
for the freeway is required. These provide for both single-exit design and removal of lower
speed weaving traffic from the higher speed freeway mainline. However, with these design
requirements, a rural freeway cloverleaf service interchange will take considerably more
right-of-way and have a much greater construction cost than other service forms suitable
for low to moderate volumes in rural conditions. Figure 4.21 shows a typical full cloverleaf
interchange.

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Source: Salwa Road, Google Earth, 2014
Figure 4.21 Example Full Cloverleaf Interchange
4.2.6 Three-Level Service Interchange Forms

In certain cases where turning movements or major arterial through movements are
particularly high, three-level service interchange designs may be considered.
4.2.6.1 Three-Level Diamonds

Figure 4.22 shows two types of three-level diamond interchanges. In both cases, the
interchange ramps are brought together at the middle level of the interchange with
expressway lanes typically on the lower level and the major arterial through traffic at
the third or top level. In a conventional three-level diamond, the ramps form a box of four
intersections, all signalized and coordinated. Each left-turning movement passes through
three of the four intersections, with the highest volume movements progressed. Spacing of
the intersections will vary but is generally on the order of 100 m to 150 m.

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Figure 4.22 Three-Level Diamonds
The second type of three-level diamond employs the concept of an SPDI. All left-turning
ramp movements come together at a single intersection at the middle level. The movements
are transposed as in a diverging diamond, so opposing left turns occur simultaneously on
one signal phase, and the intersection operates with a highly efficient, two-phase operation.
The tradeoffs in three-level diamond applications are between the high degree of traffic
service provided—all through movements and right turns are unstopped on both roadways,
and left turns are efficiently managed through simple signalization—and both the cost of the
interchange and the need for considerable access control along the major arterial for profile
development. Access control requirements along the crossroad may be on the order of 500 m
to 1,000 m, depending on the vertical alignment.
4.2.6.2 Three-level Roundabouts

Three-level roundabouts (Figure 4.23) may be more space efficient three-level interchanges
than the diamonds discussed above. The operation is similar to the three level diamonds in
that the ramp traffic is brought together at the middle level where movements are completed
using the roundabout. The roundabout can be single or multilane. It carries only ramp traffic
and no through traffic, which is on the first or third levels.

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Figure 4.23 Example Three-Level Roundabout
4.3 System Interchange Types

As defined in Clause 3.4.2.2, a system interchange is one between two fully access controlled
facilities. The types of interchanges applicable for modern freeway to freeway or expressway
interchanging have unique attributes:
• All movements are unstopped.

• All movements are provided in all directions.
• All exits and entrances are on the right.
• Single exits are provided (where possible).
• There is no weaving within the interchange.
• Adjacent or proximate service interchanges are separated from the system ramps.
All the above attributes are considered requirements for system interchanges on the Qatar
network. The Overseeing Organization will approve only interchange concepts that include
these attributes. Detailed design should not proceed until the Overseeing Organization has
fully reviewed and approved the system interchange concept plan.
System interchanges are often the most critical point locations of a roadway network. They
frequently carry substantial volume of turning movements. For this reason, the desirable
design feature of single-exit design may not be possible in every instance. Where both left
and right turning volumes are very high, it may be necessary to develop separate exit ramps
for each movement.

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Figure 4.24 shows a modern system interchange between two high volume expressways.
The basic types of system interchanges are classified as three-leg or four-leg, depending on
the number of approaches.
Figure 4.24 System Interchange between Two Urban Expressways
4.3.1 Three-Leg System Interchanges

A three-leg system interchange will apply where one freeway or expressway terminates at
another. There are two basic forms: T- or Y-type, and trumpets.
4.3.1.1 T- or Y-Type
The T- or Y-type interchange (Figure 4.25) employs directional ramps for all movements.
These are designed to higher speeds. This interchange form generally requires up to three
levels, depending on the ramp arrangements and relationships of the crossing roadways.

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Figure 4.25 Directional T- and Y-Interchanges
4.3.1.2 Trumpets
The trumpet form (Figure 4.26) employs one loop ramp for one direction of traffic between
the through or continuous freeway and the terminating one. An ’A’ loop design carries left-
turning traffic from the terminating freeway to the continuous freeway. A ’B’ loop design
carries left-turning traffic from the continuous freeway to a terminating or beginning
freeway. All other ramps are directional in nature.
The advantages of loop ramps in system interchanging are twofold:
• The interchange need be only one level, which will better facilitate ramp profile
development and reduce the construction cost.
• Traffic and ramps entering or exiting the continuous freeway may be better located
relative to upstream or downstream proximate ramps by use of the loop.

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Figure 4.26 T- and Y-Interchanges—Trumpet Form
The loop ramp will be designed to a lower design speed than a comparable movement for the
T- or Y-type interchange. The following are considerations in selecting an ‘A’ loop vs. ‘B’ loop
design:
• Availability of right-of-way.
• Relative design traffic volumes, favoring the use a loop ramp for the lower design traffic.
• Traffic composition, favoring higher volumes of truck and bus traffic on directional
rather than loop ramps.
• Location of upstream and downstream ramps along the continuous freeway.
• Vertical relationship between the two freeways, giving preference to an upgrade loop
ramp alignment rather than downgrade, as the latter condition has increased risk of
truck overturning.
4.3.1.3 Design Considerations in Selecting a Three-Leg System Interchange

Selection of the appropriate three-leg interchange generally depends on the availability of
right-of-way and on constraints or conditions created by upstream and downstream adjacent
ramps along the continuous expressway or freeway. Without ramp constraints and assuming
that right-of-way is available, trumpet forms generally produce reasonable traffic service at
a lower construction cost than T- or Y-type forms.
For three-leg intersections with ramp volumes requiring two-lane ramps, the T- or Y-type
form generally is favored because the directional ramps are more readily designed for two
lanes.

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4.3.2 Four-Leg System Interchanges

Four-leg system interchanges are formed where two expressways or freeways cross.
Typical conditions reflected in the existing and planned Qatar freeway and expressway
system are for both crossing facilities to be continuous in terms of route designation. The
interchange forms discussed below are applicable to such typical conditions. Where a marked
or designated route makes a turn through an interchange, special designs are required to
maintain the continuity of the route.
4.3.2.1 Fully Directional Four-Leg Interchanges

Figure 4.27 shows eight fully directional interchanges that are functionally the same form,
as they all embody the characteristics noted above for modern system interchanges, and in
every case all ramps are directional in nature.
Figure 4.27 Fully-Directional System Interchanges
The examples differ in terms of right-of-way footprint and vertical alignment requirement.
Interchange A is a full four-level interchange. The crossing roadways and left-turning
directional ramps all cross at the same location, necessitating four full levels. This design is
the most space efficient of the forms. Interchange H provides left-turning ramp geometry
more spread out, with multiple individual crossing points for each ramp. This form can be
designed to as low as two to two and one-half levels, saving considerably on structure costs.
However, Interchange H requires significantly more right-of-way.
Configurations A and B are sometimes referred to as a “California Stack” because of their

prevalence in that U.S. state at high-volume system locations. Configuration H is often
referred to as a turbine interchange. The other configurations (C through F) illustrate that

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a fully directional interchange can be designed many different ways to fit the context.
For example, interchanges E and F show ramps offset or asymmetrical. This solution may
be necessary because of location-specific right-of-way constraints or proximate service
interchange ramps. Even with such a design, the basic functionality of the interchange
remains the same.
4.3.2.2 Four-Leg Interchanges Including Loops

Figure 4.28 shows four-leg interchanges in which one or more loops are used. As is the case
with the trumpet interchange, the advantages of loop ramps are they eliminate one level,
and they enable merging traffic farther upstream, which may be necessary given proximate
ramps. Interchanges G and H have the most levels, with as many as three.
System interchanges may be designed with one, two, or three loops. A three-loop interchange
would require a CD road between the loop ramps in a system application. Figure 4.29 shows
a one-loop system interchange reconstructed from a full cloverleaf interchange at which
traffic operational problems and a history of crashes led to the need to reconfigure and
reconstruct the interchange.
In most cases, system interchange loop ramps will be designed for one lane of traffic.
However, there is successful experience in two-lane loop ramp design and operation.
4.3.2.3 Full Cloverleaf System Interchanges

A full cloverleaf interchange may be considered, but typically only in rural settings where
right-of-way is available. A full cloverleaf system interchange shall be designed with CD
roads along both freeway mainlines in both directions to remove slower speed weaving
traffic from the higher speed mainline.
4.3.2.4 Design Considerations in Selection of Four-Leg System Interchange Types

Design of system interchanges requires great care. These point locations are usually among
the most critical operational points on the overall roadway system. The design requirements,
including number of levels and right-of-way, can result in considerably high construction
costs and long, multi-year construction periods.
4.3.3 Special Design Issues for System Interchanges

Site-specific traffic, design, and environmental studies must be done to determine the best
solution. These generally will need to include and consider the next adjacent interchange
on all approaches. Given the costs and potentially great effects of these interchanges, such
studies should be conducted so as to allow full investigation of potential different concept
alternatives.

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Figure 4.28 Directional Interchange Types with Two Loops

9
Source: Ohio Department of Transportation
Figure 4.29 One Loop System Interchange
4.3.3.1 Separation of System and Service Interchanging Ramps

An important aspect of system interchange design is maintaining the quality of traffic
flow associated with all system movements. In urban expressway applications, service
interchanging may be desired or already exist close to the system location. To the extent
possible, designers should strive to separate service and system interchanging movements.
Local congestion and backups associated with the service interchange should not inhibit
traffic flow through the system interchange. This is done by grade separating the
movements using ramp braids and providing completely separate and appropriate spaced
exit ramps (Figure 4.30). The fully directional system interchange is near but fully separated
operationally from the SPDI service interchange to the right.
Separation of exits in particular is important for simple and understandable signing. System
interchanges designed in close proximity or combined with service interchanges shall
separate system and service interchange ramps, with such separation meeting the minimum
criteria for ramp spacing. The Overseeing Organization will review and approve only plans for
freeways that fully separate system and service movements.

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Figure 4.30 Example of System and Service Interchanging with Full Design and
Operational Separation of Ramps
4.3.3.2 Avoid Transposing Exit Ramps

The arrangement of exit ramp design for T- or Y-type interchanges or where two-exit
designs are employed should meet driver expectations. At the terminating roadway of a T- or
Y-type interchange, the terminating roadway alignment splits into two ramps that join the
continuous roadway in each direction. Driver expectations at any interchange are that the
ramp departing to the right carries traffic movements to the right, and the ramp departing
to the left carries traffic movements to the left. This expectation applies also to four-leg
intersections. For example, in a two-exit cloverleaf interchange the first exit is for traffic
to the right and the second, the loop ramp, for traffic to the left. Designers should avoid
the transposing of ramps (see Figure 4.31) unless significant right-of-way or other physical
constraints exist, as this violates these basic driver expectations.
Figure 4.31 Transposed Ramps (Avoid)

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4.3.3.3 Principles of Sustainability Applied to System Interchanges

Multi-level system interchanges produce long-term assets to be maintained by the Overseeing
Organization. In selecting a configuration through a design study, the designer may be
establishing numerous bridges (including bridge decks, piers and related infrastructure),
retaining walls, tens of lane-kilometers of pavement and shoulder, hundreds of meters of
barriers and appurtenances, and countless drainage structures to be maintained in a state of
good repair for the long term. Effort should be made to develop an interchange footprint that
serves the intended transportation needs yet minimizes the resources and potential adverse
effects of such a significant project.
Interchange geometry, placement of lighting and signing, and other features can minimize
guardrail and barrier, thus reducing maintenance costs and improving safety performance.
Loop ramps and infield space provide opportunities for stormwater management and
landscaping.
4.3.3.4 System Interchange Concepts for Non-system Interchanges

The system interchange concepts and configurations discussed above may be applied to
interchanges between freeways and expressways, and also to major arterials that are not
fully access controlled. Such applications may be appropriate where major arterial forecast
traffic volumes are high and there is sufficient distance along the major arterial for ramp
merging and exiting to occur away from signalized intersections, roundabouts, or major
commercial driveways.

9

9
5 Geometric Design Requirements

for Interchange Ramps
Design for roadway elements is presented in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual. As interchange ramps are special design features, the details of ramps are
covered in this section.
5.1 Elements of Ramps

Ramps consist of three basic elements: the exit or point of diverge, the ramp proper, and the
merge or ramp terminus.
5.1.1 Diverge
The ramp diverge includes the taper, deceleration lane and distance, gore, and physical nose
(see Figure 5.1). The taper and deceleration lane provide for physical separation of traffic
leaving the expressway or freeway, and enable the driver to decelerate in a manner away
from the higher speed through traffic. The gore and physical nose are specific locations
denoting where the geometry of the exit or diverge taper is controlled.
Appendix B contains additional details for typical exit ramps.
Source: Based on Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Figure 5.1 Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-flow Ramp Exit Terminal
5.1.1.1 Location of the Diverge

Exit ramps may be located at any point along a mainline alignment. The location of an exit
ramp may be influenced by the presence of upstream or downstream ramps. In locating
an exit ramp, care should be taken to avoid situations that may surprise a driver or create
difficulties in developing ramp superelevation or profiles. For example, consider Figure 5.2
Case A. For a mainline alignment in which a horizontal curve is introduced, designers should
strive to locate the exit either well in advance of the initial point of curvature of the curve,

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or well beyond it. This mitigates the potential for unfamiliar or fatigued drivers inadvertently
follow the exit when it is designed as an extension of the mainline tangent. For diverge
geometry following a horizontal curve, the designer should locate the exit nose such that
appropriate superelevation and transitions can be designed. In advance of the nose, the right
edge of pavement will continue the mainline superelevation rate. The examples of preferred
location in Cases B and C in Figure 5.2 reflect the need for ramp proper superelevation to be
developed once the alignment is past the nose.
Another consideration in locating an exit is its visibility to the driver. Provision of decision
sight distance is preferred. In particular, for cases in which the crossroad is under the freeway
and the freeway’s vertical alignment is on an upgrade, it is desirable for the exit nose and
diverge geometry to be located on the upgrade so that it is clearly visible to the driver.
Figure 5.2 Alignment Considerations in Location of Exits

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5.1.1.2 Diverge End Details

The diverge end or physical nose is the point where the independent alignment of the ramp
proper begins. Prior to the physical nose, the alignment of the diverge, both horizontally
and vertically, is tied to the mainline geometry. Once the exit ramp alignment reaches the
physical nose, it becomes mathematically independent of the freeway.
The cross-section dimensions at the physical nose should be fixed. As measured from the
right edge of mainline traveled way, this dimension should equal the full right shoulder of
the freeway (3.0 m), a nose width of 1.2 m to 2.4 m, and the full left shoulder. The
wider separation should be used on rural freeway exits and other exits where space
is available. In locations where space is limited, such as urban expressways, the
lower dimension may be used. Figure 5.3 shows the details of the exit ramp diverge.
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011)
Figure 5.3 Typical Exit Gore Area Detail
Appropriate vertical geometry and ramp pavement edge elevations are critical aspects of
the design of the exit ramp as it diverges from the mainline. The ramp and gore should
be designed to prevent ponding and to avoid abrupt changes in cross slope between the
mainline, gore area, and ramp. The difference in slope from one element to the next should
be 8 percent or less.
Special care is needed for cases in which the mainline alignment is in sag vertical curvature at
or near the physical nose, or when the mainline geometry is on a horizontal curve to the left.
Ahead of the physical nose, the taper or deceleration lane may need to carry superelevation
in the same direction as the mainline. If the ramp proper alignment curves to the left near
the nose (see Case 2 in Figure 5.2), reversing the direction of superelevation for the ramp
may be difficult. In setting the final design, it may be necessary to shift the location of the
physical nose to enable reasonable cross slopes and ramp pavement edge profiles. It also
may be necessary to adjust the alignment of the ramp proper to enable its superelevation.

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5.1.1.3 Design for Deceleration

Exit ramps can be designed as either taper-type designs or parallel exit designs. A taper
rate of 3.8 degrees is recommended and thus is preferred. However, taper rates of 2 degrees
through 5 degrees may be used without requiring a Departure from Standards. For cases in
which the diverge occurs on a horizontal curve as in Figure 5.2, the offsets from the mainline
edge of pavement should be based on the desired taper rate (preferably 3.8 degrees).
Taper-type exits are preferred, because as drivers decelerate, they also move laterally away
from the higher speed mainline traffic. Taper type exits should be used on rural freeway
interchanges and where right-of-way is limited. Parallel-type exits may be used where right-
of-way is available, and their use facilitates ramp proper alignment. Either type of design is
acceptable. The use of parallel exit ramp designs does not require a Departure from Standards.
The critical design feature of the exit regardless of type is the length of deceleration provided
to drivers. This length is a function of the design speed of the freeway or expressway and
the location of the first controlling alignment element (typically a horizontal curve) on the
ramp proper. Table 5.1 shows minimum design values for deceleration lengths for both types
of exit designs given these conditions. Adjustment factors for grades are given in Table 5.7.
Research confirms that crash frequencies on exit ramps are related to the length of
deceleration provided. Designers are encouraged to lengthen the deceleration dimension
in cases where exiting design volumes are high or the costs of doing so are minimal. Use of
design values less than the minimum values in Table 5.1 shall require a Departure from

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Table 5.1 Deceleration Distances for Taper and Parallel Exit Ramps
Deceleration Length, L (m) for Design Speed of Exit Curves, V’

(kph)
Stop
Highway Condition 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Design Speed For Average Running Speed on Exit Curve V’a (kph)
Speed, V Reached,
(kph) Va (kph) 0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 47 75 70 60 45 — — — —
60 55 95 90 80 65 55 — — —
70 63 110 105 95 85 70 55 — —
80 70 130 125 115 100 90 80 55 —
90 77 145 140 135 120 110 100 75 60
100 85 170 165 155 145 135 120 100 85
110 91 180 180 170 160 150 140 120 105
120 98 200 195 185 175 170 155 140 120
130 102 220 210 200 190 185 170 160 135
140 110 240 225 215 205 195 185 175 150
PC = Point controlling speed at ramp
Source: Based on A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018)

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5.1.2 Ramp Proper

The ramp proper is that part of the ramp beginning at the physical nose and ending at either
the merging end (described below) or the ramp terminal intersection. The ramp proper
alignment is independent of the freeway. Design speed criteria are presented in Table 3.5
for service interchanges and Table 3.7 for system interchanges.
5.1.2.1 Exit Ramp Proper Alignment

Speeds on service exit ramps will transition from the mainline operating speed to the speed
associated with the ramp terminal intersection. This will be 0 kph (stopped condition)
for stop-controlled, signal-controlled, and roundabout ramp terminals with yield to entry
operation.
In addition to selecting an appropriate design speed, the design of the controlling alignment
contributes to desired speed behavior. Controlling curvature shall begin beyond the physical
nose but preferably should be downstream from the nose. The design assumption is that
drivers decelerate from design speed on the ramp before reaching the painted gore.
Research on safety performance of exit ramps suggests that designing the controlling
curve well beyond the physical nose improves deceleration and contributes to lower crash
frequencies (Texas Transportation Institute, 2012). At a minimum, the controlling curve shall
not begin ahead of the physical nose. Figure 5.4 provides guidance on locating the controlling
curve relative to the painted gore. Recommended values range from 80 m to 150 m, with the
greater dimension associated with higher speeds and greater speed differentials between
the mainline design speed and ramp design speed. For example, an exit ramp with a design
speed of 70 kph leaving a freeway with a design speed of 120 kph should be designed such
that the PC of the curve begins at least 100 m from the painted gore. Table 5.2 presents
good practice to facilitate comfortable deceleration and speed transition.
Figure 5.4 Guidelines for the location of the Controlling Horizontal Curve on Exit
Ramps Proper

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Table 5.2 Recommended Minimum Design Values for Location of Controlling

Horizontal Curve on Exit Ramps—Painted Gore to Point of Curvature, in
meters
Exit Ramp Design Speeda (kph)

Freeway Design Speed
(kph) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
100 130 110 90 80
120 140 120 100 80
140* 150 120 100 90 80

Notes:
a
Initial curve beyond physical nose.
Source: Adapted from Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005).
In designing exit ramps on urban expressways and higher volume freeway exits in which
queuing is expected at the traffic signal or roundabout approach, the length of ramp should
reflect driver needs associated with lane changing and deceleration to the back of the
queue. A suggested basis for design is a 95th percentile queue for design traffic, which can
be obtained from operational analyses of the crossroad ramp terminal.
5.1.2.2 Horizontal Curvature

Right-of-way is often limited where interchanges are desired. Certain efficient interchange
types may require relatively sharp curvature. For service interchange design, the use of
horizontal curves for loop ramps with superelevation of up to 8 percent is allowable for
entrance ramps only if such use enables a highly efficient form, such as a PARCLO A.
Because of the unique aspects of ramps, the operational and safety implications of curves
vary significantly and hence should be addressed in selection of controlling curvature.
Entrance ramps from lower speed arterials present different risk profiles than exit ramps
from high-speed freeways or expressways. In addition, given that ramps generally will have
grades of more than 3 percent, the effect of grade on curve operations should be considered.
Exit ramps with curvature on downgrades will operate differently than those on upgrades.
Table 5.3 lists minimum radii for controlling horizontal curves on exit ramps for 5 percent and
7 percent superelevation. For downgrade exit ramps where the grade on the approach to
the controlling curve is greater than 2 percent (which are typical in crossroad under freeway
designs), curvature using the 5 percent superelevation values shall control the design.
For flatter downgrades and exit ramps on upgrades where the grade helps decelerate the
vehicle, the smaller radius curves associated with 7 percent superelevation values may be
used without the need for a Departure from Standards. For entrance ramps from lower speed
crossroads only, superelevation rates of 8 percent may be used without a Departure from
Standards for ramp design speeds of 40 to 60 kph. See also Section 3.4 in this Part.

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Table 5.3 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves on Ramps at Interchanges
Minimum Radius for Maximum Superelevation

of:
Design Minimum Radius for
Speed Maximum Superelevation of
(kph) 5% 7% 8%a
40 115 75 80
50 180 130 115
60 255 185 160
70 360 260
80 455 325
90 575 410
100 720 515
110 860 615
Notes:
a
Service Interchange entrance loop ramps only.
5.1.2.3 Stopping Sight Distance on Ramp Horizontal Curves

Provision for SSD is a design requirement for all roadways including ramps. There are unique
design challenges associated with ramps on structure such as may occur with system
interchanges. Horizontal SSD is described in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual. Limitations in SSD may occur with an obstruction or design feature along the
inside of the curve. For ramps on structure designed with typical widths described above for
roadway and shoulder, it is generally the case that the offset provided by half the ramp width
plus shoulder width will be insufficient to provide full SSD per design requirements outlined
in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. The combination of barrier,
parapet, and ramp profile may interfere with the design sightline. Table 5.4 demonstrates
the extent of this design problem for minimum radius curves for the range of ramp design
speeds.

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Table 5.4 Horizontal Sight Distance and Curvature for Ramps on Structure
Equivalent Speed for SSD

SSD Provided by Typical Provided by Typical Ramp
Design Stopping Ramp Widtha (m) Width (kph)
Speed Sight Offset (m)
of Ramp Distance to Provide Left Right
(kph) (m) SSD Curve Curve Left Curve Right Curve
40 50 4.00 39.3 54.8 32.3 43.2
50 65 4.47 46.4 67.4 37.8 51.2
60 85 5.53 52.3 79.2 45.2 57.1
70 105 5.24 61.4 100.5 54.5 67.8
80 130 6.43 66.5 112.3 58.6 72.9
90 160 7.74 71.9 126.0 63.6 78.4
100 185 8.25 77.1 141.1 69.2 83.7
110 220 9.77 81.3 154.1 73.1 88.0
Note:
a
For one-lane ramp with lane width of 4.8 m, left shoulder of 1.2 m and right shoulder of 2.4 m.
Unless special measures are taken, the available SSD may be significantly short of that
required for the design speed of the ramp. In Table 5.4, a deficiency in the available vs design
speed is colored yellow if the deficiency is less than 10 kph, orange if it is from 10 to 20 kph,
and red if it is greater than 20 kph.
For controlling curvature and higher design speeds, the required offset to provide full SSD
generally is impractical. For example, a ramp with design speed of 90 kph will need an offset
of 7.74 m. Widening a bridge to provide this dimension will be both costly and difficult in
three dimensions, as the bridge deck will be on full superelevation. This will significantly
affect vertical clearances for undercrossing roads or require the ramp profile to be raised,
with raising of all other elements including potentially third or fourth level bridges.
Resolution of this design challenge typically will involve a Departure from Standards for
SSD on the ramp as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this
Manual. The following guidance is suggested to optimize the design process:
• Most importantly, designers are encouraged to select design speeds for which an SSD
value close to that required can reasonably be provided, particularly for left curves.
The basis for horizontal curvature is the driver’s comfort. Balancing driver comfort with
available SSD may mean selecting a lower design speed.
• The combination of curve radius and profile can greatly influence the length of ramp
alignment over which the sight restriction will occur. Designers should develop sight
distance profiles to be able to quantify the length of alignment at risk.
• Care should be taken to avoid design of a ramp split along a horizontal curve that has
limited SSD.

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• Risk analysis and research on SSD suggests that an SSD deficiency of 10 kph
desirably, and no more than 20 kph may be acceptable from a risk and cost perspective
(Transportation Research Record 923). Designers should strive for the lesser deficiency
(10 kph or less) for higher speed ramps.
• Additional offset and resulting SSD can be provided by widening the inside shoulder of
the curve beyond the typical width dimension. For curves to the left, a designer may
swap or transfer some shoulder width dimension from the wider right shoulder to the
left shoulder, where it will contribute to increased SSD without increasing the structure
width. Some combination of these two solutions may be considered.
• For two-lane ramps with SSD restrictions, some part of the traffic will be in a lane
that provides additional offset and hence additional available SSD. As drivers tend to
distribute themselves in a way that favors the right lane, two-lane right curves will be
have more traffic in the more sight-restricted right lane than left curves.
Depending on the solution designed, a Departure from Standards for SSD, right
ramp shoulder width, or both may be required as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process, of this Manual. This design challenge is common for system
interchanges, and, as such, it is best discussed with the Overseeing Organization at the
outset of the project when design criteria are being established.
5.1.2.4 Grades
Design criteria for maximum grades of interchange ramps are shown in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Interchange Ramp Grades
Grade
Interchange Type Desirable Maximum

Service Interchange 4 6
System Interchange 4 5
Ramp vertical alignment will include vertical curvature or a spline alignment at merging end
or physical nose, the alignment of which should be coordinated with the freeway mainline
as discussed above. Vertical curvature should be designed for a speed no less than 20 kph
less than the design speed of the mainline, reflecting speed behavior along the ramp as
it exits or enters the freeway. For service interchanges, there will be vertical curvature
connecting the ramp grade to that of the crossroad intersection. Best practices are for exit
ramps to be designed with relatively flat grade (typically extending the cross slope of the
crossroad), which serves as a platform for queued vehicles and facilitates their discharge
into the intersection or roundabout from a stopped position. Entrance ramps to be metered
should be designed so that the stop bar of the meter is on a relatively level grade, generally
no steeper than 2 percent. The design criteria above apply to both upgrade and downgrade
ramps for both exits and entrances.

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Minimum grades, established to provide for drainage of the pavement, are 0.5 percent
desirable and 0.3 percent minimum.
Grades not meeting the maximum and minimum criteria shall require a Departure from
5.1.2.5 Length of Ramps Proper

The controlling factors governing ramp lengths include the grade to effect a change in
levels and traffic operational factors. In lower volume rural service interchanges, the vertical
alignment requirements generally will govern minimum ramp lengths. For typical conditions
and maximum grades, exit ramp lengths will generally be 250 m to 300 m. There is no
standard minimum length of ramp.
Exit ramps on high-volume service interchanges will experience queuing during design hour
traffic. Queuing will be based on the type of traffic control at the crossroad ramp terminal
and the channelization (number and allocation of lanes). Ramps that widen into three or
more lanes at a signal-controlled approach require drivers to shift lanes to make their desired
turning movements. Traffic operational analyses to support ramp design should produce
predicted 95th percentile queues for design hour traffic and lane arrangements. Designers
should provide sufficient ramp length to accommodate deceleration and lane changing to
the back of a 95th percentile queue.
5.1.3 Merge
The ramp merge includes the merging end, known also as “physical nose”, entrance gore,
acceleration distance and lane, and taper (Figure 5.5). The acceleration lane and taper
provide for physical separation of traffic entering the expressway or freeway, and enable the
driver to accelerate safely away from the higher speed through traffic. The gore and merging
end are specific locations denoting where the geometry of the ramp proper is no longer
independent, but rather controlled in three dimensions by the geometry of the mainline.
Source: Based on Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Figure 5.5 Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-Flow Ramp for Entrance
Terminal
Appendix B contains additional design details for entrance ramps.

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5.1.3.1 Location of Merge

Entrance ramps may be located at any point along a mainline alignment. The location of
an entrance ramp may be influenced by the presence of upstream or downstream ramps.
Separate entrances in many cases are preferred operationally as they better distribute
the traffic volume entering the freeway. The location of the second exit, however, will be
influenced by both the upstream entrance and the next downstream exit, the combination
of which creates a potential weaving section. In locating multiple separate entrance ramps,
designers should study and test the local system of ramps using the ramp spacing design
criteria in Figure 2.2, which addresses both successive entrances and weaving dimensions.
In locating an entrance ramp, care should be taken to avoid situations that may create
difficulties in development of ramp superelevation or profiles. Entrance ramps should be
located and designed in concert with the vertical alignment of the mainline to the extent
possible. Downgrade alignment facilitates the acceleration of merging vehicles to the
mainline speed. For cases in which the merging end must be designed along an upgrade
because of ramp spacing, bridge, or right-of-way concerns, the acceleration lane should be
lengthened to counteract the adverse effects of the upgrade on acceleration.
5.1.3.2 Merging End Details

The merging end is the point where the independent alignment of the ramp proper ends,
with alignment from this point tied directly to the mainline geometry. The separation
between the ramp and mainline at the ramp nose should include the left shoulder of the
ramp, physical nose with a diameter of 0.3 m to 0.6 m (width of 0.6 m to 1.2 m), and right
shoulder of the mainline (Figure 5.5). See also Appendix B. In cases where the ramp and or
mainline shoulder dimensions are narrowed, the separation is reduced by that amount, but
the physical nose dimension itself is not to be reduced. See Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 Typical Single-lane Entrance Ramp

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Appropriate vertical geometry and ramp pavement edge elevations are critical aspects of the
design of the ramp as it merges to the mainline. The ramp and gore should be designed to
prevent ponding and to avoid abrupt changes in slope between the mainline, gore, and ramp.
Special care is needed for cases in which the mainline alignment is in sag vertical curvature
at the merging end, or when the mainline geometry is on a horizontal curve to the left. In
setting the final design, it may be necessary to shift the location of the merging end to
enable reasonable cross slopes and ramp pavement edge profiles.
5.1.3.3 Design for Acceleration

Entrance ramps can be designed as taper-type or as parallel exit designs. Figure 5.6 shows
the layout for a taper-type design with a merging rate of 50:1 relative to the mainline. For
cases in which the merge occurs on a horizontal curve, the offsets from the mainline edge of
pavement should be based on the desired departure rate of 50:1. The design basis for merging
is the assumption that each merging vehicle operates independently and has sufficient gaps
in lane one traffic to enable merging. The lengths provided for merging reflect the combined
effects of passenger car capabilities and of driver comfort and desires in acceleration.

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Table 5.6 Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades of
Two Percent or Less
Acceleration Length, L (m) for Entrance Curve Design Speed (kph)
Stop
Highway Condition 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
and Initial Speed, V’a (kph)

Design Speed
Speed, Reached,
V (kph) Va (kph) 0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 37 60 50 30 — — — — —
60 45 95 80 65 45 — — — —
70 53 150 130 110 90 65 — — —
80 60 200 180 165 145 115 65 — —
90 67 260 245 225 205 175 125 35 —
100 74 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
110 81 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
120 88 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
130 98 650 635 605 590 575 550 445 365
140 105 760 745 720 710 695 675 585 500
Note:
Uniform 50:1 to 70:1 tapers are recommended where lengths of acceleration lanes exceed 400 m.
PT = Tangent Point
Source: Based on A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011)

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Table 5.7 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade
Design Deceleration Length

Speed of
Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Level for Design Speed of Turning
(kph) Curve (kph)1
3 to 4% upgrade 0.9 3 to 4% downgrade 1.2

All Speeds
5 to 6% upgrade 0.8 5 to 6% downgrade 1.35
Design Acceleration Lanes

Speed of
Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length of Level for Design Speed of Turning
(kph) Curve (kph)1
40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
3 to 4 % Upgrade 3 to 4 % Downgrade
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.7
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6
100 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
140 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 0.6
5 to 6 % Upgrade 5 to 6 % Downgrade
60 1.5 1.5 0.6
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 0.6
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.5
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5
120 2.15 2.35 2.8 3.2 3.5 0.5
140 2.6 2.8 3.3 3.5 3.8 0.5
Note:
1.
Ratio from this table multiplied by the length in Table 5.6 gives length of speed change lane on grade.
Source: Based on Table 10-5 in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018)

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According to the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010), the capacity of a merge is based on
the density of traffic in the two rightmost lanes (lanes one and two). As volume and density
increase, through traffic in lane one shifts to lane two upstream of the entrance to avoid
conflict with traffic merging into lane one. Capacity is reached when gaps are no longer
available in lane two for lane changing, and the gaps for merging in lane one are insufficient
for the ramp demand volume. Established design conditions in the QHDM are intended to
enable merging to occur under volume and densities well short of the capacity of the merge,
which is LOS E (TRB, 2010). When such conditions are anticipated, higher capacity entrance
designs are necessary as discussed below.
Research into human behavior has shown that older drivers are more comfortable merging
at high speed on parallel-type entrances rather than taper-type (NCHRP, 2012). For cases in
which merging volume and mainline volumes are relatively high (for example, at the limits
of LOS C), parallel-type exits are considered preferred. Even at a 50:1 rate, the right edge of
pavement represents a forced merge condition, versus a parallel-type design in which driver
can remain in their lane and adjust their speed while awaiting a gap in the adjacent lane one.
Both taper-type and parallel-type entrances are considered acceptable for any freeway
or expressway interchange. Parallel-type entrances are encouraged on higher volume
expressway entrance ramps.
Research on the safety performance of interchange elements confirms that crash frequencies
on entrance ramps are related to the length of acceleration provided (Texas Transportation
Institute, 2012). Designers are encouraged to lengthen the acceleration dimension in cases
where entering design volumes are high or the costs of doing so are minimal. Entrance
merges on upgrades greater than 2 percent should be increased to counteract the adverse
acceleration effects of grade on vehicles. Acceleration length design values in Table 5.6,
including appropriate adjustments for grade, are minimums. Use of values less than
these requires a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from
Standards Process, of this Manual. Adjustment factors for grade are given in Table 5.7.
5.1.4 Ramp Design for High Volumes and Lane Balance

Interchange ramps may need to be designed for two lanes of traffic. Two-lane ramps provide
for design traffic demand in excess of the capacity of a single lane merge or diverge, or to
produce a lane-balanced design for the addition or removal of an auxiliary lane.
5.1.4.1 High Capacity Exit Ramps

Figure 5.7 shows the geometry for a two-lane exit. There are two ways to develop a properly
lane-balanced two-lane. One approach is to drop an auxiliary lane that may have been added
at an upstream entrance ramp. This rightmost lane becomes an exit-only lane and is marked
and signed accordingly. The lane to the left becomes the optional lane; the driver may either
exit or proceed through on the mainline. The second approach is to develop an auxiliary lane
on the approach. The auxiliary lane should be at least 450 m long to give drivers sufficient

9
distance to shift lanes and access the lane well in advance of the exit. This dimension also
provides for the necessary advance signing associated with such exits.
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018), Figure 10-77.
Figure 5.7 Two-lane Exit Design
5.1.4.2 High Capacity Entrance Ramps

Entrance ramps with capacity greater than a conventional merge (see Figure 5.8) include
ramps that add a continuous auxiliary lane, and two-lane ramps. With the former, the lane
adds to the freeway. For a parallel-type entrance, the full lane continues for additional
length, or until the next downstream exit where it is dropped at a two-lane exit, as described
in Clause 5.1.4.1. With a taper-type design, the taper ends where the outside edge of
pavement is a full lane width (3.65 m), at which point the lane continues as an auxiliary
lane. Lane ramps can have capacity approaching that of freeway lanes (1,800 to 2,200 vph
per lane) depending on ramp speed and the capacity of upstream and downstream freeway
segment (TRB, 2010).
A ramp designed for two lanes can be merged to one lane and then added to the freeway or
expressway. Merging of the two lanes can be completed with a 40:1 to 50:1 taper (based on
design speed) in advance of the merging end of the single added lane.
When entering volumes exceed the capacity of an added lane, a two-lane entrance may
be designed (Figure 5.8). The two lanes add to the freeway as auxiliary lanes and are then
dropped downstream. The capacity of the entrance is directly a function of the length of
each auxiliary lane beyond the physical merge.

9
Source: Based on A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2018), Figure 10-77.
Figure 5.8 Two-lane Entrance Design
5.1.4.3 Major Forks and Merges

The design of exits and entrances assumes primacy of one roadway over the other. A lesser
roadway (ramp) exits from or enters onto the major roadway. Where two roadways are
equivalent in importance, their design should reflect such equivalence when they diverge or
merge. A major fork is the splitting of a roadway into two equivalent and separate roadways
(Figure 5.9). Major forks should be located on a tangent or very mild curve. The diverge angle
is less severe than an exit. The geometry should support operating speeds no less than
20 kph below the design speed of the pre-split roadway. Decision sight distance should be
provided in advance of major forks.
Figure 5.10 shows the merging of two major roadways. The same design principles apply
with respect to the alignment at the point of merge.

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Figure 5.9 Diagram of Major Forks

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Figure 5.10 Diagram of Major Merge
5.2 Ramp Cross Section Dimensions

Ramps may be one-lane or two-lane. Roadway and shoulder width dimensions vary for each
design. The QHDM design basis for ramp widths considers a combination of operational
consistency, maintainability, and quantitative safety. Ramps are one-way roadways that
should be free of obstructions at all times to enable safe entering and in particular exiting
from a freeway or expressway. The combination of ramp lane widths and shoulder should
provide sufficient space for vehicles to pass another vehicle that is disabled; maintenance
vehicles with workers along the ramp; and law enforcement vehicles.
5.2.1 One-Lane Ramps—Typical

Figure 5.11 shows a typical section for one-lane ramps. The ramp width shall be 4.6 m. The
paved right shoulder width shall be 2.4 m and the paved left shoulder width 1.2 m. These
dimensions produce a total paved width of 8.2 m. As the freeway mainline right shoulder
typically is 3.0 m, a transition to the 2.4 m right shoulder dimension should occur ahead of
the physical nose.
Where space is limited, the total paved width may be reduced but shall be no less than 7.8 m
(1.2-m left shoulder, 4.6-m travel way, and 2.0-m right shoulder). In reducing total paved
width, preference should be given to reducing ramp width and maintaining the shoulder
width, but the width of ramp shall not be less than 3.65 m. Reductions in total width
beyond the 7.8 m dimension shall require a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3,
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.

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Figure 5.11 Typical Sections for One and Two-lane Ramps
5.2.2 Two-Lane Ramps—Typical

Where two-lane ramps are required, the cross section dimensions shall be as shown in
Figure 5.11. The width of each lane shall be 3.65 m for a total roadway width of 7.3 m. The
paved right shoulder shall be 3.0 m and the paved left shoulder 1.8 m. These dimensions
produce a total paved width for two-lane ramps of 12.1 m.
Where space is limited, the paved shoulder widths may be reduced but shall be no less than
10.3 m (1.2-m left shoulder, 7.3-m travel way, and 1.8-m right shoulder). Minimum lane widths
of 3.65 m shall be maintained. Reductions in total width beyond the 10.3 m dimension
5.2.3 Loop Ramp and Sharp Radius Lane Widths

One-lane loop ramps and directional ramps with horizontal curvature associated with design
speeds of 50 kph or less shall be designed with a lane width of 4.8 m. This greater width
accommodates the off-tracking of longer vehicles. Standard shoulder widths per above apply,
resulting in a total paved width of 8.4 m for such cases.
Where space is limited the total paved width may be reduced, but shall be no less than
7.4 m (1.2-m left shoulder, 4.8-m travel way, and 1.4-m right shoulder). Reductions in width
beyond the 7.4 m dimension shall require a Departure from Standards as per Volume 3,
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this Manual.
In special cases, a two-lane loop ramp may be needed for a particular interchange
configuration. A minimum width of 9.6 m (two 4.8-m lanes) is recommended to achieve
maximum operational efficiency. Where the traffic composition is such that large vehicles
are 10 percent or more of the traffic stream, this width may be increased.

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5.3 Crossroad Design Considerations

Design of the crossroad at service interchanges is critical to the operational quality of the
interchange.
5.3.1 Access Control and Proximate Intersections

Approaches to ramp terminal intersections and roundabout entries should be free of
driveways. Interchange ramp terminals should be designed to provide sufficient spacing to
adjacent public street intersections. In cases where the proximate intersection is signal-
controlled, the operational analyses of design hour traffic supporting ramp terminal
channelization design should include these intersections.
For certain interchange forms, left-turn queuing requirements on the intersection approaches
may control the spacing. Development of left-turn geometry for the proximate intersection
should also be considered. For cases in which the proximate intersection is too close and
cannot be relocated, elimination of left turns in and out of the intersection (converting to
right-in/right out only) may be needed.
Figure 5.12 shows access control guidance expressed in functional or operational terms. The
greater the length of full access control along crossroad approaches the better.
5.3.2 Entrance Ramp Location and Advance Notice to Drivers

Many major arterials for which interchanging occurs are multi-lane, with some designed with
three or more lanes per direction of travel. The range of service interchange types that may
be applied include diamonds, PARCLOs, and variations thereof. The Qatar expressway and
freeway network will evolve to contain different solutions in each location. Driver expectations
in operating along the crossroad, and specifically related to left-turning movements, are an
important consideration. Diamonds and PARCLO B interchanges require drivers to enter the
freeway through a left turn. PARCLO A interchanges and roundabouts involve right-turning
movements to enter left onto the freeway. Advance signing for freeway destinations (right
and left) on crossroad approaches should be included, particularly on arterials with six or
more lanes.

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Figure 5.12 Access Control along the Crossroad in Proximity to Interchange Ramps
5.3.3 Wrong -way Driving Mitigation

Certain interchange forms may be susceptible to wrong-way entry (that is, drivers entering
the wrong direction of expressway by mistakenly entering on an exit ramp). Wrong-way entry

9
maneuvers typically occur at night in low volume conditions. Driver fatigue and distraction
are contributing factors to such behavior.
PARCLO AB interchanges and SPDIs are interchanges with design characteristics that
pose wrong-way driving risks. Care should be taken to develop channelizing islands for
the PARCLO AB, so that drivers do not turn left into the wrong roadway. Lighting at such
locations can help mitigate the risk.
5.3.4 Pedestrians
The presence of pedestrians along the crossroad should be considered in expressway
design. Where pedestrians may be expected in significant volumes, interchange types
shall be selected to accommodate them. These will include diamond forms and may
preclude roundabout ramp terminals. PARCLO A configurations can be modified to better
accommodate pedestrians by designing the loop ramp as a right-turn, and by providing
protected pedestrian-actuated signal phasing to stop the right turn and allow crossing of the
ramp terminal intersection. Diverging diamond forms effectively handle pedestrian traffic by
focusing such traffic between the barrier-separated transposed crossroad lanes.

9

9
6 Service Road Interface with

Ramps and Crossroad
For cases in which a service road system runs parallel to the freeway, interchanging with
the service road may occur. The service road should operate as a one-way facility in such
cases. Figure 6.1 shows various design concepts for ramp locations. Exit ramps would merge
or join the service road as slip ramps in advance of the destination crossroad. The placement
of the slip ramp should facilitate deceleration, lane changing, weaving, and queuing at the
crossroad intersection. Ramp locations may create weaving on the mainline or crossroad.
The concept of transposing ramps shown in Figure 6.2 is intended to favor operations on the
mainline by placing weaving on the lower speed and lower volume service road. Where such
designs are used, parking should be prohibited in the weaving areas on the service roads.
Figure 6.1 Exits and Entrances Transposed
Figure 6.2 shows guidance for dimensions associated with approaches of higher volume
service roads to at-grade ramp terminal intersections. These should can be confirmed as
needed by use of traffic operational simulation of design year traffic.

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Figure 6.2 Frontage Road Design Elements
One-way frontage road systems may have commercial driveways or other destinations along
them. Drivers desiring to access such destinations may need to exit to the frontage road in
one direction of travel, proceed to the next crossroad intersection, and then make two left
turns to reach their destination on the other frontage road. For cases in which the volume
of U-turning frontage road traffic is significant, design of a U-turn roadway in advance of
the crossroad allows U-turning drivers to avoid having to make two left turns. This reduces
travel time and improves the crossroad intersection operations by removing such traffic from
queues at the signals.

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7 Design of Closely Spaced

Interchanges and Ramps
As development occurs and traffic increases demands for additional interchanging with
freeways and expressways should be expected. The current Qatar network provides for
reasonably spaced interchanges.
7.1 Effects of Adding Unplanned New Interchanges to the

Existing Network
The operational quality of expressways and freeways depends mainly on limitations in
access. Interchange spacing of 3 km or more has the benefits of enabling entering and
exiting traffic to do so without creating weaving, and limits the volume of traffic that can
enter the freeway thereby enabling lower densities and consistently higher speeds.
Experience elsewhere demonstrates that when interchange spacing is 2 km or less,

significant adverse operational and safety effects arise. Great care should be taken in
evaluating proposals to add interchanges where they do not exist and are not planned. The
following are important considerations:
• Each new access point presents an opportunity for new, additional demand to reach the
freeway. To the extent that the number of basic freeway lanes and auxiliary lanes were
planned and constructed based on the original network and assuming a high LOS, any
unforeseen or unplanned additional demand threatens the promised operational quality
embedded in the freeway corridor.
• Depending on the location and design details, the addition of ramps where they do not
exist can convert an expressway segment from one flowing at 100 kph with densities
reflecting uninterrupted flow, to a weaving section with much lower throughput. This in
effect would create an operational bottleneck.
• The operational effects of bottlenecks can quickly grow well upstream of the bottleneck.
Thus, a new interchange or ramp in one location may adversely affect traffic flow as
much as 5 to 10 km upstream during peak travel conditions.
• Thus, any substantial increase in the number of vehicles accessing the freeway through
one or more additional interchanges has an overall effect on the long-range needs of
the system. New traffic demands may cumulatively require the addition of one more
basic lane for an extended length of corridor, or alternatively may require acceptance of
lower levels of service for all travelers.
• If additional capacity is deemed necessary, the costs and disruption in providing that
would be significant. Bridges not designed for additional capacity all would require
replacement. Given the Qatar freeway and expressway system is relatively young and
in excellent condition, such an outcome would be clearly undesirable.

9
Requests for new interchanges other than those currently approved and adopted in plans
of the Overseeing Organization shall require a special study to determine the suitability
of approving such an unplanned interchange. The study shall determine the expected
operational and safety performance effects of the new interchange on the expressway and
freeway system. Appendix C summarizes key issues to be addressed in such studies. It is
adapted for reference to Qatar based on current policies and procedures used by the U.S.
Federal Highway Administration for requests of new access onto the U.S. Interstate Highway
System.
7.2 Operational and Safety Implications of Weaving and Closely

Proximate Ramps
Closely spaced ramps can create problems from both an operations and safety perspective.
When ramps are too close together, lanes one and two along the freeway can become
congested, and speeds may drop. This may encourage drivers upstream of the congestion
to change lanes. Traffic in the left lane may be much less dense and hence operate at much
higher speed. Lane changing from congested, low-speed lanes to the left lanes creates rear-
end conflicts and the potential for multi-vehicle crashes.
Figure 7.1 shows the relationship between weaving crashes and length of weaving section
for a range of traffic volumes and a typical six-lane freeway section. This figure is for
illustrative purposes. It was derived from the AASHTO Highway Safety Manual chapter on
freeway and interchange crash prediction (AASHTO, 2010).
7.3 Methods for Evaluation of Operations on Freeways with

Closely Proximate Ramps
Section 2 of this Part contains guide values for arrangement of closely spaced ramps.
These are based on general knowledge of operations and capacity based on the Highway
Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010). Should designers be faced with a corridor of some length with
multiple exits and entrances and multiple weaving sections, more sophisticated methods
of operational analysis are necessary. The use of micro-simulation models such as VISSIM
provides the means of understanding the complex interactions of ramps on such corridors.
Figure 7.2 illustrates the operational analysis and design process.

9
Figure 7.1 Relative Difference in Crashes
Figure 7.2 Operational Analysis and Design Process

9
7.4 Design Solutions to Elimination or Reduction of Weaving

Figure 7.3 illustrates the range of solutions to weaving problems. In general, the cost and
physical feasibility of a solution is related to its effectiveness in mitigating or eliminating
congestion from weaving. A designer may relocate one or both ramps in the weaving section,
thus increasing the length of weave. The ability to do this is based on the relationship of the
ramps to other proximate ramps and to other roadways to which they connect. Designing a
CD road does not eliminate weaving. Indeed, the geometry to develop the CD road results in
the length being reduced. CD roads are solutions to separate higher speed through traffic on
the left from weaving traffic, thus intending to improve the safety of the weaving section.
Figure 7.3 Design Solutions to Weaving
A ramp braid is formed by relocating the entrance ramp away from exit ramp, so that one
crosses over or braids with the other. This design eliminates weaving completely; moreover,
it prevents traffic from entering and then immediately exiting downstream, a movement that
should be discourage on a facility meant to carry longer distance traffic. A ramp braid involves

9
substantial realignment. Both ramps should be curved or bowed to effect a reasonable

crossing of one over the other. Skewed crossings produce very long structures with long
spans and special, generally costly designs. Such design requires added right-of-way width
for the curvature. Finally, in very high volume conditions, the combination of both CD roads
and ramp braids may be needed.
In design of new urban freeway corridors or interchanges, designers should seek to eliminate
weaving sections. Once the road is constructed, the availability of right-of-way and ability to
reconstruct and provide braids, CD roads, or both may be limited or cost-prohibitive. However,
when such solutions are incorporated into a design at the outset, with right-of-way acquired
for them, the incremental costs when measured over the project life and the operational and
safety benefits of no weaving typically are very affordable.

9

9
8 Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges
For at-grade, signalized intersections or roundabouts that may have exceeded their
practical capacity, the design and construction of arterial-to-arterial interchanges may
be an appropriate measure. Such interchanges can be two- or three-level. Their design
characteristics and operations are tailored to the lower speeds associated with arterials
versus expressways or freeways.
8.1 Quadrant Interchanges

Figure 8.1 shows two variations of quadrant interchanges in which one arterial is
reconstructed over the crossing arterial. In the two-quadrant configuration, the four-leg,
four-phase signal is replaced with one priority intersection and one two-phase signalized
intersection for turning traffic from each roadway. Through traffic conflicts and delays are
removed, and right turns are either free or made indirectly through the signalized left turns.
Which movements are free and which use left-turn lanes depends on which quadrants are
used for the connecting roadways.
This concept can be developed using any or all quadrants. Figure 8.1 also shows how a one-
quadrant form would operate. Through movements are separated as before, but all turning
movements from one arterial to the next use signalized left turns. For each arterial, traffic
now moves through one intersection, but the phasing is only three-phase and conflicting
through traffic is completely eliminated.
If connecting roadways are used in all four quadrants, the interchange can function as a full
cloverleaf, in which all movements are unstopped.
Design of the connecting roads can accommodate access to land uses within each quadrant
as appropriate. The connecting roadways will be located to enable the development of the
vertical alignment for the overcrossing arterial, typically on the order of 200 m from the
crossing point, thus creating intersections about 400 m apart.
Other appropriate arterial-to-arterial forms include the TDI and SPDI discussed above.
Applied to arterials, acceleration and deceleration lane lengths can be shortened given the
lower operating speeds.

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Figure 8.1 Quadrant Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges
8.2 Innovative Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges

Some agencies have experimented with other innovative arterial interchange forms. These are
documented and discussed in Alternative Intersections/Interchanges Informational Report
(FHWA, 2009). The following two figures depict examples of interchanges that may have
application to Qatar. One is the Michigan urban diamond interchange as shown in Figure 8.2,
and the other the center turn overpass as shown in Figure 8.3. Both configurations vertically
separate turning traffic from through traffic. The Michigan urban diamond interchange is
based on the principle that converting a single four-phase signalized intersection carrying
all movements into a series of properly spaced and coordinated signals carrying only certain
movements and only two phases can reduce delays substantially and improve travel times
for all users.

9
Figure 8.2 Innovative Interchange: Michigan Urban Diamond
Figure 8.3 Innovative Interchange: Center Turn Overpass

9

9
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Improvements to the Interstate System. Course Number FHWA-NHI-380073. Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, United States.
http://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/training/course_search.aspx?sf=0&course_no=380073.

9
Neuman T.R., J.C. Glennon, and J.E Leisch. “Functional Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance Requirements.”
Transportation Research Record, Volume 923, Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United
States. 1983.
Texas Transportation Institute. Enhanced Safety Prediction Methodology and Analysis Tool for Freeways
and Interchanges. Final report. NCHRP Project 17-45. In association with CH2M HILL. Prepared for National
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United
States. May 2012.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington, DC, United
States. 2010.

9
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9
Appendix A
Tables for Using
Weaving Methodology

9

9
Weaving examples for N = 2 (Lweave = 500 m)

Assumptions:
1. Free-flow speed = 110 kph 6. 5% Trucks on freeway and ramps

2. Minimum segment speed = 24 kph 7. Driver population adjustment = 1.0
L3. Freeway 500max
m capacity = 2400 pc/h/ln
PT 8.0.05Interchange density = 0
4. Peak-hour
1,640 ftfactor = 0.94 ET 9. 1.5VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
5.
Smin Level grade
15 mph fhv 0.97561weaving)
cIFL 2400 pc/h/ln fp 1
PHF
10. L
0.94 weave
per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010)
Vu 1500 vph
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave = 500 m VRF (vph)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1800 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C D D F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B C C D F F F 750
(vph)
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 vph
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C D D E F 1,750
500 C C C D D F F 1,500
750 C C C D D F F 1,250
V FR
1000 C C D D F F F 1,000
(vph)
1250 C C D F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 vph
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 C D D E F 2,250
500 C D D E F 2,000
750 C D D E F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D F F 1,500
(vph) 1250 C D D F F 1,250
1500 D D F F F 1,000
1750 D F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 vph
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 V FF
250 D D E F 2,750
500 D E E F 2,500
750 D E F F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E F F 2,000
(vph) 1250 D E F F 1,750
1500 D F F F 1,500
1750 D F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
3. Freeway max capacity = 2400 pc/h/ln 8. Interchange density = 0
L4. Peak-hour
750 mfactor = 0.94 PT 9.0.05VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
5. Level grade
2,461 ft ET weaving)
1.5
Smin 15 mph fhv 10. Lweave per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010)
0.97561
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave = 750 m VRF (ve/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1900 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C C D F F 1,000
V FR 750 B B C C C F F F 750
(veh/h) 900 B B C C C F F F 600
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C D D E F 1,750
500 C C C D D E F 1,500
750 C C C D D F F 1,250
V FR
1000 C C C D F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 C C C F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 V FF
250 C D D E E F 2,250
500 C D D E F F 2,000
750 C D D E F F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D E F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 C D D F F F 1,250
1500 C D F F F F 1,000
1750 C F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 V FF
250 D D E F 2,750
500 D D E F 2,500
750 D E E F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 D E F F 1,750
1500 D E F F 1,500
1750 D F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
L 1000 m PT 0.05
4. Peak-hour
3,281 ftfactor = 0.94 ET 9.1.5VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
5.
Smin Level grade
15 mph fhv 0.97561weaving)
cIFL 2400 pc/h/ln fp 10.1Lweave per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010)
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave = 1,000 m VRF (ve/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1900 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C C D F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B C C C F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C D D E F 1,750
500 C C C D D E F 1,500
V FR 750 C C C D D F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 C C C D F F F 1,000
1250 C C C F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 V FF
250 C D D E E F 2,250
500 C D D E E F 2,000
750 C D D E F F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D E F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 C D D F F F 1,250
1500 C D F F F F 1,000
1750 C F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave =1,000 m VRF (ve/h)
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 D D E E F 2,750
500 D D E F F 2,500
750 D E E F F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E E F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 D E F F F 1,750
1500 D E F F F 1,500
1750 D F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
4. Peak-hour factor = 0.94 9. VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
5. Level grade weaving)
10. Lweave per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010)
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1900 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C C D F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B C C C F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 850 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C C D D E E 1,750
500 C C C C D D E F 1,500
V FR 750 C C C D D D F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 C C C D D F F F 1,000
1250 C C C D F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0

V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 V FF
250 C D D E E F 2,250
500 C D D E E F 2,000
750 C D D E E F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D E F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 C D D F F F 1,250
1500 C D F F F F 1,000
1750 C F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 L > L max D E E F 2,750
500 D D E E F 2,500
750 D E E F F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E E F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 D E E F F 1,750
1500 D E F F F 1,500
1750 D F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B B F 1,750
500 A B B B B B F F 1,500
750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max B B C C C F 2,750
500 L > L max B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B B C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
L 500 m PT 0.05
5. Level1,640
gradeft ET 1.5 weaving)
Smin 15 mph fhv 0.9756110. Lweave per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010)
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
Lweave = 500 m VRF (veh/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1450 1500 1750 V FF
250 B B B B B B C C 1,250
500 B B B B B C C F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B C F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 B B B B C C C 1,750
500 B B B B C C F 1,500
750 B B B C C F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B C F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B C C C D D F 2,250
500 B B C C C D F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B C C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B C F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B C C C D D E F 2,750
500 C C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C D F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
L4. Peak-hour factor = 0.94
750 m PT 9.0.05
VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
5. Level grade
2,461 ft ET weaving)
1.5
0.97561
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B C C C C D F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B C C C D D D F 2,750
500 C C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
L4. Peak-hour
1000 mfactor = 0.94 PT 9.
0.05VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
5. Level grade
3,281 ft ET 1.5weaving)
0.97561
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B C C C C D F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B C C C D D D F 2,750
500 C C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B C C C C D F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max C C D D D F 2,750
500 L > L max C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9
Based on Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2010

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B C C C C C F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max C C D D D F 2,750
500 L > L max C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
Lweave = 500 m VRF (veh/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 A A B B B 1,250
500 A A B B B 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F 500
1250 A A B F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 A B B B B B B 1,750
500 B B B B B B F 1,500
750 B B B B B F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B C C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
L 750 m PT 0.05
5. Level grade
2,461 ft ET
weaving)
1.5
0.97561
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A B B B B B B F 1,750
500 B B B B B B F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
L 1000 m PT 0.05
5. Level grade
3,281 ft ET
weaving)
1.5
0.97561
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A B B B B B B F 1,750
500 B B B B B B F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A B B B B B B F 1,750
500 A B B B B B F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B B F 1,750
500 A B B B B B F F 1,500
750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max B B C C C F 2,750
500 L > L max B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B B C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000

9

9
Appendix B
Typical Exit and Entrance
Ramps

9

9
Typical Exit and Entrance Ramps
Figure B.1 One Lane Exit Ramp – Parallel Design
Figure B.2 Two Lane Exit Ramp – Parallel Design

9
Figure B.3 One Lane Entrance Ramp – Parallel Design
Figure B.4 Two Lane Entrance Ramp – Parallel Design

9
Figure B.5 One Lane Exit Ramp – Taper Design
Figure B.6 Two Lane Exit Ramp – Taper Design

9
Figure B.7 One Lane Entrance Ramp – Taper Design
Figure B.8 Two Lane Entrance Ramp – Taper Design

9
Appendix C
Requirements for New Access to
Existing Highway System

9

9
Requirements for New Access to Existing Highway System

Qatar is developing faster than ever. As a result, there may be a need for additional access to existing
transportation network, including freeways and expressways. Proposals for additional access may come
from the public or private sectors. Before such requests are granted, the need for access to the system
should be thoroughly studied and evaluated in a systematic approach. The study should define the
purpose and need of constructing a new access to an existing system to include the following:
1. The study must show that neither the nearby existing transportation network, including interchanges,
nor their improvements can satisfactorily address the current transportation needs. Furthermore,
the study should show that the need cannot be addressed adequately by transportation system
management.
2. The study should show that the construction of the new access does not compromise the safety and
operation of the existing facilities using the current and projected traffic volumes. The study should
also show that the proposed interchange provides for all needed movements.
3. The proposal should show that the new access is consistent with the current transportation and land
use plans. It is coordinated with those plans and has no conflict with them. The study should also show
that the access has no conflict with other proposed changes, modifications, or improvements along the
corridor.
4. Should the need for access be due to new developments or significant changes in current or planned
future development or land use, the proposal must demonstrate that the necessary coordination has
occurred, and analysis has been performed to achieve mutual benefits without adverse impact on
the corridor. Furthermore, the study should show that certain parts of the proposed access can be
constructed in stages if required.
5. Finally, the proposal must show that a thorough environmental impact study of the proposed access
has been conducted, and that the project is compliant with regulatory requirements and is approved by
relevant Overseeing Organizations.

Manual
Manual Contents
Volume 1
Part 2: Planning
Volume 2
Part 10: Drainage
Part 11: Utilities
Part 14: Earthworks
Volume 3

Glossary
Glossary
Access Control
Active Frontage
Alignment
All-red period

Approach

Approved Departure
Aquifer

Ashghal
Attenuation Tank
Auxiliary Lane
Axle
two axles.
Axle load
Back Slope
Barchan dune
Barrier
Base Course
Batter

Bedrock
Berm
BES
Bicycle (cycle)
ride.
Bicycle parking
facilities.
Binder course
Blackspot
Blackspot analysis

Borehole
Borrow
Braking distance
Breakaway
Building height
Building line
section.
Bus lane

Bus shelter
stop
Bypass


Capacity
CAPEX

Capillary rise
Capping layer
Carrier drain

Catchment area (A)

Centerline


Clear Zone
Collector
arterial network.
Collector channel
Community Severance
people.
Compaction
Compound curve



Contractor

Corridor
Crash
Crash investigation
Crashworthy
Cross slope
Cross section
Crossfall

Crossroad
Crown
Culvert
Curb
Curb extension
Cycle
Cycle path
Dahal

Delay
flow travel time.


Design build
contract.
Design criteria
Design hour volume

Design life
Design organization
Design phase
Design speed
Design team
implementation.
Design team leader

Design vehicle
Design volume

Design-bid-build
Detector
Diagraphy drilling
Directional ramp
Discharge rate
Divided roadway
Divisional island
Drainage
Drainage basin
surface water.
Drainage systems
Driveway

Dropped curb
Earth pressure
earthen fill rests.
Earthwork(s)
Earthworks balance
Easement
Edgeline
Effluent




Exploratory holes
Expressway
Facies
given environment.
Filter drain
Filter membrane
Flare
Flexible pavement
Flora
Footbridge
Ford

Fore slope
slope.
Foundation
bridge.
Full barrier fence

Gantry
Gateway
Geometric design

Geosynthetic
and geocomposites.
Geotechnical hazard

Geotechnical risk

Geotextile

Ghost Island
Grade separation
Gradient


Ground model

Groundwater
Groundwater table
and spatially.
Gully
Gutter
Hard strip
Health and safety

Hierarchy
Highway
Highway capacity

Horizontal curve
Hydraulic radius
Hydrology
Hyetograph
Impact severity
Impermeable surface
Infiltration
InfoWorks CS
Inland

Inside lane

Intensity
Interchange
Intergreen period

Safety Audits.

Intersection
Intersection angle
Intersection leg
Intersection point


centers.

Island
Junction approach

of this Manual.
k-value
Land use
Landmark
of design.
Landscape
Lane

Lane capacity
Lane line
Layout
Left lane
Left-turn lane
Legibility
Leq


Limit state
Liquefaction


Local traffic
Loop
Luminaire
Mainline
or interchange.
Manhole
Mast arm
Median

Minor street
street.
Minor system

Moisture content
Motorcycle
supporting wheel.
Mounting height
Mowasalat
Mushtarak

Nose

Off-line bus stop

Offtracking


Outside lane
traffic.
Overpass

Park-and-ride

Participation
Passenger


Pavement structure
Peak flow
after a storm.
Peak period
Peak traffic flow

Pedestrian


Pedestrian zone
Penstock

Permeability
subsurface water.
Phase
signaling cycle.
Piezocone test
Pile
Pile load capacity

Platoon

Policy
decisions.
Porewater pressure
Positive drainage

Primary signal face

Prime Coat

Public art
Public realm
Public road
R-value
Rainfall intensity
the same rate.

Ramp
Ramp metering
rate.
Refuge (island)
cross the roadway.
Relaxation
Resistance factor
Resurfacing
Return period
Reverse curve


Right-of-way

Rigid pavement
Risk management
Road
Road earthworks
Road markings
Road project








audit report.


audit team member.


Road structures
Roadbase
Roadway
Roadway width
Roundabout
Runoff (surface)
abstractions.

Rural areas
Rutting
in the wheel path.

decision making.

Sabkha
Safe system
Sag Vertical Curve

Saline
with salt.
Scour

Seepage
Segregated paths
Segregation
Seismic hazard
Seismic loading

Semitrailer
by attached axles.
Sense of place
Service flow rate

Service limit state

Service road
Setback
Shared-use path
Shoulder
Sidewalk
Sight distance
Sight line

Sign

Signal face
Signal head
Signaling cycle
Sikka
Slab
Slip ramp
Slope
of traffic.
Slope ratio
horizontal values.
Soakaway
drain.

Speed limit
Split phase
Spoil
Stabilization
Stakeholder
project.
Stakeholder mapping
Standard axle




Stopping time
Storage length
Storm hydrograph
Stormwater
Street
Street Clutter
Street furniture
Streetscape



Subgrade
constructed.
Subway
Superelevation

· Maximum size – one sieve size larger than the nominal maximum size.
· Nominal maximum size – one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 per-
cent by weight.
Surface course
Surface runoff
Surface treatment
Surface water
Surveillance

Sustainability

environment.
Swale
Swept path
T-intersection
Tack coat
Tactile paving
Taper



Throughput
or outfall
Traffic bollard
Traffic capacity
Traffic control
Traffic density
lane.
Traffic flow
Traffic island
Traffic sign

Traffic signal
Traffic volume
Trailer
Transition
can be avoided.
Transverse
Traveled way

Trial pit
Trial trench pit

Truck

Truck apron
Trunk sewer
Tunnel
Turning traffic
Underpass
Upstream
Urban area
Urban design
Urban form
and landscape.

Utility corridor
U-turn

Vadose zone

a detector.
Vernacular
Vertical alignment
Vertical curve
Visibility envelope
Vista
Vortex grit remover

Wadi
Walkway
Wayfinding

Wearing course

Work zone

Y-intersection
Yield line
roundabout.
Zebra crossing
Zoning

PART DRAINAGE
10

Volume 2
Part 10
Drainage
DRAINAGE PART
10
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART DRAINAGE
10

DRAINAGE PART
10
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations................................................................................................ viii
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1.Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.Scope................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1. Scope of Part 10 of the QHDM............................................................................................1
1.2.2.Responsibilities.........................................................................................................................1
1.3. Functions of Highway Drainage............................................................................................................. 2
1.4. Drainage Design Philosophy.................................................................................................................... 2
1.5. Climatic and Physical Considerations................................................................................................... 3
1.5.1. Resilience and Urban Creep.................................................................................................4
1.5.2. Climate Change.........................................................................................................................5
1.6. Policies and Environmental Controls.................................................................................................... 5
2 Project Concept Stage....................................................................................................8

2.1. Design Stage 1 Summary.......................................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Data Gathering.............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3. Catchment Assessment............................................................................................................................. 9
2.3.1.Overview......................................................................................................................................9
2.3.2. Flood Risk Assessment.......................................................................................................10
2.4. Consideration of Geometric Design of Road................................................................................... 13
2.5. Determine Viable Outfalls..................................................................................................................... 14
2.6. Consideration of Treated Sewage Effluent.................................................................................... 14
2.7. Identify Pollution Control Requirements......................................................................................... 14
2.7.1.Background..............................................................................................................................14
2.7.2.Scope..........................................................................................................................................15
2.8. Stakeholder Engagement....................................................................................................................... 15
2.9. Option Development and Drainage Strategy................................................................................. 16
3 Preliminary Design Work............................................................................................. 18

3.1. Design Stage 2 Summary....................................................................................................................... 18
3.2. Design Criteria............................................................................................................................................ 18
3.2.1. Flood Return Periods...........................................................................................................18
3.2.2. Acceptable Highway Flood Standards..........................................................................19
3.2.3. Gully Spacing...........................................................................................................................20
3.2.4. Pipeline Velocities.................................................................................................................24
3.2.5. Pipeline Materials..................................................................................................................24
3.3. Hydrological Data...................................................................................................................................... 24

PART DRAINAGE
10
3.3.1. Rainfall Characterization....................................................................................................24

3.3.2.Intensity-Duration-Frequency..........................................................................................25
3.3.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency relations for sensitive infrastructure...............34
3.3.4. LH-moments introduced by Wang (1997)...................................................................34
3.3.5. Areal Reduction Factors.....................................................................................................35
3.3.6.Hyetographs............................................................................................................................36
3.3.7.Hydrogeology.........................................................................................................................39
3.3.8. Runoff Curve Number Method.........................................................................................39
3.3.9.Isohyetals.................................................................................................................................41
3.4. Hydraulic Analysis Processes............................................................................................................... 41
3.4.1.Overview...................................................................................................................................41
3.4.2. Rational Method.....................................................................................................................41
3.4.3. Mathematical Models...........................................................................................................47
3.5. Pollution Control Process....................................................................................................................... 47
3.5.1.Method.......................................................................................................................................47
3.5.2. Water quality...........................................................................................................................52
3.6. Sustainable Drainage Systems............................................................................................................ 55
3.6.1. Infiltration Guidance.............................................................................................................55
3.6.2. Specification of Suitable Vegetation.............................................................................56
3.6.3. Pervious Surfaces.................................................................................................................56
3.6.4.Soakaways...............................................................................................................................59
3.6.5.Swales........................................................................................................................................62
3.6.6. Trench Soakaways and Filter Drains..............................................................................65
3.6.7. Bio-retention Areas..............................................................................................................69
3.6.8. Sand Filters..............................................................................................................................72
3.6.9.Basins.........................................................................................................................................77
3.7. Preliminary Design Strategy................................................................................................................. 82
3.8. Review Process.......................................................................................................................................... 83
4 Detailed Design Work.................................................................................................. 85

4.1. Design Stage 3 Summary....................................................................................................................... 85
4.2. Design in Urban Areas............................................................................................................................. 85
4.2.1. Urban Catchments.................................................................................................................86
4.2.2. Drainage of the Roadway..................................................................................................86
4.2.3. Design of Traditional Drainage Capture Techniques...............................................87
4.2.4. Drainage of Medians, Pedestrian Paths, and Shoulders........................................97
4.2.5. Emergency Flood Areas......................................................................................................97
4.2.6. Retention of Stormwater...................................................................................................98
4.3. Design in Rural Areas............................................................................................................................... 99
4.3.1. Rural Catchments..................................................................................................................99

DRAINAGE PART
10
4.3.2. Drainage of the Roadway............................................................................................... 100

4.3.3. Drainage of Medians and Shoulders........................................................................... 100
4.3.4. Natural Surface Drainage................................................................................................ 102
4.4. Intersection Drainage........................................................................................................................... 103
4.4.1. Consideration for Drainage at Intersections............................................................ 103
4.4.2.T-Intersections.................................................................................................................... 104
4.4.3.Roundabouts........................................................................................................................ 106
4.4.4. At-Grade Intersections..................................................................................................... 107
4.4.5.Interchanges........................................................................................................................ 107
4.4.6. Drainage Design of Highway Tunnels and Underpasses................................... 108
4.4.7. Highway Tunnels and Underpasses Drainage Monitoring................................. 108
4.4.8. Storm Attenuation Tanks and Pumping Stations................................................... 108
4.5. Maintenance Strategies....................................................................................................................... 108
4.5.1. Planned Maintenance....................................................................................................... 108
4.5.2. Reactive Maintenance...................................................................................................... 109
4.6. Subsurface Drainage............................................................................................................................. 109
4.6.1.Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 109
4.6.2. Groundwater Control......................................................................................................... 110
4.6.3. Subsurface Drainage......................................................................................................... 110
4.6.4. Subsurface Drainage Methods...................................................................................... 111
References............................................................................................................................. 113

PART DRAINAGE
10
Tables
Table 1.1. Rainfall Intensity Percentage Increase to Allow for Urban Creep..................................................5
Table 2.1 . Typical Permeability Values by Soil Type..............................................................................................10
Table 2.2. Flood Risk Classification...............................................................................................................................11
Table 3.1. Required Levels of Flood Protection for Each Road Classification..............................................19
Table 3.2. Guidelines for Flood Standards on Qatar Roadways.........................................................................19
Table 3.3. Minimum Design Velocities.........................................................................................................................24
Table 3.4. Coordinates, Latitude, and Longitude for different rainfall regions...........................................27
Table 3.5. IDF Relation for the Northern Region.....................................................................................................28
Table 3.6. IDF Relation for the Central West Region..............................................................................................28
Table 3.7. IDF Relation for the Central East Region...............................................................................................29
Table 3.8. IDF Relation for the Southern Region.....................................................................................................29
Table 3.9. Climate change factors for years 2070 to 2100 for Qatar............................................................32
Table 3.10. IDF Relation for the Northern Region under future condition (2070-2100)..........................33
Table 3.11. IDF Relation for the Central West Region under future condition (2070-2100)..................33
Table 3.12. IDF Relation for the Central East Region under future condition (2070-2100)....................34
Table 3.13. IDF Relation for the Southern Region under future condition (2070-2100).........................34
Table 3.14. The ARF using Grid and Inverse Distance Weight method for
different catchment sizes............................................................................................................................36
Table 3.15. Hyetograph Example Computations for Central East Region of Doha – 10 year ARI...........38
Table 3.16. Curve Numbers for the Land Use Description Applicable to Qatar.............................................40
Table 3.17. List of isohyetal maps...................................................................................................................................41
Table 3.18. Runoff Coefficient for Various Drainage Areas...................................................................................43
Table 3.19. Software Packages for Mathematical Modeling.................................................................................47
Table 3.20. Pollution and Control Requirements........................................................................................................49
Table 3.21. Levels of Treatment Options for Pollution Control............................................................................49
Table 3.22. Spillage Rate in Billion HGV km / year....................................................................................................50
Table 3.23. Probability of Serious Pollution Occurring as a Result of a Serious Spillage..........................51
Table 3.24. Spillages and Risks and Reduction Factors (Indicative)..................................................................52
Table 3.25. Concentrations of measured compounds in Micro Catchment Study.........................................54
Table 3.26. Potentially Suitable Locations for Pervious Surfaces......................................................................57
Table 3.27. Pervious Surface Maintenance Requirements....................................................................................59
Table 3.28. Potentially Suitable Site Locations for Soakaway Installations...................................................60

DRAINAGE PART
10
Table 3.29. Soakaway Maintenance Requirements..................................................................................................62

Table 3.30. Potentially Suitable Locations for Installing Swales.........................................................................63
Table 3.31. Swale Maintenance Requirements...........................................................................................................65
Table 3.32. Potentially Suitable Locations for Filter Trenches and Drains......................................................66
Table 3.33. Filter Trench or Drain Maintenance Requirements............................................................................68
Table 3.34. Potential Suitable Locations for Bio-retention Areas.......................................................................70
Table 3.35. Maintenance Requirements for Bioretention Areas..........................................................................72
Table 3.36. Potential Site Locations for Sand Filters...............................................................................................74
Table 3.37. Sand Filter Maintenance Requirements.................................................................................................77
Table 3.38. Potential Suitable Locations for a Basin................................................................................................78
Table 3.39. Maintenance Requirements for Basins...................................................................................................81
Table 3.40. Potential Suitability for SuDS Installation on Urban and Rural Roads.......................................84
Table 4.1. Design Hour Volume Widths on Various Road Types (Typical Values of B).............................91
Table 4.2. Design Hour Volume Widths for Special Situations (Typical Values of B)................................91
Table 4.3. Typical Values of Manning’s n for Various Surfaces..........................................................................92
Table 4.4. Maintenance Factor........................................................................................................................................92
Table 4.5. Grating Type Design Values........................................................................................................................94
Table 4.6. Grating Bar Pattern Coefficient.................................................................................................................94
Table 4.7. Limiting Parameters to Equation for Design of Level or Nearly Level Roads.........................95
Table 4.8. Values for Index w..........................................................................................................................................96
Figures
Figure 1.1. Design Stages Process Overview................................................................................................................1

Figure 1.2. Guide to Key Stakeholders and Approval Bodies at Each Design Stage.......................................2
Figure 1.3. Functions of Highway Drainage...................................................................................................................3
Figure 2.1. Project Concept Process Steps.....................................................................................................................8
Figure 2.2. Data Gathering Process Steps.......................................................................................................................9
Figure 2.3. Catchment Assessment Process Steps......................................................................................................9
Figure 2.4. Stakeholder Engagement Process Steps...............................................................................................15
Figure 3.1. Preliminary Design Process Steps............................................................................................................18
Figure 3.2. Water Spread and Road Gully Spacing....................................................................................................20
Figure 3.3. Design of Road Gullies along Road Profile............................................................................................23

PART DRAINAGE
10
Figure 3.4. Division of Qatar into Four Rainfall Regions........................................................................................26

Figure 3.5. Example of a Drainage System Crossing Rainfall Regions.............................................................30
Figure 3.6 . Climate change factor as a function of time and ARI.......................................................................32
Figure 3.7. Intensity-Duration-Frequency Plot for 10-Year ARI for Doha, Qatar..........................................38
Figure 3.8. Hyetograph Plot for 5-Minute Duration and 10-Year ARI for Doha, Qatar,
Using Alternating Block Method...............................................................................................................39
Figure 3.9. Rational Method Process..............................................................................................................................43
Figure 3.10. Longest Stream for Time of Concentration Calculation...................................................................46
Figure 3.11. Pollution Control Procedure........................................................................................................................48
Figure 3.12. Consideration of Infiltration........................................................................................................................56
Figure 3.13. Pervious Surface Design Steps..................................................................................................................58
Figure 3.14. Soakaway Design Steps...............................................................................................................................61
Figure 3.15. Diagram of Typical Swale.............................................................................................................................65
Figure 3.16. Filter Trench or Drain Steps........................................................................................................................68
Figure 3.17. Typical Cross Section through a Bioretention Area...........................................................................71
Figure 3.18. Diagram of a Typical Surface Sand Filter...............................................................................................73
Figure 3.19. Diagram of a Typical Underground Sand Filter....................................................................................73
Figure 3.20. Typical Sand Filter Bed Construction......................................................................................................75
Figure 3.21. Sand Filter Design Steps..............................................................................................................................76
Figure 3.22. Plan View of a Typical Basin.......................................................................................................................78
Figure 3.23. Typical Cross Section of a Detention Basin..........................................................................................80
Figure 3.24. Basin Design Steps.........................................................................................................................................81
Figure 4.1. Detailed Design Process...............................................................................................................................85
Figure 4.2. Typical Road Cross Section..........................................................................................................................86
Figure 4.3. Typical Detail of Rolling Crown across a Single Roadway...............................................................87
Figure 4.4. Gully Design Parameters for Intermediate Gully................................................................................91
Figure 4.5. Effective Catchment Width.........................................................................................................................93
Figure 4.6. Terminal Gully Design Parameters...........................................................................................................95
Figure 4.7. Typical Median Ditch Cross Section...................................................................................................... 101
Figure 4.8. Permissible Depths of Flows for Unlined Channels........................................................................ 102
Figure 4.9. Typical Drainage at T-Intersections...................................................................................................... 105
Figure 4.10. Drainage at a Large Signalized Intersection..................................................................................... 106
Figure 4.11. Roundabout Drainage................................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 4.12. Typical Vortex Grit Remover.................................................................................................................... 109

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Appendixes
Appendix A . Qatar Stakeholders...................................................................................................................................... 115

Appendix B . Intensity-Duration-Frequency Design Curves.................................................................................. 119
Appendix C . Level Pool Routing Technique................................................................................................................. 133
Appendix D . Example calculations.................................................................................................................................. 137
Appendix E . Isohyetal Maps............................................................................................................................................... 149
Appendix F . Intensity Duration Frequency relations for sensitive infrastructure....................................... 157

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AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
ABM Alternating Blocking Method
ARF Aeral Reduction Factor
ARI Average Recurrence Interval
CN Curve Number
EFA Emergency Flood Area
GEV Generalized Extreme Value
ha hectare (10,000 square meters)
IDF intensity-duration-frequency
Km2 square kilometer
m meter(s)
m/s meter(s) per second
m2 square meter(s)
m3 cubic meter(s)
m3/s cubic meter(s) per second
mm millimeter(s)
mm/hr millimeter(s) per hour
MoE Ministry of Environment
MWH MWH Consultants

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m2/s Square meter per second- kinematic viscosity
QCS Qatar Construction Specifications
SCS Soil Conservation Service (now the Natural Resources Conservation Service)
SuDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
yr year

PART DRAINAGE
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1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
This Part sets out the approach to identifying and providing surface and subsurface drainage
measures when designing highways in the State of Qatar. The approach consists of three
key design stages. Each stage comprises several process steps that are represented by flow
charts that cross reference the text, as appropriate. The flow charts show a typical approach
to the design of road drainage in the State of Qatar.
1.2 Scope
1.2.1 Scope of Part 10 of the QHDM
This section outlines the process for developing an appropriate drainage design and for
gaining approval for new roads within the State of Qatar. Figure 1.1 shows the three key
design stages.
Figure 1.1 Design Stages Process Overview
1.2.2 Responsibilities
The planning of highway projects is the responsibility of the Ministry of Municipality and
Environment (MME). The drainage of highways is the responsibility of Ashghal. Figure 1.2
depicts the design procedure.

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Figure 1.2 Guide to Key Stakeholders and Approval Bodies at Each Design Stage
1.3 Functions of Highway Drainage

The requirement for satisfactory road drainage has a direct bearing on the following:
• The ability to use the road during and after a rainfall event
• The long-term serviceability of the road structure
• The provision of an acceptable urban environment
• Minimizing health risk caused by long-term surface ponding and stagnant waters
The construction of a highway may increase the risk of flooding to properties. The highway
drainage system should provide four primary functions that, because of land use constraints,
are usually dealt with differently in urban and rural situations. See Figure 1.3.
1.4 Drainage Design Philosophy

When designing drainage measures, it is important to consider the size and type of system
that will be best suited to the conditions and characteristics of the project area.
In the State of Qatar, it is historically conventional to install piped drainage systems with
gully inlets to convey runoff quickly from the highway. However, there have been issues
with these systems in recent years, and drainage systems that mimic a more natural
drainage process are preferred, where possible, to minimize the environmental risks resulting
from urban surface water runoff (e.g., quantity and quality of the runoff) and to maximize
amenity and biodiversity opportunities. To minimize the impact of future road construction,
a sustainable approach to drainage needs to be considered. Such drainage techniques are
referred to as sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDS). SuDS mimic natural drainage
processes to improve the quality and reduce the quantity of surface water runoff from
developments and to provide amenity and biodiversity benefits. With the SuDS approach,
early consideration of the potential multiple benefits and opportunities will help deliver the

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best results. The Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning’s (MMUP’s) 2014 publication
(Multi-Use of Stormwater Management facilities – Guidelines) is a useful text.
Where it is not possible to accommodate drainage using SuDS only, conventional options
may complement SuDS measures or provide standalone solutions. Section 3.5.2 contains
guidance for feasible SuDS options.
Figure 1.3 Functions of Highway Drainage
1.5 Climatic and Physical Considerations

The Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME, 2018) establishes the scale of change
in rainfall intensities likely in the State of Qatar over the next 80 years. This highlights the
need to update design rainfall intensities to be considered for drainage infrastructure for
future developments.
The topography of Doha is relatively flat but undulating; catchment boundaries and natural
drainage routes are often poorly defined. Recent extensive development has caused flooding
to become more problematic, especially in the Greater Doha area, for the following reasons:
• Greater public awareness of flooding.
• High groundwater tables that are rising to near ground level in places because of the
impact of irrigation and network losses, thus reducing the ability of surface water to

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soak into the ground.
• Increased roofed and paved areas that produce greater and quicker surface water runoff
flows (see Section 1.5.1 of this Part).
• Reduced permeable areas for surface waters to soak into the ground.
• Interference with natural flow paths by urban development and road construction.
• Development becoming increasingly distant from natural drainage outlets on the coast.
• The nature of the groundwater, which is variously saline and formerly treated sewage
effluent.
• High and saline groundwater affecting foundations and the stability of highway
subgrades.
• Development within wadis, or dry valleys, reducing the extent and availability of natural
water courses required during storms. Identifying wadi beds is often difficult and
requires a thorough topographical assessment of the catchment.
• Development of underpasses, over bridges, and large grade-separated intersections

that interrupt natural water courses.
• Underpasses that require separate drainage arrangements and pumping stations.
Road drainage designers should consider these factors when developing their proposals.
As part of the approvals process, drainage designers must demonstrate how they have
addressed these factors and what the impacts may be in the case of failure of their design.
In addition, maintenance requirements for proposed systems should be considered in the

design.
1.5.1 Resilience and Urban Creep
1.5.1.1 Background
In the State of Qatar, significant urban expansion is taking place at a rate that is likely to
continue for the foreseeable future. To guard against infrastructure becoming outdated
shortly after construction, resilience needs to be built in to offset the effects of urban creep.
Urban creep is the phenomenon by which developments are constructed and then, at a later
date, additional impermeable area is added to that area, thus increasing surface water runoff.
1.5.1.2 Scope
This section provides guidance on how to account for the impact of urban creep on roads
projects. Incorporating an allowance for urban creep into the road drainage design will
ensure long-term resilience for future urban expansions. Table 1.1 lists rainfall intensity and
the percent of increase needed.

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Table 1.1 Rainfall Intensity Percentage Increase to Allow for Urban Creep
Design Life of Road

10 Years 25 Years >50 Years
Rainfall intensity percentage increase +10% +20% +30%
Note: Developed with Ashghal guidance.
1.5.2 Climate Change
1.5.2.1 Background
Climate change in the State of Qatar is likely to result in increased spatial and temporal
variability in weather patterns. This is expected to manifest in more extreme droughts
and rainfall events. It is important to account for these effects to enhance the long-term
effectiveness of drainage measures.
The effects of climate change have been assessed using the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change’s most recent climate models from Assessment Report 5. To reduce the
uncertainty, an ensemble approach (models) was used that includes the new generation
of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 models with generally higher spatial
resolution. A total of 61 Global Circulation Models with 609 emission scenarios are considered.
Additional details in climate change assessment is provided in the Qatar Rainfall and Runoff
Characteristics (MME, 2018).
Also, refer to latest Ashghal Sewerage and Drainage Design Manual.
1.5.2.2 Scope
This section provides guidance regarding the effects of climate change in the design of
highway drainage. By incorporating an allowance for climate change, the engineer will
provide long-term resilience for drainage solutions.
1.5.2.3 Method
Climate change should be considered with reference to Chapter 14 in the Qatar Rainfall and
Runoff Characteristics (MME, 2018). The chapter states that to account for climate change,
engineers should use corrected intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) relationships for drainage
design, which represent changes to rainfall events over an extended period. This approach
is outlined in Section 3.3.1. For a detailed explanation of the limitations associated with this
specific modeling approach, refer to the Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME,
2018).
1.6 Policies and Environmental Controls

Catchments with no natural outlet to the sea or to low-lying inland areas are difficult to
drain. There are advantages to controlling surface runoff at the source. The following are
policy principles for design of surface water and groundwater control systems:

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• Surface water and groundwater systems should use common facilities where possible.
• Where stormwater discharges above ground level, such as from bridges and flyovers,
runoff control systems should be installed.
• Runoff control systems should be installed at the source to regulate discharges to the
public infrastructure drainage systems.
• Where development is likely to be slow, soakaway systems or retention areas, or both,

should be used as an interim solution.
• The permissible peak flow from a new subcatchment into an existing or planned
stormwater system will be determined. If the calculated peak flow exceeds the flow
rate from the undeveloped area, the difference must be accounted for by a combination
of attenuation tanks and soakaways.
• The rate of runoff should be attenuated by tusing short-term flooding of roads, storage
areas, or tanks.
• Soakaways that drain surface waters may be required to attenuate runoff to positive
drainage systems or retention areas.
• Floodplains and routes are to be identified and kept clear of development to facilitate
runoff. Otherwise, provision within the development will be required with clearly defined
pathways and a free discharge.
• Positive drainage systems using pipes and culverts should be constructed where
possible in roadways, in accordance with the agreed services hierarchy. The location of
all drains must be agreed to by the Ashghal and the owners of the utility corridors.

DRAINAGE PART
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2 Project Concept Stage
2.1 Design Stage 1 Summary

This section details the method for calculating and identifying appropriate criteria by
establishing standard methodological requirements for drainage requirements. This process
corresponds to Design Stage 1 of the summary process diagram. The steps depicted in Figure
2.1 are expanded upon and explained in detail in the following sections. The purpose of this
concept stage is to assemble the raw data required for a preliminary design, and to produce
a strategy that will facilitate design of the drainage requirements.
Figure 2.1 Project Concept Process Steps
2.2 Data Gathering

It is imperative that the engineer has a comprehensive understanding of the drainage
requirements for each project. To achieve this, it is important to collect high quality data that
can be relied upon to represent the characteristics of the catchment. Figure 2.2 summarizes
the data requirements.

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Figure 2.2 Data Gathering Process Steps
2.3 Catchment Assessment

2.3.1 Overview
After data have been gathered, it should be used to identify and assess the catchments and
subcatchments relevant to the area that requires drainage planning. Figure 2.3 outlines this
process.
Figure 2.3 Catchment Assessment Process Steps

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The engineer must first determine the overall catchment extent for the entire project. The
catchment can be larger than the project area, depending on the topography of the region.
Adjacent plots may naturally drain into the development. The catchment can be calculated
using the topographic data gathered in the previous step of the initiation process. The
engineer should use the same data to identify high and low points across the catchment.
This information will then be used in conjunction with the locations of outfalls to define
subcatchments appropriate for the project.
The catchment size will determine the modeling approach required. For catchments of
less than 50 hectares (ha), programs such as MicroDrainage, Bentley, InfoWorks, ISIS, and
AutoCAD Civil 3D Storm package could be used. For larger catchments, ISIS and InfoWorks
would be more appropriate, although MicroDrainage models and AutoCAD Civil 3D Storm
would be acceptable, with prior agreement, for sites up to 100 ha. The final models should
however be presented in InfoWokrs or InfoWorks ICM format acceptable to Ashghal.
After suitable catchments have been identified, the engineer shall calculate runoff rates
(see Section 3.4.2.3), which will be used to calculate provisional drainage volumes required.
In some locations, local flood assessments may have been made and runoff volumes may be
available. If so, these should be reviewed, because outputs may be suitable for use as part
of the design initiation stage.
During project initiation, it may be useful to use preliminary values for permeability, such as
shown in Table 2.1. Designers could refer to AIA records for initial project scoping. A detailed
site investigation is required for all projects.
Table 2.1 Typical Permeability Values by Soil Type
Soil Type Permeability (m/s)

10-4 - 10-5
Upper loose sands
(Minimum)
10-6 - 10-7
Fissured or weathered rock laminates
(Average)
10-8 to 10-9
Rock
(Minimum)
Notes:
m/s = meters per second
Source: Qatar Sewerage and Drainage Design Manual (2005).
2.3.2 Flood Risk Assessment
2.3.2.1 Background
It has been common practice in Qatar to construct roads without providing a surface
water drainage system. This has led to severe flooding in some instances. Because of this,
consideration of flooding related to new roads both within the design criteria and beyond
the design event is of paramount importance.

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2.3.2.2 Purpose
This section focuses on directing those preparing the road design toward minimizing the risk
of flooding to the road user, adjacent landowners, critical infrastructure, and the surrounding
environment.
2.3.2.3 Scope
Inappropriate road construction within areas that are at risk of flooding is discouraged. Lower
risk areas are favored, but where this is not feasible, the road should be made safe without
worsening flooding elsewhere. Table 2.2 shows flood risk levels relative to the return periods
for flood events.
Table 2.2 Flood Risk Classification
Risk Level Return Periods (years)
High 2–10
Medium 10–25
Low >25
An “area at risk of flooding” is one that is prone to flood during more frequently experienced
storms, such as the 2- to 10-year return period (high-risk areas) and the 10- to 25year return
period (medium-risk areas). Areas that have a return period greater than 25-years have a low
risk of flooding.
“Flood risk” means the risk from all sources of flooding including surface water runoff,
surcharged sewers systems, groundwater, and the sea.
The purpose and vulnerability classification of the road should be considered, in addition
to whether the road corridor is in an area at risk of flooding. For example, a road serving a
hospital would have a higher vulnerability classification than a road serving a supermarket
parking lot.
By considering the flood risk area and the flood risk vulnerability together, the design should
be amended or mitigation measures proposed, or both, to manage the residual risk. A flood risk
assessment report should be prepared that clearly defines the existing flood risk for the land
proposed for the road construction and the subsequent risk after incorporating mitigation
measures, exceedance flow routes, and emergency flood areas (EFAs) for construction of
the road.
2.3.2.4 Method
The designer should obtain flood records from AIA for sewerage infrastructure, roads,
groundwater, and the sea, where appropriate, and determine the risk category (high, medium,
or low). Depending on the primary road usage, the designer will determine the vulnerability
classification. Roads that combine a mixture of uses should be placed into the higher of
the relevant classes of flood risk sensitivity. If there is a demonstrable need to locate

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installations (1) for bulk storage of materials within ports or other similar facilities or (2)
with energy infrastructure or carbon capture and storage that require coastal or water-side
locations or that need to be in other high-risk flood areas, those facilities should be classified
as “essential infrastructure.” The designer can use the following list, based on Technical
Guidance to the National Planning Policy Framework, to help determine vulnerability
classification (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2012).
• Essential Infrastructure
−− Essential transport infrastructure (including mass evacuation routes) that must

cross the area at risk (i.e. railway/metro/light rail stations/emergency exits/depots/
stabling yards and similar facilities).
−− Essential utility infrastructure that must be in a flood risk area for operational
reasons, including electricity generating power stations and grid and primary
substations; and water treatment works and desalinization plants that need to
stay operational in times of flood.
−− Rail assets i.e. Rail Tracks, Station Areas, Emergency Exits and Utility pop-ups.
• Highly Vulnerable
−− Police stations, hospitals, ambulance stations, fire stations, command centers, and
telecommunications installations required to be operational during flooding.
−− Emergency dispersal points.
−− Basement dwellings.
−− Installations requiring the use, storage, or onward transmission of hazardous

substances.
• More Vulnerable
−− Residential institutions such as residential care homes, children’s homes, social

services homes, prisons, and hostels.
−− Buildings for dwelling houses, student’s halls of residence, and hotels.
−− Nonresidential uses for health services, nurseries, and educational establishments.
−− Landfill and sites used for waste management facilities for hazardous waste.
−− Sites used for camping, subject to a specific warning and evacuation plan.
• Less Vulnerable
−− Police, ambulance, or fire stations that need not be operational during flooding.
−− Buildings used for shops; financial, professional, and other services; restaurants
and cafes; offices; general industry, storage, and distribution; nonresidential
institutions not listed as More Vulnerable; assembly; and leisure.
−− Land and buildings used for agriculture.
−− Waste treatment, except landfill and hazardous waste facilities.

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−− Mineral working and processing, except for sand and gravel working.
−− Water treatment works which do not need to remain operational during times of
flood.
−− Sewage treatment works, if adequate measures to control pollution and manage

sewage during flooding events are in place.
• Water Compatible Development
−− Flood control infrastructure.
−− Water transmission infrastructure and pumping stations.
−− Sewage transmission infrastructure and pumping stations.
−− Sand and gravel working.
−− Docks, marinas, and wharves.
−− Navigation facilities.
−− Defense installations.
−− Ship building, repairing, and dismantling; dockside fish processing; and refrigeration
and compatible activities requiring a waterside location.
−− Water-based recreation, excluding sleeping accommodations.
−− Lifeguard and coastguard stations.
−− Amenity open space, nature conservation and biodiversity, outdoor sports and
recreation, and essential facilities such as changing rooms.
−− Essential ancillary sleeping or residential accommodation for staff required by

uses in this category, subject to a specific warning and evacuation plan.
The designer should propose mitigation measures based on flood risk area, vulnerability
classification, and surrounding land uses and submit them to the Overseeing Organization
for comment and approval. For large-scale road projects or for special corridors, the
Overseeing Organization may require more comprehensive hydrological studies and
drainage investigations to support the design. This should be discussed with the Overseeing
Organization at Design Stage 1 project initiation so that there is enough time to perform the
work before Design Stage 2 commences.
2.4 Consideration of Geometric Design of Road

The drainage design depends on the road type and classification. During the project concept
design, the geometry of the roadway and the road type should be considered so that
appropriate drainage measures may be developed. The following are key considerations:
• In general road finish level should be 300mm minimum above surrounding ground to
avoid ingress of water
• Locations of low points coinciding with points of discharge

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• Low points under cutting should be avoided

• Flat areas of road resulting from horizontal or vertical alignment transitions
• Roundabouts
• Underpasses
The design should be an iterative process whereby highway and drainage engineers work
together to develop a robust solution that achieves the correct flood return period and depth
standards (see Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2) by implementing appropriate pollution control
measures.
2.5 Determine Viable Outfalls

It is important to develop a strategy for placing outfalls where they will limit negative effects
on the local community, highway, or environment. Because of the range of parties who could
be affected by the outfall, stakeholders should agree on the location of the outfalls. When
determining provisional outfall locations, the following range of factors should be considered:
• Outfall method; to watercourse, sewer, marine waters, through infiltration, or via deep
injection.
• High and low points of topography and road geometry.
• Access for maintenance.
• Safety screens; required if there is a risk of children or animals gaining access to large-
diameter pipes.
• Velocity of water; to be controlled to prevent scour or damage to system.
• Pollution risk; buildup of particulates in dry conditions that could be washed through the
system by runoff.
2.6 Consideration of Treated Sewage Effluent

Treated sewage effluent is commonly used in the State of Qatar’s cities to irrigate
flowerbeds and other landscaping features. When designing drainage features, it is important
to consider whether spills or runoff of treated sewage effluent could enter SuDS and either
contribute to dry weather flow or leach and potentially contaminate groundwater supplies.
This is of particular importance where groundwater is extracted for potable use as it can have
major implications for the requirements for treatment prior to use. Considerations should
include consultations with Overseeing Organizations and investigations of local aquifers. If
groundwater contamination is possible, this should be a key design consideration and the
issue should be discussed with the relevant Ministerial Departments and Kahramaa.
2.7 Identify Pollution Control Requirements

2.7.1 Background
The State of Qatar is characterized by an arid climate, with infrequent high-intensity storms
during the rainy season, from October to May. This, in conjunction with the absence of

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watercourses and the high levels of salt in the ground, can lead to serious pollution from
roads if stormwater runoff is not appropriately controlled.
Pollutants build up on the road surface during the long dry periods, and the first storms of
the rainy season are the most severe from a pollution perspective. Thus, it is important to
provide pollution control measures for all roads. The extent and type of control measures will
be selected for the risk posed by the location type and the numbers of vehicles using the
road.
2.7.2 Scope
Section 3.5 gives guidance on the selection of pollution control measures for the
road location and the risk associated with the number of vehicles. The road location type
relates to the risk level posed by the given location; for example, crashes at intersections
and roundabouts. The number of vehicles criterion is linked to the type of road, because
certain types of road convey higher numbers of vehicles and, therefore, pose a greater risk
than smaller roads.
By providing guidance on the selection and implementation of pollution control measures for
new roads, pollution incidents will be minimized and the frequency of groundwater pollution
from roads sources reduced.
2.8 Stakeholder Engagement

Internal consultation among design teams (e.g., highways, geotechnical, structures, utilities,
public realm/areas) should take place throughout all design stages. On completion of a draft
strategy, it is important to re-engage stakeholders to determine if the strategy is robust
and meets the necessary requirements. The purpose of stakeholder engagement is to
outline the provisional drainage plan and iteratively refine it based on stakeholder feedback
concerning possible constraints, such as inappropriate discharge rates and outfall locations,
and potential opportunities, such as collaborative work with other nearby developments or
projects. Figure 2.4 depicts the process. This step will achieve approval of a strategy that will
advance to the design work at Design Stage 2.
Figure 2.4 Stakeholder Engagement Process Steps
Stakeholder engagement is included at the end of the Design Stage 1 process to highlight
the necessity to obtain approval from MME regarding the strategy. In practice, ongoing
stakeholder engagement throughout the entire process, through regular constructive

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dialogue, is likely to be the most efficient and effective method of ensuring the strategy
remains consistent with the expectations of all stakeholders. Appendix A provides a list
of Qatar stakeholders. Section 1.2.2 details the key stakeholders and the relevant parties
responsible for approvals. It is likely that smaller, location-specific parties will also be
important stakeholders to involve. This should be assessed on a project-by-project basis,
and is supplementary to the standard parties required for approval.
2.9 Option Development and Drainage Strategy

At this point, the consultant responsible for the preliminary concept design should incorporate
the findings described in the previous sections to develop a high-level drainage strategy
that meets MME’s and Ashghal expectations. Various options for a concept design solution
will have been discussed and a recommended option promoted by the design consultants
for approval by MME and Ashghal. Ashghal will be responsible for issuing the final approval.

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3 Preliminary Design Work

This section outlines the processes and standards required to develop the preliminary design
information necessary to define detailed design criteria. Preliminary design work primarily
focuses on a detailed and specific determination of catchment hydrology, hydraulics, and
flow, and follows strategy developed during the project concept design in Design Stage 1
approved by Ashghal. Figure 3.1 depicts the preliminary design process.
Figure 3.1 Preliminary Design Process Steps
3.2 Design Criteria

3.2.1 Flood Return Periods
Table 3.1 lists the levels of flood protection required by MME and Ashghal, arranged by
road classification. For a full description of highway classifications, see Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual, and Table 3.2 for their related acceptable flood standards. Special
corridors, as characterized in Volume 1, Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, of this
Manual, should have their levels of storm return period resilience agreed to by MME and
Ashghal. When using this classification, where an urban road becomes a rural road, the point
of transition is defined as the limit of the settlement or the city boundary. Where urban and
rural road types exist in one drainage catchment, the worst-case return period should be
selected.

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Table 3.1 Required Levels of Flood Protection for Each Road Classification
Location and Road Type

Storm Event Return Period Urban Rural
Local roads
1 in 2 years
Collectors
Local roads
1 in 5 years Service roads Arterials
Collectors
Arterials
1 in 10 years not applicable
Expressways
1 in 50 years Tunnels and underpasses not applicable
At stations, tunnels and
1 in 100 year* As applicable
underpasses (railway)
Note: The final criteria for fllod protection applicable should be discussed and agreed with the Overseeing
Organization at Design Stage 1, project initiation. (*) Consult with Qatar Rail
Because rainfall in the State of Qatar is intense, it is acceptable to temporarily flood highways
to the depths and extents set out in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Guidelines for Flood Standards on Qatar Roadways
Road Location and Type Acceptable Flooding

Urban Areas
Local roads Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 1 hour.
Service roads Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 1 hour.
Collectors Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 30 minutes.
Arterials Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 10 minutes.
Expressways Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 10 minutes.
Rural Areas
Local roads Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 2 hours.
Collectors Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 1 hour.
Arterials Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 30 minutes.
Freeways Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 10 minutes.
Note: Developed with Ashghal guidance. Aso refer to latest version of Ashghal DNDD Sewerage and
Drainage Design Manual.
m = meter
3.2.2 Acceptable Highway Flood Standards

Ashghal guidelines for acceptable flooding levels are provided in Table 3.2. As with acceptable
flood return periods, where an urban road becomes a rural road, the point of transition is
defined as the limit of the settlement or the city boundary. Where urban and rural road types
exist in one drainage catchment, the level of acceptable flooding for urban areas outlined in
Table 3.2 should be selected.

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Special corridors, as characterized in Volume 1, Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance,

of this Manual, should have their levels of acceptable flooding agreed to by the Overseeing
Organization at Design Stage 1.
Flood depths and times are acceptable only where they exist as a direct result of periodic
surface water inundation at the return periods specified in Table 3.2. It is not acceptable for
groundwater to collect within the drainage system and contribute to flooding.
3.2.3 Gully Spacing

Road flooding must be controlled to help maintain the road pavement and reduce the risk of
aquaplaning of vehicles. Road flooding can be controlled by proper planning of road gullies,
with respect to both gully spacing and the size of the gully intake. During a storm, water
accumulates at the roadsides because it cannot be completely contained by the roadside
inlets. This causes water to spread on the road and, if not controlled, to lead to flooding of
the road. Figure 3.2 shows width and depth of water spread for a part of the road with gully
inlets separated by distance.
Figure 3.2 Water Spread and Road Gully Spacing
Inlet locations are determined by using a trial and error procedure to maintain depth and
spread of flow within allowable limits along the curb line. The following guidelines are to be
followed while designing a gully system for roadways, assuming that the gullies are placed
along the curb stones:
1. Spread of water (Ws) should not exceed 1 m for expressways and intersections. For
local roads, bridges and vehicular loading areas, maximum allowable spread is 2.5 m.
The exact criteria to be adopted should be discussed and agreed with the Oversean
Authority during Stage 1. For sag locations, the spread of water should be such that at
least one lane in each direction of travel is free from ponding of water.
2. Depth (D) of water ponding should not exceed the limits specified or cause the spread
width to exceed the allowable value, whichever is less. Refer to Table 3.2 for the
allowable maximum depths and durations for clearance.
3. The capacity of grated curb inlets to intercept the gutter flow is 70 % for unpaved
areas and 85 % for paved roadways, assuming medium size curb inlets are used (e.g.

DRAINAGE PART
10
Ashghal standard 800 mm long curb inlets). The same for a combination inlet is 90 to
100 % depending upon road grade conditions, with a 100 % capacity for an inlet in sag
locations.
4. The spread width of gully spacing (L) must remain within allowable limits.
5. Significant amount of discharge coming from behind the curb should be intercepted
before reaching the roadway or gutter.
6. The last inlet in a series should intercept all the flow to that point, with a bypass flow
not to exceed 0.003 cubic meter per second (m3/s) for the typical situation. The Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (UK Department
for Transport, 2017) provides additional guidance.
The following equations are applicable for the roadside gullies.
Gutter flow (QG): The water spread on road will follow the open channel flow model given by
Manning for estimating the water flow in gutters:
. . .
=
where
QG = gutter flow in cubic meters
SL = longitudinal slope of the road (m/m)
Sx = cross slope of the road (m/m)
WS = water spread width (m)
Ku = 0.376
n = Manning’s coefficient
The depth of flow (d) for a given spread width is given by the following:
The amount of discharge generated by the road catchment between two consecutive curb
inlets is given by the Rational Formula as follows:

PART DRAINAGE
10
=
×
where
Q = discharge generated (cumecs)
C = coefficient of runoff for the catchment
i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
L = gully spacing (m)
w = road width (m)
Amount of discharge intercepted (Qi) by the grated inlet is decided by the following equations,
depending upon the depth of water flowing in the gutter. If the water level is below the top
of the inlet opening, the inlet is said to be operating as a weir. The following equation is for
discharge capacity of the grate inlets when operating as a weir:
.
=
where
P = perimeter of the rectangle grate opening (m)
CW = 1.66
da = average depth of water in gutter at the inlet (m)
If the water level is above the inlet opening i.e., the inlet is submerged—the inlet is said to be
operating as an orifice. The following equation is for discharge capacity of the grate inlets
when operating as an orifice:
.
= ( )
where
Co = orifice coefficient = 0.67
Ag = clear opening area of the grate times 0.70 or 0.85 depending upon the road
conditions and inlet location as explained in the guidelines above
g = 9.81 m/s2
d = depth of allowable water ponding at the curb (m)
No software has been identified for performing the analysis, but the following steps should
be followed in accordance with the guidelines and equations above to design a gully system
for road drainage:
1. Start from the highest point (A) along the road alignment and approach towards the
lowest point (C). Then begin from the next highest point (B) and approach the same

DRAINAGE PART
10
lowest point in the opposite direction, as shown on Figure 3.3. Choose an initial gully or
inlet spacing (L), and place the first inlet at this distance from the highest point when
approaching the lowest point in the forward direction.
Figure 3.3 Design of Road Gullies along Road Profile
2. Parameters like SL, SX, w, and n will be known from the road design. Using the Rational
Formula, compute the discharge (Q) generated for the chosen gully spacing and road
design parameters.
3. Assuming same sizes from the available inlet types, compute the discharge intercepted
(Qi) by using the formula for an orifice for the chosen inlet assuming the inlet is operating
in orifice mode. Using the total runoff generated (Q) and discharge intercepted (Qi) by
the inlet, compute the gutter discharge (QG) as shown:
= −
4. Using Figure 3.2 to compute the spread width, Ws, caused by this gutter discharge, and
check if it is within design allowable limits. Also, compute water depth, d, for this spread
width, and check if it is within design allowable limits.
5. If the spread width and depth are within the allowable limits, then the chosen inlet
spacing is accepted. Otherwise, repeat Steps 1 to 4 for shorter inlet spacing.
6. When an acceptable inlet spacing is determined, move to the second inlet location. For
the second inlet location, the bypass flow from the first inlet will be added to the gutter
flow discharge generated from the road catchment. Using this additional gutter flow,
compute the spread width using the open channel flow model given by Manning for
estimating the water flow in gutters (QG). Also, compute the water depth for this spread
width using the depth of flow calculation (d).
7. If the water spread width and depth are within allowable design limits, then proceed
in the same manner for the next inlet. Otherwise, repeat the procedure by choosing
shorter inlet spacing for the first inlet until the inlet spacing results in a spread width
and depth that is within allowable limits.
8. Continue this procedure until the last inlet is reached. For the last inlet, compute the
bypass flow and check if it is less than 0.003 m3/s. If the bypass flow is less than 0.003
m3/s, then the design is accepted. Otherwise, repeat Steps 1 through 7 with shorter
inlet spacing.

PART DRAINAGE
10
3.2.4 Pipeline Velocities

To ensure minimal settling of particles in the sewers the following set of velocities for
varying pipe sizes is recommended.
Table 3.3 Minimum Design Velocities
Pipe Size (mm) Approximate Self-cleansing Velocity (m/s)

300 0.75
400 0.77
500 0.82
600 0.86
700 0.87
800 0.88
900 0.88
1,000 0.92
Source: Ashghal Drainage Manual.

mm = millimeters
The maximum velocity recommended in a sewer is 2.5 meters per second (m/s). In certain
circumstances this may be relaxed to 3 m/s.
3.2.5 Pipeline Materials

For diameters up to 1,000 mm, vitrified clay (VC) is recommended. For diameters greater
than 1,000 mm, concrete pipe is recommended. Rising mains are normally HDPE or ductile
iron. Ashghal should be consulted for latest advice and material should be as per PWA memo
regarding alternative pipe materials.
3.3 Hydrological Data

Hydrological data are provided in the State Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME,
2018). References to rainfall should be directed to this report.
3.3.1 Rainfall Characterization

It is important to accurately characterize rainfall events and storm durations to quantify the
drainage capacity required to compensate for runoff.
The State of Qatar is in an arid region with highly variable rainfall, where annual rainfall may
vary from 10 to more than 250 mm. Storms as intense as 136 (mm) within a 24-hour period
(recorded in Umm Al Faye March 1995) and 54 mm in a 3-hour period have been recorded
(Ministry of Environment [MoE], 2010). Thunderstorms can be severe, but they are of limited
geographical extent.

DRAINAGE PART
10
For the purposes of highway drainage design, the State of Qatar shall be considered to have
different rainfall characteristics in the different regions. The average of the annual maximum
daily rainfall in the Northern Region is 26 mm; in the Southern Region, it VOLUME
is 21 mm.
2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
For design purposes, reference should be made to the Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics
(MME, 2018). IDF relationships from this study are shown in Section 3.3.2.
For design purposes, reference should be made to the Qatar Rainfall and Runoff
3.3.2 Characteristics (MME, 2018). IDF relationships from this study are shown in Section
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
3.3.2.
It is important to establish the relationship among rainfall event intensity, duration, and
frequency to reliably identify the drainage capacity required for each design. Design IDF
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
It is important
values should to establish
be extracted fromthe relationship
relevant among
figures forrainfall event intensity,
the location of the duration,
proposedand
road.
frequency to reliably identify the drainage capacity required for each design. Design IDF
values should be extracted from relevant figures for the location of the proposed road.
The State of Qatar is divided into four regions—Northern, Central East, Central West, and
Southern—each
The Staterepresenting different
of Qatar is divided into fourIDF relations to Central
regions—Northern, compensate for West,
East, Central the andregional
differences experienced in Qatar. The four regions are shown on Figure 3.4.
Southern—each representing different IDF relations to compensate for the regional The rainfall
differences experienced in Qatar. The four regions are shown on Figure 3.4. The rainfall
design criteria can be expressed by the Rational Formula, with each region having different l1
design criteria can be expressed by the Rational Formula, with each region having
values, where l1 is the average of the maximum annual 24-hour rainfall at site (in millimeters
different l1 values, where l1 is the average of the maximum annual 24-hour rainfall at site
per hour [mm/hour]).
(in millimetersThe
perdiscretization
hour [mm/hour]). adjustment factor is
The discretization set to 1.151,
adjustment factorasisevaluated
set to 1.151,in the
as evaluated
Qatar Rainfall in the Qatar
and Runoff (MME, Characteristics
Rainfall and Runoff
Characteristics 2018). (MME, 2018).
૚૜. ૙૝ૡ࢒࢔(ࢀ) + ૚૛. ૠ૛

࢏(ࢀ, ࢚) = ࢒૚ ࢻࡰ ૛૝ ቊ ቋ
(࢚ + ૚૚. ૝ૢ૜ૠ)૙.ૡૡ૞૜
where
where
T = return period (years)
T = return
t period (years)
= duration of rainfall event (minutes)
t ݅(ܶ, ‫= )ݐ‬ofrain
= duration intensity
rainfall event(mm/hour)
(minutes)
݈ଵ = average maximum annual 24-hour rainfall at site (mm/hour)
i(T,t) = rain
ߙ஽ intensity (mm/hour)adjustment factor (constant 1.151)
= discretization
l1 = average maximum annual 24-hour rainfall at site (mm/hour)
aD = discretization adjustment factor (constant 1.151)
VOLUME 2 PAGE 25

PART DRAINAGE
10
Figure 3.4 Division of Qatar into Four Rainfall Regions
Table 3.4 provides the coordinates of corners of the four regions and the l1 value for the
center point of the respective regions. The equation will derive the design rainfall intensity
for a particular quadrant, with a given return period T and rainfall duration t.
Appendix B contains the detailed IDF figures. Table 3.5 to Table 3.8 provide the tabular IDF
values.

Table 3.4 Coordinates, Latitude, and Longitude for different rainfall regions
Latitude (Northings) Longitude (Eastings) Qatar National Grid

l1 Value
Region Corner Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min Sec. x (m) y (m) (mm/hr)
Northern Region Top left 26 8 41.73 50 51 59.98 487728.4 165080.2
Top right 26 8 43.53 51 36 25.07 487794.8 239105.3
Bottom left 25 36 33.79 50 48 30.98 428398.5 164921.7
Bottom right 25 36 39.21 51 38 1.95 428576.2 239281.0
1.0923
Central West Region Top left 25 36 12.78 50 44 47.15 427789.4 152842.7
Top right 25 35 49.86 51 23 45.44 427012.2 218088.5
Bottom left 25 0 24.91 50 46 16.25 361687.6 155108.8
Bottom right 25 0 7.02 51 23 51.03 361075.0 218333.0
1.0115
Central East Region (Doha) Top left 25 35 49.86 51 23 45.44 427012.2 218088.5
Top right 25 36 39.21 51 38 1.95 428584.4 241984.1
Bottom left 25 0 7.02 51 23 51.03 361075.0 218333.0
Bottom right 25 0 8.36 51 38 45.24 361172.5 243407.4
0.9503
Southern Region Top left 25 0 24.91 50 46 16.25 361687.6 155108.8
Top right 25 0 8.36 51 38 45.24 361172.5 243407.4
Bottom left 24 31 35.19 50 49 3.77 308450.8 159650.5
Bottom right 24 30 12.53 51 24 12.25 305861.5 219003.0
0.8847
Deg. = degrees
Min. = minutes
mm/hr = millimeters per hour
Sec. = seconds
m = meters
DRAINAGE

10
PART
27
PART DRAINAGE
10
Table 3.5 IDF Relation for the Northern Region
Return Period
2 Years 5 Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years

Duration
(minutes) Intensity (mm/hr)
5 54.9 85.1 107.9 138.1 160.9 183.7
10 43.4 67.3 85.4 109.2 127.3 145.3
20 31.0 48.0 60.9 77.9 90.7 103.6
30 24.3 37.6 47.7 61.0 71.1 81.2
60 15.0 23.2 29.5 37.7 43.9 50.1
120 8.7 13.5 17.2 22.0 25.6 29.2
240 4.9 7.6 9.7 12.4 14.4 16.5
360 3.5 5.4 6.9 8.8 10.2 11.7
720 1.9 3.0 3.8 4.8 5.6 6.4
1440 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5
2880 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.3
4320 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.6
Table 3.6 IDF Relation for the Central West Region
Return Period

Duration
5 50.9 78.8 99.9 127.9 149.0 170.1
10 40.2 62.3 79.0 101.1 117.9 134.6
20 28.7 44.4 56.4 72.1 84.0 96.0
30 22.5 34.8 44.2 56.5 65.8 75.2
60 13.9 21.5 27.3 34.9 40.7 46.4
120 8.1 12.5 15.9 20.4 23.7 27.1
240 4.6 7.1 9.0 11.5 13.4 15.3
360 3.2 5.0 6.3 8.1 9.5 10.8
720 1.8 2.7 3.5 4.5 5.2 5.9
1440 1.0 1.5 1.9 2.4 2.8 3.2
2880 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.1
4320 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5

DRAINAGE PART
10
Table 3.7 IDF Relation for the Central East Region
Return Period

Duration
5 47.8 74.0 93.9 120.1 140.0 159.8
10 37.8 58.6 74.3 95.0 110.7 126.4
20 27.0 41.8 53.0 67.8 79.0 90.2
30 21.1 32.7 41.5 53.1 61.9 70.6
60 13.0 20.2 25.6 32.8 38.2 43.6
120 7.6 11.8 14.9 19.1 22.3 25.4
240 4.3 6.6 8.4 10.8 12.6 14.3
360 3.0 4.7 6.0 7.6 8.9 10.1
720 1.7 2.6 3.3 4.2 4.9 5.6
1440 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.0
2880 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0
4320 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Table 3.8 IDF Relation for the Southern Region
Return Period

Duration
5 44.5 68.9 87.4 111.8 130.3 148.8
10 35.2 54.5 69.1 88.5 103.1 117.7
20 25.1 38.9 49.3 63.1 73.5 83.9
30 19.7 30.5 38.6 49.4 57.6 65.8
60 12.1 18.8 23.9 30.5 35.6 40.6
120 7.1 11.0 13.9 17.8 20.7 23.7
240 4.0 6.2 7.8 10.0 11.7 13.3
360 2.8 4.4 5.6 7.1 8.3 9.4
720 1.6 2.4 3.0 3.9 4.5 5.2
1440 0.8 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8
2880 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8
4320 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.3
In case of a drainage system passing through two or more regions, the design criteria with
the worst-case scenario should be applied. Figure 3.3 illustrates the situation. As shown,
Segment 2 of the drainage system passes through the Central East and Central West regions.
For this segment, the most critical rainfall design criteria are applied, in this case, Central
West. Segment 1 is in the Central West Region only; hence, the design criteria for Central
West only should be applied. If Segments 1 and 2 were connected by a pump station, they
still would be considered separately. However, in this case, the receiving segment would
still need to accommodate the flow based on the design criteria applied from the supplying
segment.

PART DRAINAGE
10
Figure 3.5 Example of a Drainage System Crossing Rainfall Regions
The figures referenced in this section are from the Study of Regional Design Rainfall, Qatar
(MMUP, 2013) and Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME, 2018). The regional
study considered rainfall data from 23 meteorological stations in Qatar, Bahrain, and United
Arab Emirates from 1948 until 2011.
3.3.2.1 IDF-Relations under climate change

Several aspects must be considered in choosing a climate change factor for updating IDF
relations under climate change, such as the design horizon, the replacement cost, the
interest rate, the sensitivity of the infrastructure, the cost of waiting until more information
becomes available.
Both the median and the upper 68 % confidence interval from the climate change analysis
show increased extreme rainfall from present to the future. Only the lower 68 % confidence
intervals show decreased rainfall. The upper 68 % confidence interval from the climate
change analysis is used to predict the future design rainfall.
The result shows that the rate-of-change of the intermediate period (2040-2069) is at
similar level as the far future (2070-2099). There is a slightly larger increase for rainfall of
short and intermediate average recurrence interval (ARIs); (<100 years) and lower magnitude
increases for extreme rainfall (> 100 year ARIs) in the future, considering the median values.
However, the confidence intervals, widens with increase in the ARI, and accordingly, the
typical rate-of-changes increase with increasing ARI, taking safety into account.

DRAINAGE PART
10
The recommended rate-of-change for the State of Qatar is based on approximately 66 %

of the 84-percentile value of the rate-of-change, comparable to what is used in the Danish
standards. This provides a reasonable degree of safety for design of infrastructure with a
long design horizon in the State of Qatar.
Transition between current baseline meteorological conditions and future meteorological

conditions is expressed by a climate change factor expressed as:
( , , +∆ )
( , , + )= = = 1+ , +∆ (T, d)
( , , +∆ )
IFut = Future rainfall intensity [mm/hr]

ICur = Current rainfall intensity [mm/hr]
Rt,t+Δt = Rate of change from t to t+Δt
CF = Climate Change Factor
T = Average Recurrence Interval [years]
d = Duration of rainfall [minutes]
t = The current time [year]
Δt = The number of years into the future from current date [year]
The climate change factors (CF) should be re-evaluated regularly (e.g. every 5 years) as
climate models and climate data are constantly improved. The basis and discussion on climate
change factors are available in the Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME, 2018).
Table 3.9 summarizes the modelled climate change factors for the State of Qatar for the
different a ARIs and the recommended factor to be used in design. Climate change studies
are constantly being updated and the precision of the climate models improved.
Climate change effects must be considered for the design of drainage systems with lifespans
longer than 30 years or for drainage systems protecting important infrastructure. Climate
model results indicate the climate change will impact fully at year 2070. Refer to Figure 3.6
for intermediate years, as the climate change factor should vary linearly from year 2017 to
year 2070.
Infrastructure designed with less than a 5-year ARI is not considered important infrastructure
(e.g. local roads in rural areas).

PART DRAINAGE
10
Figure 3.6 Climate change factor as a function of time and ARI
Table 3.10 to Table 3.13 provide the tabular IDF values, accounting for climate change for
years 2070-2100.
Future IDF curves were developed by applying the climate change factors to the current IDF
curves. The future IDF curves for 2070-2100 are provided in Appendix B.
Table 3.9 Climate change factors for years 2070 to 2100 for Qatar
QHDM
ARI Median 84-percentile 95-percentile
(standard)
10-year ARI 1.1 1.3 1.5 2.0
20-year ARI 1.1 1.4 1.6 2.1
50-year ARI 1.1 1.4 1.6 2.2
100-year ARI 1.1 1.5 1.7 2.3

DRAINAGE PART
10
Table 3.10 IDF Relation for the Northern Region under future condition (2070-
2100)
Return Period

Duration
5 77.2 112.6 144.6 192.2 230.9 270.8
10 61.1 89.1 114.4 152.0 182.7 214.2
20 43.6 63.5 81.6 108.4 130.2 152.7
30 34.1 49.8 63.9 84.9 102.0 119.6
60 21.1 30.7 39.5 52.5 63.0 73.9
120 12.3 17.9 23.0 30.6 36.8 43.1
240 6.9 10.1 13.0 17.2 20.7 24.3
360 4.9 7.2 9.2 12.2 14.7 17.2
720 2.7 3.9 5.0 6.7 8.0 9.4
1440 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.7 4.4 5.1
2880 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.4 2.8 3.3
4320 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.3
Table 3.11 IDF Relation for the Central West Region under future condition (2070-
2100)
Return Period

Duration
5 71.5 104.3 133.9 178.0 213.8 250.8
10 56.6 82.5 105.9 140.8 169.2 198.4
20 40.3 58.8 75.5 100.4 120.6 141.4
30 31.6 46.1 59.2 78.7 94.5 110.8
60 19.5 28.5 36.6 48.6 58.4 68.5
120 11.4 16.6 21.3 28.3 34.0 39.9
240 6.4 9.4 12.0 16.0 19.2 22.5
360 4.5 6.6 8.5 11.3 13.6 15.9
720 2.5 3.6 4.7 6.2 7.5 8.7
1440 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.4 4.1 4.8
2880 0.9 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.6 3.1

PART DRAINAGE
10
Table 3.12 IDF Relation for the Central East Region under future condition (2070-
2100)
Return Period
Duration 2 Years 5 Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years

5 67.2 98.0 125.8 167.2 200.9 235.6
10 53.1 77.5 99.5 132.3 158.9 186.4
20 37.9 55.3 71.0 94.3 113.3 132.9
30 29.7 43.3 55.6 73.9 88.8 104.1
60 18.3 26.7 34.3 45.6 54.8 64.3
120 10.7 15.6 20.0 26.6 32.0 37.5
240 6.0 8.8 11.3 15.0 18.0 21.1
360 4.3 6.2 8.0 10.6 12.8 15.0
720 2.3 3.4 4.4 5.8 7.0 8.2
1440 1.3 1.9 2.4 3.2 3.8 4.5
2880 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.5 2.9
4320 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0
Table 3.13 IDF Relation for the Southern Region under future condition (2070-
2100)
Return Period
Duration 2 Years 5 Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years

5 62.6 91.2 117.1 155.7 187.0 219.3
10 49.5 72.2 92.7 123.2 148.0 173.5
20 35.3 51.4 66.1 87.8 105.5 123.7
30 27.6 40.3 51.8 68.8 82.6 96.9
60 17.1 24.9 32.0 42.5 51.1 59.9
120 10.0 14.5 18.6 24.8 29.8 34.9
240 5.6 8.2 10.5 14.0 16.8 19.7
360 4.0 5.8 7.4 9.9 11.9 13.9
720 2.2 3.2 4.1 5.4 6.5 7.6
1440 1.2 1.7 2.2 3.0 3.6 4.2
2880 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.3 2.7
4320 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9
3.3.3 Intensity-Duration-Frequency relations for sensitive infrastructure

Sensitive infrastructure such as hospitals, civil defesce, military installation or important
transport infrastructure may require higher flood protection levels than the usual design
relations.
3.3.4 LH-moments introduced by Wang (1997).

LH-moments are a generalization of L-moments and allow the distribution to be increasingly
focused on the larger data values depending on the value of ƞ, where ƞ = 0 is equivalent to

DRAINAGE PART
10
L-moments. The equations for deriving LH-moments and the associated Generalized Extreme
Value (GEV) parameters are given in Wang (1998).
LH-moments allow the distribution to increasingly focus on the tail of the distribution which
is considered appropriate for extreme design rainfall estimation.
To derive extreme design rainfall (in the ARI ranges of greater than 100 years to 2000 years),
several approaches can be adopted. IDF-relations for sensitive infrastructure is based on the
GEV-LH moments method, please refer to Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME,
2018) chapter 4. A smooth transition between the L-Moments and the GEV-LH-moments is
applied at the 100-year ARI.
Upon request, MME can provide an overview of areas where the infrastructure is considered
to be sensitive and the respective design criteria to be applied for that particular site.
The intensity as a function of the ARI applicable to different regions in the State of Qatar is
provided under Appendix F.
3.3.5 Areal Reduction Factors

Areal Reduction Factors (ARFs) convert point rainfall, measured by a rain gauge, into areal
catchment rainfall. ARFs are important factors for analysis of rainfall for relatively large
catchments where the rainfall will not have uniform rainfall intensity overlying the area.
The IDF-curves above define the point rainfall, but for larger catchments, the ARF takes the
non-uniform nature of the rain into account applying a multiplication factor on the point
rainfall.
ARF varies according to storm characteristics such as ARIl, intensity, and watershed
characteristics like size, shape and geographic location. To obtain an effective rainfall depth
over a certain catchment, a point depth precipitation with a specified duration and frequency
has to be multiplied by the corresponding ARF (range from 0 to 1).
The ARF derived below is based on Bells definition of Areal rainfall (Bell, 1976). Interpolation
is performed in a grid following the Inverse Distance Weight method. The ARF is computed
for 24-hour rainfall only. There are only unofficial shorter duration rainfall records available
in the State of Qatar, hence the ARF for shorter duration rainfall has not been derived. The
reduction in rainfall increases with shorter rainfall durations, hence the reduction factors are
acceptable as conservative values.

PART DRAINAGE
10
Table 3.14 The ARF using Grid and Inverse Distance Weight method for different
catchment sizes.
Grid size
5x5 10 x 10 15 x 15 20 x 20 30 x 30
[km x km]
Area [km²] 25 100 225 400 900
ARF 0.977 0.953 0.940 0.926 0.912
ARF should only be applied on catchments exceeding 25 square kilometers (km²). Catchments
smaller than 25 km² should assume an ARF value of 1.0.
As an approximation, the following equation can be used to derive the ARF for areas in
intermediate ranges as a function of catchment area:
ARF(A)=-0.018 ln(A)+1.036 (valid for A>25 km²)
Where,
A Area in km²
ARF Areal Reduction Factor
Example:
Assume a catchment of 150 km² and a point rainfall of 30 mm/hr, then the catchment
ARF(150)=-0.018 ln(150) + 1.036 = 0.95, so the catchment rainfall becomes 0.95 x 30 mm/
hr = 28.37 mm/hr.
3.3.6 Hyetographs
A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall over time that is
used to understand the rainfall distribution for design storms.
For a single catchment less than 50 ha, a uniform hyetograph can be applied. The intensity of
the uniform hyetograph is defined by determining the design return period T and considering
the duration of the rainfall t being equal to the time of concentration Tc of the catchment.
The intensity derived from the IDF curve is then considered uniform in time and the Rational
Formula is applied.
Large catchments typically are subdivided into subcatchments. Modeling should be applied,
as should the Alternating Blocking Method (ABM). ABM tests the maximum design rainfall
criteria irrespective of the time of concentration of individual subcatchments, because the
rain depth follows the individual IDF curves. The hyetograph of a design storm of duration
t and return period T can be derived by ABM because it specifies the precipitation depth
occurring in n successive time intervals of duration ∆t over a total duration of t, where t is the
time of concentration for the whole catchment. The steps involved are as follows:
1. Calculate the total storm depth D from the IDF relationship for the catchment for a

VOLUME 2 PART 10
VOLUME 2 PART
DRAINAGE
VOLUME 10 10
2 PART
DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE PART
10
1. Calculate the total storm depth D from the IDF relationship for the catchment for a
1. Calculate
1. certain the total
return
Calculate storm
period
the total T: depthdepth
storm D from the IDF
D from therelationship for the
IDF relationship forcatchment for a for a
the catchment
certain return
certaincertain period
returnreturn T:
periodperiod
T: T:
ࡰ(࢚, ࢀ) = ࢏(ࢀ, ࢚) × ࢚
ࡰ(࢚,ࡰ(࢚,
ࢀ) =ࢀ)࢏(ࢀ, ࢚) ×࢚)࢚ × ࢚
= ࢏(ࢀ,
2. Fix the incremental time interval ѐt as 5 minutes or more for practical reasons, such as
for large
2.2. Fix
Fix the
2. the Fix thecatchments.
incremental
incremental
incremental timeCalculate
time interval
time theasaverage
ѐt
interval
interval ∆t asѐt as 5 rainfall
55minutes or
minutes
minutes
intensity
ormore for
or more
more
and total depth
forpractical reasons,
for practical
practical
of design
such
reasons,
reasons, asas as
suchsuch
storms
forlarge
large with a fixed
catchments. return period
Calculate T ďƵƚǀĂƌŝĂďůĞĚƵƌĂƚŝŽŶƐ͗ƚΖсŬѐƚ͕Ŭсϭ͕Ϯ͕ϯ
the average
average rainfall intensity and … n-1.
for for catchments.
where
large catchments. Calculate
Calculate the the average rainfall
rainfall intensity andtotal
intensity and depth
totaltotal
depth ofofdesign
depth of design
design
storms with a fixed return period T ďƵƚǀĂƌŝĂďůĞĚƵƌĂƚŝŽŶƐ͗ƚΖсŬѐƚ͕Ŭсϭ͕Ϯ͕ϯ … n-1.
stormsstorms
with awithfixeda fixed return
return period
period T butT ďƵƚǀĂƌŝĂďůĞĚƵƌĂƚŝŽŶƐ͗ƚΖсŬѐƚ͕Ŭсϭ͕Ϯ͕ϯ
variable durations: t’ = k ∆t, k =1, 2, 3 … … n-1.
n-1.
where where
where ࢚
࢔=
ο࢚
࢚ ࢚
࢔ =࢔ =
3. Calculate the total rainfall differenceο࢚ ο࢚
between
design storms of consecutive
durations:
3. Calculate the total rainfall difference between design storms of consecutive durations:
3. Calculate the total
3. Calculate rainfall
the total difference
rainfall between
difference design
between storms
design of consecutive
storms of consecutive
durations:
durations:
οࡰ = ࡰ (࢑ο࢚, ࢀ) െ ࡰ ൫(࢑ െ ૚)ο࢚, ࢀ൯, ࢑ = ૚, ૛, ૜, … , ࢔
࢑,ࢀ ࢑ ࢑ି૚
οࡰArrange
οࡰ=
4. 4.Arrange
࢑,ࢀ ࡰ=
࢑,ࢀthe
the
(࢑ο࢚, ࢀ)rainfall
ࡰ࢑ (࢑ο࢚,
࢑incremental
incremental െ
ࢀ)ࡰെ
rainfall
࢑ି૚ (࢑ ൫(∆D
ࡰ൫࢑ି૚
depths
depths െ(࢑૚)ο࢚,
(ο‫ܦ‬ െ
௞,்
ࢀ൯, ࢑
૚)ο࢚,
) ) calculated
calculated =
ࢀ൯,
in ࢑
in ૚,=previous
the
the ૛,previous
૚,૜,૛,…૜,
, ࢔…
step , ࢔in
in
step
k,T
ᇱ
descending order, and obtain a new series of rainfall
descending order, and obtain a new series of rainfall depths depths (ο‫ܦ‬ ).
௞,் (∆D ).
k,T
4. Arrange the incremental rainfall depths (ο‫ܦ‬ ) calculated in the previous step in
5.4. Assign
Arrange
ο‫ܦ‬ଵ,்ᇱ the incremental rainfall depths
to the most central value, ο‫ܦ‬ଶ,் (ο‫ܦ‬
ᇱ ௞,்
ο‫ )ܦ‬ଷ,்
and௞,் ᇱcalculated in the previous step in
to its rightᇱ (or ᇱleft) and left
descending
5. Assign ∆D’1,T order,
descending to the and
most
order, obtain
and a new
central
obtain a series
value,
new ∆D’ of
series rainfall
andof ∆D’ depths
rainfall its(ο‫ܦ‬
todepths right
(ο‫ܦ‬
௞,் ).(or left)
). and left
(or right), respectively. Convert the incremental 2,T rainfall
3,T depths to ௞,்
incremental
5. (or right),
Assign ο‫ܦ‬respectively.
5. rainfall
Assign
ᇱ
toଵ,்
intensity
ଵ,் ο‫ܦ‬
Convert
ᇱ thehyetograph
tomost central
the most
the
valuesincremental
value,
central ih(T, ᇱ
ο‫ܦ‬t).ଶ,்
value, ο‫ܦ‬ ᇱrainfall
and ᇱ depths
ο‫ܦ‬ଷ,்
ଶ,் and ο‫ܦ‬toଷ,் to incremental
ᇱ its right (or left)
to its right (or and
rainfall
left) left
and left
intensity
(or hyetograph
right), respectively.values ih(T,
Convert t).
the incremental rainfall depths to incremental
(or right),incremental
Other remaining respectively. Convert
rainfalls in thetheranked
incremental
series arerainfall depths
sequentially to incremental
allocated in
rainfall intensity
rainfall
a similar hyetograph
intensity
alternating values ih(T, t).
hyetograph values ih(T, t).
manner.
Other remaining incremental rainfalls in the ranked series are sequentially allocated in a
OtherOther
similar remaining incremental
remaining
alternating incremental
manner. rainfalls in theinranked
rainfalls seriesseries
the ranked are sequentially allocated
are sequentially in in
allocated
The following
a similar example,
alternating manner. illustrated in Table 3.15, Figure 3.7, shows the hyetograph
a similar alternating manner.
prepared using the following values:
The following example, illustrated in Table 3.15, Figure 3.7, shows the hyetograph prepared
The following
The example,
following illustrated in Table
example, 3.15,3.15,
Figure 3.7, shows the hyetograph
using the following
ѐƚ (time illustrated
values:
= 5-minute in Table
step in hyetograph) Figure 3.7, shows the hyetograph
prepared using the following
prepared values:
T = using the(return
10-year following values:
period)
∆t = L1 5-minute (time step
= 0.95 mm/hr in hyetograph)
(average maximum 24-hour rainfall for the Central East
T =
ѐƚ = 5-minute
ѐƚ = (time
5-minute step in hyetograph)
(return period) step in hyetograph)
Region)
10-year (time
T =T 10-year (return
= 10-year period)
(return period)
L1 =L1 =0.95 mm/hr (average maximum 24-hour rainfall for the Central EastEast
Region)
L1 0.95 mm/hr
= 0.95 (average
mm/hr maximum
(average 24-hour
maximum rainfall
24-hour for the
rainfall forCentral
the Central East
Region)
Region)
VOLUME 2 PAGE 37
VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PAGEPAGE
37 37

PART DRAINAGE
10
Table 3.15 Hyetograph Example Computations for Central East Region of Doha – 10
year ARI
Total ih(10,5)
Incremental
i(10,t) storm ih(10,5) (mm/hr)
Duration (minutes) K storm depth
(mm/hr) depth (mm/hr)
(mm) (reordered)
(mm)
5 11 93.84 7.8 7.8 93.84 7.74
10 9 74.23 12.4 4.6 54.62 9.97
15 7 61.69 15.4 3.0 36.59 13.65
20 5 52.93 17.6 2.2 26.67 20.56
25 3 46.46 19.4 1.7 20.56 36.59
30 1 41.47 20.7 1.4 16.51 93.84
35 2 37.49 21.9 1.1 13.65 54.62
40 4 34.25 22.8 1.0 11.56 26.67
45 6 31.55 23.7 0.8 9.97 16.51
50 8 29.27 24.4 0.7 8.73 11.56
55 10 27.31 25.0 0.6 7.74 8.73
60 12 25.62 25.6 0.6 6.94 6.94
Figure 3.7 Intensity-Duration-Frequency Plot for 10-Year ARI for Doha, Qatar

DRAINAGE PART
10
Figure 3.8 Hyetograph Plot for 5-Minute Duration and 10-Year ARI for Doha, Qatar,
Using Alternating Block Method
3.3.7 Hydrogeology
It is important to investigate hydrogeological conditions at each site as part of the predesign
stage. To investigate site hydrogeology, suitable locations should be identified and
consultation should take place with the appropriate stakeholders.
It is necessary to estimate permeability at sites to identify the infiltration and initial losses.
Infiltration is described only for large catchments by establishing the curve numbers based
on land use and soil permeability. For small catchments, only initial losses will be taken
directly into account, whereas infiltration losses are considered part of deriving the runoff
coefficients.
If testing has been undertaken, then hydraulic conductivity across the site can be established
based on the test results. Hydraulic conductivity should be investigated through permeability
testing undertaken at multiple borehole locations, if possible.
At the concept stage or for small catchments for which no test results are available, Table
3.16 should be applied to determine initial losses, and the Runoff Computation Using Curve
Number should be used to determine curve numbers.
3.3.8 Runoff Curve Number Method

The Runoff Curve Number Method should be applied for larger catchments exceeding 50 ha
and typically about modeling. Most software packages include hydrological modeling based
on the Runoff Curve Number Method.
The runoff curve number (CN), also known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve
Number Method, is based on an area’s hydrologic group, land use, treatment, and hydrologic
conditions. CN is used to compute the runoff generated after accounting for the infiltration

PART DRAINAGE
10
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
losses,
VOLUMEper the
2 PART 10 following equation from Section 4 of the National Engineering Handbook
DRAINAGE
(SCS, 1985), where CN represents a convenient representation of the potential maximum soil
Engineering Handbook (SCS, 1985), where CN represents a convenient representation
retention, S (Ponce and Hawkins, 1996):
of the potential maximum soil retention, S (Ponce and Hawkins, 1996):
Engineering Handbook (SCS, 1985), where CN represents a convenient representation
૛
of the potential maximum soil retention, S (ࡼ െ ࡵand
(Ponce ࢇ ) Hawkins, 1996):
ࡽ=
ࡼ െ ࡵࢇ + ࡿ
(ࡼ െ ࡵࢇ )૛
where where ࡽ=
Q = runoff generated (mm) ࡼ െ ࡵࢇ + ࡿ
Q = runoffP generated (mm) (mm)
= total precipitation
S = potential maximum soil moisture retention after runoff begins (mm)
where
P = total precipitation (mm)
Q ‫ܫ‬௔= =runoff
initial abstraction
generated (mm) or infiltration or rainfall interception by vegetation,
(mm)
S = potential maximum
P ‫ܫ‬௔= =total soil(mm)
0.2precipitation
‫ܵכ‬ moisture retention after runoff begins (mm)
Ia = initial abstraction (mm) or infiltration૚૙૙૙
or rainfall interception by vegetation,
‫ܫ‬௔ = initial abstraction (mm)
ࡿ= or infiltration
૛૞. ૝ ൬ or rainfall interception by vegetation,
െ ૚૙૙൰
Ia = 0.2*S
‫ܫ‬௔ = 0.2 ‫ܵ כ‬ ࡯ࡺ
CN = curve number can be obtained from Table 3.9
૚૙૙૙
ࡿ = ૛૞. ૝ ൬
Table 3.16 shows the curve numbers for࡯ࡺ
െ ૚૙૙൰
the land use description applicable to the State
of Qatar.
CN = curve number can be obtained from Table 3.9
CN = curve number
Table 3.16 can beNumbers
Curve obtained
for from Table
the Land 3.9
Use Description Applicable to Qatar
Table 3.16 shows the curve numbersCover
for the land use description applicableCurve
Description to the State
Number for
Table 3.16 of
shows
Qatar. the curve numbers for the land use description
Land Use Impervious applicable to the State of
Hydrologic Soil Group
Description Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition Areas (%) A B C D
Qatar. Table 3.16 Curve Numbers
Urban for the Land
districts: commercial andUse Description Applicable
business 85 to
89Qatar
92 94 95
Commercial
High density Residential districts by average lot size: 92
Cover Description 65 77 85 90
Table 3.16 Curve Numbers for the Land Use Description Applicable
1/8 acre = 0.05 hectare or less
residential
toforQatar
Curve Number
Industrial Urban district: industrial 93 72 Hydrologic
81 Soil
88 Group
91
Land Use Impervious
Low densityResidential
Cover Typedistricts by average lot size: 1/2acreAreas (%)
= 0.2 hectareCover Description
Description and Hydrologic Condition 25 A 54B 70C D
80 85
residential
Urban districts:
lot
commercial
Curve Number for
95
Commercial parks,and
golfbusiness 85 89 92 94
49 Hydrologic Soil Group
Open space (lawns, courses, cemeter- 84
18 69 79
Land Use HighOpen spaces
density Residential
ies), fair districts
condition by(grass
average lot size:
cover 50 to 70%) Impervious
65 77 85 90 92
1/8 acre = 0.05 hectare or less
Cover
Descriptionresidential
Parking and Type and Hydrologic Condition
Impervious areas (e.g., paved parking lots,
roofs, and driveways; excluding right-of-way)
Areas100 (%) 98 A98 98 B 98 C D
paved areas Urban district: industrial
Industrial 72 81 88 91 93
Commercial LowResidential
Urban districts:
density Residentialcommercial
Residential districts byand business
average
districts by average
lot size: 1/8
lot size: 1/2acre 85
65 77
89
85 90
92 92 94 95
1/8 acre acre = 0.05 hectare or less 25 54 70 80 85
High densityresidential
Residential
= 0.2districts
hectare lotby average lot size:
Residential Residential districts by average lot size:
Open space (lawns, parks, golf courses, cemeter- 65
38 61 77
75 8385 87 90 92
residential Open 1/8
1/4 acreacre = 1/4
spaces 0.05 hectare
acre or less
= 0.1 hectare 18 49 69 79 84
ies), fair condition (grass cover 50 to 70%)
Industrial Parking
Urban
and district: industrial
Impervious
1/3 acreareas (e.g.,
= 0.135 paved parking lots,
hectare
72
30 57 81
72 8188 86 91 93
1/3 acre 100 98 98 98 98
paved areas roofs, and driveways; excluding right-of-way)
Low density Residential
Residential districtsdistricts
Residential by average lot
by average size:
lot size:
Residential
1/2 acre Residential
1/2 acredistricts by average lot size: 1/8
= 0.2 hectare 25
25 54 54
70 8070 85 80 85
residential 1/2acre = 0.2 hectare lot
acreResidential
= 0.05 hectare or less
65 77 85 90 92
1/8Residential
acre districts by average lot size: 1 acre
20 51 68 79 84
Open space
1 acre
Residential = (lawns,
0.4 hectare
Residential parks,
districts golf courses,
by average lot size: 87
38 61 75 83
Open spaces1/4Residential
cemeteries),
acre fair condition
1/4Residential
acre = 0.1 hectare (grass
districts by cover
average 502 to
lot size: acre 18
12 46 49
65 7769 82 79 84
2 acres = 0.8 hectare
70%) Residential districts by average lot size:
Residential
30 57 72 81 86
Note:
1/3 acreDescription and Curve
1/3 acre = 0.135Numbers
hectare from TR-55.
Parking and Residential
Impervious areasdistricts
Residential (e.g., paved parking
by average lot size:lots,
25 100 54 70 9880 8598 98 98
paved areas 1/2 acre
roofs, and
1/2driveways; excluding right-of-way)
acre = 0.2 hectare
PAGE 40 Residential districts by average lot
lot size: 1 acre VOLUME 2
Residential Residential
Residential districts by average size: 1/8 20 51 68 79 84
1 acre = 0.4 hectare 65 77 85 90 92
1/8 acre acre = 0.05 hectare or less
Residential Residential districts by average lot size: 2 acre 82
12 46 65 77
Residential Residential
2 acres = 0.8districts
hectare by average lot size:
38 61 75 83 87
1/4 acre Note: 1/4 acre =
Description 0.1
and hectare
Curve Numbers from TR-55.

30 57 72 81 86
1/3 acre 1/3 acre = 0.135 hectare
PAGE 40 VOLUME 2
25 54 70 80 85
1/2 acre 1/2 acre = 0.2 hectare
20 51 68 79 84
1 acre 1 acre = 0.4 hectare
12 46 65 77 82
2 acres 2 acre = 0.8 hectare
Note: Description and Curve Numbers from TR-55.

DRAINAGE PART
10
Hydrological soil groups A, B, C, and D are made based on the runoff generated on these soil
types. Soils in Group A have low runoff potential, and soils in Group B have a moderate rate of
infiltration when thoroughly wet. Group C has a slow rate of infiltration when wet, and soils
in Group D have high runoff potential.
3.3.9 Isohyetals
Five isohyetal maps were generated (Appendix E). As listed in Table 3.17, the isohyetal maps
include daily rainfall depths of annual maximum, for 10, 20, and 100-year ARIs. In addition,
the climate factor the 66 % of the upper bound of 68 % confidence interval (equivalent to
the 84-percentile) are applied to the 20-year rainfall event, resulting in one isohyetal maps
for future conditions.
The rainfall depths are computed using a 5 x 5 km grid system and the isolines are interpolated.
The isolines are smoothed using the Snakes algorithm (Kass et al., 1988).
Table 3.17 List of isohyetal maps
Map
Average annual maximum daily rainfall in mm
Daily rainfall (mm) of 10-yr ARI
Daily rainfall (mm) of 20-yr ARI in 2100
3.4 Hydraulic Analysis Processes

3.4.1 Overview
This section explains the process necessary to undertake hand calculations for hydraulic
analysis and sets out the types of software permissible to use for computerized calculations.
The use of hand calculations for Design Stages 2 and 3 should be agreed to by AIA at Design
Stage 1. However, it should be noted that as part of any submission for approval, Ashghal
will only accept models in Infoworks and Infoworks ICM.
3.4.2 Rational Method

The following approach points should be considered when using the rational method
(illustrated in Figure 3.9), generally used to estimate potential runoff to cross check the
results of any computerised calculations:
• The method is suitable for catchments up to 50 ha.
• Thorough knowledge of local rainfall characteristics is needed.
• The method requires accurate IDF curves from which rainfall intensities can be deduced
for different storm durations for the design return period.

PART DRAINAGE
10
• The method assumes that, for a given return period, longer storms have lower intensities
and shorter storms have higher intensities.
• The method assumes that rain falls uniformly across the catchment.
• Contributing impermeable areas are required for each pipe length.
• A time of entry must be determined to avoid unrealistically high rainfall intensities.
• Base flows from groundwater can be included in the design.
• There is an iterative process for design.
• Pipe sizes and gradients are adjusted to provide appropriate self-cleansing velocities.
• Half pipe flow velocity is numerically equal to full pipe flow velocity.
• The user must be aware of the limitations of this method of design.
The following aspects need to be considered:
• Pipes should be of sufficient size to carry maximum design hour volumes at depth D:
that is, at pipe full condition.
• Surface water drains require higher velocities than foul sewers for self-cleansing
purposes because of the higher density of solid material to be transported.
• Surface water drains should not be less than 300 mm in diameter.
• Self-cleansing velocities increase with pipe size.
• Pipe sizes should not decrease downstream even when the calculations indicate that
this would be hydraulically satisfactory.
• Pipes should be designed to run parallel to the ground surface wherever possible.
3.4.2.1 Runoff Coefficients

Table 3.18 provides the runoff coefficient (C) for each catchment type for various defined
categories of catchments.
3.4.2.2 Catchment Area (A)

Urban and rural catchments will exhibit different constraints and opportunities for drainage
design. As such, it is important to define the catchment area and to treat it accordingly. To do
this, it will be necessary to obtain suitably scaled topographic mapping of the area.

DRAINAGE PART
10
Figure 3.9 Rational Method Process
Table 3.18 Runoff Coefficient for Various Drainage Areas
Type of Drainage Area Runoff Coefficient

Business Commercial areas 0.90
Commercial and residential mix 0.70
Residential Urban area with attached houses 0.5
Urban with detached houses 0.3
Lawns, Soil, and Vegetation Cover Sandy soil 0.15
Silty or clayey soil 0.25
Poor to fair, clean cultivated crops 0.15
Landscapes 0.05
Paved areas 0.95
Asphaltic Concrete or other paved areas 0.95
Industrial See below
Light industry (with mild open areas) 0.70
Heavy industry (with no open areas) 0.80
Note: Qatar Sewerage and Drainage Design Manual (Ashghal, 2006) requires new housing development
not to discharge any surface water onto the public roads without attenuation.

PART DRAINAGE
10
Urban
The area to be considered shall incorporate two parts:
• The area of the road corridor subject to direct precipitation.
• The additional adjacent area assessed by reference to the development plans and
topographic mapping for the area.
The additional area will be dependent on factors such as the intensity of development,
provision of flood storage areas, and contributions from adjacent roads and developments.
Rural
The area to be considered shall incorporate two parts:
• The area of the road corridor subject to direct precipitation.
• The broader natural catchment area within which the road runs; specifically, the effect
the road may have on the natural surface and subsurface drainage of the area.
3.4.2.3 Surface Runoff

The Rational Method is used to compute the design discharge (Qd) produced by a catchment
of area (A) less than 50 ha. The following equation gives a mathematical expression for the
Rational Method:
= ( , )
×
where
C = runoff coefficient
i(T, t) = rainfall intensity for T years return period and t minutes duration storm event (mm/
hr)
A = area of the catchment in square meters
Qd = design discharge in cubic meters per second
For areas larger than 50 ha, which are mostly rural, consideration should be given to
assessment of runoff by a combination of historical observations and the generation of
storm hydrographs. Hydraulic modeling is recommended for catchments greater than 50 ha.
The method used shall be agreed to with AIA. All mathematical modelling software shall be
to the approval of Ashghal.

VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE PART
10
3.4.2.4 The Colebrook-White Equation

3.4.2.4 The Colebrook-White Equation
The Colebrook-White equation should be used in pipeline design to calculate the
The Colebrook-White (v) in a pipe
velocity of flowequation flowing
should fullinunder
be used gravity
pipeline for to
design a given gradient,
calculate diameter,
the velocity
of flowand
(v) in a pipe flowing
roughness full under
coefficient, gravity for a given gradient, diameter, and roughness
as follows:
coefficient, as follows:
࢑࢙࢙ ૛,૞૚ࢂ ࢑ ૛,૞૚ࢂ

࢜ = െ૛ඥ(૛ࢍࡰࡿ) log൜૜,ૠࡰ + ࡰඥ(૛ࢍࡰࡿ)ൠ
૜,ૠࡰ ࡰඥ(૛ࢍࡰࡿ)
where where
g = g =acceleration duedue
acceleration to gravity (m/s
to gravity 2
) 22)
(m/s
D = D =diameter,
diameter,
(m)(m)
S = slope or head loss per unit length
S = slope or head loss per unit length
kss = roughness coefficient, (mm)
ks = V =roughness coefficient,
kinematic (mm)
viscosity of water (m22/s)
V = kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s)
3.4.2.5 3.4.2.5
Manning’s Equation
Manning’s Equation
Manning’s equation should be used to calculate the velocity of flow (V) in an open
Manning’s
Manning’s equationequation should
should be used be used to the
to calculate calculate theofvelocity
velocity flow (V)of
in flow (V) channel,
an open in an open
channel, swale, ditch, or other surface conduit:
swale, ditch, or other surface conduit:
ࡾ૛/૜ ࡿ૚/૛
ࢂ=
࢔
where where
V =
V mean
= mean velocity of flow (m/s)
velocity of flow (m/s)
n = Manning’s coefficient of roughness
n = R Manning’s
= hydrauliccoefficient of roughness
radius (m)
R = slope (percent)
= S hydraulic radius (m)
S = slope (percent)
3.4.2.6 Time of Concentration

3.4.2.6 Time of Concentration
The time of concentration (tcc) of the catchment is defined as the time needed for the
The time of concentration
water (tc) offrom
particles to travel the catchment is defined
the hydraulically as distant
most the timepoint
needed for catchment
of the the water to
particles
thetodesign
travel point
from the hydraulically
downstream, most distant
as indicated point of
on Figure the Physically,
3.10. catchment the to the design
value of time
point downstream, as indicated
of concentration is usedon
to Figure 3.10.
estimate thePhysically,
value of the the intensity
value of time
(I) ofofrainfall
concentration
to be used
is usedtotocompute
estimatethe
thepeak
valuedischarge ofpp).rainfall to be used to compute the peak
quantity(I)(Q
of the intensity
discharge quantity (Qp).
VOLUME 2 PAGE 45
PART DRAINAGE
10
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
Figure 3.10 Longest Stream for Time of Concentration Calculation

Figure 3.10 Longest Stream for Time of Concentration Calculation
Time of concentration in minutes

Time of concentration can be
in minutes canmeasured
be measuredusing Kirpich’s
using Kirpich’s formula:
formula:
૙.ૠૠ
ࡸ
૙. ૙૙ૠૡ ቀ ቁ
࢚࡯ = ૙. ૜૙૝ૡ
ࡿ૙.૜ૡ૞
where Figure 3.10 Longest Stream for Time of Concentration Calculation
where L = distance (m) traveled by water from the farthest point in the catchment
L = distance (m)toTime
its outfall
traveled or the pointinofminutes
by water
of concentration consideration
from the farthest
can be measured point
using Kirpich’s in the
formula: catchment
S = slope of the catchment along the longest path
to its outfall or the point of consideration ૙.ૠૠ (area <50 ha) and
Kirpich’s formula has been useful for small to moderate ࡸ catchments
S = slope offor
the catchment
overland alongcatchments
flows in larger ૙. ૙૙ૠૡ
the longest
up path
to 80 ቀ૙.
ha. As ૜૙૝ૡ ቁ by Rossmiller (1980),
discussed
࢚࡯ =of 2.0 for overland
there is a multiplier adjustment factor ࡿ૙.૜ૡ૞flow over soil or grass and 0.4
for concrete or asphalt surfaces. A factor of 1.0 should be applied for combined surfaces
where
or other type of surfaces. A modified Kirpich’s formula should be used to apply this
Kirpich’s formula has Lbeen
adjustment = the
for useful
distance
surface(m) for small
traveled
type: by to
watermoderate catchments
from the farthest (area
point in the <50 ha)
catchment and for
to its outfall or the point of consideration
overland flows in larger catchments up to 80 ha. As discussed
S = slope of the catchment along the longest path by Rossmiller (1980), there is
૙.ૠૠ
a multiplier adjustment factor of 2.0 for overland ࡸ
flow over
Kirpich’s formula has been૙.useful
૙૙ૠૡ forቀsmall ቁ soil
to moderate
૙.up૜૙૝ૡ
or grass
catchments and
(area <500.4 for concrete
ha) and
for overland ࢚
flows =
in ࢑
larger catchments
or asphalt surfaces. A factor of 1.0 should beࡿapplied
࡯ ૙.૜ૡ૞
to 80 ha. As discussed by Rossmiller (1980),
for combined surfaces or other type
there is a multiplier adjustment factor of 2.0 for overland flow over soil or grass and 0.4
of surfaces. A modified Kirpich’s
for concrete formula
or asphalt surfaces.should
A factor ofbe
1.0used toapplied
should be applyforthis adjustment
combined surfaces for the
where or other type of surfaces. A modified Kirpich’s formula should be used to apply this
surface type: k = Rossmiller’s multiplication adjustment factor stated above
adjustment for the surface type:
If time of concentration is determined to be less than 5 minutes by using this formula,

૙.ૠૠ
it is preferred to use the value as 5 minutes, because it isࡸunrealistic to have a time of
૙. ૙૙ૠૡ ቀ ቁ
concentration below 5 minutes.࢚For=the ૙. ૜૙૝ૡ
࢑ rational method, the catchment area is less
࡯
than 50 ha, which can be assumed as 2,500 by 200 ࡿ૙.૜ૡ૞
m. Thus, for a length of about
2,500 m, the time of concentration will be computed as less than 5 minutes for a slope
of more than where3 %. For all catchments with slope more than 3 %, the time of
where k = Rossmiller’s multiplication adjustment factor stated above
concentration value used shall be 5 minutes.
k = Rossmiller’s multiplication adjustment
If time of concentration factortostated
is determined above
be less than 5 minutes by using this formula,
it is preferred to use the value as 5 minutes, because it is unrealistic to have a time of
concentration below 5 minutes. For the rational method, the catchment area is less
If time of concentration is determined to be less than 5 minutes by using this formula,
than 50 ha, which can be assumed as 2,500 by 200 m. Thus, for a length of about
it is preferred
PAGE 46 to use them, value
2,500 the time as 5 minutes,
of concentration willbecause
be computeditasis
lessunrealistic toforhave
than 5 minutes
VOLUME 2a slope a time of
of more than 3 %. For all catchments with slope more than 3 %, the time of
concentration belowconcentration
5 minutes. For the rational method, the catchment area is less than
value used shall be 5 minutes.
50 ha, which can be assumed as 2,500 by 200 m. Thus, for a length of about 2,500 m, the
time of concentration will be computed as less than 5 minutes for a slope of more than 3 %.
For all catchments with slope more than 3 %, the time of concentration value used shall be
PAGE 46 VOLUME 2
5 minutes.

DRAINAGE PART
10
3.4.3 Mathematical Models

Sewerage and drainage models use construction record data to build representations of the
system as linked pipes and nodes, with specific modules for ancillaries such as pumping
stations and overflows. Inflows from connected developments and contributing areas
are directed to the nodes, and a computerized hydraulic engine simulates the hydraulic
performance of flows around the system.
Mathematical models used for hydraulic analysis should be agreed to with the appropriate
approving authority. The benefits of using certain modeling software for the particular
project scale and scope should be discussed.
Table 3.19 lists software packages likely to be suitable for mathematical modeling. The final
selection of which model to use is likely to be dependent on the scale of each project and the
availability of relevant expertise. Many design packages are available, but the final design
will be required to be converted to Infoworks (latest version) for analysis and resilience
testing and ultimate inclusion in the Model Library.
Table 3.19 Software Packages for Mathematical Modeling
Software Packagea Likely Scale Best Suited To

InfoWorks >50 ha or by agreement with Overseeing Organization
InforWorks ICM (sites </> this area may be suitable)
MicroDrainage WinDES
InfoWorks <50 ha or by agreement with Overseeing Organization
StormCAD Ashghal (sites up to 100 ha may be suitable)
BOSS
a
Or similar approved software packages by Ashghal.
ha = hectares
Table 3.19 suggests several options for hydraulic models and likely project scales for which
they would be suitable. This list is neither exhaustive nor specific, because modeling software
is continually updated and new products made available. When deciding which model to use,
the engineer should evaluate the benefits and limitations associated with the selection and
confirm choices with the Overseeing Organization Ashghal (see Section 1.2.2).
3.5 Pollution Control Process

3.5.1 Method
SuDS should always be the preferred approach unless there are particular reasons for their
exclusion. Justification for the exclusion of SuDS will need to be provided to MME at the
approvals stage of Design Stage 2 and again at Design Stage 3. See Section 3.5.2 with
respect to the SuDS management train, SuDS selection, and SuDS limitations.
Pollution Control Procedure shows the process of determining the levels of treatment
required for road projects in the State of Qatar. It also details when guidance should be
sought from MME.

PART DRAINAGE
10
Table 3.20 details the levels of treatment to be provided dependent upon the road type
and annual average daily traffic (AADT). Once the number of levels of treatment has been
derived from Table 3.21 for each subcatchment, Table 3.20 should be used for identifying
potential options for the treatment.
Figure 3.11 Pollution Control Procedure

DRAINAGE PART
10
Table 3.20 Pollution and Control Requirements
Pollution Control—Levels of Treatment

AADT Traffic Required
Location and Road Type Flowa Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Urban
Local Roads <5,000 ü ü
Service roads <5,000 ü ü
Collector roads (minor) 5,000–20,000 ü ü
Collector roads (major) 10,000–50,000 ü ü >20,000
Collector roads (distributor) 5,000–50,000 ü ü >20,000
Arterials (minor) 20,000–50,000 ü ü ü
Arterials (major) 30,000–60,000 ü ü ü
Arterials (boulevard) 30,000–60,000 ü ü ü
Expressways 50,000–80,000 ü ü ü
Rural
Local roads <1,000 ü ü
Collector 1,000–2,000 ü ü
Arterial 2,000–8,000 ü ü
Freeway >8,000 ü ü >20,000
Notes:
a
Source part extracted from the Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, Section 5, Tables 5.1 and 5.2, of this Manual.
Table 3.21 Levels of Treatment Options for Pollution Control
Levels of Treatment
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Permeable pavement Permeable pavement Detention basin
Filter strip Filter strip Subsurface storage or
Bioretention Bioretention infiltration
Filter drain Filter drain
Infiltration trench Infiltration trench
SuDS
Swale Swale
Detention basin
Subsurface storage or
infiltration
Soakaway
Modified gully (Funkee Downstream defendera Class 1 bypass separator
Gruppe)a Class 1 bypass separator upflow filter (Hydro
Traditional
Downstream defendera International)a
(proprietary
Storm treat (Storm Treat
systems)a
Systems)a
Storm X4 (Polypipe)a
Notes:
a
Or similar approved.
Source: Partly from CIRIA C697.
Once the level of treatment has been established using Table 3.21, adequate control
measures need to be identified using SuDS-based solutions in preference over traditional
options. Where justified, it is acceptable to use combinations of both techniques. Features

PART DRAINAGE
10
that retain water at the surface should drain within 48 hours to prevent mosquitoes from
breeding. Where proprietary systems are used for a level of treatment, they should not be
used for subsequent levels of treatment.
The final step in deriving the pollution control required for each catchment is the consideration
of pollution impacts from spillages. The methodology used is based on that set out in the
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), Volume 11, Section 3, Part 10 HD45/09 (UK
Department for Transport, 2009).
Annex I of HD45/09 sets out Method D for determining the pollution impact on receiving
water bodies, which in this case will be groundwater or seawater. Furthermore, it provides
a means of considering the pollution control devices already provided for general pollution
control, due to their mitigating effects on any given spillage. By applying a risk reduction
factor, a corrected risk can be calculated; to be acceptable, the annual probability predicted
needs to be less than 1 %. If the consequence of such a spillage occurring is severe (i.e.,
groundwater could be affected), then a higher standard of protection could be stipulated so
the annual probability of such an occurrence happening reduces to <0.5 %.
The acceptable level of risk should be approved by AIA at Design Stage 1.
Having determined the number of levels of treatment required from Table 3.21 and selected
the types of treatment for each level from Table 3.21, the probability of spillage can be
calculated, as shown in Table 3.22. To calculate the annual probability of spillage for each
section of road, it is first necessary to gather the following data:
• Length of road for each category in Table 3.21

• AADT two-way flow for each section of road (other than slip ramps) in Table 3.19
• Percentage of heavy trucks as a proportion of AADT
Table 3.22 Spillage Rate in Billion HGV km / year
Intersection Type
Road Type No Intersection Slip Road Roundabout Crossroad Side Road
Urban
Local road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Service road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Collector road 0.31 0.36 5.35 1.46 1.81
Arterial 0.36 0.43 3.09 1.46 1.81
Expressway 0.36 0.43 3.09
Rural
Local road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Collector road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Arterial 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Freeway 0.36 0.43 3.09
Source: DMRB Volume 11, Part 10, HD45/09, Annex 1, Method D (UK Department for Transport, 2009).

DRAINAGE PART
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When considering the length of road in each category, the risk factor from Table 3.21 applies
to all lengths of road within 100 m of these intersection types. To demonstrate how the
designer has determined this, a sketch of the road types in relation to intersections should
be provided to the Overseeing Organization at Design Stage 2.
Using the data gathered, the annual probability of spillage for each section of road can now
be calculated using the following formula:
PSPL = RL × SS × (AADT × 365 × 10-9) × (% HTs/100)
where
PSPL = annual probability of a spillage with the potential to cause a
serious pollution event
RL = road length in kilometers
SS = spillage rates from Table 3.22
AADT = annual average daily traffic (based upon design year for a new road)
%HT = percentage of heavy trucks
Having calculated the probability of a spillage event, the probability of that spillage resulting
in a serious pollution incident should be determined by using the following equation:
PINC=PSPL × PPOL
where
PINC = probability of spillage event resulting in a serious pollution event
PPOL = probability that, once a spillage has occurred, it will result in a serious pollution
event; this value should be selected from Table 3.23
Source: DMRB Volume 11, Part 10, HD45/09, Annex 1, Method D (Department for Transport, 2009).
Table 3.23 Probability of Serious Pollution Occurring as a Result of a Serious

Spillage
Urban Rural Remote

Receiving Water (response time to site (response time to site (response time to site
Body <20 minutes) <1 hour) >1 hour)
Groundwater 0.3 0.3 0.5
Marine environment 0.3 0.3 0.5
If the proposed levels of treatment determined from Table 3.21 include a system listed in
Table 3.23, then a further risk reduction factor should be applied before determining the
final risk. So, if the risk of a serious pollution event without the mitigation provided by the
pollution control level of treatment is PINC, then the adjusted risk incorporating the levels of
treatment is determined by PINC × RF, where RF is the risk reduction factor for that system.
Table 3.24 lists risk reduction factors.

PART DRAINAGE
10
Table 3.24 Spillages and Risks and Reduction Factors (Indicative)
Pollution Control Risk Reduction Factor (%)

SuDS
Filter drain 0.6 (40%)
Swale 0.6 (40%)
Detention basin 0.6 (40%)
Infiltration trench 0.6 (40%)
Bio-retention 0.7 (30%)
Subsurface storage and infiltration 0.6 (40%)
Traditional
Penstock and valve 0.4 (60%)
Bypass separator (Class 1)
Downstream defender (Hydro International)a
Up-flow filter (Hydro International)a 0.5 (50%)
Storm treat (Storm Treat Systems)a
Storm X4 (Polypipe)a
Innolet-G (Funkee Gruppe)a 0.6 (40%)
a
Or similar approved.
In some situations, a higher factor signifying a lower risk reduction may be more appropriate
because of the limited extent of the given type of pollution control selected. An example
would be where a short length of swale is proposed that serves only a part of the road under
assessment. In such instances, it would be appropriate to use a lesser reduction factor, say
20 % or a factor of 0.8.
After calculating the adjusted figure for PINC, add the annual probabilities for each section
of road discharging to an outfall. If this figure is greater than the figure agreed to by the
Overseeing Organization (default value 1 %), then look at each section of road to determine
the highest risk. Consider whether any factors need amending, or if an additional form of
mitigation can be included to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. Recalculate the risk
using this iterative process until an acceptable level is reached.
3.5.2 Water quality

Information on rainfall runoff water quality is necessary to understand the potential
environmental effects of runoff, and possible improvements through design of pollution
control systems (e.g. SuDs). The water quality information presented here can be used to
assist in design of pollution control systems to improve the quality of receiving water bodies
and public health.
Water quality information presented in this section was collected as part of the Micro
Catchment Study, documented in the Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME, 2018).
The Micro Catchment Study evaluated runoff water quality from a 4.55 x 4.55 m² plot area,
at six sites selected throughout Doha, for a 30 minute rainfall, under two different rainfall
intensities of 20 mm/h and 42 mm/hr). The rainfall was generated using a portable rainfall
simulator.

DRAINAGE PART
10
The runoff water quality results obtained are summarized in Table 3.25 in terms of compound
concentration means, maximums, and minimums. This information should not be considered
as indicative of all runoff water quality in Doha, as the study is at point locations on very
small catchments. However, the values can be used for environmental impact assessement
studies in cases where local data is unavailable. The sites measured are typical polluted
areas during the dry season. MME recommends using the average of all sites unless other
project specific values are requested by the authorities.

PART DRAINAGE
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Table 3.25 Concentrations of measured compounds in Micro Catchment Study
Average of all
Compound Max Min
sites
Total Suspended Solids (TSS), mg/L 350 1596 14
Nitrogen Kjeldhal (TKN), mg/L 8.9 50 1.7
Phosphorous (TP), mg/L 0.12 0.84 0
Total Organic Carbon (TOC), mgL 59 516 0
VPH, µg/L 0.27 3.78 0
EPH, µg/L 0 0 0
Antimony, µg/L 1.1 13.1 0
Titanium, µg/L 10 220 0
Iron, µg/L 271 6167 0
Copper, µg/L 27 215 0.22
Cadmium, µg/L 0.30 2.9 0
Chromium, µg/L 2.8 38 0
Nickel, µg/L 9.5 69 0
Manganese, µg/L 92 901 0
Vanadium, µg/L 6.3 52 0
Barium, µg/L 87 703 0
Arsenic, µg/L 8.0 45 0
Mercury, µg/L 0.22 6.8 0
Lead, µg/L 2.0 24.7 0
Aluminium, µg/L 223 2728 19
Zinc, µg/L 183 3705 0
Naphthalene, µg/L 0.065 0.21 0.037
Acenaphthylene, µg/L 0.0023 0.006 0.001
Acenaphthene, µg/L 0.0050 0.012 0.002
Fluorene, µg/L 0.0075 0.017 0.005
Phenanthrene, µg/L 0.019 0.065 0.010
Anthracene, µg/L 0.0017 0.007 0.001
Fluoroanthene, µg/L 0.0089 0.035 0.002
Pyrene, µg/L 0.0076 0.024 0.002
Benzo(a) anthracene, µg/L 0.0047 0.014 0.001
Chrysene, µg/L 0.0067 0.031 0
Benzo(b) fluoranthene, µg/L 0.0029 0.011 0
Benzo(k) fluoranthene, µg/L 0.0009 0.004 0
Benzo(a) pyrene, µg/L 0.0015 0.009 0
Indeno(1, 2, 3-cd) pyrene, µg/L 0.0002 0.002 0
Dibenz(a,h) anthracene, µg/L 0.00025 0.001 0
Benzo(g,h,i) perylene, µg/L 0.00078 0.004 0

DRAINAGE PART
10
The first flush phenomenon occurs when most of pollutants are transported in the initial
part of the event runoff. The existence of a first flush provides an opportunity to design
efficient pollution control systems (e.g. targeting the first 40 % of runoff). The first flush
phenomenon was observed to various degrees for the different sites and compounds. For
further details on the results, refer to Qatar Rainfall and Runoff Characteristics (MME, 2018).
3.6 Sustainable Drainage Systems

As outlined in 1.4, SuDS can be used to help mimic a more natural drainage process to minimize
the impacts created with regard to quality and quantity and to maximize biodiversity. The
section provides designers with guidance on drainage systems that should be specified
where possible. The devices outlined include:
• Permeable pavements
• Soakaways
• Swales
• Filter trenches and drains
• Bio-retention areas
• Sand filters
• Basins (infiltration and detention)
Each subsection includes a brief introduction of each device, locations where they are
likely to be most appropriately specified, potential benefits, and limitations. Key design
considerations and steps to be taken, minimum maintenance requirements, and general
construction advice are also provided. Guidance on where infiltration into the surrounding
soil should be allowed and information about specifying vegetation are included to help
consider these elements.
The designer should strive to reduce runoff from the highway by integrating multiple
stormwater controls throughout a site, recognizing that pretreatment is likely to be necessary
to enhancethe longevity of features.
3.6.1 Infiltration Guidance

Infiltration of stormwater runoff into the surrounding soil is a useful way to help reduce
the volume of runoff at or near its source. It can help promote groundwater restoration,
improve water quality through physical filtration and absorption, and reduce the need to
install additional drainage downstream to convey flows away from the site. Infiltration is
not appropriate in all circumstances, and care must be taken that the infiltration device is
suitable for the specific site location.
As a general guide, infiltration is advisable where:
• Pretreatment and emergency control, such as an oil interceptor, or being situated off-
line can prevent groundwater from becoming polluted.

PART DRAINAGE
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• The groundwater table is more than 4 m below the base of the proposed infiltration
device.
• The structure of the soil is suitably stable to support a large volume of runoff infiltrating
into it without the risk of failure.
To aid decision making, it is advisable to consult with a geotechnical engineer to determine

whether infiltration is likely to be appropriate. Figure 3.12 highlights the main steps to
consider when specifying an infiltration device.
Figure 3.12 Consideration of Infiltration
3.6.2 Specification of Suitable Vegetation

Careful consideration is required where vegetation is to be specified to help stabilize the soil
structure of SuDS features or help improve the biodiversity of the area, or both. Vegetation
typically specified in other parts of the world might not be appropriate for the climatic and
soil conditions in the State of Qatar. A landscape architect or similar professional should be
consulted to investigate potential options at an early stage in cases where vegetation is
likely to be necessary.
Further guidance on vegetation suitable in Qatar is provided in Section 28 of the Qatar

Construction Specifications (Ashghal, 2014).
3.6.3 Pervious Surfaces

Pervious surfaces allow rainfall to infiltrate into the subbase. This provides a level of
attenuation, water quality treatment, and points of source collection, which reduce the
need for other drainage systems to be constructed. The subbase layers can be drained by
infiltration, a piped drainage system, or both.
Porous asphalt and porous concrete are the most suitable forms of pervious surface for
highways.
3.6.3.1 Location Setting

Careful attention needs to be paid to vehicular loading and road speeds. Because of the more
permeable nature of the subbase, compaction can cause depressions and damage to the
functionality of the system. Where high sedimentation loads are expected and are unlikely
to be regularly dispersed or cleaned, these surfaces may be less effective and may fail. Table

DRAINAGE PART
10
3.26 provides suitable locations for pervious surfaces.
Table 3.26 Potentially Suitable Locations for Pervious Surfaces
Road Location and Type Potential Suitability

Urban Areas
Local roads No
Service roads No
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
Note:
If a road is tagged “yes” but it cannot be swept frequently, it too is not suitable.
Source: CIRIA SuDS Manual C753.
3.6.3.2 Benefits and Limitations of Pervious Surfaces

The following benefits and limitations to pervious surfaces are from the SuDS Manual (CIRIA,
2015).
Benefits
• Aids the removal of rainfall at source.
• Can help to attenuate flows and improve water quality.
• Dual purpose reduces the need for additional installation space. For example, drainage
and road surface in one.
• Reduces surface ponding on the road surface.
Limitations
• Requires regular maintenance where sediment loads are likely to be high to prevent
clogging.
• Vehicular loading, volumes, and road speeds need careful consideration to help maintain
the road surface.
• If the geotextile becomes clogged with fine silt, it will adversely affect the infiltration
rate into the subbase.
3.6.3.3 Key Design Elements

The guidance below is an overview of considerations required during design. Advice from a
suitable manufacturer should be sought during the early stages of design:

PART DRAINAGE
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• The pervious surface and subbase should be structurally designed for the specific site
and the expected vehicular loading. This should be done in compliance with manufacturer
recommendations.
• Guidance should be sought from a qualified geotechnical engineer as to whether

infiltration should be allowed or whether a liner should be installed to provide an
impermeable barrier. If a liner is installed, a continuation pipe is required to drain the
subbase. This will need to be appropriately connected downstream.
• Surface infiltration rates should normally be an order of magnitude greater than the
design rainfall intensity. Manufacturer guidelines should be referenced to clarify this
information.
• The subsurface storage volume should be adequate to ensure that the infiltration, the
discharge rate through the continuation pipe, or both, will not become a limiting factor
and create surface ponding during an event equivalent to its design event.
• Angular, crushed material with high surface friction should be used for subbase
construction. Sand and gravel with rounded particles should not be used to maintain
voids and limit compaction of the material, which would reduce permeability. Guidance
should be sought from a geotechnical engineer about suitable local materials, when
possible.
• The subbase should usually be laid in 100 mm to 150 mm layers and lightly compacted to
ensure that the required void ratio is achieved for the particular material used. Guidance
should be sought from a geotechnical engineer, a surface manufacturer, or both about a
suitable subbase construction.
• A geotextile may be specified as a filtration treatment component near the top of the
subbase. Where this is done, care should be taken to ensure that the rate of infiltration
is greater than the rate through the pervious road surface.
• Soil and other material must be prevented from contaminating the pavement surface
and substructure. This can be achieved by ensuring that the adjoining land slopes away
from the road surface.
3.6.3.4 Design Stages

Figure 3.13 is an overview of the steps to be taken when considering installing a permeable
pavement.
Figure 3.13 Pervious Surface Design Steps

DRAINAGE PART
10
3.6.3.5 Maintenance Requirements

Table 3.27 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements to maintain the efficiency
of the pavement, along with likely occasional needs.
Table 3.27 Pervious Surface Maintenance Requirements
Maintenance Type Action Frequency

Regular Inspect pervious surfaces for Quarterly or as the manufacturer
evidence of structural defection or recommends.
reduced infiltration efficiency.
Clean or sweep the pervious surface. As the manufacturer recommends.
Occasional Remediate surface depressions. As required.
Reconstruct pervious surface and When total failure of the structural
subbase. integrity or ability to absorb runoff
occurs.
Source: SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2015).
3.6.3.6 Construction Advice

To ensure the pavement is installed to operate effectively, the general advice below should
be communicated to contractors before work starts on site; further advice should be sought,
as appropriate:
• Care must be taken to prepare the formation level in compliance with manufacturers’
guidelines.
• Noticeable soft spots in the formation level should be excavated and backfilled with
suitable, well-compacted material before laying the subbase layers.
• Permeable membranes must be treated with care during installation.
• To maintain permeable properties, the subbase must not be compacted. This will reduce
the void ratio and effectiveness of the system.
• Geotextile should be laid in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions, with overlaps

between adjacent strips and without folds or creases, to ensure full coverage.
• Contaminants should be prevented from entering the pavement surface and subbase
during and after construction, to ensure that the pavement remains permeable
throughout its design life.
Silt fences and temporary drainage that divert runoff away from the area should be considered
to manage risks during construction. Landscaping should be carefully designed to prevent
deposition of materials from adjacent land; for example, the sides of the soakaway should
slope away from the highway.
3.6.4 Soakaways
Soakaways provide stormwater attenuation, treatment, and groundwater recharge.
Soakaways are excavated pits, trenches or perforated storage chambers that are usually
filled with rubble. Brickwork, perforated precast concrete, or polyethylene rings can be

PART DRAINAGE
10
used to line the structures, and they can be grouped or linked together to drain large areas,
including highways.
3.6.4.1 Location Settings

Soakaways can be suitably sized for the road types listed in Table 3.28, provided the
geotechnical conditions are conducive to absorbing the anticipated volume of water.
Table 3.28 Potentially Suitable Site Locations for Soakaway Installations
Road Location and Type Potentially Suitability

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.4.2 Benefits and Limitations of Soakaways

The following benefits and limitation of soakaways are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2015).
Benefits
• Minimal land take is needed for installation.
• Can be designed in series or individually for the needs of the site.
• Helps to provide groundwater recharge.
• Provides good volume reduction and peak flow attenuation.
• Easy to construct and operate.
Limitations
• Not suitable for poor-draining soils.
• Not suitable where infiltration is unacceptable.
• Not appropriate for draining polluted runoff.
• Limited lifespan, before requiring replacement.
• Reduced performance if groundwater table rises.

Field investigations are required at an early stage to confirm infiltration rates and the
acceptability of infiltration to the soil. A geotechnical engineer should be consulted during
this assessment. The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required during
the design of soakaways:

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• Soakaways should be investigated during the design phase. This can be through
inspection of an existing soakaway in the area if available.
• A perforated pipe can be incorporated to provide a point of discharge to drain small
soakaways. The pipe should be visible, and access should be provided to allow debris
and sediments to be cleared from the pit.
• Soakaways can be built as simple excavations backfilled with high-void media, or they
can be supported perforation precast concrete or plastic chambers that improve stability
and maximize infiltration to the surrounding ground.
• A suitable geotextile lining should separate granular material from the surrounding soil
and prevent migration of fines into the soakaway.
• Soakaways must be of sufficient strength for the loads acting on them, especially where
they must bear traffic. A structural engineer should be consulted.
• Storms exceeding the design return period need to be considered so that floodwater
can safely be conveyed downstream. This may require additional drainage components,
because the infiltration rate will be a limiting factor.
• The soakaway should discharge 50% of the stored volume within 24 hours to provide
sufficient capacity for runoff from subsequent storms.

Figure 3.14 is an overview of the steps to be taken when considering the installation of a
soakaway.
Note: * Guidance on modeling software is provided in Table 3.19.

Figure 3.14 Soakaway Design Steps
Hand calculations for design purposes can be used where the drainage catchment is small
and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The volume of storage
required will be a function of inflow minus outflow over time. This can be determined by
using the level pool routing technique when a model is inappropriate. This is described in
detail in Appendix C.

Table 3.29 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements, along with likely occasional
needs.

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Table 3.29 Soakaway Maintenance Requirements
Maintenance
Type Action Frequency
Inspect and identify areas that are not Monthly for the first 3 months, then
Regular operating as designed and remediate them. every 6 months.
Remove debris and blockages. Monthly.
Remove sediment from pretreatment Annually (or as required).
structures.
Occasional Remove sediment from soakaway structures. Annually (or as required).

Remedial Conduct detailed inspections of all structural Annually and after large storms.
elements.
Make repairs to structure elements. As required.

The following general points are to be noted during construction. This information, and
further guidance regarding health and safety, should be communicated to contractors
undertaking the work:
• Untreated drainage from construction sites should not discharge into soakaways during
construction, because it can cause the soakaway to become ineffective.
• Silt fences and temporary drainage that divert runoff away from the area should be
considered to manage risks during construction. Landscaping should be designed to
prevent deposition of materials from adjacent land; for example, sloping sides away
from the highway.
• The exposed surface of the soil should be manually cleaned so that the geotextile and
granular fill surrounding the chamber are installed under optimal conditions.
• Groundwater control measures are required to reduce the groundwater table to allow a
passive system of soakaways to work. Refer to the Qatar Integrated Drainage Master
Plan (MWH Consultants [MWH], 2013) for further advice.
• Selection of proposed plastic structures for storage and soakaways needs careful
consideration to ensure that the structure is appropriate for the proposed overburden
loads. The structures must be suitable for the range of temperatures in the State of
Qatar.
3.6.5 Swales
Swales are wide, shallow, gently sloping channels usually covered by suitable vegetation
used in arid regions, although reinforced earth or rip-rap can also be used. They are designed
to intercept flow from the highway and convey runoff slowly along their surface. Infiltration
can be encouraged using check dams or berms installed across the flow path.
Infiltration can be conducted in standard swales or by using a dry swale. These incorporate
a filter bed and underdrain system under the base of the swale to improve the capacity of
the system.

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Swales are usually located parallel to the highway. They need to be relatively wide so that
shallow depths can be maintained. This usually makes them most suited to areas where
wide shoulders are available, but they can also be considered where there are only narrow
corridors, such as in urban areas. Table 3.30 lists potentially suitable site locations, but
engineering judgment is advisable.
Table 3.30 Potentially Suitable Locations for Installing Swales

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes (limited use)
Service roads Yes (limitted use)
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.5.2 Benefits and Limitations of Swales

The following benefits and limitation of swales are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2015).
Benefits
• Helps reduce urban pollutants in runoff.
• Can help reduce runoff rates (and volumes where infiltration is permitted).
• Pollution and blockages are visible and easily dealt with.
Limitations
• Not suitable for poor-draining soils.
• Requires available land to be set aside and maintained.
• Not suitable where vehicles may park on the swale and damage them.
• Potential risk of blockages when connecting swales with pipe work.
• Not appropriate for draining polluted runoff.
• Vegetation requires regular maintenance.

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The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required during design:
• Vegetation in the flow channel should typically be maintained at a height of 100 mm to

150 mm.
• The swale should be trapezoidal or parabolic in cross section, because these are easy to
construct and maintain and because they provide good hydraulic performance.
• Swale side slopes should be no greater than 1:4 to promote sheet flow and low velocities
and to maximize the wetted perimeter, promote filtration, and minimize erosion.
• The normal maximum dry swale depth is 400 mm to 600 mm, if all technical and safety
issues have been considered.
• Freeboard of 150 mm should be provided over the design hour volume depth to allow
for blockages.
• Conveyance swales should have a minimum longitudinal slope of 1:300.
• The base width of the swale should be 0.5 m to 2 m.
• The design event runoff volumes should empty by half within 24 hours so that runoff
from subsequent storms can be accommodated.
• The design event runoff volumes should fully empty within 48 hours to reduce
stagnation and mosquito breeding.
• The maximum flow velocity in the swale for events below a 1-year return period should
be 0.3 m/s to promote settlement.
• Flow velocities for extreme events should be less than 1.0 m/s to prevent erosion.
• Check dams and appropriate pretreatment systems should be used to improve the
hydraulic and water quality performance of the swale system by reducing the flow
velocity, increasing residence time, increasing infiltration, and promoting storage.
• Where required, check dams are typically provided at 10 m to 20 m intervals, and the
water level at the toe of the upstream dam should be the same level as the crest of the
downstream dam.
• Check dams should be constructed into the sides of the swale to ensure that water does
not bypass the structure. A small orifice or pipe at the base of the dam will allow low
flows to be conveyed downstream.
Figure 3.15 depicts a typical swale with the check dam and erosion protection arrangement.

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Figure 3.15 Diagram of Typical Swale

Table 3.31 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements likely to be required to
maintain the efficiency of the swale, along with likely occasional needs.
Table 3.31 Swale Maintenance Requirements

Litter and debris removal. As required.
Regular
Water vegetation (if provided). Daily or as required.
Check for areas of poor vegetation growth and Twice yearly or as required.
reseed accordingly.
Inspect inlets, outlets, overflows, and check Twice yearly.
Occasional dams for signs of erosion, silting, and blockages;
Remedial also check for areas of ponding.
Repair structure. As required.
Remove pollutants and sediment buildup. As required.
Re-level uneven surfaces. As required.

Swales should not receive storm runoff until vegetation in the system is fully established
and construction has reached a state at which sediment from the site will not cause siltation
of the swale. Interception pits may be required in the interim to control the quality of the
water.
3.6.6 Trench Soakaways and Filter Drains

Trench soakaways are shallow excavations lined with a geotextile and are usually backfilled
with stone to create an underground reservoir to drain runoff from small catchment areas.
Runoff can then infiltrate into the surrounding soil. Filter drains are similar but use a porous or
perforated pipe placed at the bottom of the trench that flow to a drainage system. Infiltration

PART DRAINAGE
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can be permitted, or an impermeable liner can be used to prevent infiltration. Both systems
are designed to provide attenuation by promoting slow infiltration through fill material and
into the ground where infiltration is allowed. They also provide storage in the trench.

Filter drains and trenches are suitable for installation at the edges of highways and can be
designed for site characteristics. Table 3.32 lists potential suitable locations.
Care must be taken to restrict vehicle access onto the drain. This can cause stone scatter,
which will be dangerous to other road users, and it can cause heavy loading on the trench
median, which will cause compaction.
Table 3.32 Potentially Suitable Locations for Filter Trenches and Drains

Urban Areas
Local roads No
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads No
Collectors No
Arterials No
Freeways Yes
3.6.6.2 Benefits and Limitations of Filter Trenches and Drains

The following benefits and limitation of filter trenches and drains are from the SuDs Manual
(CIRIA, 2015).
Benefits
• Helps to slow the flow rate and provides attenuation.
• Where infiltration is permitted, runoff volumes will be significantly reduced, which

promotes groundwater recharge.
• Aids treatment of contaminated runoff, leading to improved water quality.
• Can be easily installed close to the highway to reduce the need for further drainage.
• Relatively low land take and cost of installation.
Limitations
• Stable subsurface material is essential to reduce the risk of trench collapse.
• Pipe collapses in filter drains are common due to the nature of the pipe material.

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• Not suitable for sites where filter clogging is likely; for example, clay or silt in the
upstream catchment).
• Failure of the system is difficult to see in the early stages.
• Regular maintenance is required to reduce the risk of failure due to clogging.

The guidance below is an overview of considerations required during design. It should be
used with the requirements outlined in this Part:
• To maximize the lifetime effectiveness of these systems, pretreat runoff to remove

heavy solids before arrival at the trench, because it is difficult to restore operation once
trenches become clogged.
• Trenches should not be constructed on steep slopes where there is an increased risk of
stability concerns.
• Where designed to allow for infiltration, the maximum groundwater level should be
greater than 1 m below the bottom of the trench to avoid continued saturation of the
filter media and risk of groundwater infiltration into the drainage network.
• A full geotechnical assessment should be conducted to verify that ground conditions are
suitable for trench excavation and that the infiltration rate is appropriate; see Section
3.6.1.
• The trench should be designed to be half empty within 24 hours after being full so that
capacity is available for subsequent events and to reduce the risk that the trench will be
waterlogged for long periods.
• Trench depths should normally be between 1 and 2 m.
• Locally available granular stone (single sized graded stone) should be specified, where
possible.
• The geotextile on trench sides and geotextile wrapping around pipes should have
greater permeability than the surrounding soil where infiltration is allowed so that the
geotextile does not present a barrier to flow. Manufacturers’ guidance should be used
to assess this situation.
• Measures should be implemented to prevent stone scatter by vehicles or humans. This

could mean locating the trench slightly away from the highway or not constructing this
type of system in urban areas or close to settlements.
• Infiltration trenches should be constructed with a high-level outlet for exceedance

conditions, and appropriate drainage should be designed to convey flows safely
downstream.
• The base of the trench should slope gently to encourage flow movement and to avoid
ponding.
• Adequate access to the trench should be provided for maintenance, which will include
the need for washing and replacement of the top layers regularly.

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Figure 3.16 is an overview of steps to be taken when considering installation of a filter trench
or drain. Hand calculations for design purposes can be used when the drainage catchment
is small and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The storage required
will be a function of inflow minus outflow over time and can be determined using the level
pool routing technique.
Note: * Section 3.4.3 contains guidance on modeling software.

Figure 3.16 Filter Trench or Drain Steps

Table 3.33 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements likely needed to maintain
the efficiency of a filter trench or drain, along with likely occasional needs.
Table 3.33 Filter Trench or Drain Maintenance Requirements

Remove litter and debris from the trench surface. Monthly.
Inspect trench surfaces for evidence of ponding and At least quarterly.
Regular
silt accumulation.
Washing of exposed stone. Annually.
Remediate filter media and geotextile when As required.
clogging occurs. This requires the excavation of the
Occasional trench and reinstalling after cleaning.
Inspect pipe work for evidence of operation and As required or half the
failure. expected asset life.
Reexcavate trench walls. As required.

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To ensure the filter trench or drain is installed for optimal operation, the general advice
below should be communicated to contractors before they start work on-site; further advice
should be provided as appropriate:
• Trenches should be constructed after highways have been constructed to minimize

compaction of surrounding soil. Where soil has been compacted during previous
construction activity, it needs to be loosened or perforated to maintain the effectiveness
of the infiltration properties of the ground.
• Because of the loose compacted nature of the trench fill and the maintenance
requirements to remove and clean the fill to prolong its lifespan it is not recommended
that trenches are installed below the roadway at all.
• Stone fill and geotextile around pipes should be clean before installation. Care should
be taken so that the geotextile covers all sides of the trench and is not damaged during
installation.
• Care must be taken during construction to prevent trench collapse during excavation
or installation of fill material. This is of particular importance when the trench depth
is greater than 1.2 m deep or ground conditions are weak. Supports should be used to
stabilize the trench in both cases.
• After installation, an infiltration test is recommended to confirm that the trench is

operating as designed.
3.6.7 Bio-retention Areas

Bio-retention areas are shallow landscaped depressions composed of several components
that act together to improve water quality. Grass filter strips or channels help to reduce
runoff velocities. A ponding area normally is incorporated to provide temporary storage; an
organic layer and planting are provided to encourage filtration and pollutant uptake; and a
sand bed is provided to promote aerobic conditions. These measures are aimed at managing
and treating runoff from frequent but low-intensity rainfall events. Runoff from extreme
events must be designed for with additional measures such as balancing ponds or emergency
flood areas.

Vegetation needs to be incorporated, and daily watering is required. As a result, bio-retention
areas are likely to be suitable only where planting is likely and only with suitable vegetation
as outlined in this Part (see Table 3.34).

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Table 3.34 Potential Suitable Locations for Bio-retention Areas

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.7.2 Benefits and Limitations of Bio-retention Areas

The following benefits and limitation of bio-retention areas are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA,
2015).
Benefits
• Provides aesthetic appeal and can be incorporated as a landscape feature
• Effective in removing urban pollutants
• Can reduce volume and rate of runoff
• Has flexible layout to fit into landscape
Limitations
• Requires landscaping and regular management to maintain vegetation
• Susceptible to clogging if surrounding landscape is poorly managed
• Not suitable for areas with steep slopes
• Particularily suitable for low-intensity events

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Figure 3.17 is a typical cross section.
Note: Perforated under drain to be surrounded with geotextile membrane.
Figure 3.17 Typical Cross Section through a Bioretention Area
The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required during design; a suitable
manufacturer should be consulted for further guidance, if necessary:
• Typically the system is drained by an underdrain and relies on engineered soils and
enhanced vegetation. Individual units can be supplied to meet site needs, and a suitable
manufacturer should be consulted during the design phase.
• The storage volume of the system should be designed so that it will be half empty
within 24 hours, either by infiltration or through the outlet pipe.
• The shape of a bio-retention area is not a critical feature in design, but a minimum width
of 3 m and length-to-width ratio of 2:1 is recommended to aid in planting.
• The soil bed should have a minimum depth of 1 m. Where trees are planted, the depth
should be 1.2 m to 1.5 m.
• The soil should be a sandy loam mixture with a permeability of at least 12.6 mm/h, and
pH should range between 5.2 and 7.
• The sand filter should have a minimum thickness of 0.3 m and consist of sand with a
grain size of 0.5 mm to 1 mm.
• The gravel around the under drain should consist of 5 mm to 20 mm aggregate.
• Geotextile membrane should be placed around perforated drainage pipes.

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3.6.7.4 Maintenance Requirement

Table 3.35 lists the minimum regular maintenance likely to be required, along with likely
occasional needs.
Table 3.35 Maintenance Requirements for Bioretention Areas
Maintenance
Water vegetation. Daily
Remove litter and debris. Monthly or as required
Regular
Remove weeds. As required
Verify that anaerobic conditions are not present in soil. Monthly or as required
Replace mulch and spiking soil. Annually
Inspect inlets, outlets, and overflows. Twice yearly
Occasional
Restore vegetation or eroded areas. As required
Remedial
Clear blockages and remove silt and built-up vegetation. As required
Repair structures. As required
3.6.7.5 Construction
The advice below should be communicated to contractors before they start working on-
site so that the bio-retention area operates effectively once constructed. This list is not
extensive, and further advice should be provided, as appropriate:
• Bio-retention areas should be constructed after construction of the road to minimize

erosion and sediment generation.
• Care should be taken not to compact the soils below the bio-retention area, particularly
the filter and soil planting bed, because doing so will reduce infiltration capacities.
• A backhoe should be used to excavate a bio-retention area. Once formed, personnel

should avoid running over and damaging the bio-retention area.
• If soil for the filter layer is imported, soil testing should be conducted. The test should
include particle size distribution, pH, and organic matter test for each retention area.
3.6.8 Sand Filters

Sand filters are designed to treat surface water runoff through filtration and can significantly
improve water quality.
Surface sand filters, shown on Figure 3.18, are structures, usually constructed as off-
line facilities that incorporate sand filter beds at the base of the excavation. They can be
designed with impervious linings and a drainage system, or they can allow infiltration into
the surrounding soil.

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Figure 3.18 Diagram of a Typical Surface Sand Filter
Underground sand filters, shown on Figure 3.19, can be used where space is limited. These
are essentially chambers that aid water quality treatment before flow passes through the
drainage system.
Figure 3.19 Diagram of a Typical Underground Sand Filter

The design of sand filters is flexible and allows the opportunity for incorporation into multiple
locations. However, care should be taken so there is adequate pretreatment or emergency
controls can be conducted, such as installing them off-line. Table 3.36 lists the road types for
which sand filters could potentially be used.

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Table 3.36 Potential Site Locations for Sand Filters

Urban Areas
Local Roads Yes
Service Roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local Roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.8.2 Benefits and Limitations of Sand Filters

The following benefits and limitations of sand filters are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2015).
Benefits
• Flexible design.
• Efficient in removing a range of urban runoff pollutants.
• Suitable for retrofits and in tightly constrained urban locations.
Limitations
• Not recommended for areas with high debris content in runoff.
• Waterlogged conditions can support algae growth, filter clogging, and mosquito breeding.
• Not suitable for large catchment areas.
• High capital cost and maintenance burden.

The guidance below is an overview of considerations required in designing sand filters.
Surface Sand Filter

• Pretreatment is required to remove debris and heavy sediment so that it does not enter
the filter bed.
• Specialized media could be used to remove heavy metals.
• A sedimentation chamber should be incorporated into the design that promotes settling
of heavier solids to help keep the sand filter clear.
• A flow-separating device should be used to distribute flow evenly across the filter bed
and keep the bed material in place.

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• A series of underdrains should be installed parallel to the direction of flow to promote

flow transfer. The underdrains should be 150 mm perforated PVC pipes installed in a
gravel layer with a minimum slope of 1 % and spacing not to exceed 3 m.
• The filter bed should consist of a 0.45 m to 0.6 m layer of washed medium sand or other
specialized media. Topsoil or gravel can be installed on the top to prevent erosion; this
cover layer should be roughly 75 mm deep. Figure 3.20 shows the typical construction
of the bed layers.
Figure 3.20 Typical Sand Filter Bed Construction
• A permeable filter fabric should be placed above and below the sand bed to help keep
the filter and under drain system clear.
• The length-to-width ratio of the filter should be at least 2:1.
• The side slopes of the excavation should be at least 1:6.
• The design should allow easy access for maintenance. There may be a need to remove
heavy wet sand from the system. This is usually done by hand, and the access should
be designed to facilitate this.
• Inspection and cleanout wells should be provided to the underdrain.
• Filter areas should be sized to completely drain in 48 hours or less. Filter areas can be
determined by using Darcy’s law and the equation below:

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( )
=
( + )
where
Af = surface area of filter bed, square meters (m2)
Vt = water quality treatment volume, cubic meters (m3)
L = filter bed depth (m) (typically 0.45 m to 0.6 m)
k = coefficient of permeability of filter medium for water (m/s)
= 0.001 (approximately) for 0.5 mm sand
= 0.006 (approximately) for 1.0 mm sand
h = average height of water above filter bed (m) (half maximum height, where hmax is
typically ≤2)
Underdrain Filters
• To prevent backflow of water in the system, the maximum head of water that can
develop in the sediment must be at least twice the average height of water above the
filter device.
• Underdrain filters should be off-line or an overflow should be provided, or both, to allow

for exceedance conditions.

Figure 3.21 is an overview of steps to be taken when installing a sand filter.
Figure 3.21 Sand Filter Design Steps
and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The storage required will be
a function of inflow minus outflow over time and can be determined using the level pool
routing technique.

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Table 3.37 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements for sand filters.
Table 3.37 Sand Filter Maintenance Requirements
Maintenance
Water vegetation. Daily.
Check for odors indicative of anaerobic conditions. Monthly.
Monitor sediment accumulation and vegetation. Monthly.
Remove sediment, litter, and debris from the inlet and
As required or after a storm.
outlet.
Regular As required or at least

Check that the sedimentation chamber is <50% full.
annually.
Check that filter bed has surface sediment
Quarterly.
accumulation of <15 millimeters.
Check anaerobic digestion. Monthly.
As required or at least
Wash the top layers of the sand to maintain efficiency.
annually.
Repair eroded surfaces. As required or after a storm.
Occasional Realign erosion protection. As required or after a storm.
Repair inlet or outlet. As required.

The advice below should be communicated to contractors before they start working on-site;
further advice should be provided, as appropriate:
• Filters should not receive runoff until vegetation in the system is fully established and
construction at the site has reached a state at which sediment concentrations in the
runoff will not cause clogging.
• The top of the filter bed must be completely level; otherwise, filtration will be localized,
and early failure may occur.
• In areas where groundwater protection is a concern, the completed tank structure
(concrete or membrane) should be filled with water for 24 hours to determine if there
is leakage.
3.6.9 Basins
Detention basins are designed to store runoff when the surface water system is in surcharge.
The basins store surcharged water and have a controlled outflow. Detention basins are
normally dry and are lined to prevent infiltration.
Infiltration basins are designed to take excess flow from the stormwater system and infiltrate
it into the ground. Infiltration basins are unlined to promote infiltration.
Section 4.2.5 provides information about EFAs, which provide a level of water treatment by
settling particulate pollutants. Figure 3.22 shows a layout for a typical basin.

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Figure 3.22 Plan View of a Typical Basin
Rip-rap or geotextile matting protections could be used to improve the soil structure and to
reduce or replace the need for a fully vegetated system.

The size of the basins depends on the catchment being served. Basins can be designed
to accommodate varying volumes and are suitable for a range of situations. Incorporating
basins in narrow corridors or in dense, urban zones may be challenging. However, basins
benefit water quality and are easy to maintain.
Table 3.38 lists locations where basins are potentially suitable for basins; however, the
decision to use basins will depend on site constraints and engineering judgment.
Table 3.38 Potential Suitable Locations for a Basin

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.9.2 Benefits and Limitations of Basins

The following benefits and limitations of basins are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2015).

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Benefits
• Can be used for a wide range of rainfall events.
• Detention basins can be used where infiltration is inappropriate or groundwater could

become polluted as a result of contaminated runoff.
• Infiltration basins can contribute to groundwater recharge and reduce the need for
further drainage.
• Simple to design, construct, and maintain.
• Provide safe and visible capture of accidental spillages.
• They provide attenuation of large flows and/or high intensity events.
Limitations
• Little reduction in runoff volume where detention basins are used.
• Detention depths are limited by the drain down time and health and safety considerations.
• Likely to be subject to heavy siltation, particularly in rural areas, and they require regular
maintenance.
• Vegetation, where applicable, will require regular watering and maintenance.
• Structural improvement is likely to be required where the soil is loose and not structurally
stable.

The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required to aid design:
• The basin should be sized to delay peak runoff and to drain within 48 hours to avoid
stagnation and minimize the opportunity for mosquitoes to breed.
• Pretreatment should be provided where possible, especially where infiltration is allowed.

Pretreatment promotes the infiltration properties of the soil and facilitates the capture
of pollutants from accidental spills before they infiltrate into the ground.
• Basins should usually be implemented as off-line systems, but where they are on-line,
an emergency spillway should be designed to safely convey exceedance flows.
• The maximum depth of water in the basin should not normally exceed 1.5 m because of
health and safety concerns. Adequate protection should be provided around the basin to
prevent accidental entry by motorists or other road users.
• Adequate access must be provided for inspection and maintenance, including access for
equipment.
• Sideslopes usually should not exceed 1:4 unless site conditions, safety arrangements,
or both allow for steeper slopes.
• The bottom of the basin should gently slope toward the outlet to prevent standing
water; the gradient should be shallower than 1:100.

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• A minimum length-to-width ratio of 2:1 is recommended.

• A liner may be specified to prevent infiltration in unstable locations (e.g., infiltration
<50 mm/hr or where groundwater could become contaminated by polluted runoff).
• If soil conditions are unsuitable and an embankment is required to impound the water,
the embankment fill material should be inert natural soil that will not leach contaminants
into the stored runoff.
• Rip-rap or other scour protection should be used to dissipate the energy of incoming
flows. The velocity of incoming flows should be <1 m/s.
• Outlet flows should be controlled by a V-notch weir, orifice plate, or vortex flow control
device. The device should be built into a dike or berm, with easy access for maintenance.
• The bottom and side slopes should be structurally stable. Where soil conditions do not
allow this, an embankment from improved material should be constructed.
• If there is adequate space, sufficient volume should be provided in the basin to

accommodate the design event. If there is insufficient space, the flow should bypass
the basin flow safely downstream.
• An emergency overflow should be designed to convey excess flows in emergency

situations. The overflow will need to be designed specifically for the basin.
Figure 3.23 shows the typical cross section for a detention basin.
Figure 3.23 Typical Cross Section of a Detention Basin
3.6.9.4 Design Steps

Figure 3.24 is an overview of the steps to take to install infiltration or detention basins.

DRAINAGE PART
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Note: Section 3.4.3 contains guidance on modeling software.

Figure 3.24 Basin Design Steps
and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The storage required will be
a function of inflow minus outflow over time and can be determined using the level pool
routing technique.

Table 3.39 lists the minimum regular maintenance likely to be required for an infiltration or
detention basin.
Table 3.39 Maintenance Requirements for Basins
Maintenance
Water vegetation (if provided). Daily.
Monitor sediment accumulation and vegetation. Monthly (or as required).
Regular Remove sediment, litter, and debris from the inlet As required or after a storm.
and outlet.
If vegetated, maintain vegetation (e.g., cutting or As required or at least annually.
pruning).
Repair eroded surfaces. As required or after a storm.
Remedial Realign erosion protection. As required or after a storm.
Repair inlet or outlet. As required.

The advice below should be communicated to contractors before they start work on-site;
further advice should be provided as appropriate:

PART DRAINAGE
10
• If a liner is used, care should be taken to avoid damaging it during construction.
• To maintain stability of the basin, construction should occur when there is no heavy
rainfall.
• Care should be taken that the slopes remain stable and that slope materials are unlikely
to fall away during storm conditions.
• Side slopes should be shallower than 1:4 while constructing the basin to avoid collapse
during excavation.
• The base of the basin should be carefully prepared to an even grade, without significant
undulation.
• All excavation and leveling should be performed by equipment with tracks that exert
light pressure so that the basin floor is not compacted, which may reduce infiltration
capacity.
Construction of the infiltration basin should take place after the site has been stabilized to
minimize the risk of premature failure of the basin.
3.7 Preliminary Design Strategy

After most of the preliminary design information outlined in the previous subsections have
been determined (e.g., the road geometry and surface runoff quantified), a strategy for the
road drainage should be developed. The strategy should explain the design decisions, clearly
justifying each decision and cross referencing this manual to expedite the review process.
In the State of Qatar, it is historically conventional to install piped drainage systems with
gully inlets to convey runoff quickly from the highway. However, there have been issues
with these systems in recent years, and drainage systems that mimic a more natural drainage
process are preferred where possible. Systems that mimic natural drainage processes are
referred to as SuDS and are designed to minimize the environmental risks resulting from urban
surface water runoff (e.g., quantity and quality of the runoff) and to maximize amenity and
biodiversity opportunities. SuDS features can be used alone or with conventional systems to
meet the specific needs of the site. Table 3.32 provides guidance for the suitability of using
SuDS on urban and rural roads.
SuDS typically include three main control categories: source, site, and regional.
• Source control systems deal with runoff as close to the source as practical. They can be
used alone or as the first stage in a multi-stage management system.
• Site control systems are designed to manage water locally and are used either as the
final management stage after runoff is captured by source control systems or as an
interim measure before flows are conveyed for regional control.

DRAINAGE PART
10
• Regional control systems manage runoff from large or multiple areas and tend to be
larger structures than those used for site control. Regional SuDS are usually the final
stage in the management process, where a SuDS system is being considered.
Most features classified as source, site, or regional control systems can be designed for
multiple purposes and may be classified as more than one system. Guidance about typical
classification is provided in Table 3.16. Chapter 4 contains further guidance about each type
of feature and the key design elements.
3.8 Review Process

After the design criteria have been established, they should be reviewed by the MME and
key stakeholders, as agreed at the project concept design stage. Approval procedures in
Section 1.2.2 should be followed. The designer should continue to engage internal design
team members to ensure that a collaborative approach is implemented to develop the road
design.
To best achieve the required outputs and to facilitate an efficient approval process,
engagement should continue throughout the process.

84
10
PART
Table 3.40 Potential Suitability for SuDS Installation on Urban and Rural Roads
Source Control
Site Control
DRAINAGE
Regional Control
Bio- Pipes,
Pervious Filter Filter Infiltration retention Sand Subsurface Detention Infiltration
Technique Surfaces drains Strips Soakaways Swales Trenches Areas Filters Storage Basin Basins
Urban Roads
Expressways N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y

Major Arterial Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Minor Arterial Roads N Y Y P Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Boulevard Arterial Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Major Collector Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Minor Collector Roads N Y Y P Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Distributor Collector Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Service Roads Y Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Local Roads Y P Y P Y P Y P Y P P
Rural Roads
Freeway N Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Arterial Roads N Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Collector Roads Y Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Local Roads Y P Y Y Y P Y P Y P P
Key: Y = likely to be appropriate; N = not likely to be suitable; P = potentially suitable. Ponds are not considered suitable for the control of stormwater and hence are not
recommended.
DRAINAGE PART
10
4 Detailed Design Work

During the detailed design phase, the comprehensive design criteria established in the two
previous stages are used to develop the final working design. Figure 4.1 depicts the process.
Figure 4.1 Detailed Design Process
Each design will vary according to the location and specific drainage requirements, so not
every step in this stage will necessarily be relevant for all designs. The engineer should use
Figure 4.1 to follow the correct procedure and then reference the relevant sections within
this Part of the Manual, as appropriate.
4.2 Design in Urban Areas

Early planning of highway drainage in the design process is essential to establish drainage
corridors and rights-of-way that will not clash with other planned utility corridors.

PART DRAINAGE
10
At the planning and design stage, it is important to consider amenity areas such as parks,
footways and car parks that may be used for strategic storage. There is also potential to
incorporate SuDS options, such as runoff collection, at nearby public sites to alleviate surface
water flows.
4.2.1 Urban Catchments

Urban development incorporating roads, amenities, and housing changes the nature of
existing land and the surface water runoff characteristics of the catchment.
When considering new roads for urban development, the engineer should consider the total
catchment area on both sides of the road. Surface water that runs off from the catchment
needs to be assessed to ascertain if runoff will contribute to the overall highway drainage
system. Part of the assessment process is to establish the availability of discharge points
for the collection of water and potential pollution problems caused by the intake of surface
water runoff into the highway drainage system. The designer should consider to windblown
sand entering the drainage system, which could cause blockages that potentially result in
flooding problems. The designer will need to provide facilities to reduce this potential.
4.2.2 Drainage of the Roadway

Figure 4.2 shows a typical road cross section, but this does not indicate a means of
SuDS collection for surface water. SuDS should be considered in preference to traditional
techniques, such as gullies, where site constraints allow. For a balanced road section, the
road falls away from the center line and crown of the road to the channel and curb line. This
fall is known as the transverse gradient, and a 2 % transverse gradient is considered normal
for drainage design.
Figure 4.2 Typical Road Cross Section
The longitudinal gradient for the channel line to the discharge point (for SuDS techniques or
traditional techniques, such as a gully pot) is a minimum of 0.3 %. This reduces the peaking
of the vertical alignment of the road. A desirable minimum longitudinal gradient of 1 % is to
be provided, where practical.

DRAINAGE PART
10
Manholes for new roads are to be located in allocated surface water corridors in accordance
with MME standard road cross sections. The object is to keep the main roadway free of
manhole covers and to reduce the potential settlement problems associated with a flexible
road surface and a solid manhole construction. This requirement should be discussed and
agreed with the MME during the preliminary design stage.
For all piped drainage, manholes should be provided at the following locations:
• Changes of direction, gradient, or pipe material

• The upstream end of all pipe runs
• Every junction of two or more pipes (excluding gully connections)
• Each change in pipe diameter
• Spacings of no greater than 100 m or as dictated in the Ashghal Design manual
• To collect gully connections
The road designer needs to ensure that no flat zones are created at road intersections. Where
conflicting longitudinal gradients occur, a “rolling crown” can be used to avoid a flat zone. The
length of the rolling crown is determined using the same formula as that for applying super
elevation (see Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3 Typical Detail of Rolling Crown across a Single Roadway
For the purpose of collecting surface water from road areas at low points, gullies should be
provided along the curb line or gutter.
4.2.3 Design of Traditional Drainage Capture Techniques

This section discusses methods for determining the sizing and spacing of conventional
roadside drainage technique, and it describes the limitations of those techniques.
Conventional techniques can be combined with SuDS techniques (see Section 3.5.2) or, with
appropriate modification, be considered SuDS.
4.2.3.1 Gully Design

Designers may space road gullies at a distance that best provides adequate drainage and
minimizes the number of gullies required. To maintain gully performance under the influence

PART DRAINAGE
10
of windborne debris and dust and to improve collection during high rainfall events, it is
preferred that gullies be constructed as pairs at low points. It is also important to design an
appropriate maintenance schedule to prevent the buildup of sand that could inhibit drainage
measures.
The design is based on the equations provided in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (UK Department for Transport, 2017). The maximum
gully connection length is 36 m.
There are two primary equations. The choice of which equations is most applicable is based
upon whether the gradient of a road is uniform. These equations contain several variables
and require the following input:
• Longitudinal gradient of a road (as a fraction).
• Cross fall of a road (as a fraction).
• Acceptable flow width (in meters), as agreed to by the Ashghal,
• Manning’s roughness coefficient for the surface of the road to be drained (see Table 4.3
and associated discussion).
• The maintenance factor (see Table 4.4 and associated discussion), which depends on
future road maintenance.
• Rainfall intensity (see Section 3.3.1).
• Width of catchment (in meters) for the area that drains to the road curb.
• Grating parameter (the calculation of which is outlined further in this section).
• Grating, slot dimensions, and pattern, which may be provided by the manufacturer.
All other variables are calculated using these inputs with the equations provided in the
following section.
Limitation of the Design Method

• The slots in the grating should have a total waterway of more than 30 % of the grating’s
clear area.
• The portion of the total waterway area within 50 mm of the curb face may not be less
than 45 square centimeters.
• On steep sections of road, the maximum allowable spacing between gullies may be
determined by the flow capacity of the gully pot beneath it rather than the collection
efficiency of the grating. Generally, a gully pot can accept about 15 liters without
surcharging if the outlet pipe has a diameter of 150 mm.
• The design method given in this section is appropriate for the range of longitudinal
gradients between 1/300 (0.33 %) and 1/15 (6.67 %) and can reasonably be extended
to a gradient of 1/12.5 (8.00 %). For gradients flatter than 1:300, this approach is not
applicable, and alternative methods should be applied, such as described by Whiffin and

DRAINAGE PART
10
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
VOLUME 2 PART 10
Young (1973).
DRAINAGE
• Road gullies have an advantage over surface water channels in that the gradient to
x Road gullies have an advantage over surface water channels in that the gradient to
carry the road runoff from the gully to the outfall is not dependent on the gradient of
carry the road runoff from the gully to the outfall is not dependent on the gradient
the road. However, road gullies do not usually provide the best drainage solution for
x ofRoad
the road.
gulliesHowever,
have anroad gullies do
advantage not
over usuallywater
surface provide the best
channels in drainage solution to
that the gradient
long, flat gradients.
forcarry
long, flatroad
the This
runoffissue
gradients. This should
fromissue be
should
the gully considered
to be outfall is during
theconsidered during
not design.
design. on the gradient
dependent
of the road. However, road gullies do not usually provide the best drainage solution
Intermediate
Intermediate long,Gratings
forGratings andand Inlets
flat gradients.
InletsThis issue should be considered during design.
For intermediate
For intermediate gratings
gratings
Intermediate and
Gratings andinlets
and inlets where
Inlets wherethere is aisuniform,
there the maximum
a uniform, allowableallowable
the maximum
spacing between adjacent gratings (S ) may be calculated from the following equation:
spacing between adjacent gratings (Spp) may be calculated from the following equation:
For intermediate gratings and inlets where there is a uniform, the maximum allowable
spacing between adjacent gratings (Sp) may be calculated from the following equation:
࢓ࣁ
ቀ૜. ૟ × ૚૙૟ ࡽ ૚૙૙ቁ
ࡿࡼ =
ࢃࢋ ࡵ ૟ ࢓ࣁ
ቀ૜. ૟ × ૚૙ ࡽ
૚૙૙ቁ
where where ࡿࡼ =
ࢃࢋ ࡵ
Q = flow rate (m3 /s) 3
Q = flow rate (m /s)
= maintenance factor
݉where
m =ߟ Q =maintenance
=flow collection
flow rate (mfactor
3efficiency (%)
/s)
‫= =݉ ܫ‬design rainfall intensity
factor (mm/hr)
η = flowmaintenance
collection efficiency (%)
Wߟe = =effective catchment width (m)
flow collection efficiency (%)
I =Source:
‫ ܫ‬design
=DMRB rainfall
Volume
design intensity
4, Section
rainfall 2, Part(mm/hr)
intensity 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017).
(mm/hr)
We = Weeffective
= effective catchment
catchment width(m)
width (m)
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017).
Where there is a nonuniform gradient between gullies, the spacings are calculated
(starting with the upstream gully) with the following equation:
Where
Where there is there is a nonuniform
a nonuniform gradientgradient
between between
gullies,gullies, the spacings
the spacings are calculated
are calculated (starting
(starting with the upstream gully) with the following equation:
࢓ ࣁ
with the upstream gully) withቂ૜. ૟the following
× ૚૙ ૟
ቄࡽ െequation:
ࡽ ቀ૚ െ ࢛࢙ ࢛࢙ ቁቅቃ
૚૙૙ ࢛࢙
ࡿࡼ =
ࢃ ࡵ ࢓ ࣁ
ቂ૜. ૟ × ૚૙૟ ቄࡽ െ ࢋࡽ࢛࢙ ቀ૚ െ ࢛࢙ ࢛࢙ ቁቅቃ
ࡿࡼ = ૚૙૙
where
ࢃ ࢋ ࡵ
Q = flow rate (m /s) 3
where ݉where = maintenance factor

ߟ = flow collection3efficiency (%)
Q = ‫ ܫ‬Q flow= flow rate (m /s)
rate rainfall
= design (m3/s) intensity (mm/h)
݉ = maintenance factor
m W = effective
= ߟ maintenance
e catchment width (m)
factorefficiency
= flow collection (%)
η = ‫ܫ‬ = design rainfall intensity
flow collection efficiency (%) (mm/h)
We = effective catchment width (m)
I = design
Calculating
Source: rainfall
Flow
DMRB Rate intensity
Volume (mm/h)
4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017).
We = effective catchment width (m)
The flow rate, Q (in cubic meters per second) approaching the grating is calculated from
Calculating Flow Rate
Manning’s equation:
Calculating Flow Rate
VOLUME PAGE 89
VOLUME PAGE 89

VOLUME 2 PART 10
PART DRAINAGE DRAINAGE
10 VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
૛ ૚
૛
VOLUME 2 PART 10 ቆ࡭ࢌ ࡾ૜ ࡿ ቇ
DRAINAGE ૛ ૚ࡸ
ࡽ =ቆ࡭ࢌ ࡾ૜ ࡿ ቇ (ૢ)
૛
࢔૚ ࡸ
ࡽ = ቆ࡭ ࡾ૛૜ ࡿ૛ ቇ (ૢ)
where where ࢌ ࢔ ࡸ
Af = cross-sectional area ࡽ of=flow (m2૛ ) ૚
2
(ૢ)
Af = whereܵcross-sectional
= longitudinalarea of
gradient flow (m
(fraction) )
࢔
௅ ቆ࡭ࢌ ࡾ2 ૜ ࡿ૛ࡸ ቇ
A R= =cross-sectional
Hydraulic area(m)
radius of flow (m )
SL = fwhere longitudinal gradient ࡽ(fraction)
=coefficient (ૢ)
ܵ௅ ݊= =longitudinal
Manning’sgradient
roughness (fraction) 2࢔
R A f =
= R Source: cross-sectional
=Hydraulic
Hydraulicradius area
4,(m)
radius
DMRB Volume
of flow (m )
(m) 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017)
Section
ܵ௅ = longitudinal gradient (fraction)
= Manning’s roughness coefficient
݊ where
n = RAfManning’s
= Hydraulic roughness (m)ofcoefficient
radiusarea
Source:=DMRB cross-sectional flow3,(m )
2
Volume 4, Section 2, Part HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017)
݊Hydraulic
ܵ = longitudinal gradient (fraction) Area
= Radius
Manning’s and Cross-Sectional
roughness coefficient
௅
Source: DMRB
R Volume
Source:
= DMRB 4, Section
Volume
Hydraulic 2,(m)
Part
4, Section
radius 3, HA102/17
2, Part (Department
3, HA102/17 (Department for for Transport,
Transport, 2017) 2017)
To
݊ calculate
Hydraulic
= Radius the
and
Manning’s hydraulic radius
Cross-Sectional
roughness andArea
coefficient cross-sectional area, the depth of water against
Hydraulic Radius
the curb
Source: and
must
DMRB Cross-Sectional
first
Volume 4,be calculated
Section 2, Part 3, by
Hydraulic Radius and Cross-Sectional Area
Area
using(Department
HA102/17 the equation below: 2017)
for Transport,
To calculate the hydraulic radius and cross-sectional area, the depth of water against
To calculate
the curbthe
musthydraulic radius and
firsthydraulic
be calculated cross-sectional area, the depth of water against the
To calculate
Hydraulic the
Radius and radius by
Cross-Sectional andusing the equation
cross-sectional
Area area, below:
the depth of water against
curb must first be calculated by using ࡴ
the = ࡮ࡿ
equation
the curb must first be calculated by using the equation below: ࢉ below:
To calculate the hydraulic radius and cross-sectional area, the depth of water against
theSource: DMRBfirst
curb must Vol be
4, Section 2, Part
calculated by3,using
HA102/17
ࡴthe
(Department
=equation
࡮ࡿࢉ below:
for Transport, 2017).
TheVol
cross-sectional
ࡴ = ࡮ࡿࢉ by using the equation below:
Source: DMRB 4, Section 2, area canHA102/17
Part 3, then be calculated
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017).
ࡴ = (Department
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 ࡮ࡿࢉ for Transport, 2017).
The Source:
cross-sectional area can then be calculated ࡮ࡴ
byforusing the2017).
equation below:
DMRB Vol 4, Section
The cross-sectional area area
The cross-sectional can can2, Part
then then ࡭(Department
3, HA102/17
ࢌ = by
bebecalculated
calculated byusingTransport,
using thethe equation
equation below:
below:
૛
The cross-sectional area can then be calculated by using the equation below:
࡮ࡴ
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17࡮ࡴ
࡭࡭ࢌࢌ==࡮ࡴ૛૛
This now allows for the calculation࡭of ࢌ =the hydraulic radius by using the equation below:
Source: ૛
Source:DMRB
DMRBVol
Vol4,
4,Section 2, Part
Part 3,
3,HA102/17
HA102/17(Department
(Departmentforfor Transport,
Section 2, Transport, 2017).
2017).
࡭
ࢌ radius by using the equation below:
This
Thisnow
nowallows
allowsfor
for the
the calculation
ࡾ ofof
calculation =thethehydraulic
hydraulicradius by using the equation below:
theࡴ + ξ࡮radius
+ ࡴ ૛ ૛
This nowThis now allows
allows for theforcalculation
the calculationof
of the hydraulic
hydraulic by using
radius by the equation
using the below:
equation below:
ࢌࢌ ࡭࡭
where ࡾࡾ= = ࡭ࢌ
B = maximum allowable ࡾ= flowࡴ ࡴwidth
++ξ࡮ (m)૛૛++ࡴࡴ
ξ࡮ ૛૛
SC = cross fall (fraction) ࡴ + ξ࡮૛ + ࡴ૛
where
whereSource: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017)
where Bwhere
B B ===maximum
maximum allowable
allowable flow
maximum allowable flow
width
flowwidth
width (m)
(m)(m)
S C = cross fall (fraction)
B =
S S = =cross
C maximum allowable flow width (m)
crossfall
C fall(fraction)
(fraction)
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017)
Maximum Allowable
Source:
Source: DMRBVol
DMRB SectionFlow
Vol4,4,Section 2, Width
2,Part
Part3,3,HA102/17
HA102/17(Department for Transport,
(Department 2017) 2017)
for Transport,
SC = cross fall (fraction)
The flow of water parallel to the curb should not exceed an allowable width, as shown
Source: DMRB
on Vol
Maximum 4, Allowable
Figure
Maximum Section
4.4. 2, Flow
Allowable Part Width
Flow 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017)
Width
Maximum Allowable Flow Width
Maximum TheAllowable
The flow
flowof Flow
ofwater
water Width
parallel
parallel to the
to thecurb
curbshould
shouldnot
notexceed
exceed
anan allowable
allowable width,
width, as shown
as shown
The
onflow
on Figureof4.4.
Figure water parallel to the curb should not exceed an allowable width, as shown
4.4.
The flow of water
on Figure 4.4. parallel to the curb should not exceed an allowable width, as shown on
Figure 4.4.
PAGE 90 VOLUME 2
PAGE 90 VOLUME 2
PAGE 90 VOLUME 2
PAGE 90 VOLUME 2

DRAINAGE PART
10
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (UK Department for Transport, 2017).
Figure 4.4 Gully Design Parameters for Intermediate Gully
Ashghal may designate an allowable width of flow. Table 4.1 provides typical values of B.
Table 4.1 Design Hour Volume Widths on Various Road Types (Typical Values of B)
Road Type Flow Width (m) Notes

Expressway, freeway 1.0 Where there is a shoulder, the flow width may be extended
to 1.5 m.
Arterial roads 1.5
Collector roads 2.0
Service roads 2.5
Local roads Half the width of This width of flow is acceptable only where there are low
the total road. volumes of traffic that travel slowly.
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (UK Department for Transport, 2017) and Ashghal
guidance. The final B values should be discussed and agreed with the Overseeing Organization at the initial
phase of the design.
m = meters
The actual value for B should be site-specific and dependent on the speed and volume of
traffic, rainfall intensity, road maintenance, and gradients. The parameters listed in Table 4.2
should also be considered.
Table 4.2 Design Hour Volume Widths for Special Situations (Typical Values of B)
Situation Flow Width (m) Notes

Pedestrian crossings 0.45 A gully should be placed directly upstream from these
or bus stops points to ensure this width is not exceeded.
Curb returns 1.0
Other (e.g. Speed As determined by the As determined by the Overseeing Organization.
Tables) local authority.
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (UK Department for Transport, 2017) and Ashghal
guidance.
m = meter

PART DRAINAGE
10
Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
Manning’s roughness coefficient or Manning’s n value is related to the roughness of a

surface, and different values need to be applied depending on the surface of the road. Table
4.3 provides typical values of n for commonly used surface materials for flow in triangular
channels.
Table 4.3 Typical Values of Manning’s n for Various Surfaces

Surface Type n
Concrete gutter (troweled finish) 0.012
Asphalt pavement texture:
Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.016
Concrete pavement finish:
Float 0.014
Broom 0.016
Brick and pavement blocks 0.016
Gutter with vegetation and cracks 0.020
Sprayed seal 0.018
Sources: Various, including CIRIA (2007) and DMRB.
Maintenance Factor
Reduced maintenance and the accumulation of debris will lower the efficiency of an inlet or
grating as the hydraulic area is reduced. The maintenance factor m is introduced to account
for this effect. The higher the level of maintenance and condition of the road, the closer the
value of m tends to 1.0. Table 4.4 lists suggested values for m.
Table 4.4 Maintenance Factor
Situation Maintenance Factor, m

Well-maintained urban roads 1.0
Roads subject to less frequent maintenance 0.9
Roads subject to substantial leaf falls or vehicle spillages (e.g., at sharp
0.8
roundabouts)
Sag points on road gradients 0.7
Design Rainfall Intensity
The design rainfall intensity should be given in millimeters.
Effective Catchment Width
The effective catchment width of a gully should be given in meters and represent the width
of the area draining to the grating or inlet. All paved and unpaved areas should be included.
Figure 4.5 shows an effective catchment width.

DRAINAGE PART
10
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
Figure 4.5 Effective Catchment Width

Figure 4.5 Effective Catchment Width
Flow Collection Efficiency
Flow Collection Efficiency
Curb Inlets
Curb Inlets
The flow efficiency (as a percent) is calculated by using the equation below:
The flow efficiency (as a percent) is calculated by using the equation below:
.
= −
૜૟..૚ࡽ
ࣁ = ૚૙૙ െ
ࡸ࢏ ࡴ૚.૞
Gully Gratings
Gully Gratings
The flow efficiency (as a percent)
The flow efficiency is calculated
(as a percent) bybyusing
is calculated using the equationbelow:
the equation below:
ࡽ
ࣁ = ૚૙૙ െ ࡳࢊ ൬ ൰
ࡴ
where
where Q = flow rate (m3/s)
Q = Hflow
= rate
water(m3
/s) against curb (m)
depth
Li = length of opening in line of curb provided by the inlet (m)
H = Gwater depth against curb (m)
d = grating parameter (value is determined by grating type)
Li = length of opening in line of curb provided by the inlet (m)
Gd = grating parameter (value is determined by grating type)
If grating efficiency, ɻ, is less than 80 percent for an intermediate gully, the most
Source: DMRB Vol 4, solution
effective Section 2,
is Part
likely3,toHA102/17 (Department
be redesign for Transport,
with an improved grating 2017).
type.
If grating efficiency, η, is less than 80 percent for an intermediate gully, the most effective
solution is likely to be redesign with an improved grating type.
VOLUME PAGE 93

PART DRAINAGE
10 VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
Determining Grating Type

Determining Grating Type
The design value of Gd is based upon the grating type. Table 4.5 lists these values.
The design value of Gd is based upon the grating type. Table 4.5 lists these values.
Table 4.5 Grating Type Design Values
Table 4.5 Grating Type Design Values
Grating Type P Q R S T
Grating Type P Q R S T
Range of G (s/m ) 2
≤30 30.1–45 45.1–60 60.1–80 80.1–110
Range of G (s/m2) чϯϬ 30.1–45 45.1–60 60.1–80 80.1–110
Design value (s/m )
DesignGvalue
d
2
Gd (s/m2) 30 30 45
45 6060 80 80 110 110
s/m2 = seconds per square meter
s/m2 = seconds per square meter
Five grating types were created that have specific hydraulic requirements. The grating
Five grating
types types were created
are in accordance with that have
Spacing specific
of Road hydraulic
Gullies requirements.
(Spaliviero et al., 2000). The grating types
are in accordance with Spacing of Road Gullies (Spaliviero et al., 2000).
The value of G is calculated by using the equation below:
The value of G is calculated by using the equation below:
૟ૢ࡯࢈
ࡳ=
࡭૙.ૠ૞
ࢍ ඥ࢖
where where
C = grating bar pattern coefficient
Cb = b grating bar pattern coefficient
Ag = area of smallest rectangle parallel to the curb that includes all slots (m2)
Ag = ‫ ݌‬area of smallest
= waterway arearectangle parallel
as % of grating tog)the curb that includes all slots (m2)
area (A
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/17 (Department for Transport, 2017 and Spaliviero et
p = waterway area as % of grating area (Ag)
al., 2000).
Table Vol
Source: DMRB 4.6 4,
provides
Sectionthe grating
2, Part bar pattern(Department
3, HA102/17 coefficient. for Transport, 2017 and Spaliviero et al.,
2000).
Table 4.6 Grating Bar Pattern Coefficient
Table 4.6 provides the grating barBarpattern
Grating Pattern coefficient. Cb
Transverse bars 1.75
Table 4.6Other bar
Grating Bar
alignments (i.e.,Pattern Coefficient
longitudinal, diagonal, and bars in curve plan) 1.5
Grating Bar Pattern Cb
Transverse bars Gullies
Terminal 1.75
Other bar alignments (i.e., longitudinal, diagonal, and bars in curve plan) 1.5
Terminal gullies are required at the end of drainage runs or low points. They differ from
Source: DMRB Volume gullies,
intermediate 4, Section 2, Partit3,isHA102/17
because important (UK
for Department fora Transport,
them to have high flow 2000).
collection
efficiency in order to collect a high percentage of the water, and thus prevent the
Terminal Gullies of water interfering with traffic. This is usually done with a double gully.
accumulation
Terminal gullies
Curb inlets are required
are not advisedatforthe
use end of drainage
as terminal runs or
gullies unless usedlow points. They
in conjunction withdiffer
a from
intermediate
grating.gullies, because
Figure 4.6 should beit isused
important for them
to determine whichto have
side of aasag
high flow
point willcollection
provide theefficiency
in ordergreater flow. (If using a single terminal gully, the flow should be doubled.) Figure 4.6
to collect a high percentage of the water, and thus prevent the accumulation of
should also be used to determine the flow collection efficiency ɻ͕ (for a terminal gully to
water interfering
be effective,with traffic.
each gully to beThis
usedisshould
usually done
have with
a value of ɻaшϵϱ
double
%). gully.
Curb inlets are not advised for use as terminal gullies unless used in conjunction with a
grating. Figure 4.6 should be used to determine which side of a sag point
PAGE 94
will provide the
VOLUME 2
greater flow. (If using a single terminal gully, the flow should be doubled.) Figure 4.6 should
also be used to determine the flow collection efficiency η, (for a terminal gully to be effective,
each gully to be used should have a value of η ≥ 95 %).

DRAINAGE PART
10
Figure 4.6 Terminal Gully Design Parameters
If the grating efficiency of a terminal grating is less than 95 %, redesign is essential and
an improved grating type should be used. If the required efficiency is still not achieved,
then the permitted width of flow (B) should be reduced. This will decrease the design hour
volume approaching the grating and increase the grating efficiency. However, it may result
in additional intermediate gullies being needed.
4.2.3.2 Design of Surface Water Capture on Flat or Shallow Gradients

The process described in the previous sections is suitable only within the limitations
described. Designers may be faced with scenarios that fall outside these limitations. The
design outlined here is a guide to gully spacing along roads that are level or nearly level.
This section is based on the design approach set out in Drainage of Level or Nearly Level
Roads (Whiffin and Young, 1973). This report should be referred to for any queries extending
beyond the scope of this section. This study was carried out using the parameters listed in
Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Limiting Parameters to Equation for Design of Level or Nearly Level
Roads
Parameter Minimum Maximum

Road width (m) 5.43 14.00
Crossfall (%) 0.5 5.0
Longitudinal gradient (%) 0.00 0.50
Rainfall intensities (mm/hr) 38.1 57.0
Maximum width of flow along the edge of road curb (m) 0.5 3.0
Source: LR 602 (Transport Research Laboratory, 1973).
m = meters
mm/hr = millimeters per hour
If this approach is used beyond these parameters, it cannot be guaranteed to provide a

suitable design and the designer may need to consult a highway research organization for
further design considerations and assistance.

PART DRAINAGE
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
10
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
૜ ૠ
ࡺ૜ ૝ ૛૜ ࡮ࡺ૝ ࢅZ
ࡶ = ૞૝૞ ቆ ቇ ࡯૚૟ ቎૚ + ૠ቏
ࡵࢃ
૜
(ࡵࢃ)ૡ
ૠ
ࡺ૜ ૝ ૛૜ ࡮ࡺ૝ ࢅZ
where where ࡶ = ૞૝૞ ቆ ቇ ࡯૚૟ ቎૚ +
ࡵࢃ ૠ቏
J = outlet spacing (m)
J = outlet
N =spacing (m)flow width (m)
maximum
(ࡵࢃ) ૡ
I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

N = maximum
where
W flow width
= roadway (m) (m)
and shoulder
J = outlet spacing (m)
C =intensity
crossfall (%)
I = rainfall
N = maximum(mm/hr)
flow width (m)
Y = longitudinal gradient (%)
W = IZ == rainfall
roadway index intensity (mm/hr)
and shoulder
depending (m)
on crossfall
W = roadway
B = coefficient and shoulderon
depending (m)crossfall
C = crossfall
C = (%) crossfall (%)
Y = longitudinal gradient (%)
Y = longitudinal
TheZ index, gradient
depending
= index on(%)
depending crossfall, can be found using the values in Table 4.8.
on crossfall
ω = index depending on crossfall crossfall
B = coefficient depending on
B = Z = ૛. ૜૛ െ ૙. ૚࡯
coefficient depending on crossfall
The index, depending on crossfall, can be found using the values in Table 4.8.
The index, depending on(Transport
Source: LR 602 crossfall, can Laboratory,
Research be found using the values in Table 4.8.
1973).
Table 4.8 Z
Values for Index Z = ૛. ૜૛ െ ૙. ૚࡯
Source: LRCrossfall
Source: LR 602 (Transport Research
602 %, C Laboratory,
(Transport Coefficient,
1973).
Research Laboratory, 1973). B Index, Z
0.5 117 2.26
Table 4.8 Values
1.0 for Index Z 190 2.19
Table 4.8 ValuesCrossfall
for1.5
Index
%, C ω
265
Coefficient, B
2.125
Index, Z
2.0 326 2.06
0.5 117 2.26
Crossfall %, C 2.5 Coefficient,380 B Index, ω
1.995
1.0 190 2.19
3.0 416 1.93
0.5 1.5 117265 2.125 2.26
3.5 448 1.80
1.0 2.0 190326448
2.06 2.19
1.67
4.0
1.5 2.5
5.0 265380395
1.995
1.54 2.125
3.0 416 1.93
2.0 326
Source: LR 602 (Transport Research Laboratory, 1973)
448 1.80
2.06
3.5
2.5 4.0 380448 1.67 1.995
4.2.3.3 Linear
3.0 Drainage Design 416395 1.54 1.93
5.0
InSource:
places, highway geometry may be such1973) that the longitudinal gradient of the roadway
3.5 LR 602 (Transport Research Laboratory,
448 1.80
provides minimal or no longitudinal fall, and a linear drainage system may be required.
4.0 systems can be provided in many
These 448 forms; the most common is a combined 1.67 curb
4.2.3.3 Linear Drainage Design
5.0
drainage unit, where a series of holes or395a continuous grating is used as the 1.54
inlet.
In places, highway geometry may be such that the longitudinal gradient of the roadway
Source: LR 602 provides
(Transport Research
minimal or noLaboratory,
longitudinal1973)
fall, and a linear drainage system may be required.
Although linear drainage can be a useful solution to overcoming flat or nearly flat
These systems can be provided in many forms; the most common is a combined curb
longitudinal gradients, a higher frequency of maintenance can be required to retain the
drainage unit, where a series of holes or a continuous grating is used as the inlet.
4.2.3.3 Linear Drainage Design conditions and to ensure the units operate as designed.
self-cleansing
Although linear drainage can be a useful solution to overcoming flat or nearly flat
In places, highway geometry
This design process ismay
basedbeonsuch thatCapacity
Hydraulic the longitudinal gradient
of Drainage Channels withofLateral
the roadway
longitudinal gradients, a higher frequency of maintenance can be required to retain the
Inflowor(Escarameia
provides minimal no et al., 2001).
longitudinal fall, and a linear drainage system may be required. These
self-cleansing conditions and to ensure the units operate as designed.
systems can be provided in many forms; the most common is a combined curb drainage unit,
PAGE This design process is based on Hydraulic Capacity of Drainage Channels with Lateral2
where a 96
series of holes or a continuous grating is used as the inlet. VOLUME
Inflow (Escarameia et al., 2001).
Although linear drainage can be a useful solution to overcoming flat or nearly flat longitudinal
PAGE 96 VOLUME 2
gradients, a higher frequency of maintenance can be required to retain the self-cleansing
conditions and to ensure the units operate as designed.
This design process is based on Hydraulic Capacity of Drainage Channels with Lateral Inflow
(Escarameia et al., 2001).

VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE PART
10
VOLUME 2 PART 10
૚.૛૞ ૙.ૠ
ࡸ DRAINAGE
ࡽ = ૛. ૟૟࡭ ൬૟. ૠ૝ࡿ + ૙. ૝ + ࢈൰
ࢎ
where where
Q = hydraulic capacity (m3/s) ࡸ
= L =hydraulic capacity
ࡽ (m /s)
3
Q channel length (m) = ૛. ૟૟࡭૚.૛૞ ൬૟. ૠ૝ࡿ૙.ૠ + ૙. ૝ + ࢈൰
L = A =channel
channellength
cross-sectional
(m) area (m2) ࢎ
h = design depth of water (m)
A where cross-sectional area (m2)
= S =channel
longitudinal slope (expressed as a fraction) with
Q = hydraulic capacity (m3/s)
h = design
L = depth
channeloflength
water(m)(m) ૚
A =࢈channel
= ૙, ૚૜૛ࡿ area (m2)for
െ ૙, ૙૙૙૛૛
cross-sectional ૛૙૙
ࡿ൑
S = longitudinal slope (expressed as a fraction) with
h = design depth of water (m)
S = longitudinal slope (expressed
૚ as a fraction)
૚ with
࢈ = ૙, ૙૙૙૝૝ for <ࡿ൑
૛૙૙ ૜૙ ૚
࢈ = ૙, ૚૜૛ࡿ െ ૙, ૙૙૙૛૛ for ࡿ ൑
૛૙૙
Source: H Escarameia et al., 2001.
૚ ૚
࢈ = ૙, ૙૙૙૝૝ for <ࡿ൑
૛૙૙ ૜૙
Drainage of Medians, Pedestrian Paths, and Shoulders
4.2.4.1 Medians
4.2.4 The of
Drainage median of a road
Medians, system is the middleand
areaShoulders
of the road, which is usually paved or
Drainage ofPedestrian Paths,
Medians, Pedestrian Paths, and Shoulders
landscaped in urban areas. These areas need to be within curbing to contain soil and to
4.2.4.1 have a crossfall
Medians
4.2.4.1 Medians to direct runoff to the drainage system.
The median of a road system is the middle area of the road, which is usually paved or
The median
4.2.4.2 of aPaths
Pedestrian road system is the middle area of the road, which is usually paved or
landscapedand Bike Lanes
in urban areas. These areas need to be within curbing to contain soil and to
landscaped inhave
urban
Pedestrian areas.
paths and bike
a crossfall These
to areas
lanes
direct need
are usually
runoff topaved
be within
to the drainage areas curbing
adjacent to
system. to contain soil and
the roadway in to have
urbantoareas.
a crossfall These
direct should
runoff to be designed
the to have
drainage a 2 % crossfall toward the roadway. The
system.
crossfallPedestrian
4.2.4.2 will directPaths
runoff onto
and the
Bike roadway where it will enter the drainage system.
Lanes
Pedestrian paths and bike lanes are usually paved areas adjacent to the roadway in
4.2.4.2 Pedestrian Paths and Bike Lanes
Ownersurban
of adjacent properties
areas. These should must be advised
be designed to haveit ais2 %
their responsibility
crossfall toward thetoroadway.
preventThe
runoffpaths
Pedestrian from their
crossfall properties
andwill direct
bike from
runoff
lanes flowing
onto
are across
the roadway
usually paved pedestrian
where
areas paths
it will enterand
adjacent tobike
the thelanes.
drainage Such in urban
system.
roadway
flows should be directed into collector channels and then to the surface water system.
areas. These Owners
should of beadjacent
designed to havemust
properties a 2be % advised
crossfall toward
it is the roadway.
theirtoresponsibility The crossfall
Large parking areas or forecourt areas of petrol stations need have oil andtopetrol
prevent
will direct runoff
interceptors onto
runoff from
and the
their
grit roadway
properties
traps where
from
that filter it before
flowing
runoff willacross
enter the drainage
pedestrian
discharging topaths system.
and bike system.
the drainage lanes. Such
flows should be directed into collector channels and then to the surface water system.
Owners
4.2.4.3
Large parking
of adjacent
Shoulders
areas ormust
properties forecourt areas of petrol
be advised stations
it is their need to have oil
responsibility toand petrol runoff
prevent
interceptors and grit traps that filter runoff before discharging to the drainage system.
from their properties
Shoulders fromlandscaping
with hard flowing across pedestrian
shall be sloped to paths and bike
shed water lanes.
toward the Such flows should
roadway.
Soft
be directed landscaping
into shall be edged and sloped to prevent runoff from depositing
collector channels and then to the surface water system. Large parking soil and
4.2.4.3 Shoulders
plant debris onto the adjacent pedestrian areas or property thresholds. Areas with
areas or forecourt
raised plantingareas
Shoulders ofhard
with
that have petrol stations
landscaping
drain holes need
shall to have
be sloped
shall incorporate oil membrane
to shed
a filter and petrol
water
tointerceptors
toward
prevent soil and grit
the roadway.
Soft landscaping shall be edged and sloped to prevent runoff from depositing soil and
traps that filter
erosion runoff
onto before
adjacent areas.discharging to the drainage system.
plant debris onto the adjacent pedestrian areas or property thresholds. Areas with
raised planting that have drain holes shall incorporate a filter membrane to prevent soil
4.2.4.3 Emergency
Shoulders erosionFlood Areas areas.
onto adjacent
EFAs are areas of land either external to the roadway or, where space is available,
Shoulders with
within the hard landscaping
highway
Emergency curtilage shall
that
Flood Areas are be sloped
used torainwater
to store shed water toward
that has the roadway.
surcharged the Soft
landscaping shall
EFAs be
areedged and
areas of sloped
land eitherto prevent
external to runoff fromor,
the roadway depositing
where spacesoilisand plant debris
available,
within the highway curtilage that are used to store rainwater that has
onto the adjacent pedestrian areas or property thresholds. Areas with raised planting surcharged the that
have drain holes shall incorporate a filter membrane to prevent soil erosion
VOLUME PAGEonto
97 adjacent
areas.
VOLUME PAGE 97
4.2.5 Emergency Flood Areas

EFAs are areas of land either external to the roadway or, where space is available,
within the highway curtilage that are used to store rainwater that has surcharged

PART DRAINAGE
10
the normal drainage system. Hence, they are an ideal solution to the problem of
surcharged systems in extreme rainfall events; that is, outside the normal design
criteria. These areas can also be used to catch and store water from the external
catchment area to the roadway to prevent flooding of road areas and damage to
properties. The following are design considerations required for large storage areas:
• Water should not be allowed to pond for extended periods to cause a health hazard.
Days rather than weeks are considered acceptable.
• Water should be stored where it can be easily pumped by a tanker or temporary pumping
station.
• Borehole soakaways should be used to aid discharge to the groundwater table, where
investigation has shown this is achievable.
• A permanent surface water pumping station and rising main may be required to direct
flows to the trunk sewer system.
• Where there is a gravity connection to the main surface water system, some form
of control mechanism is required. Vortex flow control mechanisms are recommended
because they provide a constant discharge flow rate under variable head conditions and
have no moving parts that would create maintenance issues.
To make the best use of land in developed areas, it is normal practice to design EFAs as
sports fields, parks, playing fields, or car parks. EFAs that are not landscaped or used for other
purposes tend to collect rubbish and become unsightly. Section 3.6.9 provides information
on storage basins used in sustainable drainage systems.
EFAs should be considered as potential drowning and disease hazards. Where possible, they
should be shallow and spread over a large area, which helps evaporation and dissipation and
presents a less deep water hazard. Side slopes should be gentle to allow easy exit. Marker
posts should be located around the rim to identify deeper areas during heavy flooding.
Before designing EFAs, the prevailing groundwater table should be ascertained to ensure
the excavation does not allow standing water to accumulate. Soakaways or boreholes can
be constructed in the base of the EFA to dissipate water. Discharging runoff water to lower
aquifers is subject to approval by the MME.
4.2.6 Retention of Stormwater
4.2.6.1 Minimizing or Elimination Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes lay eggs on fresh or stagnant water, although some species can lay eggs on
damp soil and salt water tides. In usual conditions, it typically takes 2 days for larvae to hatch
and 10 days to develop into an airborne adult.
Standing Water
To minimize the presence of mosquitoes, constructed temporary sources of surface water

shall not be left to stand for longer than 48 hours. This includes, but is not limited to,

DRAINAGE PART
10
subsurface storage, temporary wetlands, detention basins, conveyance swales, wet swales,
and rainwater harvesters.
Water Conveyance
Water conveyance systems must be designed to minimize the potential for allowing
mosquitoes to hatch. Conveyance structure gradients must be such that water is not allowed
to stand for more than 48 hours. Routine maintenance should occur to ensure that the
gradient is maintained throughout the life of the structure. Conveyance structures should
be designed to ensure that any unintended scour does not create depressions that may hold
standing water.
Access
Sealed manhole covers should be used where possible to prevent mosquitoes from accessing
below-ground structures. This is especially important in places where a sump or basin may
be used, because these are ideal areas for mosquitoes to lay eggs.
Where the sump or basin is sealed, it is important to remember that female mosquitoes can
fly through pipes. Therefore, where it is possible, the inlet and outlet should be submerged
to avoid infestation.
Where possible, belowground sumps should be designed to be dewatered automatically.
Inspections
Drainage systems must be kept clear of debris and vegetation. Channels, gutters, ditches,
and drainage facilities should be inspected regularly to ensure they remain clear. Inspections
should also be carried out to ensure there is no standing water or mosquitoes. Maintenance
access be considered during the design.
4.3 Design in Rural Areas

The designer of highway drainage needs to consider the following:
• Precipitation in hardened areas of the road and reservation areas
• Drainage flows from the full drainage catchment area
• Potential erosion due to the velocity of the flowing water
Surface water runoff from rural roads is normally achieved by dispersion to road shoulders.
4.3.1 Rural Catchments

The highway drainage for rural roads does not normally require the storage of runoff water
during high-intensity rainfall events, as is required in urban situations. The general principle
is to allow runoff to flow from the road areas to the shoulder areas and into natural drainage
paths. However, rural catchments can cover large areas and generate large areas of surface
water during high-intensity storms. The highway drainage designer needs to ensure that
overland flooding does not impede traffic flow. It may be appropriate to install culverts

PART DRAINAGE
10
under rural roads to link natural drainage paths. The designer shall assess the flow paths to
consider if the identified design velocities have the potential to erode the proposed profile.
The designer should consider protection to embankments, footings, and abutments to avoid
washouts. Inlet and discharge locations should also be carefully detailed to mitigate against
potential erosion.
• Velocities greater than 1.5 m/s will need stone protection.
• Velocities greater than 2.0 m/s will need grouted rip rap.
• Velocities greater than 2.5 m/s will need gabian mattress protection.
• Velocities greater than 3.0 m/s will need concrete protection.
4.3.2 Drainage of the Roadway

Drainage of rural roadways amounts to basic vertical alignment of finished road levels,
allowing runoff to drain to natural shoulder areas. There are two requirements for this
provision:
• Transverse gradients of 2 percent are provided as normal for draining the road.
• Longitudinal gradients are not considered for drainage purposes on uncurbed roads.
However, care must be taken during the design of superelevated sections to avoid flat
zones in the roadway.
For rural roads where surface water could damage embankments, curbing and positive
drainage may be required.
4.3.3 Drainage of Medians and Shoulders
4.3.3.1 Medians
Medians in rural areas will normally be open land with no paving. They should slope
away from the roadway so that soil will not erode onto the roadway. Where runoff is
collected from long sections of gradient, median outlets should be provided at wadi
and valley points to prevent ponding and flooding onto the roadway. Alternatively,
the median may be divided into individual catchment segments and surface water
allowed to percolate into the ground or evaporate. Median ditches, if required, should
have a maximum side slope of 1:6 and be designed such that water in the ditch
cannot percolate into the roadbed (see Figure 4.7).

DRAINAGE PART
10
Figure 4.7 Typical Median Ditch Cross Section
4.3.3.2 Shoulders and Ditches

Shoulders adjacent to rural roads are sloped to direct surface water away from the roadway.
At the back of the shoulder, a shallow ditch may be provided to collect and transport roadway
runoff and to catch minor area runoff for discharge to natural drainage paths along the road.
The highway drainage designer shall ensure that ditches are located such that surface water
is introduced into the pavement construction. Normal practice is to provide a ditch at the
edge of the roadway with an invert 0.3 m below roadway formation.
Rural ditches generally will be unlined. The shape depends on highway safety issues and the
following hydraulic considerations:
• Contributing catchment area

• Appropriate storm duration
• Gradient
• Roughness coefficient of the lining and surface
Figure 4.8 gives permissible depths of flow for unlined channels. Shallow side ditches
normally are not graded to provide a fall but instead follow the road profile.
Ditch slopes should not present a significant hazard to vehicles that leave the road during
a crash. Slide slopes of 1:6 or shallower should suffice. In areas of steep cutting, ditches
should be located so they are not filled with loose debris from the cutting. In areas where
natural surface runoff is high, it may be necessary to install a ditch setback from the top of
the cuttings so rainfall does not damage the cutting face.

PART DRAINAGE
10
Figure 4.8 Permissible Depths of Flows for Unlined Channels
4.3.4 Natural Surface Drainage

Where a highway crosses a wadi, the wadi catchment characteristics, design storm, and the
class of the road will determine the type of road crossing required. It is normal practice to
allow runoff from small catchments to cross under the road to minimize disruption to the
natural surface flow.
4.3.4.1 Culverts
A culvert is a covered channel or pipeline used to convey a watercourse under the road.
Culverts consist of an inlet, one or more barrels, and an outlet.
Typically, culvert barrels will be constructed from concrete or steel pipes or boxes. Inlets and
outlets may be constructed with gabions, mattresses, stone pitching, or concrete.
The hydraulic characteristics of a culvert are complex because of the number of flow
conditions that can occur. The highway engineer shall consult specialist literature in
the design of culverts and choose the most appropriate culvert for the specific purpose,
considering the following general constraints:
• Preferred minimum pipe culvert diameter of 900 mm.
• Minimum pipe culvert diameter 600 mm.

DRAINAGE PART
10
• Flooding against embankments may be acceptable for the short term, depending on the
embankment protection. Freeboard to the edge of the roadway for the design storm
should be a minimum of 0.5 m.
• Embankment slopes of 1:6 or greater normally do not require protection against washout
due to short-term ponding. Long-term ponding may require embankment slopes of 1:10
if and where deemed acceptable.
The engineer shall balance embankment height with culvert height to provide a satisfactory
technical and economic solution.
Consideration should be given that these culverts could have a dual purpose and be used as
camel underpasses for instance.
4.3.4.2 Fords
Culverts may be impractical where wadi flows are exceptionally high or where the road
requires a low storm design return period and is lightly trafficked. In these cases, a dry ford
or vented dry ford may be considered. In designing a dry ford, care must be exercised to
ensure driver awareness of the potential hazard. Guideposts should be positioned adjacent
to the roadway to assist traffic positioning, and advance signing should indicate the dry ford
to approaching drivers. The use of such design solutions is highly discouraged and is only
envisaged in very rare circumstances.
Specific attention must be given to minimizing scour and preventing roadway surfacing
and edge loss. Impervious layers or rock should be used to protect shoulders, medians, and
embankment slopes. Washout of embankment fines should be prevented using filter layers
or impermeable membranes.
4.4 Intersection Drainage

4.4.1 Consideration for Drainage at Intersections
Effective drainage of intersections is necessary for two reasons:
• The need to retain surface grip to enable the safe stopping, starting, and turning
maneuvers by vehicles.
• The need to maintain the traffic system capacity, particularly at major intersections, so
that flooding of lanes and a reduction in intersection capacity are avoided.
The following criteria must be considered:
• Satisfactory transverse gradients must be maintained, particularly on the approach to

stop or yield lines.
• Longitudinal gradients must keep slack sections of channel to a minimum.

PART DRAINAGE
10
• Where slack gradients are unavoidable, the transverse gradient should be at least 2 %.
• Collection points must be carefully sited to avoid ponding or runoff across roadways
from one channel to another.
• Collection points must link to an easily maintainable disposal system with adequate
capacity.
Junctions should preferably be situated away from valley points for large catchments to
prevent flood concentration at these points. Locating intersections adjacent to trunk sewers
or EFAs to provide additional drainage facilities should also be considered.
Urban intersections should always be curbed and drained by gullies that discharge to the
disposal system.
Rural intersections would normally be curbed. However, flush curbs at collection points
with shallow lined channels to remove the water to the adjacent ground is an economical
collection and disposal method.
Lightweight glass-reinforced concrete embankment channels are easily installed to prevent

washout of embankment slopes where runoff collects, such as at curb ends.
Roadway crossfalls and longitudinal gradients at intersections channel water to collection

points. The following sections describe examples of satisfactory crossfall layouts with
typical collection points.
4.4.2 T-Intersections
The following features are required for effective drainage design at T-intersections (see
Figure 4.9):
• Constant crossfall maintained on major road

• Longitudinal gradient on major road maintained across minor road throat
• Longitudinal gradient maintained on minor road to major road channel line
• Constant transverse gradient on minor road maintained to radius tangent points
• Gully positions chosen to prevent flow crossing the minor road entry or exit
It is preferred that the major roadway transverse gradients be maintained through cross
roads or small signalized intersections.

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Figure 4.9 Typical Drainage at T-Intersections
4.4.2.1 Large Signalized Intersections

The following features are required for effective drainage design at large signalized
intersections (see Figure 4.10):
• Transverse gradients will be maintained at approaches to “stop” lines and pedestrian

crossings.
• Longitudinal gradients will be satisfactory to prevent a large flat area being created at
the intersection point.
• Transverse gradients will be on right-turn slips to provide superelevation.
• Valleys created in slips will have adequate collection and disposal points.
• Additional gullies will be placed at collection points serving a large surface area.
• Gully positions will be chosen to prevent flow crossing roadways.

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Figure 4.10 Drainage at a Large Signalized Intersection
4.4.3 Roundabouts
The following features are required for effective drainage of roundabouts (see Figure 4.11):
• Transverse gradients maintained at approaches to yield lines
• Longitudinal gradients to continue to be maintained on approaches and departures
• Channel of central island to fall to one collection point
• Transverse gradients to provide superelevation for right turners or those circulating
• Gullies positioned to prevent cross roadway runoff

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Figure 4.11 Roundabout Drainage
4.4.4 At-Grade Intersections

Various features are required for effective design of at-grade intersections, depending on
the angle of convergence of the side road, or slip ramp, to the main roadway. Such features
include:
• Constant crossfall maintained on major road

• Longitudinal gradient on major road maintained across minor road interface line
• Longitudinal gradient maintained on minor road to major road channel line
• Constant transverse gradient on minor road maintained to radius tangent points
• Gully positions chosen to prevent flow crossing the minor road entry or exit
4.4.5 Interchanges
Interchanges will involve combinations of roads on embankments, on bridges, in cuttings, or
within retaining structures. Drainage systems will change to accommodate changing road
layouts and circumstances. Within loops there may be extensive open areas that can be used
for locating suitable sustainable drainage systems. Roads in cuttings may require stormwater
pumping stations located adjacent to roadways, provided with suitable lay-bys for access by
maintenance personnel. Depending on the steepness of the side slope, drainage from roads

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on embankments may need collection channels at the roadway edges leading to channels
down the slopes, with energy dissipation features to prevent erosion of the embankment.
Roadways on bridges require drainage using channels and down-pipes to the lower levels.
4.4.6 Drainage Design of Highway Tunnels and Underpasses

Drainage of highway tunnels and underpasses designs should consider the following:
• Drainage collection systems shall contain spills of hazardous or flammable liquids and
prevent flame propagation.
• The minimum design hour volume rate shall include the design spill rate for fuel or other
hazardous liquids, the stand pipe system discharge rate, rainfall, tunnel washing, and
fixed firefighting systems.
• Where possible, stormwater collection ahead of tunnels or underpasses shall incorporate

grated channels rather than gullies.
• Tunnel and underpass drainage should be design for a 1-in-50-year storm protection
event.
4.4.7 Highway Tunnels and Underpasses Drainage Monitoring

Tunnels and underpasses should be designed so that flooding events can be monitored.
Refer to Tunnel and Underpass Drainage (Ashghal, 2013). The designs need to have the
capacity to be standalone if the centralised ICT system is not in place.
4.4.8 Storm Attenuation Tanks and Pumping Stations

For the 1-in-50-year storm design event, stormwater must be captured in an attenuation
tank for 24 hours. That period can be reduced to 2 hours if the tunnel can be closed and
traffic is diverted. The stored water should be conveyed by a submersible pumping station,
which is an integral part of the attenuation structure.
There should be adequate safe access and off-street parking for maintenance of the pumping
station. Refer to Tunnel and Underpass Drainage (Ashghal, 2013) for further details.
The designs of any drainage systems for tunnels and underpasses should have the capacity
for future connections to a centralized control room for monitoring water levels and alarms.
4.5 Maintenance Strategies

All drainage systems require planned and reactive maintenance to perform efficiently. The
following sections outline the required steps to develop an effective maintenance strategy
that considers planned and reactive maintenance requirements.
4.5.1 Planned Maintenance

Planned maintenance for highway drainage considers activities that will ensure the drainage
system is operating when it is needed. In the State of Qatar, rains are infrequent and usually

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not severe. However, the highway designer needs to consider worst-case events. One
major maintenance problem is sand in the drainage system. Catch pits and vertical vortex
spinners should be employed to remove grit from the highway drainage system (see Figure
4.12). Maintenance activities should be increased before the onset of the rainy period, from
October to May. Catch pits and pipe systems should be desilted to ensure the free passage
of disposable water.
Figure 4.12 Typical Vortex Grit Remover
4.5.2 Reactive Maintenance

Reactive maintenance involves nonplanned activities, which are usually associated with
blockages in highway drainage systems. To help maintain a balanced budget, it is important
to minimize this type of activity. Some reactive maintenance will always be necessary,
especially during the rainy season, from October to May. Other forms of pollution control,
such as SmartSponge® or Inolet®, can help reduce reactive maintenance activities.
Asset Affairs department of Ashghal is the responsible authority for the maintenance of
drainage systems including networks, pumping stations, EFAs, and storage areas.
4.6 Subsurface Drainage

4.6.1 Introduction
Subsurface drainage historically was not an issue in the State of Qatar, because it was not
considered a problem. Low-lying areas were filled prior to construction to raise them above
the groundwater table. With the rapid urbanization in Qatar in recent years, groundwater
levels have been rising significantly. Groundwater studies (Schlumberger Water Services,
2009) indicate that, because of the nature of the subsoil conditions, there are many areas in
Doha where columns of groundwater are near the ground level.

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4.6.2 Groundwater Control

The Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH, 2013) has developed a drainage strategy
to reduce groundwater levels and to recycle the collected water. In Doha, dewatering and
overpumping are necessary, particularly where there are construction works. Overpumped
water, which is basically groundwater, is discharged to an approved discharge location.
MWH’s concept is to lower the groundwater to 4 m below existing ground levels. In a typical
road construction project, deep porous land drainage would be installed, and groundwater
would be piped to a suitable deep storage tank. The tank would drain by gravity flow to a
deep intercept tunnel or be pumped to a wetland area for treatment. The treatment process
would remove salt and treat to a standard that allows the water to be used for irrigation.
The control strategy developed by MWH has yet to be implemented, and interim strategies,
such as deep well boreholes, may have to be considered until a groundwater/surface water
system is implemented.
4.6.3 Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage allows the removal of water that permeates the pavement layers and
controls groundwater levels where it is high enough to adversely affect the design life of
the pavement.
Subsurface drainage can take many forms. Typically, it consists of longitudinal drains at
the low edges of the road pavement. These drain the pavement layers and foundation and
control the ingress of water from road shoulders. Adequate drainage of these layers and
of formations and subformations can be achieved by shaping each to direct flows to the
subsurface drainage in the shoulder or median and to prevent the creation of low points
where water could collect.
There are five primary types of subsurface drainage: fin drains, narrow filter drains, filter
drains (essentially a large narrow filter drain), combined carrier filter drains, and drainage
blankets. This section focuses on the first four types.
The design of drainage blankets should be undertaken in close consultation with a

geotechnical engineer, and approval should be sought from the Overseeing Organization.
It is likely that drainage blankets will be required in locations that have high groundwater
levels or are in deep cuttings, or both.
The following measures are key factors in developing the design of subsurface drainage:
• Slope the formation to drain away from the roadway to the shoulder or median.
• Avoid steps in the formation that could create water concentration points.
• Separate planting areas from the pavement construction to prevent moisture transfer.
• Ensure planting area watering is effectively controlled to prevent overwatering.
• Use surface water drainage features that reduce the chance of accidental damage and
maintenance problems.
• Ensure soakaways do not introduce water to the pavement construction.

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4.6.4 Subsurface Drainage Methods
4.6.4.1 General Design Considerations

To develop suitable subsurface drainage, it is essential to understand ground conditions
by undertaking thorough ground investigations. If ground conditions are not established to
inform the design, the road structure could fail before the design life is reached. It is likely
that corrective actions will be costlier, because full reconstruction would be required.
Groundwater levels vary over time in relation to rainfall, underlying strata permeability,
gravity, capillary action, and proximity to the coast. The buildup of water in the pavement
layers, formation, and subformation will increase pore water pressure and can result in the
pavement being weakened by:
• Washout of fines by movement of pore water.
• Increased salt content in pavement layers, resulting in swelling because of the capillary
rise when there is a significant concentration of salt in the underlying material.
• Swelling of susceptible material followed by shrinkage or drying out.
Pavement engineers will base their calculations on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values for
the subgrade. These values will be affected by any increase in groundwater levels. Where
groundwater is allowed to rise unchecked by subsurface drainage, the bearing capacity of
the formation and subformation will be diminished.
4.6.4.2 Considerations for Fin Drains and Narrow Filter Drains

Fin drains and narrow filter drains should be installed at a minimum depth determined by the
nominal pipe diameter plus 50 mm to invert beneath the subformation level, or 600 mm to
invert below the formation level. If no capping layer is present, drains should be installed to
the greater of the two depths. If groundwater is within 300 mm of the subformation level,
the minimum depths will be insufficient, and the fin or narrow filter drain should be installed
at a greater depth. A geotechnical engineer should be consulted regarding the design depth
of the drainage. Where large quantities of groundwater are encountered, a filter drain is
likely to provide a better solution than the fin or narrow filter drain options.
Because the topography of the State of Qatar typically is gently undulating, a further
consideration is to ensure that subsurface drainage can discharge from all low points to a
suitable outfall.
4.6.4.3 Considerations for Combined Carrier Filter Drains

It is normal practice to separate surface water drainage from subsurface drainage to prevent
large volumes of water from entering the road foundation and pavement layers. When this
approach is not feasible, such as in cuttings, an alternative approach of using combined
carrier filter drains is acceptable. The use of combined filter drains offers several of benefits:

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• Removal of groundwater to a greater depth than possible using fin or narrow filter drains
due to their comparatively large hydraulic capacity.
• Simpler construction than laying both a carrier drain and fin or narrow filter drains.
• Easier access for inspection and maintenance than is possible with either fin and narrow
filter drains.
Combined carrier filter drains should consist of half-perforated or slotted pipes laid with their
perforations or slots face up, with sealed joints to minimize water loss through the trench
base. The base of the trench should be lined with an impermeable membrane up to the pipe
soffit to reduce water loss to the soil below, which is likely to be dry otherwise. The trench
is backfilled with permeable material wrapped in a geotextile to prevent the ingress of fines.
As previously noted, it is best practice to separate surface and subsurface drainages because
of potential problems in performance with the combined approach. Issues with stone scatter,
pavement failure, earthworks failure, and maintenance problems have occurred where the
combined approach has been adopted. However, these issues can be mitigated by appropriate
maintenance of the system and by implementing the following design measures to control
stone scatter:
• Either spraying the exposed filter medium with bitumen or using bitumen-bonded filter
material for the top 200 mm of the trench
• Using geogrids to reinforce the top layer of filter medium
• Using lightweight aggregate for filter material in the top 200 mm of the trench
Another concern with the combined approach is the required attenuation at the downstream
end of the system to meet discharge rate constraints. The attenuation can result in
surcharging of the surface water drainage network, and surcharging of the carrier pipe can
cause backflow into the filter medium. Therefore, where combined systems are proposed,
the designer must demonstrate that downstream flow controls will not surcharge the carrier
pipe.
4.6.4.4 Social Considerations for Coastal Areas

In tidal coastal areas, sabkha is likely to be present as an indication of a high groundwater
table. In these situations, a capillary rise of up to 1.0 m can draw saline water up to the
road formation level, depositing salt lenses and increasing pore pressure. This generally is
prevented by:
• Constructing high embankments

• Installing a granular capillary break layer below the formation

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References
Ashghal. Qatar Sewerage and Drainage Design Manual. Public Works Authority. Drainage Affairs. Doha
Qatar. December 2006.
Ashghal. Tunnel and Underpass Drainage. Interim Advice Note No. 023. Rev. No. A1. September 2013.
Asquith, W. H. and Famiglietti, J. S., Precipitation areal reduction factor estimation using an annual-maxima
centered approach. J. Hydrol., 230, 55–69. 2000.
Bell, The Areal Reduction Factor in Rainfall Frequency Estimation, F.C. Bell, Report no. 35, December
1976.
Butler, D. and W. John. Urban Drainage. Second edition. 2004.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). SuDS Manual. Report number C753.
Errata 2015.
Department for Communities and Local Government. Technical Guidance to the National Planning Policy
Framework. London, UK. March 2012.
Department for Transport. “Spacing of Road Gullies.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume
4, Section 2, Part 3, HA 102/17. UK Highways Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/
standards/dmrb/vol4/section2/ha10200.pdf. November 2000.
Department for Transport. “Road Drainage and the Water Environment.” Design Manual for Roads &
Bridges. Volume 11, Section 3, Part 10, Chapter 8, HD 45/09. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol11/section3/hd4509.pdf. 2009.
Dwyer, I. J. and D. W. Reed. Allowance for Discretization in Hydrological and Environmental Risk Estimation.
Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK. 1995.
Escarameia, M., Y. Gasowski, R. W. P. May, and A. Lo Cascio. Hydraulic Capacity of Drainage Channels with
Lateral Inflow. Report SR581. HR Wallingford. 2001.
Kass, M., Witkin, A. and Terzopoulos, D. Snakes: Active Contour Models, International Journal of Computer
Vision, 321-331, 1988.
Mamoon A. A., N. J. Joergensen, A. Rahman, and H. Qasem. “Estimation of Design Rainfall in Arid Region: A
Case Study for Qatar Using L Moments.” Proceedings of the 35th IAHR World Congress. 2013.
Ashghal. Qatar Construction Specifications (QCS). Qatar Public Works Authority. 2014.
Department. 1997.

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Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME). Qatar Rainfall and RunoffCharacteristics. 2018.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Study of Regional Design Rainfall, Qatar. April 2013.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Multi-Use of Stormwater Management facilities –
Guidelines. March 2014.
MWH Consultants (MWH). Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan, Volume 1. Document No. QAT/
D110001/13/019/01). Prepared on behalf of Ashghal. May 2013.
National Highway Institute. Urban Drainage Design Manual. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22,
Third Edition. Publication No. FHWA-NHI-10-009. U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Highway
Administration. Revised August 2013.
Ponce, V. M. and R. H. Hawkins. “Runoff Curve Number: Has It Reached Maturity?” Journal of Hydrologic
Engineering 1, No. 1, pp. 11–19. 1996.
Rossmiller, R. L. “The Rational Formula Revisited.” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Urban
Storm Runoff, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. 1980.
Schlumberger Water Services. Studying and Developing the Natural and Artificial Recharge of the
Groundwater Aquifer in the State of Qatar. Project final report, in three volumes. 2009.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS). National Engineering Handbook. Section 4, Hydrology. U.S. Department of
Agriculture. Washington, D.C. 1985.
Spaliviero, F., R. W. P. May, and M. Escarameia. Spacing of Road Gullies hydraulic performance of BS EN 124
gully gratings and kerb inlets. Report SR533. HR Wallingford. 2000.
Transport Research Laboratory. Drainage of level of nearly level roads. Laboratory Report LR 602.
Wokingham, UK. 1973.
Wang, Q.J. LH moments for statistical analysis of extreme events. Water Resources Research, 33(12)
2841-2848. 1997.
Wastewater Planning Users Group. Code of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer Systems.
Version 3.001. Amended December 2002.
Whiffin, A. C. and C. P. Young. Drainage of Level or Nearly Level Roads. TRRL Report LR 602. 1973.

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Appendix A
Qatar Stakeholders

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Appendix A—Qatar Stakeholders
Authorities, Regulatory Bodies, Stakeholders, and Consultations
The permit and approvals process in Qatar requires the involvement of governing bodies and utility and
regulatory bodies. The Municipal and Departmental Bodies include, but are not limited to:
Ministry of Municipalities and Environment (MME)

• Qatar Municipalities
• Qatar 2022 Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy —responsible for oversight for all projects
required to be delivered for or affecting the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup
Utilities and Regulatory Bodies

• Kahramaa (KM)—Qatar General Electricity & Water Company
• Ashghal (Public Works Authority) —Highways and Stormwater drainage
• Qatar Telecom—Qtel
• Qatar Petroleum (QP)—Oil pipelines and infrastructure
• Qatar Armed Forces (QAF)—including telecommunications infrastructure
• Private Engineering Office (PEO)—responsible for the projects associated with the Royal Family
• Qatar Museum—Heritage
• Mowasalat—Public transportation
• Qatar Rail
Key Stakeholders
• Civil Defence Department (CDD)
• Lusail Real Estate Development Company—Lusail LRT; Lusail Marina/The Pearl Station
• Hamad Hospital & Supreme Council of Health (Al Rayyan/C-Ring Station)
• Ministry of Interior (MOI)
• Qatar Foundation (QF)—Education City
• United Development Company (UDC)—Lusail Marina/The Pearl Station
• Qatar Sustainable Assessment System (QSAS)—an external body that does not require permitting

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−−

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Appendix B
Intensity-Duration-
Frequency Design Curves

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Appendix B1— Intensity-Duration-Frequency Design Curves
The intensity-Duration-Frequency design curves are provided with linear scale and double logarithmic
scale. The linearly scaled graphs are used for rainfall with short duration (below 2 hours) and up to 100
year ARI. The logarithmic scaled graphs are used for longer durations (up to 3 days) and up to 2000 year
ARI.
Doha

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Northern Region

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Central West Region

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Central East Region

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Southern Region

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Appendix B2— Intensity-Duration-Frequency Design Curves for Future

Climatic Conditions (2070-2100)
Doha

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Northern Region

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Central Western Region

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Central Eastern Region

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Southern Region

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Appendix C
Level Pool Routing
Technique

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Appendix C—Level Pool Routing Technique
Storage is a function of inflow minus outflow over time, as outlined in the equation below; the level pool
routing technique can be used to calculate the volume of storage required where a model is inappropriate:
− + +
=( = − )= −
∆
where
S = storage
Vi = inflow volume
Vo = outfall volume
S1,I1,O1 = storage, inflow, and outfall at the start of a time step
S2,I2,O2 = storage, inflow, and outfall at the end of a time step
∆t = time step
Source: Butler and John, 2004
When using this method, an outlet control, such as a weir or orifice, must be assumed so that the
relationship between the outflow discharge and height in the storage can be identified.
An appropriate time step must be determined over a defined period so that the storage can be more
accurately determined.
The inflow volume into the storage area can be determined by multiplying the runoff flow (calculated
using guidance provided in Section 3.3.9) and the time step duration. The outfall volume will need to be
calculated by the discharge rate multiplied by the time step duration.

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Appendix D
Example calculations

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Design examples
Example 1: Small catchment (less than 50 ha)
An urban catchment in Doha, planned with mixed land-use with infrastructure development with a planned
30 year lifetime. The catchment is indicated in Figure A5-1 and has the following attributes:
• Catchment size = 400,000 m2 or 40 Ha

• Nominal catchment slope (S) = 5%
• Length of the catchment = 1000 m
• Width of the catchment = 400 m
The catchment has the following planned land-use distribution:
• Residential with detached houses (20%)

• Landscaping (20%)
• Asphaltic road pavement (20%)
• Light industrial areas (40%)
An arterial expressway is planned in the middle of the catchment. For an arterial road the average
recurrence interval is T=10 years.
Doha is located in the Central Eastern region of Qatar, hence; the rainfall intensity is computed according
to this region.
Figure A5.1: Small Doha catchment with different land-use characteristics

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Step 1: Calculate time of concentration
The catchment is sloping along the highway, and the length from the furthest point on the catchment to
the collection point is 1000 m. The time of concentration can be computed, based on Kirpich’s equation
(proposed by QHDM, 2015):
tc = time of concentration
= (Kirpich’s equation)
k = 1.0 (combined surfaces)
L = Length of catchment [m] = 1000 m
S = = 0.05 (slope)
tc = =1*0.0078*( )0.77/0.050.385
= 12.59 minutes
Step 2: Calculate the average rainfall intensity
The rainfall intensity is derived by Equation 12-13:
The l1 value vary, depending on the location of the catchment. The average annual maximum daily rainfall
for the Central Eastern Region is indicated under Table 12-5 and the value is 0.9503 mm/hr (for 24 hour
rainfall). So all parameters in Eq. 12-13 is given as:
l1 = 0.9503 mm/hr (annual average maximum rainfall 24 hours for Central Eastern Region)
αD = 1.151 (discretization factor for Qatar), see Eq. 9-2.
T = 10 years (Average Recurrence Interval),
t = tc = 12.59 minutes (Time of Concentration)

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Rainfall intensity for the Central Eastern Region is given by Eq 12-13 with the given parameters as:
Step 3: Calculate combined runoff coefficient
Calculation of combined runoff coefficient for four (4) sub catchment types:
Where,
Ai = Sub-catchment Area(Ha)
Ci = Sub-catchment Runoff coefficient
The sub-catchment types and runoff coefficients are indicated in Table A5.1:
Table A5.1 The distribution of sub-catchments and runoff coefficients.
Type Area [ha] Run-off coefficient

Residential with detached houses 8 0.30
Landscaping 8 0.05
Asphalt paved road 8 0.95
Light industry 16 0.70
Total/Combined Runoff Coeff 40 0.54
Combined Runoff Coeff =

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Step 4: Calculate runoff discharge
In Qatar, significant urban expansion is taking place at a rate that is likely to continue for the near future.
Resilience is built in to offset the effects of urban creep. Urban creep is the phenomenon by which
developments are constructed and then, at a later date, additional impermeable area is added to that
area, thus increasing surface water runoff.
QHDM, 2015 indicate the urban creep effect as 20% added rainfall intensity (for 25-year design life)
Design Discharge, Q = CIA m3/s (Rational Formula)
C (Run-off Coefficient) = 0.54
Rainfall intensity, i(10, 12.59) = 66.91 mm/hr
Adjusted intensity for urban creep = 1.2*66.91 mm/hr = 80.29 mm/hr
Q =
= 4.82 m³/s
1.1.1 Large catchments (larger than 50 ha)
The Runoff Curve Number Method should be applied for larger catchments exceeding 50 ha and typically
in connection with modeling. Most software packages include hydrological modeling capabilities based on
the Runoff Curve Number Method.
The runoff curve number (CN), also known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve Number Method,
is based on an area’s hydrologic group, land use, treatment, and hydrologic conditions.
CN is used to compute the runoff generated after accounting for the infiltration losses, per Eq. 6-4 of the
National Engineering Handbook (SCS, 1985), where CN represents a convenient representation of the
potential maximum soil retention, S (Ponce and Hawkins, 1996):
Eq. 6-4

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where
Q = runoff generated (mm)
P = total precipitation (mm)
Ia = initial abstraction (mm) or infiltration or rainfall interception by vegetation, Ia = 0.2 * S
CN = curve number can be obtained from Table

6 708D0C9EA79F9BACE118C8200AA004BA90B02000000080000000E0000005
Examples illustrating the use of the curve number method is shown under Appendix XXX.
The examples for the curve number method are simplified examples. Modelling is recommended for larger
catchments.

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Table 6-8 Curve numbers for the landuse description applicable to Qatar
Cover Description
Curve Number for
Land Use Impervious Hydrologic Soil Group
Description Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition Areas (%) A B C D
Commercial Urban districts: commercial and business 85 89 92 94 95
High density Residential districts by average lot size: 1/8 acre = 0.05
65 77 85 90 92
residential hectare or less
Industrial Urban district: industrial 72 81 88 91 93
Low density Residential districts by average lot size: 1/2acre = 0.2
25 54 70 80 85
residential hectare lot
Open space (lawns, parks, golf courses, cemeteries), fair

Open spaces 18 49 69 79 84
condition (grass cover 50 to 70%)
Parking and Impervious areas (e.g., paved parking lots, roofs, and
100 98 98 98 98
paved areas driveways; excluding right-of-way)
Residential Residential districts by average lot size: 1/8 acre = 0.05

65 77 85 90 92
1/8 acre hectare or less
38 61 75 83 87
1/4 acre hectare
30 57 72 81 86
1/3 acre hectare
25 54 70 80 85
1/2 acre hectare
Residential 1 Residential districts by average lot size: 1 acre = 0.4
20 51 68 79 84
acre hectare
Residential 2 Residential districts by average lot size: 2 acre = 0.8
12 46 65 77 82
acres hectare
Note: Description and Curve Numbers from TR-55.
Hydrological soil groups A, B, C, and D are made based on the runoff generated on these soil types.
Soils in Group A have low runoff potential, and soils in Group B have a moderate rate of infiltration when
thoroughly wet. Group C has a slow rate of infiltration when wet, and soils in Group D have high runoff
potential.
1.1.2 Composite catchments (larger than 50ha)
Larger catchments may be composed of different surface and soil conditions. In this case, the weighted
curve number can be derived for the catchment using Eq. 6-5 below:
Eq. 6-5

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Where Where Ai is the area for surface type i, ATot is the total area, CNi is the curve number for surface type
and soil type i and CNw is the weighted curve number.
Example 3: Large catchment (> 50 ha)
In this example a catchment is 2500 ha. The catchment exceeds 50 ha; hence, the runoff is determined
based on the curve number method.
It is recommended to use a modelling tool for larger catchments and split the large catchment into smaller
sub-catchments. However, this example illustrates the use of the curve number method.
It is assumed the area can be split between five different sub-catchments with different landuse
descriptions and hydrological soil groups as indicated in table A5.2 below:
Table A5.2 Overview of catchment, landuse descriptions, soil groups and derived
curve numbers (reference TR-55)
Catchment id Area [ha] Landuse description Hydrological Soil CN

Group
S1 800 Urban and A 89
Commercial
S2 700 Industrial A 81
S3 200 Impervious B 98
S4 500 Dense residential (1/8 C 90
acre per lot)
S5 300 Light residential (1 acre C 79
per lot)
2500 Weighted CN 86.5
The weighted curve number is computed as:
Where
CNi is the curve number of the ith sub-catchment
Ai is the area of the sub-catchment
ATot is the total area of the catchment

PART DRAINAGE
10
The length of the catchment is 5916 m and the width is 4226 m. The most distant route is assumed to be
6000 m. The slope of the catchment is 1/200.
Fig. A.5.2 Example of large catchment in Northern Region with the size 2500 ha.
Kirpich formula is not recommended for larger catchments. Accordingly, other methods to compute time of
concentration should be applied. As an alternative, the Manning formula is applied; with the assumption,
the flow depth is 0.15 m (the maximum allowed, according to QHDM, 2015). The runoff is flowing along
the road network with an average road width of 20 m. The roughness of the asphalt has a Manning
coefficient of 80 m1/3/s. Based on the above assumptions the velocity is given as:
With the longest distance being 6000 m, the time of concentration yields:
The drainage is built along an arterial road, hence the design criteria of 10 years ARI applied. The location
is in the Al Ruwais, belonging to the northern quadrant. The corresponding rainfall intensity for a 10-year
ARI rain event can be computed as:

DRAINAGE PART
10
The design life for the road is 25 years so the urban creep factor is 1.2, hence the adjusted rainfall
intensity is:
i(10,59.52)=1.20 • 29.50 mm/hr = 35.40 mm/hr
The rain depth can be computed as the duration of the rainfall (1 hour) for the most critical rain, multiplied
by the rainfall intensity of 35.40 mm/hr, so the rain depth derives P=35.40 mm/hr • (59.52/60) hr = 35.12
mm.
Initially we compute the surface storage as:
Assuming the initial abstraction is given as:
Ia = 0.2S
Then we compute Q:
The volume received in the event is:

PART DRAINAGE
10
Normally estimates of peak discharge is required for the design. A simple approach is using a triangular
runoff curve as indicated in the drawing below:
Fig. A.5.3 Triangular approach.
In this approach, the peak discharge is given as:
where
tp is the time to peak flow
tr is the recession time for the flow to cease from the peak flow.
Commonly, tp = 1.1tc and the recession time, tr = 1.67tp. In this case the base of the triangle is tp + tr = 1.1•
tc + 1.67 • 1.1 • tc = 2.937 tc. So expressed in terms of tc:
There are alternative formulas to compute the peak flow such as the NRCS graphical methods. However,
for large catchments it is better to use modelling tools for precise estimations of the runoff.
Beware that for very large catchments, effects, such as areal reduction factors should be accounted for.
Please refer to Section 18 for a more detailed description of areal reduction factors.

DRAINAGE PART
10
Appendix E
Isohyetal Maps

PART DRAINAGE
10

DRAINAGE PART
10
Appendix E—Isohyetal Maps

PART DRAINAGE
10

DRAINAGE PART
10

PART DRAINAGE
10

DRAINAGE PART
10

PART DRAINAGE
10

DRAINAGE PART
10
Appendix F
Intensity Duration
Frequency relations for
sensitive infrastructure

158
10
PART
APPENDIX F IDF relations for sensitive infrastructure for the four regions (regional definition refers to
Figure 3.4)
Northern
Current condition Future condition (2100)
DRAINAGE
Region
Intensity
Duration (min) Duration (min)
(mm/h)
ARI (year) 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320
2 54.91 43.44 30.97 24.26 14.99 8.74 4.92 3.48 1.91 1.04 0.65 0.47 77.22 61.08 43.55 34.12 21.08 12.29 6.92 4.90 2.69 1.47 0.92 0.66
5 85.08 67.30 47.99 37.59 23.22 13.54 7.63 5.40 2.96 1.62 1.03 0.72 112.60 89.07 63.51 49.75 30.74 17.92 10.09 7.15 3.92 2.14 1.36 0.96

10 107.89 85.35 60.86 47.67 29.45 17.17 9.67 6.85 3.76 2.05 1.31 0.92 144.60 114.39 81.56 63.90 39.47 23.01 12.96 9.18 5.04 2.75 1.76 1.23
20 130.71 103.40 73.73 57.76 35.68 20.80 11.72 8.30 4.55 2.48 1.60 1.11 180.13 142.49 101.60 79.59 49.17 28.67 16.15 11.43 6.27 3.42 2.20 1.53
25 138.06 109.21 77.87 61.00 37.69 21.97 12.38 8.76 4.81 2.62 1.69 1.17 192.20 152.04 108.41 84.93 52.46 30.59 17.23 12.20 6.70 3.65 2.35 1.63
50 160.88 127.26 90.74 71.09 43.91 25.60 14.42 10.21 5.60 3.06 1.97 1.36 230.90 182.65 130.24 102.03 63.03 36.75 20.70 14.65 8.04 4.38 2.83 1.96
100 183.70 145.31 103.61 81.17 50.14 29.24 16.47 11.66 6.40 3.49 2.25 1.56 270.77 214.19 152.72 119.64 73.91 43.09 24.27 17.18 9.43 5.14 3.32 2.30
150 194.60 158.45 109.80 85.12 52.75 31.47 18.28 13.18 7.44 4.14 2.35 1.63 311.35 253.51 175.67 136.19 84.40 50.35 29.25 21.09 11.90 6.63 3.76 2.61
200 205.47 167.30 115.93 89.88 55.70 33.23 19.31 13.92 7.86 4.38 2.48 1.72 328.75 267.68 185.49 143.80 89.12 53.17 30.89 22.27 12.57 7.00 3.97 2.75
500 239.21 194.77 134.97 104.64 64.85 38.69 22.48 16.21 9.15 5.10 2.89 2.00 382.74 311.64 215.95 167.42 103.75 61.90 35.96 25.93 14.63 8.15 4.63 3.20
750 255.20 207.79 143.99 111.63 69.18 41.27 23.98 17.29 9.76 5.44 3.08 2.14 408.32 332.46 230.38 178.61 110.69 66.04 38.36 27.66 15.61 8.70 4.94 3.42
1000 267.05 217.44 150.68 116.81 72.39 43.19 25.09 18.09 10.21 5.69 3.23 2.24 427.28 347.90 241.08 186.90 115.83 69.10 40.15 28.95 16.34 9.10 5.16 3.58
1500 284.58 231.71 160.57 124.48 77.14 46.02 26.74 19.28 10.88 6.06 3.44 2.38 455.33 370.74 256.91 199.17 123.43 73.64 42.78 30.85 17.41 9.70 5.50 3.81
2000 297.61 242.32 167.92 130.18 80.68 48.13 27.96 20.16 11.38 6.34 3.60 2.49 476.18 387.72 268.67 208.29 129.08 77.01 44.74 32.26 18.21 10.14 5.76 3.99
CW Region Current condition Future condition (2100)
Intensity
(mm/h)
ARI (year) 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320
2 50.85 40.23 28.68 22.47 13.88 8.09 4.56 3.23 1.77 0.97 0.61 0.43 71.51 56.57 40.34 31.60 19.52 11.38 6.41 4.54 2.49 1.36 0.86 0.61
5 78.79 62.32 44.44 34.81 21.51 12.54 7.06 5.00 2.74 1.50 0.96 0.67 104.28 82.49 58.82 46.08 28.46 16.60 9.35 6.62 3.63 1.98 1.27 0.89
10 99.92 79.04 56.36 44.15 27.28 15.90 8.96 6.34 3.48 1.90 1.23 0.85 133.92 105.93 75.54 59.17 36.56 21.31 12.00 8.50 4.66 2.54 1.64 1.14
20 121.05 95.76 68.28 53.49 33.04 19.27 10.85 7.68 4.22 2.30 1.49 1.03 166.82 131.96 94.10 73.71 45.54 26.55 14.95 10.59 5.81 3.17 2.05 1.42
25 127.86 101.14 72.12 56.50 34.90 20.35 11.46 8.11 4.45 2.43 1.57 1.09 178.00 140.80 100.40 78.65 48.59 28.33 15.96 11.30 6.20 3.38 2.19 1.52
50 148.99 117.86 84.04 65.83 40.67 23.71 13.36 9.46 5.19 2.83 1.84 1.27 213.84 169.16 120.62 94.49 58.37 34.03 19.17 13.57 7.45 4.06 2.64 1.82
100 170.12 134.57 95.96 75.17 46.44 27.08 15.25 10.80 5.93 3.23 2.10 1.45 250.76 198.36 141.44 110.80 68.45 39.91 22.48 15.91 8.73 4.76 3.10 2.14
150 180.22 146.74 101.68 78.83 48.85 29.15 16.93 12.21 6.89 3.84 2.20 1.52 288.35 234.78 162.69 126.13 78.17 46.63 27.09 19.53 11.03 6.14 3.51 2.42
200 190.29 154.94 107.37 83.24 51.58 30.77 17.88 12.89 7.28 4.05 2.32 1.60 304.46 247.90 171.78 133.18 82.53 49.24 28.61 20.63 11.64 6.49 3.71 2.56
500 221.54 180.38 125.00 96.91 60.05 35.83 20.81 15.01 8.47 4.72 2.70 1.86 354.46 288.61 200.00 155.05 96.09 57.33 33.30 24.01 13.55 7.55 4.32 2.98
750 236.34 192.44 133.35 103.38 64.07 38.22 22.21 16.01 9.04 5.03 2.88 1.99 378.15 307.90 213.36 165.41 102.51 61.16 35.53 25.62 14.46 8.05 4.61 3.18
1000 247.32 201.37 139.54 108.18 67.04 40.00 23.24 16.75 9.46 5.27 3.01 2.08 395.71 322.20 223.27 173.09 107.27 64.00 37.18 26.81 15.13 8.43 4.82 3.33
1500 263.55 214.59 148.70 115.28 71.44 42.62 24.76 17.85 10.08 5.61 3.21 2.22 421.68 343.34 237.92 184.45 114.31 68.20 39.62 28.57 16.12 8.98 5.14 3.55
2000 275.62 224.42 155.51 120.56 74.72 44.58 25.90 18.67 10.54 5.87 3.36 2.32 440.99 359.07 248.82 192.90 119.55 71.32 41.43 29.87 16.86 9.39 5.37 3.71
CE Region Current condition Future condition (2100)
Intensity
(mm/h)
ARI (year) 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320
2 47.77 37.79 26.95 21.11 13.04 7.60 4.28 3.03 1.66 0.91 0.58 0.41 67.18 53.14 37.89 29.69 18.34 10.69 6.02 4.26 2.34 1.28 0.81 0.57
5 74.02 58.55 41.75 32.71 20.20 11.78 6.63 4.70 2.58 1.41 0.91 0.63 97.96 77.49 55.26 43.29 26.74 15.59 8.78 6.22 3.41 1.86 1.20 0.84
10 93.87 74.25 52.95 41.48 25.62 14.94 8.41 5.96 3.27 1.78 1.15 0.80 125.81 99.52 70.96 55.59 34.34 20.02 11.28 7.98 4.38 2.39 1.55 1.07
20 113.72 89.96 64.14 50.25 31.04 18.10 10.19 7.22 3.96 2.16 1.40 0.97 156.72 123.97 88.40 69.25 42.78 24.94 14.05 9.95 5.46 2.98 1.93 1.34
25 120.11 95.01 67.75 53.07 32.79 19.12 10.77 7.62 4.18 2.28 1.48 1.02 167.22 132.28 94.32 73.89 45.64 26.61 14.99 10.61 5.82 3.18 2.07 1.42
50 139.97 110.72 78.95 61.85 38.21 22.28 12.55 8.88 4.88 2.66 1.73 1.19 200.89 158.91 113.31 88.77 54.84 31.97 18.01 12.75 7.00 3.82 2.49 1.71
100 159.82 126.42 90.15 70.62 43.63 25.44 14.33 10.14 5.57 3.04 1.98 1.36 235.57 186.35 132.87 104.09 64.30 37.49 21.12 14.95 8.21 4.47 2.92 2.01
150 169.30 137.85 95.53 74.06 45.90 27.38 15.91 11.47 6.47 3.61 2.07 1.42 270.88 220.56 152.84 118.49 73.43 43.81 25.45 18.35 10.36 5.77 3.31 2.28
200 178.76 145.55 100.86 78.20 48.46 28.91 16.80 12.11 6.84 3.81 2.19 1.50 286.02 232.89 161.38 125.11 77.54 46.26 26.87 19.38 10.94 6.09 3.50 2.40
500 208.12 169.46 117.43 91.04 56.42 33.66 19.55 14.10 7.96 4.43 2.54 1.75 332.99 271.13 187.88 145.66 90.27 53.85 31.29 22.56 12.73 7.09 4.07 2.80
750 222.03 180.78 125.27 97.12 60.19 35.91 20.86 15.04 8.49 4.73 2.71 1.87 355.25 289.25 200.44 155.39 96.30 57.45 33.38 24.07 13.58 7.57 4.34 2.99
1000 232.34 189.18 131.09 101.63 62.98 37.58 21.83 15.74 8.88 4.95 2.84 1.95 371.74 302.68 209.75 162.61 100.77 60.12 34.93 25.18 14.21 7.92 4.54 3.13
1500 247.59 201.59 139.70 108.30 67.12 40.04 23.26 16.77 9.47 5.27 3.03 2.08 396.14 322.55 223.52 173.28 107.39 64.07 37.22 26.84 15.15 8.44 4.84 3.33
2000 258.93 210.83 146.09 113.26 70.19 41.88 24.33 17.54 9.90 5.52 3.17 2.18 414.29 337.32 233.75 181.22 112.31 67.00 38.92 28.07 15.84 8.82 5.07 3.48
Southern
Current condition Future condition (2100)
Region
Intensity
(mm/h)
ARI (year) 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320 5 10 20 30 60 120 240 360 720 1440 2880 4320
2 44.48 35.18 25.09 19.65 12.14 7.08 3.99 2.82 1.55 0.84 0.54 0.38 62.55 49.48 35.28 27.64 17.07 9.95 5.61 3.97 2.18 1.19 0.75 0.53
5 68.91 54.51 38.87 30.45 18.81 10.97 6.18 4.37 2.40 1.31 0.84 0.58 91.21 72.15 51.44 40.30 24.90 14.52 8.18 5.79 3.18 1.73 1.11 0.77
10 87.40 69.13 49.30 38.62 23.86 13.91 7.83 5.55 3.04 1.66 1.07 0.74 117.13 92.66 66.07 51.76 31.97 18.64 10.50 7.43 4.08 2.22 1.44 0.99
20 105.88 83.75 59.72 46.78 28.90 16.85 9.49 6.72 3.69 2.01 1.31 0.90 145.91 115.42 82.30 64.47 39.83 23.22 13.08 9.26 5.08 2.77 1.80 1.24
25 111.83 88.46 63.08 49.41 30.53 17.80 10.02 7.10 3.90 2.12 1.38 0.95 155.68 123.15 87.81 68.79 42.50 24.78 13.96 9.88 5.42 2.96 1.92 1.32
50 130.31 103.08 73.50 57.58 35.57 20.74 11.68 8.27 4.54 2.47 1.61 1.10 187.04 147.95 105.50 82.64 51.05 29.77 16.77 11.87 6.52 3.55 2.31 1.58
DRAINAGE
100 148.80 117.70 83.93 65.75 40.62 23.68 13.34 9.44 5.18 2.83 1.84 1.26 219.33 173.49 123.71 96.91 59.87 34.91 19.66 13.92 7.64 4.17 2.72 1.86

10
PART
159
160
10
PART
150 157.63 128.34 88.94 68.95 42.73 25.49 14.81 10.68 6.03 3.36 1.93 1.32 252.20 205.35 142.30 110.32 68.37 40.79 23.70 17.08 9.64 5.37 3.08 2.11
200 166.43 135.52 93.91 72.80 45.12 26.92 15.64 11.27 6.36 3.55 2.03 1.39 266.29 216.82 150.25 116.48 72.19 43.07 25.02 18.04 10.18 5.67 3.25 2.23
500 193.77 157.77 109.33 84.76 52.53 31.34 18.21 13.13 7.41 4.13 2.37 1.62 310.03 252.43 174.93 135.61 84.04 50.14 29.13 21.00 11.85 6.60 3.79 2.59
750 206.72 168.31 116.63 90.42 56.04 33.43 19.42 14.00 7.90 4.40 2.52 1.73 330.74 269.30 186.62 144.67 89.66 53.49 31.08 22.41 12.65 7.04 4.04 2.77
DRAINAGE
1000 216.32 176.13 122.05 94.62 58.64 34.98 20.32 14.65 8.27 4.61 2.64 1.81 346.10 281.81 195.28 151.39 93.82 55.97 32.52 23.45 13.23 7.37 4.23 2.89
1500 230.51 187.69 130.06 100.83 62.49 37.28 21.66 15.62 8.81 4.91 2.82 1.93 368.82 300.31 208.10 161.33 99.98 59.65 34.65 24.99 14.10 7.86 4.50 3.08
2000 241.07 196.29 136.02 105.45 65.35 38.99 22.65 16.33 9.22 5.13 2.94 2.02 385.71 314.06 217.63 168.72 104.56 62.38 36.24 26.13 14.75 8.22 4.71 3.22

Volume 2
Part 11
Utilities
UTILITIES PART
11
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART UTILITIES
11

UTILITIES PART
11
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1.General............................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Key Design Stages and Responsibilities............................................................................................. 1
1.3. Overall Management of Utilities and Utility Corridors.................................................................. 2
1.3.1.Objectives....................................................................................................................................2
1.3.2. Background Information........................................................................................................3
1.3.3. Utility Vision Based on Global Best Practices...............................................................4
1.4. Information Sources.................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5. Environmental, Health, and Safety........................................................................................................ 5
2 Key Reference Documents and Manuals......................................................................8
3 Consultation and Approvals: No Objection Certificates.......................................... 11

3.1. Service Utility Providers Consultation.............................................................................................. 11
3.2. Design Phase Stages............................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.1. Stage 1: Project Initiation..................................................................................................12
3.2.2. Stage 2: Concept Design....................................................................................................13
3.2.3. Stage 3: Preliminary Design..............................................................................................14
3.2.4. Stage 4: Final Design...........................................................................................................14
3.2.5. Stage 5: Construction..........................................................................................................15
3.3. Authorities, Regulatory Bodies, and Stakeholders...................................................................... 15
3.4. Conflict Resolution Process.................................................................................................................. 15
3.4.1. Service Authority’s Role.....................................................................................................15
3.4.2. Ministry of Municipality and Environment Role as Impartial
Adjudicator...............................................................................................................................16
3.5. Design Standards...................................................................................................................................... 18
3.6. Planning Role.............................................................................................................................................. 18
4 Project Initiation – Data Acquisition........................................................................... 20

4.1. Data Responsibilities............................................................................................................................... 20
4.2. Obtaining Utility Data and Service Drawings................................................................................. 20
4.3. Project Boundaries................................................................................................................................... 20
4.4. Validation of Received Asset Data..................................................................................................... 21
4.5. Discrepancy Reporting............................................................................................................................ 21
5 Concept Design............................................................................................................. 22
5.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 22

PART UTILITIES
11
5.2.Deliverables................................................................................................................................................. 22
5.3. Project Definition...................................................................................................................................... 23
5.4. New Developments.................................................................................................................................. 24
5.5. Classification of the Road...................................................................................................................... 24
5.6. Country-wide Utility Transmission Corridors................................................................................. 24
5.7. General Principles of Providing a Utility Corridor......................................................................... 26
5.8. Establishing Present and Future Utility Requirements............................................................. 26
5.9. Prioritization and Optimization of Utilities..................................................................................... 26
5.10. Utility Impact Assessment.................................................................................................................... 27
5.11. Basic Utility Corridor Development.................................................................................................... 30
5.12. General Utility Corridor Width Considerations............................................................................... 30
5.13. Utility Corridor Design Guidelines...................................................................................................... 33
5.14. Road Utility Corridor Placement Considerations........................................................................... 36
5.14.1. Establishing Proposed Road Widths Horizontal Considerations.........................36
5.14.2. Proposed Vertical Utility Layout Considerations......................................................37
5.14.3. Routing of Utility Corridors at intersections and Junctions..................................39
5.14.4. Corridor Configuration.........................................................................................................39
5.14.5. Proposed Intersection Utility Layout Considerations.............................................40
5.15. Dealing with Utility Congestion in Narrow Corridors.................................................................. 44
5.15.1. Ministry of Municipality and Environment Standard Highway and
Utility Sections.......................................................................................................................44
5.15.2.Telecommunications.............................................................................................................45
5.15.3. Combined Trenches..............................................................................................................45
5.15.4. Stacking Utilities....................................................................................................................46
5.15.5. Electrical Utility Corridors..................................................................................................47
5.15.6. Electrical Duct Bank System.............................................................................................48
5.15.7. Utility Gallery..........................................................................................................................48
5.15.8. Utility Tunnels........................................................................................................................51
5.15.9. Deep Sewers and Metro Tunnels....................................................................................53
5.15.10. Impact on Utility Corridors for Railway Stations, Tunnels and
Structures.................................................................................................................................54
5.16. Urban Integration...................................................................................................................................... 55
5.17. Street Furniture, Landscaping, and Other Considerations........................................................ 56
5.18. Land Acquisition........................................................................................................................................ 58
5.18.1.Easements................................................................................................................................59
5.19. Buffer Areas................................................................................................................................................ 60
5.20. Utilities in Private Developments....................................................................................................... 60
5.21. Temporary Construction of Utility Corridors................................................................................... 60
5.22. Operation and Maintenance Considerations................................................................................... 60

UTILITIES PART
11
6 Preliminary Design....................................................................................................... 61
6.1.Deliverables................................................................................................................................................. 61
6.2. Service Connections................................................................................................................................. 61
6.2.1. Existing Service Connections...........................................................................................61
6.2.2. Future Connections and Empty Plots............................................................................61
6.3. Location and Design Considerations for Electrical and Telecom Chambers and
Draw Pits..................................................................................................................................................... 62
7 Detailed Design Deliverables..................................................................................... 63
References............................................................................................................................... 65
Table
Table 3.1. Service Authorities and Regulatory Bodies..........................................................................................17
Figures
Figure 1.1. Key Stakeholders and Approval Authorities at Each Design Stage................................................2
Figure 3.1. Stage 1: Project Initiation—Request for Information Notice of the NOC
Process................................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 3.2. Stage 2: Concept Design of the NOC Process......................................................................................13
Figure 3.3. Stage 3: Preliminary Design of the NOC Process...............................................................................14
Figure 3.4. Stage 4: Final Design of the NOC Process.............................................................................................14
Figure 5.1. Qatar Utility Corridors....................................................................................................................................25
Figure 5.2. Utility Impact Assessment (Urban)..........................................................................................................28
Figure 5.3. Utility Impact Assessment (Rural)............................................................................................................29
Figure 5.4. Color-coded Legend for Combined Service Drawings.......................................................................32
Figure 5.5. Color-coded Combined Services for a Straight Section of Road...................................................33
Figure 5.6. Designing Utility Corridors..........................................................................................................................35
Figure 5.7. Utility Corridor Placement...........................................................................................................................38
Figure 5.8. Color-coded Combined Services for a Simple TJunction...................................................................40
Figure 5.9. Typical Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major
Collector Intersection....................................................................................................................................41
Figure 5.10. Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major
Collector Roundabout....................................................................................................................................42
Figure 5.11. Overlapping Utility Corridors......................................................................................................................45

PART UTILITIES
11
Figure 5.12. Typical Combined Trenches.........................................................................................................................46

Figure 5.13. Example of Stacked Pressure Mains for Treated Sewage Effluent.............................................47
Figure 5.14. Dry Cable Stacking..........................................................................................................................................48
Figure 5.15. Typical Electrical Gallery...............................................................................................................................49
Figure 5.16. Cross Section Showing Typical Electrical Gallery Provisions.........................................................50
Figure 5.17. Typical Circular Electrical Gallery..............................................................................................................50
Figure 5.18. Utility Tunnel under Construction............................................................................................................52
Figure 5.19. Utility Tunnel with Services Installed.....................................................................................................53
Figure 5.20. Utility Crossover Tunnel...............................................................................................................................53
Figure 5.21. Typical Cross Section of a Utility Corridor and Transit Station.....................................................54
Figure 5.22. Qatar Rail Metro Protection Zones...........................................................................................................55
Figure 5.23. Tree Planters Above and Below Ground................................................................................................57
Figure 5.24. Typical Tree Plantings with Cables and Street Lighting..................................................................58
Figure 5.25. Example Clip File from the MME Property Section System showing Doha
Zones..................................................................................................................................................................59
Figure 5.26. Typical Easement Strip and Buffer...........................................................................................................59
Appendixes
Appendix A . Data Verification..............................................................................................................................................67

Appendix B . Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) Typical Cross Sections.................................75
Appendix C . Checklists...........................................................................................................................................................87
Appendix D . Statutory Authority Requirements..........................................................................................................97
Appendix E . Construction Issues to be Considered during the Design Phase............................................ 127
Appendix F . Risk Control Form......................................................................................................................................... 145
Appendix G . Road Opening Requirements................................................................................................................... 149
Appendix H .Highway Reinstatement............................................................................................................................ 155

UTILITIES PART
11
2D Two-Dimensional
3D Three-Dimensional
Ashghal Public Works Authority of Qatar
CAD Computer-Aided Drafting
CIPP Cured-In-Place Pipe
CRA Communications Regulatory Authority (formerly ICT Qatar)
EHS Environmental, Health, and Safety
EPBM Earth Pressure Balancing Machine
GIS Geographic Information System
GPR Ground-Penetrating Radar
ICT Qatar Ministry of Information and Communications Technology
ITS Intelligent Transportation System
Kahramaa Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation
km Kilometers
LD Long Distance (Passenger/Freight)
LRT Light Rail Transit
m Meters
m2 Square Meters
mm millimeters
Metro Metro Rail
NOC No Objection Certificate

PART UTILITIES
11
PDF Portable Document Format
QNBN Qatar National Broadband Network
QP Qatar Petroleum
Q-PRO Qatar Permit of Road Opening Software System
QCS Qatar Construction Standards
RFI Request for Information
RPZ Rail Protection Zone
ROW Right-of-Way
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
TBM Tunnel Boring Machine
TSE Treated Sewage Effluent
UGN Unified Governmental Network
W Watts

UTILITIES PART
11
1 Introduction
1.1 General
The purpose of this Part of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) is to efficiently
coordinate the design and location of utility services within rights-of-way (ROWs) and Rail
Protection Zone (RPZ) to meet regional and international standards. In the context of this
discussion, two terms are defined:
• ROW: typically, an area of land between building plot limits, reserved as an infrastructure
corridor for roads, a public sidewalk, a canal, railway, utility transmission/distribution, or
landscaping.
• Utility corridor: an area of land, usually but not always within a ROW, in which a utility
service is provided a nonexclusive land corridor for routing a particular utility.
• Rail Protection Zone (RPZ): an area of land reserved for the railway infrastructure for
their individual utilities and also Qatar Rail within their RPZ. The Rail Protection Zone
is a safety zone in which any third party has to obtain approval (NOC) from Qatar Rail
for the safety of the railway. This zone consists of the Critical Zone and a dimension as
safety buffer on either side of the Critical Zone.
1.2 Key Design Stages and Responsibilities

The planning of highway utilities is the responsibility of the Ministry of Municipality and
Environment (MME). The follow-on design stages are the responsibility of the Public Works
Authority of Qatar (Ashghal). Various statutory authorities have responsibilities for their
individual utilities. Figure 1.1 shows the key stakeholders and approval authorities at each
design stage of a transportation project.
The No Objection Certificate (NOC) process operates in parallel with the design process.
Without NOC approvals at the identified key stages, the design and then construction cannot
proceed. Section 3 provides details regarding the procedures and requirements for obtaining
NOCs from the highway authorities, utility stakeholders, Qatar Rail and the MME. Ashghal
QDRS system can be used as part of the design process to obtain service information and
NOCs from relevant stakeholders.

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Figure 1.1 Key Stakeholders and Approval Authorities at Each Design Stage
1.3 Overall Management of Utilities and Utility Corridors

1.3.1 Objectives
This Part provides guidance regarding the procedures and objectives relevant to the provision
of utilities in new and existing highways. It outlines various guidelines and criteria for utility
stakeholders. The procedures described herein meet the following objectives:
• Provide a philosophy for utility corridors, the highways and the railways in the State of
Qatar.
• Provide technical guidance and details for highway designers, utility designers, and
landscape designers to coordinate utilities within ROWs.
• Provide procedures for relocating utilities during road construction so that the work can
be performed with minimum delay or interference with other activities related to the
utility corridors and associated services.
At prominent locations like bus terminals, bus stops, railway stations, metro/LRT emergency
escapes, railway utility structures/buildings, emergency assembly areas, security sensitive
locations, park & ride facilities and locations similar nature the utility provider is required
to during construction and when reinstating the work area to maintain uninterrupted, safe

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and secure driving and walking/cycle route (ensure pedestrian- & cycle connectivity) for
members of the public but also for emergency and maintenance parties. In any case, minimum
requirements following local & international standard shall be complied with. Particular
attention must be focused on pedestrian/cycle routes around railway stations, emergency
exits, railway utility buildings within 400 meters of any rail asset where un-obstructed
width of pedestrian walkways with 1.8 meter, local obstructions (street lighting, sign posts)
shall maintain an absolute minimum width of 0.9 meter, lowered curbs for equal access, no
tripping hazards, maximum cross slope 2.5 %, appropriate road signage and markings at road
crossings, prevention against vehicle intrusion / illegal parking.
• Develop and implement standards that accomplish the following:
−− Minimize service disruption and damage to utilities.

−− Minimize development of hazardous conditions.
−− Comply with specification and environment considerations.
−− Provide a flexible approach to the allocation of utility zones to suit individual
current circumstances.
−− Provide flexibility for future installation needs.
−− Coordinate utility work between the relevant parties, such as the highway
authority, the service authority, the designer, and the developer.
−− Allow uncompromised operation and maintenance of the utility in an efficient
manner.
• Allow efficient installation of utilities.
Coordinate the work between the relevant parties, such as the highway authority, the service
authority, the railway authority, the designer, and the developer.
1.3.2 Background Information

To accommodate future needs, service providers generally request corridor widths greater
than needed for immediate use. The assumption is that utility provision is likely to increase
in the future and, therefore, needs to be accommodated in the design process as early as
possible. This approach affects current and future needs for highways and service providers.
Because of current congestion issues, designers must use greater flexibility to resolve issues
of utility provision along highways.
At prominent locations like bus terminals, bus stops, railway stations, metro/LRT emergency
escapes, railway utility structures/buildings, emergency assembly areas, security sensitive
locations, park & ride facilities and locations similar nature, special consideration for utility
installation, maintenance, repair, new installations, and general accessibility is required. Such
activities (one-time or regular occurring) should be coordinated with the relevant stakeholder
to minimize any disruption and avoid damage to either facility.
Reinstatement – the utility provider is required to reinstate the disrupted area at such
prominent locations to the pre-existing conditions.

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A key element for the success of the new approach is for utility companies to identify their
current and future requirements. At the macro scale, the Qatar National Vision 2030 (General
Secretariat for Development Planning, 2009) provides projections to 2030. Other planning
efforts have been projected to 2032. It is logical for service providers to have similar plans on
how their transmission networks will grow to supply the projections. Transmission systems
and potential routes within highway corridors need to be identified so that they can be
planned for specifically rather than generally.
At the micro scale, that is, within blocks or particular developments, the final locations of
distribution networks need a structured approach for the designer to follow. A key element
in providing utility corridors is flexibility in finding suitable space for current and future utility
needs. The utility designer needs to analyze the data to identify the necessary allocation of
utility corridors for each section of highway.
In addition, the introduction of railways like the Doha Metro, Lusail LRT and Long-Distance
Railways require close coordination at overlapping corridors. Particular requirements change
in installation depth and access restrictions take priority for crossing- and parallel utilities.
Crossing existing at-grade railway lines is only permitted by no-dig technologies/methods.
Utility corridors typically contain various utilities, as well as landscape areas. The different
widths are discussed in this Manual. The approach for utility corridor spacing recognizes that
the utility designer needs flexibility to place services in the utility corridor. Deep utilities,
such as gravitational sewers and district cooling, need to allow other service providers to use
the corridor so that greater flexibility is allowed in spacing those services.
There is a Ministerial request to resolve the problem of flexible road-surface road creep
or settlement around utility structures situated in highways. Although this Part provides
guidance on reducing utility structures in main highways, the request is not an absolute
requirement; rather it is a good practice provision. The MME needs to be consulted during the
early stages of a project to identify issues with utility structures in a highway.
It is important that the landscape designer assist in the early stages of the design process,
because tree roots can be significant issue for the utility designer. There are also likely
to be differences in the positioning of utility corridors, depending on whether a new road
(greenfield site) is being constructed or an existing road (brownfield site) is being extended
or widened.
The general approach is to use the standard MME typical cross sections for identifying
spatial needs and available land. (See Appendix B for additional details). If insufficient land
is available, a staged assessment to determine a solution needs to be performed.
1.3.3 Utility Vision Based on Global Best Practices

To develop a utility vision for infrastructure, research was undertaken to identify the best
practices used by other countries that have similar circumstances (such as climate, population,

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and culture). The factors relevant to Qatar and of significant importance for the vision are
the rate of population growth and the availability of space for the provision of utilities.
1.4 Information Sources

Information sources for this Part include the following design standards and regional and
international organizations:
• National Joint Utilities Group, Guidelines on the Positioning and Colour Coding of
Underground Utilities’ Apparatus—United Kingdom
• American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)—United

States
• Austroads—Australia
• Department of Transport, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges—United Kingdom
• Florida Department of Transportation—United States
• Highway Design Standards 2010—Oman
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, Road Planning and Design
Manual—Australia
• Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council, Abu Dhabi Utility Corridors Design Manual—United
Arab Emirates
• Typical roadway cross sections for Dubai—United Arab Emirates
It is important to follow regional and international best practices during design and
construction of a utility corridor in a highway in order to promote the health, safety, and
welfare of the people installing, connecting, and maintaining the utilities; the end users; and
those who will decommission the services.
1.5 Environmental, Health, and Safety

The environment, health, and safety (EHS) are important considerations. To comply with the
aims of this Part, it is expected that these aspects will be considered at each stage of the
design works.
All design stages are to comply with the EHS aspects of the Qatar Construction Standards
(Ashghal, 2014). A general overview of key aspects relating EHS to utilities work in the
construction of highway infrastructure is provided in the Work Zone Traffic Management
Guide (Ashghal, 2015). The following are general considerations regarding utilities:
• To avoid potential damage to utilities, loss of supply to users, risks of effluent spills and
water impacts on the environment, and risk to contractors’ staff if high-voltage power
cables are damaged, all utilities need to be designed and installed in accordance with
the recommendations and guidelines of the statutory authorities and manufacturers.
This especially refers to depths and protection measures for those services.

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• Only in exceptional circumstances should utilities be designed or installed shallower than

recommended in the guidelines. In these circumstances, special protection and warnings
must be put in place to protect the public, future contractors, and the environment.
• At prominent locations like bus terminals, bus stops, railway stations, metro/LRT
emergency escapes, railway utility structures/buildings, emergency assembly areas,
security sensitive locations, park & ride facilities and locations similar nature the
utility provider is required to during construction and when reinstating the work area
to maintain uninterrupted, safe and secure driving and walking/cycle route (ensure
pedestrian- & cycle connectivity) for members of the public but also for emergency and
maintenance parties. In any case, minimum requirements following local & international
standard shall be complied with. Particular attention must be focused on pedestrian/
cycle routes around railway stations, emergency exits, railway utility buildings within
400 meters of any rail asset.

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2 Key Reference Documents and

Manuals
The following documents and guidance are referenced and need to be considered when
developing utility corridors:
• Work Zone Traffic Management Guide (Ashghal, 2015)
• Qatar Construction Standards (Ashghal, 2014)
• Qatar Survey Manual (Urban Planning and Development Authority, 2009)
• Doha Interim Zoning Maps and Regulations, Zones 1 through 68 (April 2008)
• British Standard (BS) EN 124: Gully Tops and Manhole Tops for Vehicular and Pedestrian
Areas (1994)
• Impact Assessment Guidance Information (MME, 2011)
• Road opening notices from Ashghal
• Qatar Permit of Road Opening (QPRO2) software system
• Typical Cross Sections for Utility Allocation from MME
• Proposed Typical Cross Sections for Greenfield Sites from MME
• Guidelines for Utility Impact Assessment for Expressways MME, Infrastructure Planning
Department, 2018)
• Utility Cross Section Guidelines for Local Roads in New Development (MME, Infrastructure
Planning Department, 2019)
• Guidelines for Utility Impact Assessment for Local Roads in Developed Areas (MME,
Infrastructure Planning Department, 2019)
• Qatar Design Review System QDRS software system (RFI, RFDR); RFI = Request for
Information / RFDR = Request for Design Review
Add or refer to Qatar Rail documents in the list for cross references (always the latest updated
version is applicable).
• TM-201-SR05: Safeguarding of the Metro, Light Rail Transit and Long Distance Railway
Protection Zones (RPZ), Rev. 4.0, 15/04/2018
• TM-208-SR01: Specification for Utility Crossings for Railway Lines, Rev. 2.0, 28/08/2016
• TM-210-G01: Guidelines for Utilities Interface with Light Rail Transit, Rev 1.0,
11/01/2017

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• TM-216-G01: Guidance Document for Third Party Grade Separated Structures (elevated
bridge crossings) and Railways, Rev 1.0, 18/04/2017
• TM-219-G01: Guidance for Third Party Structural Interventions on Existing Qatar Rail
Assets, Rev. 1.0, 04/05/2017
• TM-224-G01: Guidance for Monitoring Works by Third Party on Existing Qatar Rail
Assets, Rev. 1.0, 31/07/2018
• Utility Projection Regulation (UTI-PROTECTION Regulations, Rev3, 20/03/2017)
• TM-220-G01: Guidance for Third Party Restricted Activities within Rail Protection Zone,
Rev. 1 0, 01/05/2017

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3 Consultation and Approvals:

No Objection Certificates
3.1 Service Utility Providers Consultation

The NOC is a mandatory document that must be obtained from the relevant service provider,
service authority, highway/road authority and Qatar Rail.
Throughout the design life of a project, it is necessary to coordinate with the relevant
statutory authorities through the NOC process. In addition, an NOC allows follow-on
design or construction work to be carried out. Each service provider is obligated to liaise
with consultants and contractors regarding their project requirements. Consultants and
contractors need to follow the guidelines and checklists in Appendix C.
The long-term aim is to create a centralized database of project NOC submissions that can be
accessed by all service providers. The database would be a computerized, online submission
system. The object is to improve the efficiency of approval processing and to provide an NOC
process that is simple to apply and track where consultants enter design-stage information
into the database. The designer would then be electronically informed of the submission and
the NOC.
3.2 Design Phase Stages

The following subsections summarize the five stages in the design life of a project:
1. Project initiation
2. Concept design
3. Preliminary design
4. Final design
5. Construction
6. Testing & Commissioning
7. Handover / Taking-over
8. Defects Liability Period
9. Operation & Maintenance Period
10. Decommissioning Period

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Except for the preliminary design stage, each stage requires an NOC from appropriate service
providers.
If the project has a long duration, a subsequent request and approval, re-validation may be
required to address utility network changes. At the construction stage, it is the responsibility
of the contractors to request the information again so that they have the most current
information before starting work at the site. During the different phases the stakeholders
and approving authorities shall be provided with access to information and project sites to
verify and validate previously provided approvals. Non-compliances shall be indicated to the
utility provider and rectified at their costs.
3.2.1 Stage 1: Project Initiation

In Stage 1, the utility designer sends a Request for Information (RFI) to service providers,
highway authority and Qatar Rail, affected by the proposed project to inform them of the
scope (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Stage 1: Project Initiation—Request for Information Notice of the NOC
Process
The following information is required with the RFI:
• Appointment letter from the client confirming the utility designer’s scope of work
• Location plan with grid coordinates relative to the Qatar National Datum

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3.2.2 Stage 2: Concept Design

In Stage 2, the scope of work is used to develop options for consideration. The level of work is
roughly 30 to 40 percent of the total design phase. During Stage 2, it is important to consult
with the appropriate authorities to understand their issues and obtain their agreement in
principle before submitting the NOC application. This will help avoid conflicts and the need
for resubmissions that could delay the project.
Evaluation of the various options will indicate a preferred option. The preferred option is
then submitted to all affected service providers, highway authority and Qatar Rail, and the
Overseeing Organization for approval. The utility designer must obtain a concept design NOC
approval from each of the service providers and the Overseeing Organization. Figure 3.2
shows the NOC process for the concept design.
Figure 3.2 Stage 2: Concept Design of the NOC Process
The following documents are required for the concept design NOC application:
• Appointment letter from the client that confirms the scope of work of the utility designer.
• Location plan with grid coordinates relative to the Qatar National Datum.
• Preferred option designs.
• ROW cross sections that indicate the highway boundaries and the relative position of the
utilities within the corridor.
• RPZ cross section that indicates the railway boundary, the railway and the relative
position of the utilities within the rail corridor including dimension, levels and all relevant
details as much as available.
• Outline of combined services “rainbow” layout drawings, as explained in Section 5,
Concept Design, of this Part.
• The Asset Data, Investigation and Discrepancy Reports are to be submitted to MME.

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3.2.3 Stage 3: Preliminary Design

Stage 3 develops the concept design to roughly 70 percent of the final design. At this stage,
topographical surveys are completed, geotechnical data are collected, and the alignment
of the services is established. Typically, a NOC is not obtained at this stage; however,
an approval in principle letter is, it is important to keep the service authorities, highway
authority and Qatar Rail apprised of the design development at this stage. Figure 3.3 shows
the NOC process for the preliminary design.
3.2.4 Stage 4: Final Design

Stage 4 is the completion of the design process, with a full set of contract drawings and
specifications and an NOC from each service provider, highway authority and Qatar Rail.
Figure 3.4 is a flowchart for the final design.
Figure 3.3 Stage 3: Preliminary Design of the NOC Process
Figure 3.4 Stage 4: Final Design of the NOC Process

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The following documents are required for the final design NOC:
• Appointment letter from the client that confirms the scope of work of the utility designer.
• Location plan with grid coordinates relative to the Qatar National Datum.
• Detailed design layouts, long sections, and specific details.
• ROW cross sections that indicate the highway boundaries and the relative position of
the utilities within the corridor.
• RPZ cross section that indicates the railway boundary, the railway and the relative
position of the utilities within the rail corridor including dimension, levels and all relevant
details as much as available.
• Final combined services rainbow layout drawings.
3.2.5 Stage 5: Construction

Approvals at Stage 5 are for road openings, traffic control, groundwater licenses, site access
and egress and similar items. Utility corridor approvals at this stage need to be fully developed.
These approvals are applied for by the contractor that prepared the shop drawings and are
called construction NOCs.
Road Opening requirements are explained further in Appendix G.
3.3 Authorities, Regulatory Bodies, and Stakeholders

The designer is required to consult with, liaise, and get approval from a large number of
service providers and government authorities. Table 3.1 lists the authorities with whom the
designer must consult regarding the highway project.
3.4 Conflict Resolution Process

The MME is responsible for coordinating the overall requirements for utility corridors. Service
providers need to provide the MME with clear requirements for their services. The liaison
and dialog between MME and service providers are based on a close relationship. The MME
has the role of independent reviewer and has the authority to make decisions and resolve
conflicts. Qatar Rail has developed for their railway network and at prominent locations
Utility Conflict Resolution drawings. Other bodies may aid this process Consultant’s role.
Consultants can work on behalf of a service provider, a private developer, or a service

authority. The consultant’s responsibility is to work with the client and provide technical
knowledge and advice to implement projects.
3.4.1 Service Authority’s Role

The service authority is the owner of a particular service, a project, or projects. The service
authority is responsible for managing the project’s cycle of work. Authorities will often out-
source project management to a separate organization.

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3.4.2 Ministry of Municipality and Environment Role as Impartial Adjudicator

The MME is involved with all aspects of infrastructure planning for urban and rural
development in the State of Qatar. Although the MME is fully involved with the concept
design of projects, it can also act as an impartial adjudicator during the preliminary and final
design stages, if necessary.

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Table 3.1 Service Authorities and Regulatory Bodies

Item
No. Authority Abbreviation Responsibilities
1 Ministry of Municipality & MME Planning (land allocation)
Environment
2 Ministry of Environment MOE Environment
3 Civil Defense Department Fire and life safety
4 Qatar Municipalities Municipalities
5 Qatar Railways Company Qatar Rail Metro, Light rail and railways
6 Ministry of Municipality & MME Transportation projects to deliver Qatar
Environment National Vision 2030
7 Supreme Committee for Oversight of the projects to be delivered for or
Delivery and Legacy affecting the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup
8 Ministry of Transport & MOTC
Communications (ictQATAR)
9 Communications Regulatory CRA
Authority
10 Kahramaa Cool District cooling
11 Ministry of Interior MOI Internal affairs, civil defense
Utility Service Authorities
12 Qatar General Electricity & Kahramaa Water and electricity
Water Corporation
13 Ooredoo (formerly QTEL) Telecommunications
Qatar National Broadband QNBN Telecommunications
Network
Vodafone Telecommunications
Ministry of Interior, Security MOI-SSD Closed-circuit television (CCTV)
Systems Department telecommunications
Gulf Networks Security systems (barriers and bollards;
x-ray and metal detection; under vehicle
surveillance; explosives trace detection;
electronic frequency jamming)
Ministry of Interior, Traffic Dept
Qatar Gas Gas transmission systems
Qatar Fuel WOQOD Gas
14 Qatar Petroleum QP Oil pipelines and gas
15 Qatar Armed Forces Telecommunications
16 Private Engineering Office PEO Projects associated with the Royal Family
17 Public Works Authority of Qatar Ashghal Stormwater, groundwater, treated sewage
effluent, and foul water
Highways, signs, intelligent transportation
system, street lighting, and operations and
maintenance
18 Qatar Cool District cooling
19 Marafeq Qatar District cooling operator for Lusail
Key Stakeholders
18 Qatar Museums QM Heritage
19 Mowasalat Public transport

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Item
No. Authority Abbreviation Responsibilities
20 Lusail Real Estate LREDC Lusail Light Rail Transit
Development Company
21 Supreme Council of Health and Health
Hamad Medical Corporation
22 Qatar Foundation Education City
23 United Development Company UDC Lusail Marina
24 Barwa Group Real estate
3.5 Design Standards

Each service provider sets out the design standards for their service; usually a combination
of European Union, UK Standards and United States standards. Some data on the individual
utility placement within an overall utility corridor are included in the following sections and
the appendixes in this Part. Designers, contractors, and service providers need to use the
latest version of the Qatar Construction Standards (Ashghal, 2014) and MME standards and
guidelines for design work. It is the designer’s responsibility to ensure that they have the up
to date service authority requirements for their relevant work at that time.
3.6 Planning Role

Each service provider undertakes its own master planning in consultation with the MME. It is
important that all service providers be in agreement with the MME regarding the parameters
for the growth, in accordance with the Qatar National Vision 2030 (General Secretariat for
Development Planning, 2009).

UTILITIES PART
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4 Project Initiation – Data

Acquisition
One of the most important issues for the design of a project is to understand the site
constraints. Data acquisition, which is key to the accurate identification of existing and
proposed utility services, is addressed in this section.
4.1 Data Responsibilities

Service authorities maintain records of their assets, and the utility designer obtains these
data through the RFI during Stage 1 of the NOC process.
4.2 Obtaining Utility Data and Service Drawings

The service provider needs to respond to RFIs with a hard copy or electronic copy, or
both, within 2 weeks. Hard copies can be Portable Document Format (PDF) printouts or
two-dimensional (2D) computer-aided drafting (CAD) output prints. Electronic copies are
geographical information system (GIS) data in the form of shape files that will require
manipulation by the utility designer. Soft copies can also be 2D CAD files (with a .DWG
extension) or from AutoCAD (with a .DGN extension) for the MicroStation platform.
Ashghal and Qatar Rail requires that consultants convert the data received from the service
authorities to a three-dimensional (3D) record. If no depth data are provided, it is normal to
assume the standard minimum depths for utilities. Qatar Rail assumes the minimum depth
as per their requirements including suitable protection is provided for crossing utilities. In
addition, for railway structures and at-grade sections of the railway it is assumed that utilities
are clear of the critical zone. Railway utilities to be considered. It should also be assumed
that drainage would normally be available. The utility designer verifies and checks the data
from the service provider. The utility designer provides a database for all data collected and
minutes of meetings with service providers. Appendix A provides the methods for verifying
data received from service authorities. These data are compiled in to three reports:
• Asset Data Report

• Investigation Report
• Discrepancy Report
4.3 Project Boundaries

The project boundaries need to be established and agreed upon by stakeholders. The utility
designer is required to coordinate with any relevant surrounding projects. Agreements must
be reached on utility alignments at the interface of these projects.

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The designer must consider the nearby surroundings and its potential impact. Metro stations,
sewerage pumping stations, or treatment plants are likely to have significant infrastructure
coming to and from the facilities, which may have to be accommodated as part of the works.
4.4 Validation of Received Asset Data

During the validation process, an escalation of investigations should be carried out to confirm
the location, depth material, and size of each service:
• Obtain RFI data from the authorities.

• Perform a site walk survey.
• Perform a topographic survey
• Perform a ground-penetrating survey.
• Perform radio detection surveys.
• Establish trial pits.
This order is defined to avoid wherever possible disturbance to the traffic, the public, and
the site.
4.5 Discrepancy Reporting

A Discrepancy Report must be prepared if the survey data are found during the process of
collecting and verifying data not to correlate with the data received. The report will include
a drawing showing the service provider’s records and the new information received from the
survey work. The drawing needs to be annotated such that it is clear where the discrepancy
has occurred. The report will require a table that lists the errors and coordinate points that
precisely define the location of the discrepancy. The Discrepancy Report is submitted to the
MME (at the concept stage) and the relevant service providers, the highway authority and
Qatar Rail. The service provider, highway authority and Qatar Rail should then amend their
records. The designer will use the survey data during the design stages because they are the
most up to date, accurate data available.

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5 Concept Design
5.1 Introduction
This section provides general design considerations to assist in addressing any spatial
restrictions regarding utility corridors in roadways and in rail corridors (RPZ).
At the concept design stage, options shall be considered for potential solutions to issues
regarding utility corridors in roadways and in rail corridors (RPZ). The options need to
illustrate the proposed works in sufficient detail to select a preferred option to progress to
the preliminary design stage.
The consultant needs to consider several options and identify the associated advantages and
disadvantages for each. The proposed options need to consider short-, medium-, and long-
term issues that could result from their implementation during all live cycle phases. For each
proposed option, the consultant shall assess the availability of the ROW and the feasibility of
providing options to the ROW requirements and at rail corridors (RPZ), as applicable.
The consultant shall recommend the preferred option and the reasoning for the selection.
Cost comparisons may be outlined to assist the selection process.
5.2 Deliverables
Information prepared at this stage should include the following:
• Basis of design report—sets out the design parameters

• Existing services drawings
• Proposed individual service layouts
• Typical ROW cross sections indicating the utility corridors
• Typical RPZ cross section indicating the utility corridors
• Indicative combined services rainbow layout drawings for the preferred option
• Concept option rail
• Final rail concept design rail
During the concept design stage, the following reports are required by the Overseeing
Organization:
• Geological
• Hydrological
• Environmental
• Land impact and acquisition assessment
• Landscaping concept
• Utility investigation

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• Impact assessment of existing utilities

• Traffic modeling
• Concept options road
• Concept options utility
• Final road concept design
• Final utility concept design
• Handover presentation
5.3 Project Definition

In order to identify the option to be developed, it is necessary to understand the nature of
the roadway project and how it will affect the existing environment. The following issues are
to be considered in identifying site constraints:
• Is it a greenfield site or will it affect existing infrastructure? Is it a brownfield site?

Currently, 70 to 80 percent of roadway projects in Qatar involve brownfield sites.
• If it is a greenfield site, the typical Overseeing Organization ROW cross sections and the
associated utilities corridor for that type of ROW need to be adhered to when possible.
• If it is a brownfield site, after existing infrastructure has been identified and

incorporated into a combined site constraints drawing, the next step is to understand
the fixed infrastructure that cannot be changed, and the issues involved in changing
the rest. These issues include land-take issues, and an understanding how the utility
plant operates and when it can be disconnected, diverted, or abandoned. Outages
during the summer months are often difficult to obtain because of high demands at
that time of year.
Utilities can be categorized as (1) transmission systems, which transfer supplies over
distances and do not normally have any direct connections; and (2) distribution systems,
which feed from a local supply point to the individual consumer. The following are general
recommendations for transmission and distribution systems:
• Transmissions systems need to follow major infrastructure corridors such as expressways

and major and minor arterial highways. The design for such transmission systems is
normally carried out under the control of the service authority.
• Distribution systems need to avoid major infrastructure corridors and instead follow
local collectors and local roads.
• By separating corridors for transmission and distribution systems, there is potential for
reduced spatial requirements within a particular road.
• Properties fronting major highways need to be fed from the rear side of the distribution
system to avoid the need to supply utilities from the highway corridor.
• The nature of the project to be designed needs to be considered. For example, is it a

highway project, major or local roads, a railway project (especially light/tram system) or
a development scheme?

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5.4 New Developments

New developments create significant new utility supply issues and introduce additional
steps into the design stage of a roadway project. After a master plan has been developed,
analysis of the utility demands and the sizing of supply and distribution networks should
be carried out. This Manual does not define how the network analysis is to be conducted,
because the analysis must comply with the relevant service authority requirements. This
analysis requires close coordination with the service authorities to confirm their agreement
with the proposed analysis methodologies.
5.5 Classification of the Road

A comprehensive classification of roads is given in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
The following are urban road classifications:
• Expressway
• Major arterial
• Minor arterial
• Boulevard
• Collector distributor
• Major collector
• Minor collector
• Service road
• Local road
The following are rural road classifications:
• Rural freeway
• Rural arterial
• Rural collector
• Rural local road
This road hierarchy is a major factor in developing utility corridors for service providers
because it defines the highway width and the availability of space for developing the utility
corridor. The utility design has to balance basic functionality with the requirements for each
road classification.
5.6 Country-wide Utility Transmission Corridors

There are several wide utility corridors in Qatar (Figure 5.1), originally established for oil
and gas transmission pipelines. In some instances, the corridors are 1,300 meters (m) wide.
Additional utilities have been incorporated within the utility corridors, primarily power and
water transmission. In some cases, the individual allocation of width for services is 100 m.
The utility corridors allow more flexibility for the exact location and depth of pipelines.
However, the Qatar Petroleum (QP) and Qatar Rail requirements restrict the location of
structures near its pipelines and railway lines. Crossings on the oil pipelines railway lines
have to be approved by QP and Qatar Rail, and both will impose restrictions on the clearance
of its pipelines and railway lines. It is noted that where crossing QP and railway networks,

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significant protection systems must be discussed and agreed upon with QP and Qatar
Rail. Direction drilling beneath the QP apparatus and Qatar Rail network or major in situ
box culverts over the QP apparatus and railway networks will be required. The methods
of installation of these designs will also have to go through a construction methodology
approval system with QP and Qatar Rail by the contractor.
Figure 5.1 Qatar Utility Corridors
QP does not allow any permanent structure within 50 m of its pipelines.

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In most cases, the individual service authority will carry out the design of transmission
systems. In these instances, the utility designer’s role will be to coordinate the authorities’
proposals within the overall utility corridors.
Coordination over transmission corridors can take significant lengths of time so the utility
designer will need to discuss the service provider’s requirements at a stakeholder meeting
early in the design process.
5.7 General Principles of Providing a Utility Corridor

A system of utility corridors should be provided that allows service providers to locate their
services in highway ROWs and countrywide, designated utility corridors. The designated
utility corridors help facilitate the location of services for present and future needs.
For new roads and upgrades of existing roads, the utility designer has flexibility in providing
the utility corridors required for each service provider. However, the utility designer needs to
adhere to the service provider’s requirements, the highway authority requirements and Qatar
Rail requirements in the design data sheets (provided in Appendix D). Where an existing
corridor needs to be altered, the service provider and the MME need to agree to the change.
The utility designer will need an NOC from the both the service provider and the MME for
the final utility corridor provision, considering highway and railway requirements. The utility
designer should in his considerations minimize the impact on existing utilities (a blanket
assumption to relocate all utilities is not acceptable). Figure 3.4 shows the NOC process.
5.8 Establishing Present and Future Utility Requirements

A fundamental responsibility of the utility designer is to establish the present and future
requirements of the individual service providers. The utility designer needs to establish
a database of service authority utility data and request their individual requirements for
the proposed roadway project. Information regarding future abandonments and possible
upgrades near the project corridor are also required. Land use considerations are required so
that greater use can be made of the utility corridor. The utility designer will need to arrange
meetings and liaise with the service providers and Qatar Rail to formalize their requirements.
Appendix C contains a checklist to assist the utility designer in these meetings.
It is noted that railway lines cannot be moved or shut down for longer periods of time.
Therefore, the installation of spare utility crossings has to be evaluated and assessed by the
utility provider and eventually decided upon.
5.9 Prioritization and Optimization of Utilities

There is no requirement to provide a corridor for all utilities in every road; therefore, it is
essential to establish which utilities will require a corridor in the road. Due to restricted space
constraints, the utility designer must use the available space according to each utility’s
minimum requirements. See Section 5.14 in this Part for road utility corridor placement
considerations.

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For open-cut trenches, priority must be given to the deepest and largest-diameter utilities.
Access for the maintenance of these utilities must be a key consideration.
In the new MME proposed roadway corridor cross sections, it has been recommended that
transmission systems are located nearer the roadway and away from properties. Distribution
systems that feed the individual properties should be nearer the plots, thereby reducing the
need for crossings.
Due to more and more limited space available and the unavoidable close proximity between
utilities and structures in highways/roads and railway corridors utility routes should be locally
meandered around such structures. Further to achieve optimal cost efficiency it should be
general practice to design road and railway structures such as bridges, viaducts, under/over
passes and similar structures to the minimum space requirements and locate utilities around
these structures. This can apply to abutments, piers and foundations which may be required
to be located within the utility corridor. Subsequent shifting of the utility corridor or localized
utility route amendment should be standard practice. Also, options where utilities can be
integrated in the structure can be utilized.
5.10 Utility Impact Assessment

A utility impact assessment determines the impact of road improvement projects on existing
services. Consideration shall be provided for railway structures, for example metro stations
and foundations/piers for the elevated railway sections where such structures are located
within the roadway. Railway structures should be avoided in any case, as much as reasonably
possible. Temporary or interim road schemes should be comprehensively compared with the
final road scheme in order to avoid future abortive work as much as possible. Usually, road
improvements widen the highway corridor, which can be problematic for existing services.
For example, an electrical service in the verge area for the existing highway may end up in
the proposed new highway. Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3 are flowcharts for assessing urban and
rural utility impacts.

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Figure 5.2 Utility Impact Assessment (Urban)

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Figure 5.3 Utility Impact Assessment (Rural)

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5.11 Basic Utility Corridor Development

Utility corridors are separate land areas, usually within the ROW of a roadway. The
development of a utility corridor cross section depends on the following considerations:
• Functionality of the road and the road hierarchy.
• Types of utilities and demand.
• Geometric design standards for road elements, such as furniture, medians, and
pavements.
Routing of utilities must include the following considerations:
• Network optimization so that the shortest and most appropriate route is selected to
serve existing and future developments.
• Identification of major utilities, including access shaft locations and potential conflicts.
• Analysis of the feasibility and constructability of the route in relation to current and
future roadway and infrastructure projects.
• Selection of a route that least impacts traffic, including necessary traffic diversions.
• A sensitivity study, so that schools, hospitals, government buildings, and other sensitive
sites are avoided where possible.
• An overall master planning impact study of all future projects, including the Metro, local
roads, drainage, expressway program, and agency proposals for future developments
along the route to reduce the possibility of conflict.
• Metro, Light Rail, Long Distance.
• Environmental aspects of utility routing and a high-level risk assessment for options
considered.
• Land acquisition; this is a last resort and is to be done only in special circumstances.
5.12 General Utility Corridor Width Considerations

The identification of the final locations of utility corridors is considered to be an iterative
process. For any road type, the first pass must consider the standard corridor locations,
as defined in the MME typical cross sections, which are included in Appendix B. The main
product in considering width requirements for utility corridors is the combined services
layout drawings, also known as rainbow layout drawings. These drawings indicate the space
in the corridor for individual services. The drawings are prepared as a first draft in confirming
whether there is sufficient space in any particular highway for the services. Drawings must
be color-coded in accordance with Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4 is an example of a color-coded
combined services drawing for a straight section of road.

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These standard sections have been developed to minimize the overall land take and indicate
that, wherever possible, the corridors should be located outside of the main roadway. If
it is necessary to locate corridors within the roadway, priority should be given to locate
transmission corridors inside and distribution corridors closer to the plot boundaries.
Once the first pass has been generated, the next stage will be to compare the locations of
existing utilities and how these positions comply or conflict with the standard locations.
For certain railway (Metro, Light Rail, Commuter Railways) the ROW may be shared.
Consideration has to be given to such corridor/space requirements with the necessary
clearances in relation to utility location, route and manhole positioning. Special attention to
be provided on accessibility, maintenance, replacement, and future upgrading of the utility
network (note the railway operation cannot be stopped).

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Figure 5.4 Color-coded Legend for Combined Service Drawings

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Figure 5.5 Color-coded Combined Services for a Straight Section of Road
By defining the basic road functions, utility corridors can be determined by considering the
following road elements:
• Median width: Lighting poles and pipes for treated sewage effluent (TSE) used for
irrigation are normally placed in the median. The median can vary from 3 to 8 m wide.
• Roadway width: Determined by the number of vehicle lanes that are required.
• Utility corridor width: Depends on the types of utilities and the depth and size of utilities
to be placed. Each stakeholder utility provider has its own requirements, as detailed in
Appendix D.
• Service road width.
• Parking and pavement area widths.
• Rail corridor width. Number of train lines, Railway zones, Location of railways structures.
See Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, for additional information about roadway
project planning.
5.13 Utility Corridor Design Guidelines

The utility designer must follow the design flowchart shown in Figure 5.6. The designer
also should analyze the condition assessment with the relocation decision when applicable
and use the standard MME typical cross sections as guidance for the placement of utilities.
See Appendix B. The MME typical cross sections are not a prescriptive right of access for
the service provider. In situations where the corridor space is severely restricted, service

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providers must share the available space. The object is to facilitate provision of designated
utility corridors for all utilities for all road types. The corridors must delineate the locations
of existing and planned utilities, and if there is any spare capacity.
Suggestions for sharing and optimizing corridors are discussed in Section 5.15. Abandoned
lines should be investigated by the designer and should be reported to the Overseeing
Organization. In some cases, if the utilities have to be placed within bridge decks, the
detailed should be reviewed and approved by the Overseeing Organization.
Under railway lines, abandoned wet utilities shall be suitably backfilled (grouted), or removed
in order to avoid unforeseen collapse. Abandoned dry/wet utilities have to be notified to
Qatar Rail providing as-built information, method statement for backfilling or removal.

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Figure 5.6 Designing Utility Corridors

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5.14 Road Utility Corridor Placement Considerations

The utility designer needs to use a systematic approach to place utility corridors in existing
roads. This section provides guidance for the placement of utility corridors for existing and
proposed utilities. Figure 5.6 provides guidance on the design of utility corridors. Compliance
with service provider technical requirements is a prerequisite. For example, potable water
cannot be adjacent to or below foul water sewers (including TSE water) for health reasons.
Certain supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and telecommunications systems
that have copper cable cannot be adjacent to high-voltage power systems because of
interference and other issues.
In addition, the utility designer needs to consider in the vicinity of any key utility infrastructure
such as a substation or a pumping station that there may well be an increased demand for
utility corridor space. The same applies to utilities in the vicinity of road or railway structures.
The exact requirements will vary on a case by case hence some flexibility in the designer’s
approach will be required.
5.14.1 Establishing Proposed Road Widths Horizontal Considerations

When designing a proposed new layout for existing roads, the utility designer needs to
follow the initial horizontal layout procedure:
1. Produce an outline plan of proposed road, junctions and railways.
2. Refer to the technical data sheets and produce a color-coded draft layout (rainbow
layout drawings) showing the proposed combined utility corridors. See Appendix D for
the utility provider requirements. For data collection of existing highway and service
assets and railways, is there an existing rainbow layout drawing for the area in question?
Utilities placed in railway corridors must be placed away from the minimum safety zone.
3. Perform a utilities impact assessment; check if existing services fit into the identified
utility corridors by overlaying service provider information onto the proposed rainbow
layout drawing to determine if the existing services are located in the proposed utility
corridors. Oil-filled cables cannot be placed in the roadway and railways corridor.
4. Determine if the utility corridors can be adjusted to avoid any conflicts.
5. Determine if the road alignment can be adjusted to avoid identified conflicts.
6. Discuss with the relevant service provider where they wish to move or what they wish
to protect during construction if the service requires a diversion.
7. Repeat the Steps 1 through 5 for all utilities.
8. Amend the draft utility corridor plan and record all proposed changes.
9. Determine if there is a suitable alternative corridor for diversion and the potential cost
if a diversion is required.

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Other aspects to take into consideration include:
• The priority is where possible to comply with the MME typical cross sections (see
Appendix B).
• If not possible, the aim should be to keep the utility corridors outside the roadway.
• If this is not possible, transmission services should be kept in the middle of the roadway,
unless a railway line restricts this location. Distribution systems should remain with
their branches off to connect to plots and should be nearer to the roadway edge/plot
boundaries. This approach reduces the number of utilities crossings.
• Utilities placed in roadway covers and frames must be placed away from the normal
wheel path.
• Oil-filled cables cannot be placed in the roadway.
5.14.2 Proposed Vertical Utility Layout Considerations

By drafting existing and the proposed utilities in 3D, it is relatively easy to identify potential
conflicts. If a new road is to be excavated to formation level and the existing service now
has less cover than the service provider requires, does the service need to be diverted or
provided extra protection? The utility designer must consult with the service provider to
resolve potential issues.

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Figure 5.7 Utility Corridor Placement

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5.14.2.1 Utility Clearances

For construction purposes and safety, service providers require a certain minimum distance
from other service apparatus. For example, in the case of electricity transmission cables,
Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Kahramaa) requires 0.5 m of separation
from other services and 1 m from structures. Kahramaa also has requirements for minimum
clearances for overhead cables to new and upgraded roads. Table D1 and the data sheets in
Appendix D contains third-party clearances for service providers. Always refer to all of the
utility providers and Qatar Rail for their most up to date requirements.
5.14.2.2 Utility Protection

To provide safe operating areas, service providers require certain construction depths for
their apparatus. For example, Kahramaa requires a minimum cover of 0.9 m over potable
water mains. The dissipation of loads on the soil above the pipe at that depth will protect
the pipe. If the depth is decreased, protection measures are required to be implemented.
Protection measures are provided in the data sheets for each utility in Appendix D and the
Qatar Construction Standards (Ashghal, 2014).
Special consideration has to be provided for utility services within the Qatar Rail RPZ. Special
protection measures are required for utility interfaces with the railway. Refer to Qatar Rail
requirements.
5.14.3 Routing of Utility Corridors at intersections and Junctions

The configuration of utility corridors at road junctions and intersections requires special
considerations to avoid clashes with utilities at crossover positions. New junction layouts
tend to be large to accommodate underpasses and fly-over structures. Utility corridors tend
to have splayed corridors at crossover locations within junctions.
The railway routes can cross at road junctions and intersections at different levels depending
on existing ground levels, road design, and railway design/operational restrictions. Utility
corridors shall consider the railway route horizontally and vertically.
5.14.4 Corridor Configuration
5.14.4.1 General
Typically, road junctions include T-junctions, crossings, and roundabouts. For utilities that
are pressurized, there is more opportunity to bend in the horizontal and vertical positions.
However, a pressurized pipeline that has a bend will have a resultant thrust at the bend
that could require a thrust block, depending on the construction material. Parallel pressure
pipelines may require a combined thrust block or the use of restraint joints. A concrete thrust
block will form a restriction in the utility corridor, whereas a restraining joint will minimize
the space requirement. Pressurized utilities and telecommunications and electrical cables
need to be splayed across the intersecting corners of the various junction layouts. Gravity
pipelines, such as foul water and stormwater sewers, have less flexibility to maneuver around
splayed corners. Where the junction layout is at-grade, it is likely that gravity pipelines could

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continue across the junction. Figure 5.7 is a color-coded combined services drawing for a
simple T-junction.
Kahramaa has updated and increased duct requirements on corridors 32 m and above from
Type E ducts (1.7 m trench) to Type 2H ducts (3.8 m trench), to allow for directional changes
of EHV cables at roundabouts. Refer to the Kahramaa requirements for the latest information.
Figure 5.8 Color-coded Combined Services for a Simple T-Junction
5.14.5 Proposed Intersection Utility Layout Considerations

Proposed intersection utility layouts need to consider and include the following:
• Pressurized services and electrical cables can be diverted around the interchange
(Figure 5.8).
• Gravity-dependent services, such as foul water and stormwater sewers, must be on

straight alignments between manholes.
• If the intersection is at ground level, the ROWs for gravity pipelines can pass straight
through the intersection.
• If there is an underpass at the intersection, it may not be possible to place the utility
corridors or gravity pipelines through the intersection; a splayed utility corridor may
have to be provided. Figure 5.7 shows a typical combined services utility corridor at a
road junction.

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• The utility designer should seek design NOCs from the relevant service provider for
alterations to existing services.
• An impact assessment should be conducted.
• An NOC should be obtained from the MME for all services.
Figure 5.9 Typical Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major
Collector Intersection
Where a below-grade structure is required, such as an underpass, gravity systems may

require routing around the structure. The details shown in Figure 5.9 are purely indicative
and provide guidance; each junction layout must be considered individually.

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Figure 5.10 Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major Collector
Roundabout
5.14.5.1 Road Bridges

Road bridges are usually aboveground structures with an approach ramp at both ends. The
support system allows the weight of the bridge to be dissipated to the ground; a mechanical
joint allows the bridge to expand and contract due to changes in ambient temperature.
Often a bridge will have some form of void within the deck structure. Telecommunications,
low- and medium-voltage power networks, and some service providers may be allowed to
place their apparatus. within the void (pressure services) or on top of the deck within the
sidewalk. Pressure mains and cables typically can be accommodated through a bridge deck,

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but gravitational systems typically cannot. Issues that will need to be developed with the
service authority and the bridge designers include:
• Access chambers at both ends of the bridge (in the approaches) must be carefully
located to assist in providing access and to allow for the withdrawal for replacement of
the utility.
• For pressure networks, high points require air valves to avoid accumulation of air within
the pipe. These require quite a bit of space above the crown of the pipe, which can be
difficult to accommodate, depending on the bridge design.
• Bridges have thermal expansion movement joints to accommodate the expansion

and contraction that occurs within. The utilities have different rates of expansion and
contraction and must be able to move independently of the bridge structure; therefore,
support systems must be carefully considered. The manner in which the utilities pass
through the bridge abutments must be carefully detailed to allow for differential
movement.
• Dry services are often placed within the sidewalks of the bridges within protective steel
ducts.
5.14.5.2 Railways Bridges/viaducts

Railway bridges have to cater for the railway rolling stock. Traction for the rolling stock can
be provided by several means like diesel engines, overhead catenary lines, third rail systems,
batteries, and ground-level-power supply. Further, railway rolling stock can be operated
driverless and generally provides direct uninterrupted point to point travel. Therefore, safety
and security restricts access and also any third party utility on railway bridge structures.
Viaducts have multiple piers supporting the deck structure. Pressurized and flammable
utilities as well as HV and above cables require special protection and clearances to the
railway structure. For further requirements contact Qatar Rail.
5.14.5.3 Railway Underpasses, Tunnels, stations and Associated Structures

These railway structures are belowground structures that allows railway traffic to pass
beneath an at-grade constraint (i.e. road, interchange, etc.), provide entry/exit points,
emergency escape locations, as well as railway utility connections to above ground levels.
The depth varies and is dependent on the local circumstances, type of use as well as the
mode of transport (i.e. metro, commuter railway, long distance railway, etc.) and the number
or railway lines.
Utilities have to be routed around, above, underneath the railway structures. For further
requirements contact Qatar Rail.
5.14.5.4 Road Overpasses

A road overpass is very similar to a road bridge except the end supports are usually embedded
in a constructed embankment. The depth of the overpass allows routing of pressurized and
non-gravity services across the overpass.

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5.14.5.5 Road Underpasses

A road underpass is a belowground structure that allows traffic to pass beneath an at-grade
road. The typical depth is about 7.5 m. There is limited opportunity for routing utility services
thorough an underpass.
It should be noted that underpasses require drainage, electricity, and water for lighting and
life services.
5.14.5.6 Road Junctions and Roundabouts

In all road junctions and roundabouts, the available splayed areas depend on such variables
as width and splay angle. The utility designer needs to route the utility corridor efficiently
around such obstructions as bridges or underpasses. Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.10 show
suggested road layouts for utility corridors.
5.15 Dealing with Utility Congestion in Narrow Corridors

Where road ROW widths are restricted, the services might not follow logical utility corridors.
This section describes alternative methods for reducing utility impacts in narrow roads.
5.15.1 Ministry of Municipality and Environment Standard Highway and Utility Sections
Where possible, the standard MME typical cross sections should be followed (see Appendix B).
When they cannot, the list of potential solutions discussed in Section 5.15.1 through Section
5.15.11 provides the order of priorities to be followed wherever possible. The checklist
provided in Appendix C provides a logical path of the process the designer needs to follow.
Tools are available to help the utility designer overcome spatial constraints.
A utility corridor normally has two key features:
• Transmission system, such as pipes, ducts, or cables, typically take up one-fourth to

one-third of the utility corridor.
• Structures such as manholes, connection chambers, and the related plant typically take
up significantly more of the corridor but spaced at regular intervals that vary depending
on the type of structure. Typically, they are 40 to 80 m apart.
With careful planning, it is possible to stagger the adjacent utility structures and to overlap
adjacent corridors to take up less space in the ROW. Figure 5.10 shows an example of
overlapping utility corridors.
The consequence of overlapping utility corridors is that the rainbow drawings start to overlap.
For these overlaps, a different CAD line style will help the reader visualize the layout. The
lower image in Figure 5.10 is an example of combined line styles.

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Figure 5.11 Overlapping Utility Corridors
5.15.2 Telecommunications
The Ministry of Information, Communications and Technology (ictQATAR), which regulates
telecommunications, is due to publish, in the near future, a telecoms manual which includes
a combined trench arrangement for the various telecommunications providers. This guidance
document should be used for spatial considerations in new highway design.
Qatar National Broadband Network (QNBN) is the representative entity for the Unified
Governmental Network (UGN) and must be consulted to determine any project specific
requirements.
It is recommended that all telecoms be installed at the same time. This is especially
important with the new configuration of the ducts and chambers, which are much closer
together. By installing telecoms simultaneously, it minimizes the risks of potential damage
to infrastructure.
5.15.3 Combined Trenches

Combined trenches can reduce utility corridor congestion. Several utilities are compatible
and ideally suited for a combined trench, including the following:
• Foul water and stormwater sewers.
• Water and TSE mains. Potable mains must be located above TSE mains, as shown in
Figure 5.11, to avoid contaminating the potable water supply.
• Low-voltage electric and telecommunications cables.
• ITS cables and appurtenances should be located in the same corridor as street lighting.

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Figure 5.12 Typical Combined Trenches
Combined trenches have the following are advantages:
• Lower costs because of reduced excavation

• Reduced size of the utility corridor
• Lower installation costs
Combined trenches have the following are disadvantages:
• More difficult maintenance because of proximity of services

• Greater risk of damage to multiple services during excavation work
• Greater need to coordinate construction work at the site
5.15.4 Stacking Utilities

Trench widths can be reduced if utilities are stacked, but this method must be acceptable to
the service provider. Unlike combined trenches where different utilities are placed together,
stacking places multiples of the same utility one upon another within the same corridor.
This technique involves planning and installing the utilities at the same time. Typically,
transmission services could be placed below distribution services. Normally, the distribution
systems need to be accessed for maintenance more frequently than the transmission
systems. An example of stacking is a deep service, such as a foul water gravity main, where
the space above the pipe could be used for cables and similar shallow services or trees. This
technique may be used where pressure transmission pipes are deep, such as district cooling
pipes. Trees need to have short roots (or be in a root containment device) so the root ball
does not develop around or break into the service lines.
Distribution systems normally supply a small area. To access the distribution system, it needs
to be possible to either temporarily divert or take the service out of commission for a short
period. With most utilities, often an alternative source can be used to supply customers,
thereby limiting impacts on end users. For example, looped systems for potable water allow

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feeds from either side of the loop; power systems similarly have an alternate supply down
to the feeder pillar level.
Figure 5.13 shows small local distribution mains stacked above a large TSE main. For water
transmission mains, the larger transmission main is laid at the lower depth, and a protection
slab is laid on the bedding followed by smaller rising mains.
Figure 5.13 Example of Stacked Pressure Mains for Treated Sewage Effluent
Figure 5.13 shows another example of stacking where lower voltage distribution power
cables overlying transmission HV cables.
5.15.5 Electrical Utility Corridors

The design of electrical utility corridors takes into account issues associated with heat
dissipation for the rating of the cables. In general, for buried cables, the higher the amperage
or power rating, the greater the spacing requirement between cables. In Qatar, where ground
surface temperatures are high, power cables can become derated if heat dissipation is not
managed. However, spreading the cables horizontally has created wide corridors for electric
service. Cables could be stacked to use the available space most efficiently. Figure 5.14
shows an example of electrical stacking.

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Figure 5.14 Dry Cable Stacking
There are several solutions to dissipate heat from electrical cables. The following suggestions
could help to reduce the space requirement; however, they all have a cost implication that
needs to be assessed as part of the decision-making process:
• Surround the cables with a suitable heat-dissipating soil.

• Duct the cables, and inject a suitable heat-dissipation grout to surround the cables.
• Increase the diameter of the cables.
• Provide a utility gallery. This is considered a last-case option. See the checklist in
Appendix C for gallery considerations.
• Review options for different geometrics such as the use of single-core and multicore
trefoil configurations with an aim to reduce spatial requirements.
5.15.6 Electrical Duct Bank System

Where electrical cables cross roads, the normal requirement for short distances is to provide
an electrical duct bank system. See the service provider data sheets provided in Appendix D. A
duct bank system can also be used in situations other than road crossings, if heat dissipation
can be controlled. One possibility is running the district cooling feed through the bottom
of the duct system and cooling the surrounding duct bank. This solution might be more
expensive than the existing system of cabling, but it may alleviate utility congestion issues.
5.15.7 Utility Gallery

Utility galleries are normally smaller structures than utility tunnels and can form a solution
for restricted utility corridors where space is an issue. Because of the cost, utility galleries
are one of the last options to be considered.

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A utility gallery is usually a circular or rectangular conduit through which various utilities
can be routed. Although the gallery is a confined space, it allows access to install different
services. A circular gallery can be micro-tunneled, avoiding disruption to surface features.
It is normal practice to split services into wet and dry galleries. Wet galleries are for services
such as potable water, irrigation TSE, and district cooling. Dry galleries are for electric cables
and telecommunications. Services are placed on racks bolted to the gallery walls or on
cantilevered shelves. Gravity pipe systems like foul water and stormwater sewers are not
normally placed in galleries, because the gradient of those systems would dictate the profile
of the gallery.
The galleries are confined spaces and require lighting and ventilation to comply with the
Ministry of Interior’s civil defense requirements. Dry section cables generate heat in the
conduction process, and forced ventilation is another design consideration.
5.15.7.1 Utility Gallery Strategy

A utility gallery has the advantage of compressing services into a smaller area by stacking
them inside a structure. A utility gallery should be considered depending on the available
space, costs, and the present and future requirements of services required in that location.
The MME checklist guidelines need to be followed for inclusion of a gallery.
Underpasses pose a particular restriction in space, and a gallery structure resolves the
spacing issue. However, cooperation between the various service providers is required for
underpasses, and there is a relatively higher cost in providing the gallery structure. The
higher cost is slightly offset by the reduced excavation costs for each individual service.
Figure 5.15 through Figure 5.17 show typical electric utility galleries.
Figure 5.15 Typical Electrical Gallery

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Figure 5.16 Cross Section Showing Typical Electrical Gallery Provisions
Figure 5.17 Typical Circular Electrical Gallery
5.15.7.2 Utility Gallery Design

Electrical galleries provided solely for power cables can decrease the space required between
cables because the gallery can be air-conditioned. The cables are laid out on stacked shelves
to use space most efficiently. A wet gallery is possible if the pipes are small and fittings can
be accommodated inside the gallery. The size of the pipe work might require construction of
a larger utility tunnel.
The shape of the utility gallery unit can be circular or rectangular to suit construction
needs. If the construction is to be open-cut trenching, a rectangular chamber can be used

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(Figure 5.15). If the ground conditions are unfavorable for shuttering and in situ concreting
works, a circular tunnel that is pipe-jacked may be an alternative method (Figure 5.17).
The main design considerations for a utility gallery are as follows:
• Utility galleries need to be watertight; groundwater cannot penetrate inside.
• Gallery wall materials need to be durable, such as concrete.
• Utility galleries require an automatic fire protection system. Because of the closer
proximity of the services, there is a greater risk of damage to other services in the
event of a fire.
• Segmentation of the gallery is required so that a fire can be confined.
• Utility galleries must resist external loadings.
• There needs to be access for maintenance.
• Air conditioning, ventilation, or both is required for each compartmentalized section.

Careful consideration must be made for the location of ventilation shafts, especially if
these are to protrude above the ground level.
• There must be space for existing and future utility provisions.
• A backdrop chamber is required to bend the cables from a shallow level to a deeper level.
A critical issue that needs careful planning with EHV cables are the minimum bending
radii of the proposed cables (both in the vertical and horizontal directions).
• Cable support systems will need to be selected to suit the types of cables to be
supported.
• Lighting, earthing, and bonding are required.
• Emergency planning and associated risks need to be evaluated and mitigated for.
• An operational and maintenance manual needs to be prepared at the construction stage.
5.15.8 Utility Tunnels

Utility tunnels are circular or rectangular underground structures that allow maintenance
entry and allow utilities to be stacked inside the structure. Due to their construction
methods, utility tunnels are often deeper than galleries, which are normally constructed
down from the surface. Utility tunnels are larger and usually deeper than utility galleries.
They incorporate a wet side for potable water, district cooling, and irrigation TSE and a dry
side for electrical cables. Large utility tunnels with infrequent access points require forced
ventilation. Fire detection and fire suppression systems need to be incorporated.
On the wet side of the utility tunnel, a floor drainage system is usually provided. Dismantling
of wet services may involve accidental discharges of water into the tunnel, so a drainage
system to collect this water is incorporated into the structure.

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Utility tunnels have the following advantages:
• Utilities combined below ground are contained in a waterproof compartment.

• Utilities are relatively easy to install.
• Tunnels provide good access for maintenance.
• There are no problems with location of services.
Utility tunnels have the following disadvantages:
• They are expensive to construct compared to other options.

• Confined space needs ventilation.
• Fire and safety protection are required.
• Tunnel facilities require maintenance.
Figure 5.18 shows a utility tunnel under construction, and Figure 5.19 shows a tunnel with
utilities installed.
Utility tunnels and utility galleries need proper maintenance to function efficiently. Lighting,
ventilation, and fire suppression systems need to be maintained. At first, the maintenance
of these structures and services must be the responsibility of a specialist consultant
or contractor. After an agreed-upon period, Ashghal will assume responsibility for the
maintenance.
Figure 5.18 Utility Tunnel under Construction

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Figure 5.19 Utility Tunnel with Services Installed
The utility designer needs to give special consideration for crossover tunnels (Figure 5.20).
Where there are wet and dry tunnels and one of the services changes direction, one tunnel
must be elevated above the other to change direction. This is particularly important at
multilevel junctions. More depth is needed near the underpass structures for crossover
tunnels.
Figure 5.20 Utility Crossover Tunnel
5.15.9 Deep Sewers and Metro Tunnels

Deep sewers and Metro tunnels run 10 to 60 m below ground level and will not affect most
shallower services. The main impact is the “land take” for construction and permanent access
to the tunnels.
Sewers up to 3 m in internal diameter tend to be constructed using micro-tunneling or pipe-

jacking techniques. Sewer runs are straight lines, and access shafts must be large enough to
allow passage of the hydraulic jacking equipment and one length of pipe. This arrangement
typically requires a shaft roughly 5 to 7 m in diameter. The final completed shaft (roughly
1.5 m in diameter) does not take up much land, which would effectively sterilize sections of
utility corridors at the shallower depths. Access shafts are normally spaced 100 to 200 m
apart, although various factors can influence spacing.

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The internal diameter of Metro tunnels is 7.5 m. The normal method of construction is a
tunnel boring machine (TBM) or an earth pressure balance machine (EPBM). These are long
machines that require a large shaft (about 25 m in diameter) to drop the TBM into place.
The segments can be altered slightly, and can incorporate gradual curves into the tunnel to
provide more flexibility in alignment. The shafts can be as long as 1.7 kilometers (km). After
construction, the final access can be greatly reduced.
5.15.10 Impact on Utility Corridors for Railway Stations and Railway Lines, Tunnels and
Structures
Mass transit systems and stations are designed for a large number of passenger movements.
Typically, a station concourse can be 200 to 300 meter long. Underground stations have
a wide footprint that usually allows for two tunnels, one for each direction, with an inner
diameter of 7.5 to 10.5 meter. Depending on the method of construction and the design such
tunnels can be bored or cast in place used open-cut method. Stairs, escalators and elevators
bring passengers to the ground level. Other structures like troughs, ramps, elevated viaducts
but also special structures for switch boxes, exit and entry structures, air vents, restrict the
available space for utility crossings. Rail depots, intermodal freight yards and associated
facilities occupy large areas which should be avoided (Figure 5.21). For further details refer
to Qatar Rail and their guidelines and requirements.
Appendix D contains Qatar Rail’s guidelines for the protection of its tunnels. The protection
zones, particularly above the Metro tunnels, restrict the vertical space in the highway corridor
(Figure 5.22). Discussions and workshops with Qatar Rail early in the roadway design process
will identify areas of conflict in vertical and horizontal alignments.
Figure 5.21 Typical Cross Section of a Utility Corridor and Transit Station

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Figure 5.22 Qatar Rail Metro Protection Zones
The pink color area around the tunnel is identified as an exclusion zone where no construction
or utilities should be located.
The cyan color shaded area outside the exclusion zone is known as an adjustment zone,
which provides an allowance in the geometry of the line and level of the Metro tunnel during
the design and construction phases. If it becomes necessary to locate a utility corridor within
the adjustment zone, negotiations will be required with the Overseeing Organization. Once
the Metro has been constructed, this zone will no longer be required by the Metro authority.
Any work planned within the overall protection zone requires Qatar Rail Non-Objection as
indicated in the figure.
5.16 Urban Integration

Station Area Plan – compliance with Urban/Utility Integration Plans and Station Area Plans
(SAPs) shall be ensured by the utility provider. The utility provider / designer shall include in
their drawing relevant area design, road layout with levels and utilities tying into the station
area realm. On top of specific railway stations and within stations areas Transit Oriented
Developments TOD (building developments) may be located. Also, such developments shall
be reflected in the utility designers drawing showing the building- and road layout / levels
and utilities tying into the station area realm.
Park & Ride Facilities and Main Bus Terminals / Stops are located within the railway network.
The utility provider / designer shall include such facilities in their design.

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The utility provider shall ensure the following is in place:
For utility works within the urban integration areas / SAP the utility owner shall contact Qatar
Rail (and the land owner) to agree on procedures for maintenance, inspection (Operation and
Maintenance Plan, Use and Occupancy Plan)), emergency repair and emergency response
procedures. New installations, upgrading, revitalization follow the normal procedures.
Reinstatement at and around railway assets shall be carried out to the railway existing
conditions. Access for vehicular traffic, pedestrians/cyclists, emergency vehicles, and railway
maintenance vehicles shall be maintained at all times.
5.17 Street Furniture, Landscaping, and Other Considerations

Street furniture and landscaping are important aspects of highway design and provide an
interface between the hard concrete and tarmac elements of road construction and the
natural surroundings. The landscape designer should provide comfortable surroundings
for the road user, making road usage as pleasant as possible. Trees and vegetation provide
a valuable ecosystem for wildlife and help to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions. Street
furniture includes gantries, street-lighting columns, road signs, benching, seats, rubbish bins,
and other fixtures and fittings located in the roadway ROW. Landscaping is covered in detail
in Volume 3, Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this Manual. Those items requiring
foundations interact with the utilities corridors spatial requirements. Typically, streetlight
columns, gantries, and road signs are located close to the curb line. Because of their regular
spacing, these items are often combined within the same corridor with tree pits to minimize
the spatial requirements outside the roadway corridor.
The landscape designer and the utility designer are both concerned with the belowground
elements of plants and trees. For this reason, landscape, utility, and road designers must
liaise with each other at an early stage of a project to develop a coordinated concept design.
The chief problems the utility designer faces are the positioning of trees, tree root depth,
and the risk of penetration or ground movement. Service providers generally do not allow
trees directly over their apparatus and require that trees be sited at specified distances from
the service to avoid tree root issues. This is particularly important where tree roots are deep
and aggressive. In Qatar, landscaped trees tend to be shorter and have limited root systems.
Trees can be placed in planters so the roots are contained, and the planter can be placed
either on the ground surface or below the surface, as shown in Figure 5.23. The trees can
be easily moved when access to services is required, and roots are contained so there is no
damage to services below the planter.

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Figure 5.23 Tree Planters Above and Below Ground
Grasses and shrubs typically have minor root balls and are generally considered acceptable
over all services.
Consideration may be given to locating deeper services under the tree corridors. These might
include district cooling or sewers and would need to be more than 2.5 m deep. Typical tree
plantings with cables and street lighting provided in Figure 5.24.

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Figure 5.24 Typical Tree Plantings with Cables and Street Lighting
5.18 Land Acquisition

Acquiring land to extend the overall highway ROW for utilities is no longer an accepted
practice. Alternative ways of fitting utilities into the available space need to be considered
before acquiring more land. Land owned by the government could be reassigned to utilities.
Using the Qatar land use document, it is possible to establish the boundary details for
different land uses. For additional information, refer to the Doha Interim Zoning Maps and
Regulations (2008).
Acquisitions of private land may involve long negotiations with the landowners. Government
land may have a shorter period of acquisition. Early discussions with the MME Property
Section will indicate the availability of land. Figure 5.25 is an example clip file from the MME
Property Section system. The MME Property Section initiates a formal process when land is
to be procured by MME Engineering Section. The land acquisition process can be protracted
and should be avoided if time constraints are critical to the project.

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Figure 5.25 Example Clip File from the MME Property Section System showing Doha
Zones
5.18.1 Easements
A utility easement is a contractual agreement with a landowner to accommodate utilities
components, apparatus, pipes, and cables that are laid either in the ground or, in the case of
power cables, aboveground. This effectively locates the utility outside the highway ROW,
often on private land, as shown on Figure 5.26. The easement provides the utility service
provider access to perform future maintenance or replacement work. The utility provider
will also seek assurances that there is an element of “sterilization” of the land immediately
surrounding the service. Usually this means no building over the service. The landowner is
compensated for the loss of land use. Easements are commonly used in the United Kingdom,
the United States, and Australia. While easements are not currently used in Qatar, it is
considered that their use will become an option in the near future. Please refer to MME latest
publications for additional details.
A buffer is an area of land that can vary in width and that serves as a demarcation between
the main highway and service roads and footways, as shown on Figure 5.26.
Figure 5.26 Typical Easement Strip and Buffer

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5.19 Buffer Areas

A buffer area could be an area of land next to the highway or a strip of land between highways
and service roads (refer to Figure 5.26). Services can be located in buffer areas; however, the
services will need to be protected against vehicle wheel loading. Any encroachment into
the buffer areas should place the first corridor as close to the existing ROW as possible and
to move out from there with subsequent corridors. Thereby minimizing any impact on the
surrounding land.
5.20 Utilities in Private Developments

Qatar has several autonomous private developments. Usually these developments build to
Qatar standards so that highways and utilities can be returned to the various service providers
for their adoption (to take over the ownership, and hence operation and maintenance
responsibilities). After the fact, retroactive adoption is difficult if the service provider has not
been involved in the design approval process and subsequently inspected the installation of
the service.
If the developer intends to have an apparatus adopted, it is important that the standard
guidelines be followed. It is also important that there be no conflicts at tie-in points.
5.21 Temporary Construction of Utility Corridors

During construction, it may be necessary to provide a temporary service or temporary
diversion in a certain location to maintain the network integrity. For example, a water main
may need to be temporarily relocated until the project is complete. Relocation might last for
weeks or years. A temporary corridor allocation is required.
5.22 Operation and Maintenance Considerations

Operational works involving a service provider’s apparatus and corridors include the daily
routine work required for that service to function. For example, irrigation system valves need
to be operated regularly, and valve chambers must be sited so that operators are not at risk.
Each service provider has a set of operational requirements to maintain their service.
The other type of operational work is planned or reactive maintenance when a system
unexpectedly breaks down. Temporary diversions might need to be implemented and safe
areas created to facilitate repair work. Larger pipeline systems require safe access to their
apparatus, and the location of shaft access is very important.

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6 Preliminary Design
After the concept design is approved, the consultant shall prepare a preliminary design for
all of the works, in accordance with the Project Brief. In general, the preliminary design shall
provide sufficient information to accurately define the utility requirements.
6.1 Deliverables
The following are recommended preliminary design deliverables and required consultations
and reports for utilities and services:
• Plans and cross sections showing the existing and proposed utilities.
• Status report of consultations with utilities and other affected parties.
• Cost estimates.
• Diversions, upgrades, and new utilities required by the service authorities and service
providers.
• Detailed model of the existing utilities and proposals for the utility diversions; 3D is
recommended.
• Line and level data for relevant diversions.
6.2 Service Connections

6.2.1 Existing Service Connections
Property owners will require connections to diverted distribution utilities, such as water,
gas, sewage, electricity, and telecommunications. It is anticipated that shallower services
(telecommunications and electric cables) could pass over the main cable ducts and placed
in a duct system for future maintenance. Deeper services, water lines, and sewers need to
pass under cable duct systems. For new roads, it is proposed that the main service and duct
crossings for connections be placed on opposite sides of the road.
6.2.2 Future Connections and Empty Plots

A key consideration when working on a greenfield site is to avoid the re-excavation of newly
laid surfacing; therefore, it is recommended that utilities are laid up to the plot boundaries
prior to surfacing works. The installation of ducts can be one way of avoiding the installation
of expensive services until they are actually required. Where utility interfacing precedes plot
development, stub pipes with marker posts are required to avoid re-digging highway and
verge spaces. The normal practice is to provide the service connections 1 m inside the plot
boundary.

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Kahramaa has developed standard detail drawings for 2m wide pre-cast wall to house the
cabinet services for water and electricity customer connection and these should be used
where required.
6.3 Location and Design Considerations for Electrical and

Telecom Chambers and Draw Pits
Chambers are usually larger than the cables and ducts they serve; however, many corridors
are not wide enough. To minimize the spatial requirements, chambers can be staggered
with other utilities to reduce the footprint of the overall utility corridor. In addition, cables
are relatively flexible and can be curved around a structure if necessary. Manufacturers’
recommendations for bending radii need to be followed at all times.
International best practice suggests that electric transmission cable chambers can be laid
in the highway, especially in parking bays and service roads where future repair works will
not obstruct vehicle movements on the main highway. Distribution mains/cables need to be
laid in the verges close to plot boundaries. Chambers and covers in service roads and parking
bays need to have traffic load covers, and chambers need to be robust enough to receive
traffic loading. Refer to Standard BS EN 124 (1994) for cover ratings in traffic areas.
During the preliminary design stage, the following reports are required by Ashghal, with the
utility inputs in bold:
• Startup and hand-over details

• Program methodology
• Revised hydrological
• Updated land acquisition
• Revised environmental
• Revised landscaping
• Revised utility impact assessment
• Revised utility design
• Preliminary highway design

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7 Detailed Design Deliverables

The consultant shall prepare a detailed design in accordance with the Project Brief. In general,
the detailed design shall provide details and specifications necessary to fully define the
whole of the works to be carried out for the project.
The following are detailed design deliverables for utilities and services, including the required
consultations, tender documents, and a report recommending the design:
• Sufficient detail regarding the development of the design, the considerations

and recommendations made, and the actions taken in response to comments and
requirements transmitted during the whole design study process.
• Updated cost estimates.
• Detailed Design Report that addresses all aspects of the design, including the updated
drawings, specifications, and any other necessary documentation.
• Updated plans and cross sections showing the existing and proposed utilities.
• Combined utility plans and drawings showing all infrastructure (for example, bridges,
retaining walls, substations, and pumping stations) and stormwater detention and
storage elements.
• Detailed 3D model of the existing utilities and proposals for the utility diversions.
• Proposals that accurately define the line and level of all diversions and a full clash
analysis.
• Tender documents comprising the project drawings, Form of Tender including

appendixes, Instruction to Tenderers, Conditions of Contract, Specifications, Bills of
Quantities including Preambles, and any accompanying reports and contractual forms.
• Updated and approved Status of Land Acquisition.
• Written confirmation and approval from the MME Land Information Centre that all land
within the proposed road corridor is available for expropriation and that all encroachments
are cleared.
• Written approvals of the service authority’s design departments, Kahramaa, Qatar

Petroleum, Qatar Rail, Qatar Gas, MOE, Ooredoo, other telecommunications networks,
and any other concerned authorities.
Upon completion of the service and utilities drawings and associated documentation that
show all requirements specified by each utility provider, the consultant shall obtain from

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each utility provider a stamped copy of the combined utility drawings, with a letter stating
that the works specified on the drawings comply with requirements and that the scheme is
approved.
In the final detailed design stage, the following reports require approval of the Overseeing
Organization:
• Final design
• Land acquisition
• Program

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References
Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. Abu Dhabi Utility Corridors Design Manual, Version 1. United Arab
Emirates. 2012.
Ashghal. Work Zone Traffic Management Guide (WZTMG), Version 1.2. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha Qatar. November 2015.
Ashghal. Qatar Construction Standards (QCS), Qatar Public Works Authority. 2014.
British Standard BS EN 124. Gully Tops and Manhole Tops for Vehicular and Pedestrian Areas. British
Standard Institution: London, England. 1994. Doha Interim Zoning Maps and Regulations, Zones 1
through 68. April 2008.
Various dates.
General Secretariat for Development Planning. Qatar National Vision 2030: Advancing
Sustainable Development. Doha, State of Qatar. http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/
gsdp_en/qatar_national_vision/qnv_2030_document/QNV2030_English_v2.pdf. July 2009.
Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME). Guidelines for Utility Impact Assessment for Expressways.
Doha, State of Qatar. November 2018.
Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME). Guidelines for Utility Impact Assessment for Local Roads
in Developed Areas. Doha, State of Qatar. February 2019.
Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME). Utility Cross Section Guidelines for Local Roads in New
Development. Doha, State of Qatar. February 2019.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Impact Assessment Guidance Information. Doha,
State of Qatar. May 2011.
National Joint Utilities Group (NJUG) Guidelines on the Positioning and Colour Coding of Underground
Utilities’ Apparatus. London, England. April 2003.
Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads. Road Planning and Design Manual (RPDM). 2nd
edition. State of Queensland, Australia. At http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/business-industry/Technical-
standards-publications/Road-planning-and-design-manual-2nd-edition.aspx. 2013.
Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards. Ministry of Communications—Directorate General of Roads.

Prepared by Dar Al-Handasah; Shair and Partners. 2010.
Urban Planning and Development Authority. Qatar Survey Manual. Ministry of Municipal and Urban
Planning. State of Qatar. 2009.

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Appendix A
Data Verification

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Data Verification
Topographical Surveys
The topographical survey must follow the 2009 Qatar Survey Manual (Urban Planning & Development
Authority, 2009) available from the Ministry of Municipality & Environment (MME). For the design of utility
corridors, it is important to establish accurate details of the total highway corridor and prescribed utility
corridors. To facilitate this requirement, a topographical survey must be carried out. The survey must
precisely define all the highway boundaries and surface features, which will influence the utility corridor
design in particular and utility structures in general. The survey must be based on the Qatar National
Datum with temporary level stations established along the route of the proposed highway improvement
project. The data produced must be checked with data received from the service provider. Any errors
found in matching data must be reported in a Discrepancy Report and issued to both MME and the relevant
service provider. The service provider will then be asked to investigate the errors and provide updated
information regarding their particular assets.
Site Walk-Over Survey and Marker Posts

The utility designer is responsible for a site walk-over survey to verify data provided by the service
provider and note any other features that are not apparent from information already received. Photographs
and video recordings of this walk will form a historical data set for reference in any claims dispute by
contractors. Utility marker posts give physical evidence of utility location and depth, and this information
needs to be captured during this walk-over survey. Photographic and video records of the initial site
visited need to be taken for future reference.
Lift and Look Surveys

“Lift and look” surveys are normally conducted at the concept stage of design, if required. Such surveys
require a fully trained team of operators to gather data on underground assets. The service providers must
be consulted. Their formal permission to conduct the survey is required to lift manhole covers. Typical
information required is invert level, diameter, and valve chamber configuration, all of which is recorded
in a report format. Date-stamped photographs must be taken as a formal historical record of the survey.
The lifting of manholes requires fully trained personnel. One the main concerns of lifting heavy objects,
such as manhole covers, is the strain on the human vertebra and possible long-term damage. The maximum
lifting load for a human being is 30 kilograms (kg). This weight should be lifted using bent knees and a
straight back. Employers need to avoid using employees to lift manhole covers and use either mechanical
or hydraulic manhole-lifting equipment. See Figures A.1 and A.2.
A confined space is another health and safety issue that needs to be addressed with skilled and trained
personnel. No contractor should to be allowed to enter a confined space such as a manhole or valve chamber
without full confined space training, suitable personal protection, gas detection, escape apparatus, and

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permission from Ashghal. Contractors will be criminally liable for damages arising from negligence.
Figure A.1 Hydraulic Manhole Lifting Equipment
Figure A.2 Mechanical Manhole Lifting Equipment
Trial Holes
Trial holes will help accomplish the following:
• Confirm the locations of particular services.

• Establish the accuracy of data provided by the various authorities.
• Confirm where there is spare space.
• Clarify what the situation is at difficult utility crossing points.

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The utility designer must specify the size of the trial hole and locate the pit using northing and easting
coordinates. The trial hole will normally be a trench running perpendicular to the roadway and the utilities
(assuming they are running parallel to the roadway). It will be typically 0.8 to 1.0 m wide (depending
on depths and need for shoring protection), and depths are dependent upon the services being located.
These pits will typically be from the ROW boundary up to the roadway limits. Trial pits in the roadway
are discouraged except in exceptional circumstances. Trial holes are normally excavated by hand. The
excavations establish data such as depth, size, and location of utility services. The coordinates of the trial
hole and the apparatus found in the hole need to be recorded. Permission is required from the relevant
service authority, and the service provider may require its site staff to oversee the excavation work. A
record of the findings of the trial holes needs to be added to the project historical database, as well as
photographs taken as evidence.
Trial pits must be reinstated to the existing conditions and in compliance with the QCS and Ashghal’s
requirements.
Tracing Utility Apparatus

Electronic metal detectors and signal generators have become the standard equipment for noninvasive
detection of cables and metallic underground pipe work. Where it is deemed necessary to collect data
on nonferrous materials (for example, concrete and clay sewers), an ultrasonic probe may need to be
introduced into the sewer on rods. The probe can be detected at ground level using a scanning device.
Another technique for collecting data on buried services is ground-penetrating radar (GPR).
The data collected from the tracing of underground utilities are normally shown on a plan drawing as a
series of points with coordinates. Where the detector has been used to estimate the depth of a utility, the
information is also given as a text value.
Ground-penetrating Radar
Most Ashghal contracts require a GPR survey. GPR is useful in predicting underlying ground conditions and
in locating services in certain situations. Figure A.3 shows typical ground scanning equipment. However,
the results of GPR can be difficult to interpret and are open to operator interpretation. Groundwater water
can affect the readings.
The technology of GPR is gradually changing. However, any tool that gives an indication of changes
in underground structure and utility location can be regarded as useful collaborative information, but it
should be used with discretion.
Ground in areas where there is uncertainly of underlying services and ground make-up should be scanned.
The results of scanning will look similar to the diagram in Figure A.4. The colored, arch-shaped objects are
the results of radar energy being reflected off underground objects. The lower half of Figure A.4 shows
the various pipes and subjects detected in the ground.
The operator should then produce an interpretation report indicating the approximate position of the
services found. A GPR survey should be performed before trial holes are excavated, and may act as another
requirement for the necessity of a trial hole.

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Figure A.3 Ground-penetrating Radar Equipment
Figure A.4 Results of GPR Scanning
Metal Detectors
Metal detectors are useful in locating buried manhole covers and metallic services.

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Utility Location Equipment and Method of Location

Electronic devices (often referred to as a cable avoidance tool or Cat & Genny) are available to detect
underground utilities. The general location detector and signal generator shown in Figure A.5 provide a
high level of detection rate for certain utility services. Unfortunately, concrete, asbestos cement, plastic
pipe such as polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene, do not transmit signals and are not readily located using
this type of equipment. To counter this, many service providers lay detector tape over their services to
assist in locating them.
Location Technique 1
The first technique used to locate metal pipes uses a generator that transmits a pulse of energy into
the ground. Any metallic structure in the ground bounces the transmitted signal back to the detector. By
turning the detector and checking the received signal, the line of the pipe can be ascertained, as shown
in Figure A.6. This technique is also useful if the pipe joints are not metal-to-metal.
Location Detector Signal Generator
Figure A.5 Location Detector for Underground Utilities
Figure A.6 Signal Generator over Metal Pipe

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Another technique used to locate metal pipes also uses a signal generator, which is a powerful standalone
generator of energy that in this case is connected directly to the metallic pipe. A pulse of energy is
transmitted along the pipe and the detector picks up the transmitted signal, as shown in Figure A.7. This
is an efficient way of detecting pipes. Unfortunately, if the pipe joints are not metal-to-metal, the signal
does not transfer across the joint and the signal does not progress very far up the pipeline.
To locate other pipes that cannot transfer signals along themselves such as plastic pipes, a sonde, which
is a cylindrical transmitter, is passed through the pipe by using a rod. The transmitter is detected from
the surface by using the location detector. The sonde is pushed in 1- to 5-meter steps and traced during
each step.
Signal on
Detector
Detector
Burried
Pipe
Direction of
movement of
detector
Figure A.7 Handheld Detector over Buried Pipe

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Appendix B
Ministry of Municipality and
Environment (MME) Typical
Cross Sections

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Appendix C
Checklists

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MME-IPD UTILITY IMPACT ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST

EXPRESSWAY PROJECTS – PLANNING STAGE
Project Title:
Document Reference No.: Submission date.: / /
Item Description Yes No Comments

1.0 Project information
1.1 Write project start date and duration in comments column.
1.2 MOTC approval status of Transport / Traffic Impact Study (TIS); Others;
Approved In process Others
☐ ☐ ☐
(ref: 1.4-Transportation Planning Process/QHDM Volume 1 Part 2 Planning)
1.3 Project type and scope; New Road Upgrading Others Others;
☐ ☐ ☐
1.4 Project location and functional classification; Others;
Urban Rural Others
Expressway ☐ ☐ ☐
☐
Arterial ☐ ☐
Collector-Distributor ☐ ☐ ☐
Collector ☐ ☐ ☐
Local ☐ ☐ ☐
1.5 This submission is made for approval of;
Pre-Feasibility study Feasibility study Concept Design
☐ ☐ ☐
1.6 Additional land is required for implementation of the project based on ☐ ☐ Others;
TIS and resultant road elements proposals?
Right of Way Widening Interchanges Intersections Others
☒ ☐ ☐ ☐
(ref: 1.5-Land Use Considerations/QHDM Volume 1 Part 2 Planning)
2.0 Planning Process: Appraisal
2.1 Latest data from all stakeholders formally collected (i.e. RFI, QDRS, ☐ ☐
transmittals etc.), and incorporated in projects conceptual study?
(Attach filled: Utility data and Stakeholders Management Matrix
(Template DOC. NO. IPD-MME-UT-SH-01-R1)
2.2 Major programs and adjacent projects data collected, and ☐ ☐
incorporated in this submission to achieve a strategic best-value
solution?
2.3 Major strategic existing utilities considered as constraints for ☐ ☐
planning of road elements?
2.4 A balanced approach adopted in resolving utility interfaces for ☐ ☐
achievement of an economical, functional solution at a given
location during the process of proposing road elements
(underpass, ramps etc.), subsequent major utilities modification
and associated additional land requirements.
2.5 Utilities Conflict Resolution Matrix prepared, before conducting ☐ ☐
Optioneering Study?
(Attach filled: Utility Conflicts Management Matrix (Template DOC. NO. IPD-MME-
UT-CM-01-R1)
Tel:(+974) 4426 5305 – Fax:(+974)44266242 www.baladiya.gov.qa Doc. No. MME-IPD-UI-CL-01-R1

P.O. Box: 22423 Doha, Qatar Page 1 of 3

PART UTILITIES
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Project Title:

2.6 The road elements design proposal in this submission have been ☐ ☐
selected after performing Optioneering Study.
2.7 The major utilities and interfacing road elements proposals impact ☐ ☐
forecasted, and alternative plans or scenarios investigated for a
realistic scope & budget estimates in designing;
ROW Under/Overpass Interchanges Intersections Others
Widening
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
(Attach filled: Optioneering Study Cost Comparison Estimates; Template DOC. NO.
IPD-MME-UT-CC-01-R1)
3.0 Conceptual Design Stage: Integrated Road Design
3.1 Existing major utilities safeguarding was one of the Design ☐ ☐
Control factors in Integrated Road Design process from “day
one”.
3.2 Utility Conflict Resolutions Decision Hierarchy: The decisions ☐ ☐
hierarchy while dealing with utilities major conflicts and
adjustments did follow the order of preferences as below (A being
the most preferred);
A. Keep As Is (safeguarding the existing)
B. Protect (including under the service and carriageway)
C. Relocate
D. Install in aductsystem
E. Install in shared trench
F. Reroute
G. Install in Gallery
H. Land Acquisition
4.1 For utilities modification works, Integrated Road Design resulted in ☐ ☐
additional land requirements at;
ROW Under/Overpass Interchanges Intersections Others
Widening
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
4.2 Land acquisition alternate options such as use of buffer zone or ☐ ☐
easement were explored for utilities before reaching land
acquisition plan?
(Attach key plan showing land acquisition, buffer zones/potential
easements?)
4.3 Land Acquisition proposal developed based on difficulty rating and ☐ ☐
included in thissubmission?
Land Acquisition: difficulty rating with (1) being the easiest to
acquire;
1) Government unallocated
2) Government allocated
3) Private Undeveloped (no structures)
4) Private Developed- old

UTILITIES PART
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Project Title:

5) Private Developed- new
6) Protected Environment
7) Protected Sensitive (PEO)
8) Protected Heritage
4.4 Land Acquisition difficulty rating was followed in proposing ☐ ☐
the land acquisition and demonstrated in Land Requirements
plans?
5.0 Documentation & Submittals
5.1 Set of drawings requirement for review of submittal covering full ☐ ☐
length of the project in readable scale (not less than 1:500 @ A1
size);
a. Presentation of changes in the road levels i.e. existing vs. ☐ ☐
proposed in profile and cross-section.
b. Presentation of the road layout including other projects ☐ ☐
and permanent assets within the corridor e.g. Metro etc.
c. Presentation of proposed and existing utilities. Existing ☐ ☐
utilities must be annotated with proposed treatment as
"kept as is", "protected", "abandoned", "removed",
"relocated".
d. Presentation of Utility Corridor in plan and cross-section; ☐ ☐
i. MME typical cross-section included.
ii. Existing utility with appropriate annotations shown
as described under “c.”
iii. Known future utilities (provided by utility agency)
included
iv. Estimation of future utility needs studied and
incorporated
e. Presentation of updated/customized cross-sections ☐ ☐
showing MME allocated utility corridors, proposed utility
corridors with the existing and proposed utilities.
f. Presentation of Layout Plan indicating the Land to be ☐ ☐
acquired for Utility purposes.
5.2 Separated the "dry" utilities from "wet" utilities in the layout ☐ ☐
plans for ease of documentation.
Signature Name
Engineer Approve
(Project Director) Signature Name


PART UTILITIES
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EXPRESSWAY PROJECTS – DETAIL DESIGN STAGE
Project Title:

1.0 Project information
1.1 MME-IPD initial approval attached. ☐ ☐
1.2 Write project Construction start date and duration in comments
column.
1.3 Project type and scope; New Road Upgrading Others
☐ ☐ ☐
1.4 This submission is made for approval of; ☐ ☐
Concept Design Preliminary Design Detailed Design
☐ ☐ ☐
1.5 Project location and functional classification; ☐ ☐

Urban Rural Others
Expressway ☐ ☐ ☐
Arterial ☐ ☐ ☐
Collector-Distributor ☐ ☐ ☐
Collector ☐ ☐ ☐
Local ☐ ☐ ☐
1.6 The project ultimate implementation is in stages? If yes tick the ☐ ☐
applicable stage;
Temporary Interim Ultimate
☐ ☐ ☐
2.0 Utility and Integrated Road Design

2.1 Existing utilities and corridors are aligned with road ☐ ☐
implementation strategy
2.2 Current submission includes data updates collected from all ☐ ☐
stakeholders (i.e. RFI, QDRS, coordination, transmittals etc.)?
(Attach updated: Utility data and Stakeholders Management Matrix
(Template DOC. NO. IPD-MME-UT-SH-01-R1)
2.3 Underground utilities detection and land topographic survey ☐ ☐
incorporated in this submission?
2.4 Utility As Built data Site verification completed, discrepancies ☐ ☐
recorded and shared with relevant agency?
2.5 Utilities Conflict Resolution Matrix updated/attached? ☐ ☐
(Attach updated: Utility Conflicts Management Matrix (Template DOC. NO. IPD-
MME-UT-CM-01-R1)
2.6 Utility agencies contacted and their feedback incorporated ☐ ☐
regarding impacted utility’s betterment works.
2.7 Approving Agency’s preconstruction approval applied through ☐ ☐
QPRO?
2.8 Roads and utilities network connection with Public Realm ☐ ☐
amenities updated incorporating existing and planned schemes.
Tel: (+974) 4426 5305 – Fax: (+974) 4426 6242 www.baladiya.gov.qa Doc. No. MME-IPD-UI-CL-02-R1

UTILITIES PART
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Project Title:

2.9 Provision made for utility and corridors from adjacent ongoing
projects (if any) for tie-in with this project? Mention projects name in
comments column.
Roads KM PWA Others
Tie in projects ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
2.10 Service and connectivity provisions with major utilities inside & ☐ ☐
outside right of way along the corridors e.g. substation, pump
stations, water tanks etc.?
2.11 Land expropriation is required for accommodating road elements, ☐ ☐
and land acquisition/expropriation corresponding drawings
prepared, included?
Right of Way Widening Interchanges Intersections Others
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
2.12 Land expropriation is required to accommodate existing and future ☐ ☐

known utilities and corridors and required areas identified with
appropriate annotation in drawings?
2.13 Land expropriation justifications included in Land acquisition ☐ ☐
drawings?
2.14 Land acquisition alternate options such as use of buffer zone or ☐ ☐
easement were explored for utilities before reaching land
acquisition plan?
(Attach key plan showing land acquisition, buffer zones/potential
easements?)
2.15 For unavoidable locations, Land Acquisition proposals follow easier ☐ ☐
option priority criteria. (1 - the easiest; 8 - the most difficult land
acquisition);
1) Government unallocated
2) Government allocated
3) Private Undeveloped (no structures)
4) Private Developed- old
5) Private Developed- new
6) Protected Environment
7) Protected Sensitive (PEO)
8) Protected Heritage

3.1 Detailed design submission incorporates MME-IPD initial approval ☐ ☐
comments.
3.2 Detailed design results; ☐ ☐
Major conflicts resolved New conflicts created Others
☐ ☐ ☐
3.3 Conflict Analysis considered utility conflicts arising from;

PART UTILITIES
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Project Title:

a. Road configuration? ☐ ☐
b. Between different utilities? ☐ ☐
c. Major projects e.g. Metro? ☐ ☐
d. Adjacent projects? ☐ ☐
3.4 Utility Impacts of major and critical conflicts 3D views prepared and ☐ ☐
included in submission.
3.5 Impact of road proposed configuration on major existing utilities ☐ ☐
investigated and assessment made at each critical location
(junctions, ROW widening etc.);
Utility major modifications
Investigated avoided unavoidable
Road centerline shift ☐ ☐ ☐
Road geometry (H/V profile) ☐ ☐ ☐
Road Proposed structures ☐ ☐ ☐
Road lane width reduction ☐ ☐ ☐
Protection slabs proposal ☐ ☐ ☐
Standards departure/ Others ☐ ☐ ☐
*(Populate & attach: DOC. NO. IPD-MME-UT-CM-02-R1 utility conflict

matrix)
3.6 Utility Betterment works studies: Confirm that utility agencies have ☐ ☐
been contacted and their feedback incorporated regarding
impacted utility’s betterment works.
3.7 Utility betterment works cost sharing already agreed among ☐ ☐
agencies?
3.8 Utility betterment works did consider the following;
a. The age of the impacted utility and expected residual life? ☐ ☐
b. The utility potential near future upgrades? ☐ ☐
c. Salvaged Material and Reuse ☐ ☐
4.0 Narrow and obstructed corridors studies

4.1 Sections of ROW where Typical Utility Cross-sections not
applicable identified with appropriate customized cross section;
a. Narrow Right of Way ☐ ☐
b. Right of way partly obstructed, constrained ☐ ☐
c. Utility corridors obstructed ☐ ☐
d. Special structures sited ☐ ☐
4.2 Investigated alternate options (gallery, duct banks, dry legs etc.) to ☐ ☐
route transmission utilities corridors through constrained
corridors? If yes, write option name.
4.3 Alternate options selected on the basis;
a. Value Engineering / Cost-Benefit analysis (Land ☐ ☐
acquisition, utilities rerouting etc.)
b. Instructions (contract, client, agency etc.) ☐ ☐

UTILITIES PART
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Project Title:

c. Site constraints ☐ ☐
d. Others? ☐ ☐
5.0 Documentation & Submittals

5.1 Set of drawings requirement for review of submittal covering full ☐ ☐
length of the project in readable scale (not less than 1:500 @ A1
size);
a. Presentation of changes in the road levels i.e. existing vs. ☐ ☐
proposed in profile and cross-section.
b. Presentation of the road layout including other projects ☐ ☐
and permanent assets within the corridor e.g. Metro etc.
c. Presentation of proposed and existing utilities. Existing ☐ ☐
utilities must be annotated with proposed treatment as
"kept as is", "protected", "abandoned", "removed",
"relocated".
d. Presentation of Utility Corridor in plan and cross-section; ☐ ☐
i. MME typical cross-section included.
ii. Existing utility with appropriate annotations shown
as described under “c.”
iii. Known future utilities (provided by utility agency)
included
iv. Estimation of future utility needs studied and
incorporated
e. Presentation of updated/customized cross-sections ☐ ☐
showing MME allocated utility corridors, proposed utility
corridors with the existing and proposed utilities.
f. Presentation of Layout Plan indicating the Land to be ☐ ☐
acquired for Utility purposes.
5.2 Separated the "dry" utilities from "wet" utilities in the layout ☐ ☐
plans for ease of documentation.
Signature Name
Engineer Approve
(Project Director) Signature Name

PART UTILITIES
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UTILITIES PART
11
Appendix D
Statutory Authority
Requirements

PART UTILITIES
11
Utility General Data
Key Utilities Description and Constraints
Public and private utilities include telecommunications, water (potable, foul, surface, irrigation, and chilled),
electricity (transmission, distribution, lighting, intelligent transportation system, and gas surveillance),
and gas and oil lines. When utilities need to be placed within the highway boundaries, they need to be
within a prescribed utility corridor. This appendix describes the individual utilities in Qatar, considerations
that designers needs to give to the placement of these and any other utilities, and constraints set by
individual utility companies.
Materials for pipe and cable bedding are as specified in the Qatar Construction Standards 2014 (QCS 2014)
(Ashghal, 2014) or in project-specific specifications.
Stacking of telecommunications and electrical ducts is to be in accordance with QCS 2014 or project-
specific specifications, which needs to take into account the requirements of utility companies, particularly
if design approval is required.
Flexibility of location is key to the success of placement of utilities. Service providers will need to work
together to achieve good utility designs.
General Data for Utility Placement in Utility Corridors
The following data are provided as general guidance material for the utility designer and do not constitute
a definitive right of corridor access. All utility corridors ultimately need to be agreed upon with the service
provider and the Overseeing Organization.

UTILITIES PART
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Table D.1 Summary of Horizontal and Vertical Utility Spacing
Minimum Vertical Spacing Minimum Horizontal Spacing

(mm) (mm)
Qatar Armed Forces (QAF) 400 300
Tel-Communication 400 300
500 from centre line of cables &

Kahramma Electrict Distribution 500
1000 from structures
500 from centre line of cables &

Kahramma Electrict Transmission 500
1000 from structures
Ashghal Street Lighting 300 300
Intelligent Transport Surveillance

400 300
(ITS)
250 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is 500 & no service laid parallel to gas
Woqod - Gas
greater & no crossing above Gas Main main
300 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is

Ashghal - Foul Drainage 500
greater
Ashghal - Foul Drainage (Deep 1500 or 1.5x dia. Which ever is the
500
Tunnels) greater spacing

Ashghal - Surface Water Drainage 500
greater

Ashghal - Irrigation TSE 500
greater
3000 from TSE, waste water

750 from TSE, waste water structure,
structures, storm drains & culverts.
Kahramma Potable Water storm drains & culverts. 500 from
1500 from electric cables,Qtel &
Electricity & Qtel, District Cooling
District Cooling. 2000 from QP oil/gas

District Cooling 1500
greater
Qrail 6000 above tunnel & 3000 below 5000
Doha Security Systems (DSS) 400 300

PART UTILITIES
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Telecommunications—Qatar Armed Forces
Service Telecommunications
Width 0.5 meter (m)
Maximum Utility Size 3-way, 100-millimeter (mm) ducts (theoretical bank size based on 2-way drawing way
Feasible in Corridor duct)
Authority Ministry of Defence, Qatar Armed Forces
Address
Telephone
Laying Depth (cover) 600 mm minimum
Trench Widths 2-way (2 watt [W]) = 400 mm
Third-Party Clearance Unknown
Other Considerations Unknown
Design and Construction Unknown
Operations and
Unknown
Maintenance
Alignment at property boundaries may be subject to interference into corridor of wall

footings, etc.
General Observations
Although requested in all corridors, it is unlikely to be required in residential and smaller
corridors.

UTILITIES PART
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Telecommunications—Ministry of Information Environment

Service Telecommunication
Width 1 m to 1.5 m depending on available space.
Maximum Utility Size

9-way, 100-mm ducts
Feasible in Corridor
Address P.O. Box 217, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44400400
Laying Depth (cover) 0.60 m minimum
Trench Widths Varies dependent on the number of ducts required
Third-party Clearance Not specified
Design and Cable and chambers are often laid after completion of the highway construction
Construction Require space for draw pits.
Operations and Digging is not normally required for maintenance, because cables are laid between draw pits in
Maintenance ducts.
The flexible nature of ducts means that they can often be moved out of the way or supported
when maintenance is required on other services below.
It is preferable to keep ducts out of areas that may be subject to significant stormwater runoff
or standing water to reduce risk of chambers filling with water.

PART UTILITIES
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UTILITIES PART
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PART UTILITIES
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Electricity—Distribution
Service Electricity—distribution
Width Varies depending on the number of cables
Authority Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (Kahramaa)
Telephone +974-44845555
Laying Depth (cover) Low-voltage (LV) = 0.60 m, medium-voltage (MV) = 0.80 m
Trench Widths Varies dependent on number of cables
0.50 m from centerline of cable to nearest edge of utility. 1.00 m from structures
Third-party Clearance
(excluding manholes, street lights, street furniture, and trees)
Cable are often laid after completion of the highway construction which would require
Design and Construction
closing the path and parking bay and removal or reinstatement of the finishing layer.
For cable maintenance or repair if long section has to be exposed, requiring the closure of
Operation and
extended stretches of the path and parking bay, and the removal or reinstatement of the
Maintenance
finishing layer.
Minimum separation from other services of 0.5 m will restrict use of adjacent corridors.
General Observations According to Kahramaa standard drawings, cables can be laid within 150 mm of each of
corridor. Cable failure often occurs at joints.

UTILITIES PART
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PART UTILITIES
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Electricity—Transmission
Service Electricity—transmission
Width 0.9 m for 3 cables, 1.2 m for 4 cables, and 1.8 m for 6 cables.

Type G for extra-high-voltage (EHV) cables; see typical details.
Anticipated Maximum
See typical details.
Utility Size
Authority Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Kahramaa)
Tel: +974-44845555
Laying Depth (cover) High-voltage (HV) = 0.8 m, EHV=1.10 m minimum
Trench Widths Varies depending on the number of cables.
0.50 m from centerline of cable to nearest edge of utility; 1.00 m from structures (excluding
Third-party Clearance
manholes, streetlights, street furniture, and trees).
Cable are often laid after completion of the highway construction, which would require
Design and closing the path and parking bay and removal or reinstatement of the finishing layer.
Construction Because of rapid urban growth, new cables and modifications to existing cables are often
required.
Operation and For cable maintenance or repair if long section has to be exposed.
Maintenance
The minimum separation from other services of 0.5 m will restrict use of adjacent corridors
as according to Kahramaa standard drawings cables can be laid within 150 mm of each of
corridor.
Cable failure often occurs at joints.

UTILITIES PART
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Electricity—Lighting
Service Electricity—lighting
Width 0.60 m
Direct buried single cable = 500 mm

Maximum Utility Size Feasible in
1-way Ducts: 150 mm unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) duct = 350 mm
Corridor
2-way Ducts: 150 mm uPVC duct = 650 mm
Authority Ashghal
Address Al Faisal Tower, P.O. Box 22188, West Bay, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) Between cables = 450 mm, ducts = 600 mm
Direct bury single cable = 500 mm

Trench Widths 1-way 150-mm uPVC duct = 350 mm
2-way 150-mm uPVC duct = 650 mm
Design and Construction Need to follow street light locations
Operations and Maintenance Per telecommunications.
Per telecommunications, consideration needs to be given to changing bulbs and

light emitting diodes.

PART UTILITIES
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UTILITIES PART
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Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)
Service Intelligent transportation system (ITS)
Width 0.60 m
Maximum Utility Size Feasible in

6-way (2 W) = 550 mm
Corridor
Anticipated Maximum Utility Size If required in residential road, 6-way (2 W × 3 H) = 550 mm
Authority Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal)
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) 600 mm minimum
6-way (2 W) = 550 mm
Trench Widths
Chambers 1,200 mm wide
Third-party Clearance Not specified
Other Considerations —
Per telecommunications.
Design and Construction Need to follow traffic signal locations.
Location of feeder pillars poles needs consideration.
Per telecommunications.
Operations and Maintenance
Access to cabinets needs to be facing traffic
General Observations Per telecommunications

PART UTILITIES
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Gas
Service Gas
Width 1.20 m
Depth 0.80 m to 1.00 m minimum

500 mm (based on Ashghal wet service bedding detail)
Anticipated Maximum
Up to 100 mm
Utility Size
Authority Qatar Fuel (WOQOD)
Address PO Box 7777, Woqod Tower, West Bay, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 4021 7777
<7-bar 600 mm in highway, 750 mm in verges, 1,100 mm uncultivated land (United

Laying Depth (cover) Kingdom [UK] National Joint Utilities Group specifications)
>7-bar 1,100 mm in verges (UK National Joint Utilities Group specifications)
Trench Widths Assumed, per sewerage pipes based on high-density polyethylene mains for all classes.
UK recommendations: No apparatus is to be laid directly above and along the line of

existing gas pipes, irrespective of clearance. Where a new plant crosses over or is laid
Third-party Clearance alongside an existing gas pipe, a minimum clearance of 250 mm (or 1.5 times the
external diameter of the gas pipe, if this is greater) between the gas pipe and the new
plant needs to be provided to allow future repair or maintenance (UK recommendations)
Other considerations —
Should be kept away from other service to reduce the risk of striking a gas pipe whilst
excavating to maintain other utility.
Design and Construction
Pressurized so can be laid at falling or rising gradients.
Service pipes tapped into mains to feed properties.
Operations and
Periodic maintenance of valves, flow and pressure loggers, and other equipment.
Maintenance
Ideally, not laid near other services due to risk of striking pipes during excavations.
General Observations Should not be laid near electrical cables.
Risk of gas leaking into bedding of gas and other services and migrating to voids.
Note: A bar is a unit of pressure equal to 100,000 pascals.

UTILITIES PART
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Local Foul Sewers
Service Foul sewerage
Maximum Width Depends on depth and diameter
Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal) Roads and Drainage Network Design
Authority
Department
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) Minimum unpaved = 0.90 m; minimum paved = 1.20 m; maximum depth = 5.0 m to 9.0 m
Third-party Clearance 200 mm high minimum, 500 mm high preferred, 300 mm high for twin rising mains
Minimum diameter = 300 mm

Manholes required every 80 m to 120 m on gravity lines.
Other Considerations
Air valves at high points and every 800 m on rising mains
Washouts at low points and every 800 m on rising mains
Gravity sewers must be laid at a falling gradient.

Must be laid lower than existing laterals connections from properties.
Design and Construction As laterals must be laid on a falling gradient distances to main sewer needs to be kept to
minimum
Lateral connections required for new properties to manhole.
Gravity sewers are periodically jetted if solids build up. Inspection is not common unless a
Operations and problem is reported.
Maintenance Rising mains are rarely maintained unless there is a blockage or failure. Maintenance
usually carried out by jetting or pigging.
Trench bedding widths would allow approximately three 600 mm pipes to be laid in 4.00
m wide corridor.
Positioning centrally in corridor minimizes depth requirements to pick up laterals from both
sides of highway.
Positioning in highway acceptable as maintenance requirements are infrequent on both
gravity and pressure systems.
If there is blockage in the system leading to flooding at the manholes, it is desirable to
have the manholes away from pedestrian areas (paths) and the flooding would be partially
contained by the highway.
Drainage is usually the deepest service and lateral connections may be able to pass under
other services.
Settlement of highway around chambers and manholes.

PART UTILITIES
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UTILITIES PART
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Deep Foul Sewerage (Micro Tunnels/Main Tunnels)
Service Foul sewage
Width Depends on tunnel size.
Anticipated Maximum
4,500 mm
Utility Size
Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal) Roads and Drainage Network Design
Authority
Department
Telephone +974 44950000
Third-party Clearance 1 × diameter
Minimum diameter = 3,000 mm

Manholes required every 1,750 m on micro-tunnel gravity lines.
Design and Construction Gravity sewers must be laid at a falling gradient.
Operations and
Entry for robot maintenance for large main tunnels.
Maintenance
Main conveyance tunnel pipe size ranging from 3 m to 4.5 m in diameter at depths 10 m
to 60 m below ground level.
General Observations A separate foul-water system with no provision for stormwater connections.
Main tunnel can be located under any service because of the depth of the conveyance.
Shafts positions must be in agreed-upon locations.

PART UTILITIES
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Stormwater and Land Drainage
Service Stormwater
Diameter Varies
Authority Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal) Roads and Drainage Network Design Department
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (Cover) Varies

Other Considerations Robot entry manholes required every 90 m on gravity lines.
Man entry manholes required every 200 m on gravity lines.
Design and Gravity stormwater sewers must be laid at a falling gradient, and lower than existing gulley
Construction connections.
Gravity stormwater sewers are jetted if solids build up. Inspection is not common unless a
Operations and problem is reported.
Maintenance Rising mains are rarely maintained unless there is a blockage or failure. Maintenance usually
carried out by jetting or pigging.

UTILITIES PART
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PART UTILITIES
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UTILITIES PART
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Irrigation/Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE)
Service Treated sewage effluent (TSE)
Diameter Varies
Authority Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal) Roads and Drainage Network Design Department
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) Assumed as sewerage

Isolation valves every 500 m to 1,000 m
Washouts in pipes at low points
Air valves at high points
Pressurized, so can be laid at falling or rising gradients.

Design and Construction Needs to connect into irrigation areas that can be at sides of highways or in central
reservations.
Require periodic flushing at washouts to removed sediment.

Operations and
Valves exercised regularly to check serviceability in case of a burst. Some valves may be
Maintenance
used to control irrigation and, therefore, are used daily.
Regular access to operate valves as preventive maintenance or part of irrigation would be

suited by valves chambers; for example, in paths and roundabouts.

PART UTILITIES
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UTILITIES PART
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Potable Water
Service Water
Varies distribution mains typically 150 mm to 300 mm

Diameter
Trunk mains can be 1,600 mm and greater in certain circumstances
Authority Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (Kahramaa)
Tel: +974 4845989
Laying Depth
900 mm unprotected (minimum)
(cover)
Trench Widths External pipe diameter plus 175 mm on either side.
Design and Pressurized, so can be laid at falling or rising gradients.

Construction Service pipes tapped into mains to feed properties.
Gravity sewer mains and service connections, TSE pressure mains, wastewater structures, storm
drains and culverts = 0.75 m vertical, 3.00 m horizontal
Electricity = 0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Third-party
Ooredoo =0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Clearance
Qatar Petroleum (QP) oil/gas = 0.60 m vertical, 2.00 m horizontal
Qatar Cool = 0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Water mains = 0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Tertiary main = <100 mm in diameter

Secondary main = 100 to 200 mm in diameter
Primary main = >400 mm in diameter
Isolation valves every 300 m to 2,000 m
Other
Fire hydrants—residential = 300 m (150 mm diameter line)
Considerations
Fire hydrants—commercial = 100 m (150 mm diameter line)
Access manholes in pipes = >400 mm
Washouts in pipes = >400 mm at low points
Air valves at high points = >400 mm
Require occasional flushing at washouts to removed sediment.

Operations and
Valves operated regularly to check serviceability in case of a burst. Occasional maintenance of
Maintenance
flow and pressure loggers, pressure reduction valves, and telemetry equipment.
Regular access to operate valves as preventive maintenance and to inspect flowmeters,

pressure-reducing valves, etc., would be sited by chambers in the paths, roundabouts, etc.
General The minimum 1.50 m horizontal separation from electrical services will severely restrict the use
Observations of the adjacent electrical (distribution and lighting plus ITS) corridors.
Consideration needs to be given to the position of fire hydrants and 150 mm feed pipes that
could be located on both sides of the highway.

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Chilled Water (District Cooling)

Service District cooling
Diameter Varies
Anticipated Utility Size 150 mm to 1,200 mm in diameter
Authority/Agency Qatar Cool
Address P.O. Box 24979, West Bay, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44960555
Authority/Agency Marafeq Qatar
Address P.O. Box: 5651 Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 40120120
Laying Depth (cover) 1.2 m to 4 m
Trench Widths Pipe diameter outside = +500 mm
Two-pipe system feed and return, usually a duel trench with pipes 0.5 to 1 m apart. Pipe
has an insulation jacket usually 150-mm thick.
Design and Construction High-pressurize pipework up to 23 bara laid at falling or rising gradients.
Require periodic flushing at washouts to removed sediment. Washouts and air vents
Operations and
required within the network system.
Maintenance
Valves exercised regularly to check serviceability in case of a burst.
Currently, district cooling is limited to West Bay, The Pearl, and Lusail with two service
providers. Further installations are expected for developing areas of Doha.
Notes:
a
Unit of pressure equal to 100,000 pascals.

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Metro and Rail
Service Metro, Light Rail, Long Distance Passenger/Freight, Commuter Railway
Width − Nominal size of tunnel Metro: 8.5 meter (tunnel boring, circular)
− Nominal size of tunnel Long Distance/Commuter Railway = 11.5 meter outside (tunnel boring,
circular)
− Nominal size of tunnel = box shape d (cut & cover), confirm with Qatar Rail
− Above ground (elevated): on piers 6.5 m high (in the central median and cross overs)
− At-grade Metro/Long Distance/Commuter Railway: typically 1.2 m above road level
− At-grade LRT: at road level shared ROW or segregated (i.e.by kerb stone)
Corridor
− Trough/Ramp/Switch Boxes: at specific locations, confirm with Qatar Rail
Location
− Below ground (Underground) LRT: box shaped tunnels, no specific depth, confirm with Qatar Rail
− Below ground (Underground): no specific corridor because of the depth but, in general, under the
verge areas (see MME Policy Plan)
Anticipated Two 8.5 meter / 11.5 meter tunnels below ground. Confirm with Qatar Rail: stations, entrance shelters,
Utility Size emergency exits, utility Pop-Up structures, troughs and ramps, switch box, stabling yard/ depot
− Below ground Underground): typical protection zone to tunnels (see fig. 5.21), refer to Qatar Rail
safeguarding document and related manuals
Third-party − Above ground (elevated): Refer to Qatar Rail and their safeguarding document and related manuals
Clearance − At-grade Metro/Long Distance/Commuter Railway: typically minimum 2.15 m below Top of Rail
subject to geometrical & structural proof
− At-grade LRT: typically minimum 2.15 m below Top of Rail subject to geometrical & structural proof
Sr. # OHL Horizontal Clearance b/w Rail CL & Vertical Clearance b/w Top of Rail Lowest
Voltage Outer Edge of Tower Conductor at Crossing Location
Overhead 1 66 kV 50 meters 16 meters

Power /
2 132 kV 50 meters 16 meters
Electricity
Lines: 3 220 kV 60 meters 17 meters
4 400 kV 70 meters 18 meters
− Qatar Rail will also run on a track elevated 6.5 meter above ground level. The support for the track
will be located in the central median and require typically 8 m width (Metro/LRT) and 10 m (Long
Distance/Commuter Railway) for pier foundations.
− The Metro, LRT, Long Distance- and Commuter Railway will be supplied with 33kV electricity from
Bulk Power Substations. The power cables from the BPS to the railway to be considered untouch-
able.
− Safety clearances from all structures to be adhered to. When working near the railway appropri-
ate warning signage/markers and height restriction bars must be installed at all times. Restricted
zones or no-go areas must be obstructed with physical non-movable obstructions.
− All drilling operations require a separate approval from Qatar Rail.
Design and − Crossing third party utilities have to ensure & demonstrate:
Construction − Compliance with Qatar Rail requirements.
− Avoid rail assets/structures. Demonstrate that the proposed utility has no adverse effect on the
railway.
− For utility crossings:
− Provide suitable protection of the utility, type, extend, location.
− Control of Risk #1: wet utilities - burst of / leakage from pipe and short/medium/long term cata-
strophic failure of and/or adverse impact on the rail embankment & foundation & tunnel
Control of Risk #2: protection of the pipeline itself, withstanding all external & internal loads
(settlements)
Utility protection shall be continuous across the rail corridor (beam on elastic foundation)

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Security Systems
Security systems (barriers and bollards; x-ray and metal detection; under vehicle
Service
surveillance; explosives trace detection; and electronic frequency jamming)
Width 0.6 m
Authority Gulf Networks
Address P.O. Box 23658, Wholesale Market, Gate 1-Office 3, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 4697424
Laying Depth (cover) 0.6 m
Design and
Chambers 1.3 m × 0.9 m every 250 m and crossings every 500 m
Construction
Operations and
Cables are in ducts with draw chambers every 500 m
Maintenance
General Observations Security systems are not to be installed under the highway

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Appendix E
Construction Issues
to be Considered during
the Design Phase

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Special Design Considerations
Open Trenching
Open trenching is the normally preferred construction method for most utilities that are to be installed
less than 6 m below surface level. The width of the construction trench is primarily dependent on the size
of the service to be installed. Figure E.1 shows a typical open trench construction.
Open trenching can be used for most soil conditions; however, whenever soil is removed it changes the
forces in the soil and there is always a high risk of trench walls collapsing. Open trenches should always
be protected with either trench sheeting and trench props or trench boxes.
Groundwater is another factor that affects the stability of open trench work. Groundwater that is at a high
level in the trench may require dewatering during the excavation period. A simple pump in the excavation
may be sufficient to drop the groundwater level enough to allow excavation work. There are risks involved
in dewatering from inside the trench due to fines migration, so dewatering should not be used for long
periods or in loose, non-cohesive ground conditions. If the groundwater is excessive in terms of inflow
into an excavation, then full dewatering techniques may be required. Dewatering usually requires drilling
a series of small-diameter boreholes around the excavation and drawing the water out using a single
pump or a series of pumps.
During the installation of the utility service in the trench, it may be necessary to have a small land-drain
incorporated into the trench to assist in the pipe laying process.
Once the service has been laid, it may be necessary to provide a cut-off drain to control the groundwater
level. In some areas of Qatar, groundwater levels are high and are highly saline; protecting tree roots and
vegetation from saline water is ecologically important.
Figure E.1 Typical Open Trench Construction

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Combined Trench
This style of trenching is usually one open trench that combines two services. A combined trench is
normally constructed where two services are in close proximity to each other.
Shared or Dual Trench

Similar to a combined trench, a shared or dual trench indicates a trench that has been constructed for one
service has another service sharing the same trench line. The deeper service is constructed first, and then
later another trench is constructed in the same trench line. This practice is used when available space for
a utility corridor is restricted. Usually the second service is of a smaller diameter than the first. Figure E.2
shows an example of a dual trench utility installation.
Figure E.2 Dual Trench
Parallel Trench Excavations in Solid Ground

For local conditions where the ground contains limestone deposits that have to be removed by using a
rock breaker, the stability of the trenches is less of a problem. However, where utility corridors are close
together and a column of limestone is created between the two services, there is the potential for the
column to shear off. The utility designer should address this problem by allowing a reasonable thickness
of column to resist tension forces. In such instances, the utility designer should also consider using dual
trenches. Where possible, deeper services should always be laid first to minimize the potential risk of rock
shearing. Figure E.3 shows parallel trenches in hard ground conditions the potential of shearing.

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Figure E.3 Parallel Trenches in Hard Ground Conditions and Shearing Potential
Dual Trench Lines, Pressure Pipe, and Thrust Blocks

When two pressure pipes are to be placed parallel to each other and there is a change in direction, then
the inner pipe is at risk of not having sufficient bearing area in which to resist the resultant pipe forces.
In this situation, a cantilevered reinforced thrust block is required. As an alternative to the cantilever,
thrust block restraining joints could be used, reducing the excavation area. Figure E.4 shows a typical
cantilevered thrust block arrangement for parallel pipes.
Figure E.4 Typical Cantilevered Thrust Block Arrangement

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No-dig Technologies
The traditional open trenching technique for installing utilities is still the preferred method of construction.
However, as the demand for utilities increases and there is a need to install utilities in existing highways
without causing traffic disruption, then trenchless technology becomes a good alternative technology.
The use of trenchless technology should only be used when a cost-benefit analysis has been carried out
or if a specific need is identified such as safety, or ease of construction. Usually the benefit is realized
for the deeper installations of utilities. No-dig technologies are also used for renovating existing services
including upsizing and renovation. The designer should provide all the required analysis to select the
appropriate trenchless technology for the construction or installation of the utilities. The following
conditions should be considered before using a no-dig technology to install utilities:
• Location of the utility; for example, inner urban, urban, or rural areas
• Availability (in country) of specialist machinery required
• Depth and size of the utility
• Existing services in the same area
• Traffic impact
• Accessibility
• Timescales
• Future projects
• Ground conditions
• Crossing of major utilities and roadways
Aspects of trenchless techniques are discussed further in the following subsections.
Trenchless Techniques
There are numerous trenchless technologies available to date and they generally fall into two groups:
• Trenchless construction
• Trenchless replacement/renovation methods
Trenchless Construction
Trenchless construction is a term used to cover the installation of new utilities below ground without
performing extensive open cut excavations. Some excavation work is required to transfer the cutting tool
below ground.
Tunnel Boring Machines

Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) are used for large-diameter utilities such as the Metro and interceptor
sewers and are typically 3 m to 15 m in diameter (Figure E.5). Usually a TBM is specially made for a

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project. The actual TBM will have a rail track following behind it with a range of facilities traveling with the
TBM, including pipe linings and conveyors to take the excavated soil to the surface (Figure E.6). Linings
are bolted together as the cutting progresses.
This type of construction has some flexibility in that the bolted segments can be altered in shape so
that horizontal or vertical bends can be introduced into the pipeline. Grouting slurry with a mixture of
bentonite is used to seal the slight void the TBM makes between the cut face and the segment liners. This
a man entry system, usually with the tunnel operator located near the TBM’s rear cutting head.
TBM boring is ideal when long lengths of tunneling are to be undertaken. The start cost to produce a
machine is expensive, but the cost per project lessens the more work for which the TBM is used. This
technique will be used on large projects like the Inner Doha Re-sewerage Implementation Strategy (IDRIS)
and the Metro.
Figure E.5 Cutting Face of a Tunnel Boring Machine
Figure E.6 Tunnel Boring Machine Train
Earth Pressure Balancing Machines

Earth pressure balancing machines (EPBMs) are shielded machines specially designed for operation in soft
ground conditions and areas where there is high hydrostatic pressure due to groundwater (Figure E.7).
EPBMs have an articulated shield that is sealed against the pressure of water inflows up to 10 bar.

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EPBMs have the ability to control the stability of the tunnel face and subsidence of the ground surface
by monitoring and adjusting the pressure inside the cutting-head chamber to achieve a balance with the
pressure in front of the cutting-head, hence the term “earth pressure balance.”
Figure E.7 Typical Earth Pressure Balancing Machine
The working area inside the EPBM is completely sealed against the fluid pressure of the ground outside
the machine. A screw conveyor removes the fluidized spoil behind the cutting-head and in front of the
pressure bulkhead. The screw conveyor speed and discharge rate is controlled by the operator and is used
to control the pressure at the working face and match the muck discharge rate to the advance rate of the
EPBM.
The articulated joint between the forward shield and tail shield is equipped with a high-pressure seal that
allows angular movement between the shields and prevents water from seeping into the interior of the
EPBM.
The EPBM erects the segmented tunnel lining sequentially after each push. Specially designed high-
pressure seals in the tail shield effectively seal the machine to the outside of the tunnel lining and create
a barrier against ground pressure.
When it becomes necessary to enter the cutting-head chamber to inspect the cutting head or change
cutting tools, the workers can safely enter through a man-lock while compressed air is used to maintain
earth pressure balance to support the working face.
The EPBM technology is used for large tunneling projects, and has one district advantage over other
tunneling technologies: it can operate in ground conditions where there are issues with high groundwater.

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Microtunneling
Microtunneling is a technique for constructing pipeline tunnels using a cutting head similar to a TBM, but
the machine is operated from the surface. The tunnels tend to be too small for entry by a person. A void in
the ground is cut with a rotary cutting head in a protective shield, and then a pipe is hydraulically pushed,
or pipe-jacked, in place behind the cutting head. This method of tunneling is ideal for the small-diameter
pipe work and does not require the same working spaces as a TBM installation. Typically, microtunneling
will be used for deep interceptor sewers in the urban areas.
Directional Drilling
Directional drilling is a technique that can be used to install pipelines and ducts of varying diameters over
short or long distances. Advances in drilling rig design and steering techniques have made this method
of construction extremely flexible. Diameters of 100 millimeters (mm) and greater can be installed by
directional drilling; lengths of 2,000 m and greater are possible in one drilling. Figure E.8 shows a typical
small-diameter directional drilling rig.
Figure E.8 Typical Small-diameter Directional Drilling Rig
A pilot bore is installed by pushing a line of steel rods through the ground. A “shoe” at the leading end
of the rods allows the line of rods to be steered as it bores. A sonde within the shoe transmits a signal
that is received by a tracker at ground level. The line of pilot rods follows a predetermined course until
the boring between the launch and receiving pits is complete. The pilot rods are then pulled back to the
launch pit with a reamer attached. Several reaming passes may be required until the hole is large enough
for the final product pipeline. A drilling mud, usually bentonite based, is used to prevent collapse of the
hole. Finally, the product pipe is pulled in behind the last reamer to form the complete installation.
Directional drilling is applicable for ducts and pipelines beneath roads, rivers, and railways, and often forms
an economical alternative to open trench pipe laying techniques under roads. It is being used extensively

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in Qatar to install telecommunication cables. Directional drilling is not considered suitable for drainage
systems or where tight tolerances on alignments are necessary.
Auger Boring
For many years, trenchless crossings or roads and railways were developed by using auger-boring
techniques. Typically, a steel-sleeve pipe is pushed forward into the ground by hydraulic jacks while the
spoils are excavated by a cutter head (Figure E.9). Spoil is removed using a continuous auger flight within
the steel pipeline. This method, now referred to as conventional auger boring, relies on the rigidity of
the steel pipes for dimensional stability. Auger boring offers an economical way of constructing short
trenchless crossings in dry soils (Figure E.10).
Guided auger boring is a development of the conventional technique that offers a high degree of accuracy
for line and grade. This accuracy makes the technique suitable for gravity sewers. The alignment is
maintained by the use of a theodolite set to line and grade. A camera mounted to the instrument allows
the operator to see the illuminated target at the front of the bore.
Figure E.9 Typical Auger Boring Machine
Figure E.10 Diagram Showing the Launch Shaft for Augured Pipe under a Main Road

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Guided auger boring is generally carried out in a three-step process:
1. First, the pilot bore is installed by jacking a steel tube through the ground to line and grade. The front
of the tube has a steering head inside which is an illuminated target array. No excavation takes place
when the tube is installed. The ground is compacted by the action of installation.
2. Once the pilot tube has been installed between the drive and reception shafts, a reamer head follows
it. The reamer head and auger casings are fixed to the pilot tube and driven forward from the drive
shaft. A full line of auger casings is eventually installed between both shafts as the pilot tube is
gradually removed from the reception shaft.
3. The final step is to push out the auger casings with the product pipe. Typically, the pipe installed will
be a purpose made jacking pipe from either precast concrete or clay.
Guided auger boring offers one of the most cost effective ways of installing small-diameter trenchless
pipes to a high degree of accuracy.
Trenchless Replacement Methods
Cured-in-place Pipe
Cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) can be used to rehabilitate sanitary sewers, storm drains, and pressure pipelines
for water, gas, and process effluents. Circular pipe 100 mm to 2,700 mm in diameter and noncircular
pipe such as egg shapes, ovoids, and box culverts can be lined with CIPP. Lining with CIPP removes the
pipe from service during the installation and reinstatement process, so over-pumping or provision of an
alternate source of supply may be necessary.
Prior to lining, the pipe must be cleaned by jetting to remove corrosion debris and detritus. Protruding
lateral connections also must be removed. Local repairs may be required where the existing pipe is
substantially deformed or damaged. After lining, the service connections or laterals are reinstated and
the pipe is returned to service, usually within the same day. Lined water mains must be disinfected before
being returned to service.
CIPP liners of nonwoven polyester felt or fiber-reinforced fabric are manufactured to fit the host pipe. The
liners are impregnated with a polymer resin, which when cured forms a close-fitting liner pipe within the
host pipe. The liner may be designed with sufficient thickness when cured to sustain the loads imposed
by external groundwater and internal service pressure, and by soil and traffic acting on the pipe.
The liner is thoroughly saturated with polyester, vinyl ester epoxy, or silicate resin using vacuum, gravity,
or other applied pressure. The resin includes a chemical catalyst or hardener to facilitate curing. The
outermost layer of the liner tube is coated with a polymer film to protect the liner during handling and
installation. The impregnated liner may be chilled for transportation to maintain stability until installed.

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CIPP liners may be installed using the inversion method, as shown in Figure E.11. The inversion method
employs a scaffold tower or pressure vessel to apply air or water pressure to turn the liner inside out and
push it along the host pipe.
Figure E.11 CIPP Liner Being Introduced into a Sewer Using the Inversion Method
CIPP liners also may be installed by winching into place through a manhole or specially prepared access
point and inflated to come into close contact with the circumference of the existing pipe. The liner is
restrained in any intermediate manhole.
CIPP liners may be inflated or inverted with air or water pressure. The liner lengths installed may vary
from short sections over a joint or defect, to full length linings typically 30 m to 150 m. Lengths of up to
900 m have been installed at a time.
The resin-impregnated liner may cure at ambient temperature, but the cure is more usually accelerated
by application of heat by circulating inversion water through a boiler, blending steam with inflation air, or
by pulling through an ultraviolet light train (Figure E.12). After the pipe has been cured, the liner is cooled
and the ends removed flush with the pipe ends, and then sealed where necessary. The curing water or
steam condensate and the trimmings cut from the liner are removed for safe disposal. A sample of the
CIPP may be taken from pipe ends or from a mold cured under the conditions of manufacture for testing
and verification that the liner met performance specifications.
Lining with CIPP is used to repair sewers and is particular useful where the integrity of the sewer is
intact, and the shell of the pipe can be used as a former to cast the liner. This method is very effective for
repairing damaged sewers.

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Figure E.12 Lining Insertion Head for Ultraviolet Light–Cured CIPP Liner
Pipe Bursting
Pipe bursting is a trenchless replacement method in which a pipe is broken by brittle fracture or by
splitting using an internal, mechanically applied force applied by a bursting tool. At the same time, a new
pipe of the same or larger diameter is pulled in, replacing the existing pipe. The back end of the bursting
head is connected to the new pipe and the front end is connected to a cable or pulling rod. The new
pipe and bursting head are launched from the insertion pit (Figure E.13) and the cable or pulling rod is
pulled from the receiving pit. The energy, or power source, that moves the bursting tool forward to break
the existing pipe comes from pulling cable or rods, hydraulic power to the head, or pneumatic power to
the head, depending on the bursting system design. This energy, or power, is converted to a fracturing
force on the pipe, breaking it and temporarily expanding the diameter of the cavity. The bursting head is
pulled through the pipe debris, creating a temporary cavity and pulling behind it the new pipe from the
insertion pit.
Figure E.13 Setup Shaft for Pipe Bursting Machine
The leading or nose part of the bursting head is often smaller in diameter than the pipe to maintain
alignment and result in a uniform burst (Figure E.14). The base of the bursting head is larger than the
inside diameter of the existing pipe to fracture it. The base is also slightly larger than the outside diameter
of the replacement pipe, to reduce friction on the new pipe and to provide space for maneuvering the pipe.

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Figure E.14 Pipe Bursting Machine in Operation
Dealing with Signage and Street Furniture

One of the concerns for utilities is the foundations for street signage and furniture. Where foundations
are relatively small, they can easily be accommodated in the respected median and verge areas. However,
where there is large overhead, cantilevered signage, there must be no conflicts with existing services.
Health and Safety Data

Working in a roadway is place of potential conflicts with pedestrians and motorists. Such work requires
careful planning and management of the highway environment to reduce potential damage to the
environment and to mitigate health and safety issues. The main areas of concern from an environment
prospective are as follows:
• Noise pollution: During construction works, heavy civil engineering machinery will lift the normal
background noise level, and this will cause problems for local residents and users of the road. It is
important to monitor the normal background noise level before construction begins to use as a base
to compare the increase in noise. Increases in noise levels should be restricted to daylight working
hours. Some off-hours (nighttime) work may be required, such as pouring or placing concrete when
the temperature is cooler. Meetings need to be conducted with the affected residents to inform
them of the construction work that will be conducted and any noise issues that could arise. Schools,
mosques, and hospitals need to be given special consideration concerning noise pollution. Near these
facilities, the construction work may need to provide protective measures to contain the noise levels,
such as erecting noise barriers.
• Air pollution: Dust is common at construction sites, especially in windy conditions. The ground surface
should be sprayed with water to wet the soil and reduce the effect of dust clouds.

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• Vibration: One of the civil engineering machines frequently used in Qatar is a pneumatic rock hammer
because the limestone subsoil is particularly difficult to break up. Not only does this cause noise, but
it also creates vibrations in the limestone formation. The use of rock hammers should be limited to
daylight working hours.
Safety must also be carefully managed. The working area needs to be a dedicated area for construction
vehicles and separated from the public. Vehicle movements need to be reduced in speed, with adequate
control by banksmen. Safety barriers guide traffic through work zones and help define the working area.
Appropriate traffic signage and traffic control are a prerequisite for good, safe traffic management.
Pedestrians
For construction projects on new or existing roads and alterations, pedestrians need to be provided with
suitable diverted sidewalks. These temporary diversions need to consider access for prams, pushchairs,
and wheelchairs. Appropriate signage is necessary to guide pedestrians to the diverted sidewalks.
Water in Roadway Excavations

Qatar has a significant high groundwater presence. Although levels vary across the country, excavations
in roadways often encounter groundwater. The environmental considerations regarding water in roadway
excavations are as follows:
• Water is normally disposed to a gully and then into an existing stormwater system. This disposal
requires permission from Ashghal, as well as permission from MOE if the disposal is to the sea.
• Removal and suitable disposal of any suspended particles from the dewatering liquid.
• Where there are established trees, a check is required as to the drawdown effect of dewatering to
existing plant life.
The following safety aspects are associated with dewatering:
• Ensure that the surrounding ground does not deteriorate or settle during drawdown of the
groundwater.
• Refrain from laying large flexible pipes along sidewalks where they can be a trip hazard to pedestrians.
• Properly and clearly identify a discharge point in a road area with road cones to reduce its potential
as a road hazard.

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Excavations
Trench excavations are another area of potential environmental and health and safety risk. The
environmental considerations are noise pollution, air pollution, and vibration as described previously.
Qatar’s hard limestone geology provides good support to open trench excavations. However, limestone
begins to deteriorate the longer a trench is left open and care should be taken against the possibility
of rock falls into the trench. Netting should be used to stabilize the cut faces. Where the road has been
previously dug and backfilled, more support is required to avoid trench shearing and subsequent trench
collapses. Possible extra trench precautions include the following:
• Trench sheeting: Corrugated, mild-steel interlocking sheeting is forced down the sides of the
excavation and braced across the excavation using Acrow props (adjustable metal struts), as shown
in Figure E.15. Trench sheeting is generally considered the most reliable solution. If carried out in
controlled manner, it causes minimal settlement of the surrounding land.
Figure E.15 Trench Sheeting Support
• Shotcrete: A mixture of wet concrete is sprayed onto the face of the excavated trench walls
(Figure E.16). Shotcrete is a very robust solution. However, it takes up a lot of space in the utility
corridor and, therefore, it is a less viable option.

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Figure E.16 Sprayed Reinforced Concrete Trench Wall Protection
• Drag box: A steel box section with hydraulic arms inside the structure to act as struts and allowing
the sidewalls to be expanded or contracted (Figure E.17). The structure allows the safe working
conditions inside the drag box. When work on a section is completed, the box can be retracted and
dragged to the next location. This solution is good for the nonurban, open areas where settlement of
the surrounding ground is not a significant issue.
Figure E.17 Drag Box
Working Close to Trees and Structures

Landscaped trees in the Middle East are not noted for having deep-penetrating root structures. Trees tend
to have small root systems that when cut destabilize the tree, creating the potential for it to collapse. It
is important that a full environment study and risk assessment be conducted before any excavation work

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on a roadway project is begun. If there is a perceived risk of tree instability, the tree must be supported
during excavation work or removed. If a tree is removed, a new tree should be placed after the excavation
is completed.
Spills and Pollutions

Transporting environmentally unfriendly or hazardous substances on roadways creates the potential for
spills to occur. In that occurs, it is important to identify the spilled substance. Identification will easier if a
chemical display or label is required on individual tankers.
Containment is another key tool in dealing with chemical spills on roadways. Risk assessments of all roads
for potential spills are required, with an action plan to mitigate the risk. Such action allows civil defense
or a rapid response team to be deployed to be able to contain the spillage.
Installation of Force Main Pipelines

Pipelines for potable water, TSE, district cooling, potable water, and sewage are pressurized to convey
their contents to another location. There is some flexibility in terms of location and placement of such
pipelines. Flexibility is a function of the pipe material. For example, ductile iron pipe can be flexible in
location because of the jointing method and yet strong in tensile strength to resist the imposed pressure.
All pressure pipelines have a risk of failure. Thus, the pipeline designer must identify the risk and provide
some mitigation measure to reduce the risk of failure and mitigate the consequences of failure for the
environment and health and safety considerations.
Installation of Pressurized Cables

Some of the older high-voltage power cables in Qatar are pressurized oil-filled cables. As with the non-
electric pressurized pipelines mentioned above, if the outer casing is damaged, there is risk of oil escaping
to the surrounding ground, causing potential environmental damage to plants and wildlife. The oil-filled
cables are now being replaced with a non-oil substitute that will hence eliminate the risk of environmental
damage.
Power cables are given a measure of protection from excavation damage with a layer of a plastic tracer
marker tape then at a lower depth, a clay, or concrete tile.

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Appendix F
Risk Control Form

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RISK CONTROL FORM
Residual Risk
Description
Work Activity Existing Risk Further Risk
No Potential of Monitoring
& Risk Level Controls Controls Required Probable
Likelihood Level
x Consequence = New Risk Level Required
Level
1 Potable Water No Existing Control 1) Geotechnical

Thrust Blocks Data Obtained
2) Site Inspection
9 of Existing Ground 3 2 6
Conditions
3) Ensuring Correct
Depth of Cover
2 Potable Water Wrapping Pipe With 1) Ensuring Pipe

Wall Material Plastic Sheeting Wall is Properly
Protected
9 2) Site Inspection of
Pipes Before Laying 2 2 4
3) Carry Out Ultra
Sound Inspection
Using Pig Device

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Appendix G
Road Opening Requirements

PART UTILITIES
11

UTILITIES PART
11
Excavation Permit
Before any work can be authorized in a roadway, an Excavation Permit is required from the Ministry
of Municipality & Environment (MME). Obtaining an excavation permit requires obtaining the service
provider’s information and No Objection Certificates (NOCs). One requirement of the permit is that a Road
Opening Notice be obtained from the Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal). Please refer to MME
latest publications for the latest permitting requirements.
Design Review DR (QDRS)

Consultant requires to obtain a design approval for his design prior to applying for an RO. The Ashghal
QDRS system can also be used to obtain information.
Obtain a design approval (consultant) for your design prior to applying for an RO. The Ashghal QDRS
system can also be used to obtain information.
Road Opening Notice

Ashghal uses the Qatar Permit of Road Opening (Q-PRO) software system to facilitate the permitting
process. Q-PRO allows information to be shared with all mandatory approving agencies for Qatar. Ashghal
should be consulted when a roadway needs to be opened for reactive or nonreactive work. In both cases,
the service provider will be expected to interact with the Ashghal’s Q-PRO software management program.
This system allows service providers and government agencies to review and provide NOCs to proposed
projects in relation to their existing assets.
The consultant needs to determine the following information before accessing the system:
• Definable polygon with coordinates of the working area

• Description of the works
• Project title
• Duration, start and stop dates
• Contractor details
• Geotechnical information
• Contact person and details
To access Q-PRO users require an identification and password approved by Ashghal. If there is any overrun
of work, the notice can be extended. If the notice is out of date, however, a new application is required.
Figure G.1 illustrates the road opening process.

PART UTILITIES
11
Figure G.1 Road Opening Process

UTILITIES PART
11
Traffic Management
For traffic management guidance, contractors should follow the guidance in the Work Zone Traffic
Management Guide (Ashghal, 2015), which describes the following processes:
• Planning
• Approval
• Implementation
• Inspection and enforcement
• Clearance and reopening
It is crucial to have a coordinated temporary traffic management scheme in place where all stakeholders
in affected parties were providing input. Especially at rail stations full accessibility for vehicles and
pedestrians have to be maintained at all times. Submission of the TDP via QPRO2 is mandatory to ensure
all authority approvals are obtained.

PART UTILITIES
11

UTILITIES PART
11
Appendix H
Highway Reinstatement

PART UTILITIES
11

UTILITIES PART
11
General
Volume 1, Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, of this Manual, states “There is a Ministerial request
to resolve the problem of flexible road surface road differential settlement around utility structures
situated in the roadway.” This is a key issue to be considered when locating and designing infrastructure
in or near the highway.
The Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) sets out to give general guidance for highway reinstatements
and a future view for the control of reinstatement based on worldwide experience. The future view is
that once a road is completed, there should be a period where no other works can occur in the highway
that would lead to the replacement of all or part of the roadway. There should be a period of stability
for the road and only under exceptional circumstance, such as an unplanned repair, should that road be
excavated. The object of reinstatement is to return the construction site to condition a similar to that as
the beginning of the project.
All surfaces shall be reinstated to the existing condition in type and quality. The make-up of the sub-
ground shall follow the statutory requirements.
Road Categories for Reinstatement Works

Road categories are based on the amount of traffic movements and the anticipate weights of the heaviest
road vehicles. Heaviest vehicles and wheel loading, tends to be commercial vehicles. Refer to Tables 3.5
and 3.6 in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual, for definitions of road categories. Different road
types will require different levels of reinstatement works. The objective is to complete the reinstate to
a high standard such that when the road user passes over the reinstatement there is no sudden vertical
movement.
Sidewalks and Cycle Paths

Surface treatment and construction are addressed in Volume 2, Part 12, Pavement Design, and Volume 2,
Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual. Generally, sidewalks and cycle paths need much
less construction than roadways. The degree of reinstatement is a matter of matching the new materials
to existing and employing similar construction techniques. One goal is that the reinstatement be level
with the existing footway and that there are no obstructions to pedestrians or cyclists.

PART UTILITIES
11
Trench Reinstatements
Trench excavations are categorized as follows:
• Small openings with an area less than 2 square meters (m2).
• Narrow trench—trenches with a surface width less than 500 millimeters (mm).
• Deep openings—all excavations where the depth of cover over a buried apparatus is greater than
1.5 meters (m).
• Other openings—all excavations and trenches with a surface area greater than 2 m2.
• With all trench excavations around utilities, use selected granular materials mechanically compacted
in 150-mm layers to achieve the required level of compaction so there is no settlement around the
service.
Surface As-Laid Profile

The reinstatement of any surface shall be completed so that it is as flat and flush as possible with the
surrounding adjacent surfaces. There should be no significant depression or crowning in the surface.
Construction tolerance at the edges of the reinstatement should not exceed 6 mm.
Edge Depression
An edge depression is a vertical step or trip interface between the reinstatement and the existing surface.
Intervention shall be required if any edge depression exceeds 10 mm over a continuous length of more
than 100 mm in any direction.
A Surface Depression
A surface depression is a depressed area within a reinstatement having generally smooth and gently
sloping sides, forming a shallow dish. Table H.1 lists the surface depression limits for reinstatements.
Figure H.1 illustrates the relationship between the reinstatement width and the intervention limit for
depressions.
Table H.1 Surface Depression Limits
Reinstatement Width Intervention Limit Combined Defect

(W on Figure H.1) (mm) (X on Figure H.1) (mm) Intervention Limit (mm)
<400 10 10
≥400–599 12 10
≥500–600 14 12
≥600–700 17 14
≥700–800 19 16
≥800–900 22 18
>900 25 20

UTILITIES PART
11
Figure H.1 Reinstatement Surface Depression Limits
Surface Crowning
Surface crowning is the condition where the reinstatement is above the mean level of the existing
adjacent surfaces. Intervention is required where the height of any area of surface crowning spanning
more than 100 mm in any plan dimension exceeds the intervention limit. Table H.2 lists the surface crown
limits for reinstatements. Figure H.2 illustrates the relationship between the reinstatement width and the
intervention limit for surface crowns.
Table H.2 Surface Crown Limits

Combined Defect
Reinstatement Width Intervention Limit Intervention Limit
(W on Figure H.2) (mm) (Z on Figure H.2) (mm) (mm)
<400 10 10
≥400–499 12 10
≥500–599 14 12
≥600–699 17 14
≥700–799 19 16
≥800–899 22 18
>900 25 20
Figure H.2 Reinstatement Surface Crown Limits

PART UTILITIES
11
Excavation in Existing Roadways

Care must be taken when cutting through the surface layers of the roadway to avoid undue damage to
the running surface or to the bond between the surface course and binder course. Cutting should be done
using a road saw or planer.
Excavations should be carried out so as to avoid undue damage or settlement of the surrounding ground.
Excavations should also be protected from the ingress of groundwater. Groundwater pumping and disposal
are subject to the approval of the MOE.
Reinstatement Methods and Treatments

Road reinstatement should be undertaken as described in the Qatar Construction Specifications (Ashghal,
2014) and in accordance with MME publications and Ashghal’s road reinstatement specifications.
Data Repository and Acquisition

Qatar has a central repository, or database, of utility data that the Central Planning Office created as a
planning tool. The office’s Planning Portal tracks all the major projects being undertaken in Qatar and
graphically displays all the existing utility information. The database dramatically increases the efficiency
of data acquisition for roadway project delivery.

Volume 2
Part 12
Pavement Design
PAVEMENT DESIGN PART
12
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART PAVEMENT DESIGN
12

12
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations................................................................................................ viii
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Objectives and Basis of Design Procedure........................................................................................ 1
1.1.1. Analysis of Traffic Data..........................................................................................................2
1.1.2. Ground Investigation...............................................................................................................3
1.1.3. Additional Factors....................................................................................................................3
1.1.4. Choice of Materials and Thicknesses to Meet the Predicted Traffic Load........3
1.2. Empirical Design Method........................................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method................................................................................................. 4
1.4. Difference Between the AASHTO Empirical and Mechanistic-Empirical
Design Methods............................................................................................................................................ 4
2 Types of Pavement.........................................................................................................7
2.1.Flexible............................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2.Rigid................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Flexible Composite...................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4. Concrete Block and Modular Paving...................................................................................................... 7
3 Pavement Structure Basics............................................................................................9

3.1. Introduction to Layered System............................................................................................................. 9
3.2. Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements............................................................................................. 9
3.2.1. Wearing Course and Surface Course.................................................................................9
3.2.2. Intermediate or Binder Course............................................................................................9
3.2.3. Base Course................................................................................................................................9
3.2.4.Subbase........................................................................................................................................9
3.2.5. Typical Flexible Pavement Structures...........................................................................10
3.3. Structural Layers in Rigid Pavements............................................................................................... 11
3.4. Structural Layers in Composite Pavements.................................................................................... 11
4 Subgrades...................................................................................................................... 13
4.1.General.......................................................................................................................................................... 13
4.1.1. Role of Foundation During Construction......................................................................13
4.1.2. Role of Base and Subbase in Service............................................................................14
4.2. Types of Subgrade.................................................................................................................................... 14
4.3. Geotechnical Consideration................................................................................................................... 14
4.3.1. Geotechnical Investigation................................................................................................15
4.3.2. Subgrade Design CBR and Resilient Modulus............................................................16
4.3.3. Subgrade Modulus back-calculated from Falling Weight
Deflectometer Data..............................................................................................................17

12
4.3.4. Groundwater Elevation.......................................................................................................18

4.4. Parameters and Correlations................................................................................................................ 18
4.5. Drainage of Subgrade.............................................................................................................................. 20
4.6. Stabilization of Subgrade....................................................................................................................... 21
4.7. Improvement of Subgrade..................................................................................................................... 21
4.8. Protection of Subgrade........................................................................................................................... 21
4.9. Practical Guidelines for Subbase in Pavement Design............................................................... 22
5 Aggregate Bases and Subbases................................................................................. 24

5.1. Selection of Materials.............................................................................................................................. 24
5.2. Aggregate Subbase.................................................................................................................................. 24
5.3. Aggregate Base Course.......................................................................................................................... 24
6 Stabilized Base Courses.............................................................................................. 26

6.1. Materials Selection................................................................................................................................... 26
6.2. Asphalt Concrete Base Course............................................................................................................. 26
6.3. Cement Treated Base.............................................................................................................................. 26
6.4. Roller-Compacted Concrete Base........................................................................................................ 26
7 Surface Courses............................................................................................................ 28
7.1. Asphalt Concrete....................................................................................................................................... 28
7.1.1. Materials and Mix Design Selection...............................................................................28
7.1.2. Surface Courses.....................................................................................................................28
7.1.3. Intermediate Courses...........................................................................................................29
7.2. Portland Cement Concrete..................................................................................................................... 29
8 Design Elements and Construction Considerations................................................ 30

8.1. Design Elements: Failure Mechanisms............................................................................................. 30
8.1.1. Flexible Pavements with Flexible Base........................................................................30
8.1.2. Perpetual Pavements with Asphalt Base....................................................................31
8.1.3. Flexible Pavements with Cement-Bound Base.........................................................32
8.1.4. Rigid Pavements....................................................................................................................32
8.2. Design Elements: 1993 AASHTO Guide........................................................................................... 33
8.2.1. Input for the 1993 AASHTO Guide.................................................................................33
8.2.2. Pavement Performance......................................................................................................34
8.2.3.Reliability..................................................................................................................................34
8.2.4. Standard Deviation...............................................................................................................35
8.2.5.Serviceability..........................................................................................................................35
8.2.6. Material Properties: Flexible Design..............................................................................35
8.2.7. Material Properties: Rigid Design....................................................................................37
8.2.8. Drainage Condition...............................................................................................................38

12
8.2.9. Environmental Conditions..................................................................................................38

8.2.10. Traffic.........................................................................................................................................38
8.3. Construction Considerations................................................................................................................. 39
8.3.1. Asphalt Concrete...................................................................................................................39
8.3.2. Continuously Reinforced Concrete.................................................................................39
8.3.3. Joints in Rigid Pavements...................................................................................................40
8.3.4. Smoothness of Pavement Surface.................................................................................41
9 Traffic Analysis............................................................................................................. 43
9.1. Case I: Existing Roads.............................................................................................................................. 43
9.1.1. Estimation of Average Daily Traffic...............................................................................43
9.1.2. Traffic Growth.........................................................................................................................44
9.1.3. Directional Distribution and Lane Factors...................................................................46
9.1.4. ESAL Factors...........................................................................................................................46
9.1.5. Cumulative Design Standard Axles................................................................................48
9.2. Case II: Non-Existing Roads or Roads in Partially Developed Areas..................................... 49
9.2.1. Estimation of Average Daily Traffic...............................................................................49
9.2.2. Directional Distribution and Lane Factors...................................................................50
9.2.3. Traffic Load or ESAL Factors.............................................................................................50
9.2.4. Cumulative Design Standard Axles................................................................................50
10 Design of New Pavements.......................................................................................... 51

10.1. Flexible Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide............................................................................. 51
10.1.1. Drainage Coefficients..........................................................................................................53
10.1.2. Example Flexible Pavement Design...............................................................................54
10.2. Rigid Pavement Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide............................................................. 61
10.3. Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method........................................................................ 67
10.3.1. Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Process....................................................68
10.3.2. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters......................................68
10.3.3. Traffic Input Parameters.....................................................................................................69
10.3.4.Climate.......................................................................................................................................73
10.3.5.Subgrade...................................................................................................................................73
10.3.6. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Flexible
. Pavement..................................................................................................................................75
10.3.7. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for
Rigid Pavement......................................................................................................................80
10.3.8. Run Analysis and Report....................................................................................................83
10.4. Ramp and Shoulder Pavements........................................................................................................... 83
10.5. Design for Special Pavements.............................................................................................................. 84
10.6. Junctions and Roundabout Circulatory Areas................................................................................. 85
10.7. Parking Areas and Busbays................................................................................................................... 86

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11 Overview of Rehabilitation Design and Data requirement of

Existing Pavements..................................................................................................... 87
11.1. Rehabilitation Design Process............................................................................................................. 87
11.1.1. Basis of Rehabilitation Design.........................................................................................88
11.1.2. Rehabilitation Design Using the 1993 AASHTO Guide..........................................89
11.2. Pavement Assessment and Need for Rehabilitation.................................................................. 90
11.3. Methods of Rehabilitation..................................................................................................................... 90
11.3.1. Bituminous Overlays............................................................................................................90
11.3.2. Mill and Overlay......................................................................................................................91
11.3.3. Concrete Overlays.................................................................................................................91
11.3.4. In-Place Recycling.................................................................................................................91
11.4. Pavement Deterioration Mechanisms............................................................................................... 91
11.5. Pavement Survey and Investigation.................................................................................................. 92
11.6. Network-Level Surveys........................................................................................................................... 93
11.7. Project-Level Investigation and Assessment................................................................................. 93
11.7.1. Review existing information.............................................................................................94
11.7.2. Visual Survey..........................................................................................................................94
11.7.3.Coring.........................................................................................................................................94
11.7.4. Test Pits....................................................................................................................................95
11.7.5. Ground-Penetrating Radar.................................................................................................95
11.7.6. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer............................................................................................96
11.8. Pavement Strength................................................................................................................................... 96
11.8.1. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer............................................................................................97
11.8.2. Falling Weight Deflectometer..........................................................................................97
11.8.3. Data Handling of FWD Results.........................................................................................98
11.8.4. Interpretation of FWD Data...............................................................................................98
12 Evaluation of Pavement Alternatives..................................................................... 101

12.1. Engineering and Design...................................................................................................................... 101
12.2. Economic Analysis and Value Engineering.................................................................................. 101
12.2.1. Life Cycle Cost..................................................................................................................... 101
12.2.2. Value Engineering.............................................................................................................. 103
13 Sustainable Pavement Practices.............................................................................. 105

13.1.Overview.................................................................................................................................................... 105
13.2. Recycled Aggregates............................................................................................................................ 105
13.3. Warm-Mix Asphalt.................................................................................................................................. 106
13.4. Two-Lift Concrete Construction....................................................................................................... 106
13.5. Noise-Reducing Pavements............................................................................................................... 107
13.6. Porous Pavement................................................................................................................................... 108
References............................................................................................................................. 109

12
Tables
Table 3.1. Range of Each Course Lift Thicknesses for the State of Qatar....................................................11
Table 4.1. Selected Subgrade Specifications and Testing Frequency............................................................15
Table 4.2. Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations......................................................19
Table 8.1. Recommended Minimum Thickness (inches).......................................................................................36
Table 8.2. Recommended Load Transfer Coefficients for Various Pavement
Types and Conditions....................................................................................................................................38
Table 9.1. Growth Rate for Traffic to be Used to Estimate Design ESALs for Qatar.................................46
Table 9.2. Traffic Distribution and Percentage of Design Traffic in the Design Lane for Qatar...........46
Table 9.3. Recommended ESAL Factors by Vehicle Type.....................................................................................47
Table 10.1. AASHTO (1993) inputs for drainage coefficients..............................................................................54
Table 10.2. Summary of Design Traffic Calculations................................................................................................55
Table 10.3. Summary of Pavement Options.................................................................................................................61
Table 10.4. Typical Ranges of Loss of Support Factors for Various Types of Materials.............................63
Table 10.5. Design Parameters and Input Levels.......................................................................................................68
Table 10.6. Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG..........................................70
Table 10.7. Unbound Granular and Subgrade Resilient Modulus Values (psi) for Level 3 Input.............74
Table 10.8. Subgrade Correlations for Level 2 Input for Use in the Mechanistic-Empirical Design
.Method.................................................................................................................................................................75
Table 10.9. Typical Performance Criteria (Flexible Pavements)...........................................................................76
Table 10.10. Typical Performance Criteria for Rigid Pavements............................................................................81
Table 13.1. Noise Level Ranges for Different Concrete Surfaces.................................................................... 107
Table 13.2. Noise Level Ranges for Different Asphalt Surfaces....................................................................... 107
Table D-1.. Monthly Air Temperature Profiles for Different Regions in the State of Qatar................... 133
Table D-2.. |G*| master curve coefficients of typical binders used in the State of Qatar....................... 137
. These coefficients will produce |G*| in Pascal (Pa)....................................................................... 137
Table D-3.. Typical Volumetrics of Asphalt Mixtures Used in the State of Qatar*.................................... 137

12
Figures
Figure 3.1. Load Spreading through the Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements......................................10
Figure 8.1. Vertical and Horizontal Strain in Pavement Layers...........................................................................30
Figure 10.1. Procedure for Determining Thickness of Layers Using a Layered Analysis Approach........52
Figure 10.2. Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient of Dense-Graded Asphalt Concrete
Based on Elastic (Resilient) Modulus.......................................................................................................57
Figure 10.3. Variation in Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) with Various Base Strength
.Parameters.........................................................................................................................................................57
Figure 10.4. Variation in Aggregate Subbase Layer Coefficient (a32) with Various Subbase
Strength Parameters......................................................................................................................................58
Figure 10.5. Design Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for Each Input............59
Figure 10.6. Chart for Determining Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction..............................................62
Figure 10.7. Correction for Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Loss of Support.........................64
Figure 10.8. Design Chart for Rigid Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for Each
Input Variable...................................................................................................................................................66
Figure 10.9. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Process...................................................................................68
Figure 10.10.Traffic Data for the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method............................................................69
Figure 10.11.Traffic Input for Various Input Levels in the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method...........72
Figure 11.1. Plastic Rutting (Internal Shear Failure)..................................................................................................92
Figure 11.2. Structural Rutting...........................................................................................................................................92
Figure 11.3. Sample of DCP Test........................................................................................................................................96
Figure 11.4. Falling Weight Deflectometer....................................................................................................................97
Figure 11.5. Flow Chart for Iterative Back-Calculation of Pavement Layer Modulus....................................99
Figure D-1.. Example Sub-layering of AC Courses Based on Lifts..................................................................... 132
Figure D-2. . Regions Where the Temperature Profile Data Were Collected.................................................. 134

12
Appendixes
Appendix A . Parameters Appropriate for Use in the State of Qatar.................................................................. 113

Appendix B . Layer Coefficient Graphs from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures.................................................................................................................................. 117
Appendix C . Design Charts from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures.................................................................................................................................. 125
Appendix D . Procedure for Obtaining Layer Coefficients...................................................................................... 131
Appendix E . Effective k-value charts from 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement
Structures........................................................................................................................................................ 139
Appendix F . Vehicle Classifications................................................................................................................................ 144

12
°C degrees Celsius
AADTT annual average daily truck traffic
AC asphalt concrete
Ashghal State of Qatar Public Works Authority
ASTM ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing Materials)
CBM cement-bound material
CBR California bearing ratio
cm centimeter(s)
CRCB continuously reinforced concrete base
CRCP continuously reinforced concrete pavement
CTB cement treated base
CV coefficient of variation
dBA decibels (A-weighted scale)
grio
EICM Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model
ESAL equivalent single-axle load
FWD falling weight deflectometer
GPR ground-penetrating radar
HGV% percentage of heavy goods vehicles
HMA hot mix asphalt
IRI International Roughness Index
JPCP jointed plain concrete pavement
JRC jointed reinforced concrete
kg kilogram
kip 1,000 pounds-force
km kilometer
kN kilonewton
LS loss of support

12
LWD lightweight deflectometer

m meter(s)
m/km meters per kilometer
MEPDG Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual of Practice
(United States)
mi drainage coefficient
mm millimeter(s)
MPa megapascal(s)
MR resilient modulus
N/mm2 Newtons per square millimeter
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program (United States)
NMAS nominal maximum aggregate size
PCC Portland cement concrete
pci pound(s) per cubic inch
PH peak hour
pi initial serviceability index
PMB polymer-modified bitumen
psi pound(s) per square inch
PSI present serviceability index
pt terminal serviceability index
QC quality control
QCS Qatar Construction Specification
QSTM Qatar Strategic Traffic Model
RAP recycled asphalt pavement
RCC roller-compacted concrete
SMA stone matrix asphalt
SN structural number
t metric tons
UC unconfined compressive strength
URC unreinforced concrete
WIM weigh-in-motion

12
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12
1 Introduction
This Part describes the fundamentals of pavement design that are relevant to any design
method and any class of road. The design method in Qatar is based on the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide for the Design
of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993). The State of Qatar Public
Works Authority (Ashghal) has produced the following documents to provide the groundwork
for mechanistic-empirical pavement design:
• Interim Advice Note 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a): This document
provides guidance for materials characterization for mechanistic-empirical design, a
range of values for various paving materials, and an explanation of the mechanistic-
empirical model and performance criteria.
• Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement Layers (Ashghal, 2013a):
This document provides guidance on testing of materials to aid in determining material
characteristics that can be used in design.
Insufficient data existed within Qatar for the full implementation of the mechanistic-
empirical design method at the time the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) was prepared.
Therefore, this Part of the QHDM is a transition document that will lead to a final version
that provides information on appropriate designs for multiple pavement types and will
include full implementation of the mechanistic-empirical design method. This part discusses
the pavement design methods described in the 1993 AASHTO Guide and the Mechanistic-
Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual of Practice (MEPDG) (AASHTO,
2008), the parameters for their use, and their differences.
The materials and workmanship used in the construction of pavement will be in accordance
with the latest edition of the Qatar Construction Specification (QCS) at the time of
construction, including any applicable amendments published by Ashghal in the form of
Interim Advice Notices or other guides. Adhering to these publications for materials, testing,
quality control (QC), and acceptance are needed for the pavement to perform as designed.
Consult the Civil Engineering Department laboratory during the design and construction
stages of any project to verify that current material specifications are being used. The use
of alternative or improved materials will be considered in the design procedure described in
this Part of the QHDM.
1.1 Objectives and Basis of Design Procedure

The basic concept of the structural design of new and rehabilitated pavement is to reduce
the strains, deflections, and stresses under repeated traffic loads to acceptable levels so
that they can be resisted by various pavement layers.

12
Structural pavement design involves three primary elements: subgrade strength,

traffic loading, and materials behavior. The design of the pavement layer thicknesses
depends on such parameters as traffic, geotechnical information, material characteristics,
reliability, safety, and serviceability. Traffic loading is a mix of vehicles, with different axle
configurations, loads, and distributions that vary daily, seasonally, and during the design life
of the pavement. The pavement’s response to these loads is affected by the magnitude of
the load and corresponding stress, temperature, moisture, time, and loading rate. Exposure
to extreme environmental conditions—large variances in temperature and moisture—adds to
design complexity. Unless these parameters can be accurately identified, caution is needed
when adopting pavement designs or design methods. The process of designing a reliable
performance of a pavement structure includes evaluation of these elements, as well as
construction practices and effective QC.
Many countries have databases for traffic, climate conditions, material properties, and
historical performances of in-service pavement sections that can be applied to site-specific
designs. These and other assets provided the technical infrastructure that led to the
development of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide(MEPDG), hereinafter
referred to as the mechanistic-empirical design method.
Because it can accommodate the appropriate input parameters needed to reflect local
conditions and available resources, the mechanistic-empirical design method is considered
an appropriate method for future pavements in Qatar. Empirical methods and, especially,
the mechanistic-empirical design method, use many input parameters for specific data
with respect to different climate conditions, nonstandard materials, and traffic loading. The
mechanistic-empirical design method provides the flexibility to consider elements in specific
designs for the State of Qatar based on available materials, traffic, and climate conditions.
Therefore, the key to adapting the mechanistic-empirical design method is to use the correct
input data for pavement design.
This Part presents the following information:
• Discusses input parameters for empirical and mechanistic-empirical design methods to

enable designers to choose the appropriate method.
• Provides examples for pavement design with a basic range of input parameters.
• Presents the differences between the empirical and the mechanistic-empirical design
methods.
• Explains the use of design software, such as AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design.
Regardless of the design method, a number of basic steps are involved in any pavement
design. The following subsections describe some of these steps.
1.1.1 Analysis of Traffic Data

As with any structure, the accurate prediction of load is important. For pavement, the load
is proportional to the number of vehicles and their axle types and weights. It is routine to
predict the number of “standard” axles likely to use the pavement. Typically, all axles are

12
converted to equivalent numbers of single axles loaded with 8 or 12 tons. The 1993 AASHTO
Guide considers only 80 kilonewtons (kN, or 18,000 pounds) on a single axle with dual tires.
A similar load on a single-wheeled axle causes more damage because of the increased tire
pressure. The pavement designer uses traffic surveys to predict the number and weight
of each axle type. If doubt exists about the traffic data, designers adopt a conservative
approach. Chapter 9 in this Part provides a discussion about traffic analysis.
Traffic data will be provided from onsite vehicle counts, transportation studies, or a
combination thereof. The designer will convert traffic flows and vehicle types into a number
of standard axles for the appropriate design period, usually 20 or 40 years. If traffic counts
are not available, the designer will prepare a default hierarchical list of average traffic flows
for the Qatar Road Classification.
1.1.2 Ground Investigation

The designer assesses ground conditions, often in terms of California bearing ratio (CBR),
by examining the results of field investigations. The designer will need to design a subbase
to cope with construction conditions and long-term loading. For some design methods,
the foundation design is a discrete exercise; for others, the foundation is considered with
the structural layers as part of the overall structure. For analytical methods, each layer is
considered separately.
Loads on the pavement eventually will be transmitted through the subbase into the natural
ground, or subgrade. By developing pavement structural layers to adequately reduce the
vertical strain at the top of the subgrade, the pavement design will keep the foundation from
being overloaded. Depending on the road geometry and profile, the subgrade is the existing
ground in cut sections, and top layer of earthworks in embankment or fill sections.
1.1.3 Additional Factors

In addition to the thickness of various layers for structural capacity, other important
considerations include:
• The continuing strength and durability of the various layers

• Thermal or block cracking
• Resistance to rutting or plastic/shear deformation
1.1.4 Choice of Materials and Thicknesses to Meet the Predicted Traffic Load
Any design method will include knowledge of the properties of the materials to be used.
Typical practice is to use materials from local specifications; otherwise, material supply can
be difficult obtain. In some circumstances, the designer can use special or nonstandard
materials.
1.2 Empirical Design Method

Designs will be based to some extent on past performance of known designs, such as the
1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method. It is important to understand the conditions

12
under which the data have been collected. This method likely uses a form of look-up
tables that correspond to different materials. The designer can choose the most effective
combination of material types and thicknesses. The properties of the materials to be used,
including stiffness modulus, need to be accurate for the method to be effective.
1.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method

The mechanistic-empirical design method uses analytical techniques that have been
calibrated by comparison with known performance. Analytical designs assess design
adequacy by evaluating a permissible level of strain or stress. Permissible stresses and
strains are often empirically based and are derived from experimental fatigue lines. From
experience, a designer will assume a pavement type and thickness, or a first iteration could
be determined using empirical methods. A stress-and-strain analysis is completed for the
assumed design. If the design exceeds maximum stresses and strains, or the actual stresses
and strains are much less than permissible, the designer can amend and reanalyze layer
strengths and thicknesses. The process is repeated until an effective design is achieved.
A benefit of analytical design is that the known properties of materials can be considered
to maximize their effectiveness. If the properties are unknown to the right degree of
confidence, a sensitivity analysis is needed. This method involves the knowledge of the load/
strain or stress behavior of the materials used. If too many assumptions are necessary, using
a mechanistic-empirical design method fails to provide advantages over empirical methods.
At the time of publication of this Manual, insufficient data and information exist in the State
of Qatar for the parameters needed to use the mechanistic-empirical design method.
1.4 Difference Between the AASHTO Empirical and Mechanistic-

Empirical Design Methods
The advent of mechanistic-empirical pavement performance modeling allows for more
detailed input and analysis using site-specific and regional characteristics. Detailed traffic
and materials characterization are among the more important of these detailed inputs.
The mechanistic-empirical design method allows engineers to enhance the design process
in several key areas, ranging from data collection to interpretation of results. Additional
effort and resources are needed to characterize materials, improve traffic data quality, and
effectively use environmental conditions to make the mechanistic-empirical design method
effective.
Comparing the empirical method described in the 1993 AASHTO Guide to the mechanistic-
empirical design method described in the MEPDG is an important step in understanding the
differences between the two approaches:
The AASHTO empirical method designs pavements to a single performance criterion: the
present serviceability index (PSI). The mechanistic-empirical design method simultaneously
considers multiple performance criteria, such as rutting, cracking, and roughness for flexible
pavements.

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The AASHTO empirical method directly computes the layer thicknesses. The mechanistic-
empirical design method uses an iterative process. A specific pavement section is evaluated
against predicted performance and design criteria. If the pavement section fails to meet the
performance criteria, the section is modified and reanalyzed until the criteria are met.
The mechanistic-empirical design method uses additional input parameters, especially

environmental and material properties. This designer chooses a quality level of input
parameter, depending on the level of information and resources available, the technical
issues, and the importance of the project.
The empirical method was developed in the 1950s for road design, vehicle taxation, and
costing, and was based on limited field test data from only one location: Ottawa, Illinois,
in the U.S. The seasonally adjusted subgrade resilient modulus (MR) and the layer drainage
coefficients are the only variables that can be adjusted for environmental conditions.
The mechanistic-empirical design method adjusts material properties for temperature
and moisture influences by using a set of project-specific climate data that include air
temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and relative humidity.
The empirical method uses the concept of equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) to define
traffic levels. The mechanistic-empirical design method uses more detailed load spectra.
Pavement materials respond differently to the magnitude, variance, frequency, and locations
of traffic loads. The pavement structure also responds differently at different times of the
year in different environmental conditions. These factors can be considered most effectively
using the load spectra concept.

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2 Types of Pavement
2.1 Flexible
A typical flexible pavement usually consists of two or three asphalt layers of wearing course,
an intermediate or binder course, a base course, and a subbase over the subgrade. On less-
trafficked roads, the base course could consist partly or wholly of granular materials. Where
the base course is also in asphalt, the pavement is considered a full-depth asphalt pavement.
2.2 Rigid
A rigid pavement consists of Portland cement concrete (PCC) with granular or cement-bound
subbase layers over the subgrade, or a combination of both. The concrete layer can be
jointed plain unreinforced concrete (URC), jointed reinforced concrete (JRC), or continuously
reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP). Higher-performing concrete pavements include a base
layer of asphalt concrete (AC) or asphalt-treated base to 1) improve stiffness, 2) act as a
moisture barrier to prevent surface water infiltration to the subgrade, 3) act as a barrier
to groundwater pumping through pavement joints and cracks under loading, and 4) act
as a construction platform to improve grade control. For areas with truck traffic, providing
dowels at pavement joints is encouraged to transfer loads and prevent faulting across joints.
Pavements with high traffic levels are commonly constructed with CRCP.
2.3 Flexible Composite

A flexible composite pavement is one with a flexible surface and rigid base. An example of
this is a cement-bound base with asphalt surfacing. The cement-bound materials usually
have less compressive strength than pavement-quality concrete and crack because of
thermal movements. Cracks will propagate through the flexible surface because of traffic
movement (a process called reflection cracking). Reflection cracking can be controlled by
adopting a thick asphalt layer for thermal protection, pre-cracking the cement-bound
material, or a combination thereof. Designs sometimes use a stress-absorbing membrane
interlayer, particularly when rehabilitating existing pavements.
2.4 Concrete Block and Modular Paving

Concrete block paving consists of concrete blocks on a laying course of sand, on top of a
granular or bound base. Bound bases are used for heavier traffic.
Other modular paving materials include quarry stone or cut concrete slabs. These materials
need special consideration on roads used by heavy vehicles because a single overload can
be catastrophic.

12
Concrete block pavement can be used in heavily trafficked areas. Modular paving materials,
including blocks, can be used in various colors and patterns to delineate areas with contrasting
appearance.

12
3 Pavement Structure Basics
3.1 Introduction to Layered System

A pavement is a multilayered structure. The purpose of the design is to adequately transfer
the load, or traffic, on top of the pavement through the layers to the natural subgrade. The
pavement is designed to carry the load during its design life or performance period without
cracking, rutting, or developing defects that require rehabilitation or repair. A pavement
carries the expected loads over its design life by controlling the repeated bending and
compression of the pavement layers. All layers of a flexible pavement, including asphalt
surfacing, intermediate and base courses, and aggregate base and subbase courses, are
structural layers and will be compressed and flexed as the traffic load passes. Repeated
flexing will eventually fatigue the structural layers.
3.2 Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavements are constructed in several layers. Stiffer layers spread the load over a
wider area than flexible layers; a thin, stiff layer is equivalent to a thick, weak layer of the
same material. For flexible pavement, the layers usually consist of those described in the
following subsections.
3.2.1 Wearing Course and Surface Course

A thin, rut-resistant layer is laid to tight level tolerances to provide good ride quality. Surfacing
is usually a more waterproof layer and can sometimes be specified with spray-reducing or
noise-reducing properties.
3.2.2 Intermediate or Binder Course

The intermediate course often has higher binder content and a smaller aggregate size than
the layer beneath it to provide durability. It can be laid to a tight level to provide good ride
quality. It is often called the binder course or leveling course and is sometimes included with
the asphalt base course.
3.2.3 Base Course

The base course is the main structural layer, although materials used for the base and
intermediate courses can be interchangeable. The base layer can be granular, asphalt, or
cement-bound. A pavement with a cement-bound base is said to be “flexible-composite.”
3.2.4 Subbase
The subbase layer immediately over the natural ground supports the base course, allowing
construction to progress without damaging the subgrade. It is the final load-spreading
layer in the structure. Subbases are often granular materials, but they can consist of other
materials, including cement-bound materials.

12
Figure 3.1 illustrates the structural layers in flexible pavements and how loads typically
spread through the layers. The load is spread wider and at a greater angle in stiffer materials,
which reduces strain and stress at the base of the layers.
Figure 3.1 Load Spreading through the Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements
The asphalt and base layers in flexible pavements each contribute structural layers but can
be cement-bound materials. In unbound bases with variable aggregate sizes, the base layer
will often have larger sizes of coarse aggregate.
3.2.5 Typical Flexible Pavement Structures

Typical layers in flexible pavement used in the State of Qatar are summarized as follows:
• The asphalt concrete surface (wearing) course must provide a skid-resistant, smooth, and
quiet surface and should be both crack- and rut-resistant. Asphalt mixture used in this
layer shall be designed using Marshall or Superpave design methods listed in the QCS.
For major roads, the asphalt mixtures shall be designed with high-quality binders (for
example, polymer-modified) with performance grades PG76S-10, PG76H-10, PG76V-10,
or PG76E-10, depending on the traffic level. For local roads, polymer-modified bitumen
(PMB) can be used depending on the availability of the material and life-cycle cost of
the project. However, because of its exposure to the extremes of temperature and high
wheel load shear stresses, the wearing course will probably deteriorate and require
replacement before the rest of the pavement structure. Resurfacing and/or preventive
maintenance is likely to be required at intervals of approximately 8 to 10 years during
the life of the road.

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• The asphalt concrete base course shall be primarily a fatigue-resistant mixture with
rich-binder content with 60/70 pen grade. Asphalt mixture used in this layer shall be
designed using Marshall method or Superpave method listed in the QCS.
• Unbound aggregate base course and subbase course shall be designed in accordance
with the requirements listed in the QCS.
• Cement-bound material (CBM) base course shall be designed in accordance with the
requirements listed in the QCS.
• Subgrade is the top layer of the natural soil and depending on the road geometry will be
either cut or filled. Subgrade shall conform the requirements listed in the QCS.
Table 3.1 lists the range of thicknesses of each course and corresponding lift thicknesses.
Table 3.1 Range of Each Course Lift Thicknesses for the State of Qatar
Min. Lift Thickness Max. Lift Thickness

Pavement Course
(mm) (mm)
Asphalt concrete wearing course (AC-W) 2.5 * NMAS 4 * NMAS
Asphalt concrete base course (AC-B) 2.5 * NMAS 4 * NMAS
Unbound aggregate base/subbase course(s)

2.5 * NMAS 4 * NMAS
(UA-B)
Cement bound material -- 250
Notes:
mm = millimeter(s)
NMAS = Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size
3.3 Structural Layers in Rigid Pavements

In rigid pavements, the structural elements will always be in PCC, usually with compressive
strengths exceeding 30 newtons per square millimeter (N/mm2) and flexural strengths
exceeding 4.5 N/mm2. The PCC can be in unreinforced slabs, individual jointed reinforced
slabs, or continuously reinforced slabs without joints. A wearing or surface course can
sometimes be used to improve ride quality or noise reduction.
3.4 Structural Layers in Composite Pavements

The structural layers in composite pavements are bituminous and cement-bound, but with
less compressive strength than in PCC and usually no more than 20 N/mm2. The cement-
bound layers will crack naturally depending on the strength of the concrete used, often at
approximately 5-meter (m) centers. Cracking occurs primarily because of thermal movements
in the cement-bound materials. Cracking can be avoided by pre-cracking the materials at
the construction stage and by overlaying them with hot mix asphalt (HMA), which provides
thermal protection and load-spreading qualities.

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A recommended minimum asphalt overlay will be:
(1) 0-4 million ESAL: 100 mm

12
4 Subgrades
4.1 General
The main purpose of the pavement structure is to protect the subgrade from vertical
strain caused by vehicle loads by distributing the load through the pavement layers. This
distribution is needed during construction and during the service life of the pavement.
The pavement design method includes a fundamental consideration of the underlying

subgrade soil conditions. The subgrade soil properties and the physical and chemical
characteristics determine, to a critical degree, the thickness of pavement structure that can
resist the expected design traffic-loading.
Sampling, testing, and reporting need to follow the recommended protocols in the most
recent QCS and any amendments.
4.1.1 Role of Foundation During Construction

Consider the following factors in foundation design when relating to construction:
• Strains in the base and subbase are higher from construction equipment, although the
number of repetitions from construction traffic is much less and is not as channelized as
during the in-service life of the pavement.
• During construction, loads will be applied to the base and subbase by construction
vehicles and equipment. Where such loading is applied, the strength and material
thickness is sufficient to withstand these loads without damage occurring that might
adversely affect future pavement performance.
• Base and subbase layers need to be of sufficient durability to withstand environmental

effects.
• Damage may occur from rutting, deformation, cracking of stabilized soils and bases, or
material-specific degradation.
• The base and subbase need to be stiff enough to allow the overlying pavement layers
to be placed and adequately compacted.

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4.1.2 Role of Base and Subbase in Service

Consider the following factors relating to the in-service condition of the base and subbase
design:
• Ability to withstand repeated traffic loads during the life of a pavement. If the upper
pavement materials begin to deteriorate toward the end of the pavement’s design life,
the pavement can also experience some ingress of water into the pavement may occur,
particularly if the upper pavement materials begin to deteriorate toward the end of the
pavement’s design life.
• The MR use in the design is maintained throughout the life of the pavement. If the MR is
not maintained, deterioration of the upper layers can occur more rapidly than assumed
during design.
• Deformation does not accumulate within the base and subbase under repeated traffic
loading.
• The performance of the base and subbase is also affected by the design, construction,
and maintenance of the earthworks and associated drainage system.
• Softening of the subgrade from excess moisture or from fine-grained material being
forced to the surface under heavy loads can cause a loss of concrete slab support.
4.2 Types of Subgrade

In general, the State of Qatar has high-strength natural soils consisting of weathered
limestone and sands.
Superficial deposits and sabkha (extensive salt flats underlain by sand, silt, and clay) are
often encrusted with salt (halite), which can affect pavements. Sabkha can be soft and loose,
with high salt and chemical content, which are damaging to concrete and steel products and
fittings. See Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design
Guide, of this Manual for more discussion on sabkha and the superficial geology of the State
of Qatar.
4.3 Geotechnical Consideration

Pavement design procedure must include a consideration of the underlying subgrade soil
conditions. The physical and chemical characteristics as well as mechanical properties of
the subgrade soil will determine the thickness of pavement structure that provides good
service condition for the design traffic volume and loading. The following information may
be included, but not limited to:
Project and site description; Field exploration and laboratory testing; Geology, subsurface
and groundwater conditions; Geologic hazards; Excavation characteristics of on-site
materials; Site and subgrade preparation; Fill placement and compaction; Suitability of re-
use of excavated materials and borrow materials; Corrosion potential of on-site soil and

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groundwater; Flood consideration; Site drainage; Construction observation and testing; Any
other relevant consideration that may affect the design and construction.
4.3.1 Geotechnical Investigation

The main objective of the Geotechnical Investigation is to provide sufficient information on
the existing soil and groundwater condition to allow recommendations on the suitability
of the existing soil foundation. During the desk study and the early planning stage of the
project, the designer should contact the Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) for
more information about the geology of the project area, location of any high-risk geological
areas, such as cavities, sinkholes, sabkha, environmental requirements or concerns, etc.
The Geotechnical Investigation must be conducted in accordance with Table 4.1. When the
specification limits listed in Table 4.1 are not fulfilled, either some of the subgrade material
must be replaced with higher-quality material or the amount of cover (fill height) shall be
increased. Alternatively, the designer can propose different solution(s) for stabilization of
existing subgrade.
Table 4.1 Selected Subgrade Specifications and Testing Frequency
Testing
Parameter Standard Specification Limits
Frequency
AASHTO T307 & ASTM 14400 psi min (as per eqn. 1 in
Resilient Modulus a)
D7369-11 Table 4.3.2 and CBR of 15%)
ASTM D1883 or AASHTO 15% min at 95% Max. Dry
California Bearing Ratio Every 1000
T193 (Soaked) Density
m3 (or less)
In-place California as per latest
ASTM D4429 15% min
Bearing Ratio QCS equally
Percent passing the distributed
ASTM D6913 100% along the
75mm sieve
route of the
Percent passing the pavement
ASTM D1140 30% max
0.075mm sieve being
Liquid Limit ASTM D4318 Method A 30% max designed
Plasticity Index ASTM D4318 10% max
Organic matter BS 1377 Part 3 2% max
Notes:
a
Resilient Modulus test is optional but strongly recommended. CBR test may be used in lieu of resilient
modulus.
After all topsoil (that is, soil that includes organic matter/vegetation) is excavated, the
geotechnical investigation listed in Table 4.1 shall be conducted at the following depths:
• 0.0–0.25 m
• 0.25–0.5 m
• 0.5–0.75 m
Also, the subgrade influence zone is approximately 1.5 m below the prepared subgrade
surface so the geotechnical boreholes should cover that depth. Because of the groundwater

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and nature of State of Qatar geology (particularly the extremely weathered top layer of
limestone), the investigation should be at least 3 m below subgrade level. Geotechnical
investigation in high-risk areas of cavities/sinkholes and/or where high groundwater
fluctuation is an issue should be at least 5 m below the subgrade level or as required by the
geotechnical engineer.
If the Coefficient of Variation (CV) of the three investigation depths is greater than 10 percent,
the minimum value for all parameters should be selected for the trial pit. If CV is less than
10 percent, the designer should select the average value.
In the pavement design report, at least at the detailed design stage, the designer shall include
a section comprehensively reporting the data and results of the Geotechnical Investigation
Report and must define the design MR value based on the analysis of data shown in the
report.
In case of material replacement, cover, or stabilization, the designer shall provide physical
characteristics as well as mechanical properties data for the selected option and specify the
design MR value by referring to these data.
4.3.2 Subgrade Design CBR and Resilient Modulus

AASHTO procedure requires subgrade MR as one of the major inputs. The resilient modulus
is a measure of the elastic property of the soil recognizing certain nonlinear characteristics.
The resilient modulus can be used directly for the design of flexible pavements but must be
converted to a modulus of subgrade reaction (k- value) for the design of rigid or composite
pavements. 4 days soaked CBR should be used for design with the in-situ CBR values taken
into consideration in accordance with QCS requirement.
MR should be verified / confirmed at the site using FWD test. However not all road agencies
have the equipment to perform MR testing, several empirical correlations have been developed
to estimate MR from other empirical parameters.
If conducting MR testing is not possible, the designer may use the CBR test and compute the
MR empirically using Equation 1 in Table 4.2. The designer may also choose to use other
equations listed with appropriate justification.
Once MR values are obtained, the designer shall perform a statistical analysis to evaluate the
CV of the available dataset. The considered dataset shall be appropriate for the extension of
the project area in terms of geographical distribution and size of data population. However,
no less than five values shall be considered in the analysis. Then:
• If the CV of the dataset is less than 15 percent, the average value of MR shall be selected
as design value. In this case, the design will be completed using a unique MR value that
will correspond to the average value of the dataset.

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• Conversely, if the CV of the dataset is greater than 15 percent, the designer first shall
consider segmenting the road project area into distinct homogeneous sections (where
the CV of the distribution of MR values is less than 15 percent), and shall design those
sections based on the average MR of each section.
• If no homogeneous sections clearly exist, the designer shall use the 10th percentile of
the MR to obtain the design MR. In this case, the design will be completed using a unique
MR value that will correspond to the 10th percentile of the dataset.
While calculating the 10th percentile, a normal distribution shall not be assumed. Instead,
the cumulative distribution function shall be plotted against the CBR values and the 10th
percentile shall be obtained from the CDF versus CBR graph. This can be accomplished using
the “PERCENTILE.EXC” function of Microsoft Excel.
The locations of boreholes and test pit for collection of soil samples for the CBR test or in-
situ tests shall be within the alignment of right of way of the proposed roadway.
4.3.3 Subgrade Modulus back-calculated from Falling Weight Deflectometer Data

When falling weight deflectometer (FWD) testing is conducted and the back-calculated MR is
determined, then the design MR shall be one-third of the back-calculated MR.
For new pavement designs, the design CBR shall be based on the average of statistically
representative CBR values. For existing pavements, the design CBR shall be determined
from the average of statistically representative CBR values and/or back-calculated design MR
result, whichever is smaller.
For partially saturated soils, the stiffness mainly depends on the negative pore-water
pressure or soil moisture suction. Therefore, the laboratory prepared specimen exhibits
essentially the same stiffness as undisturbed specimens for comparable suction values.
During construction, the CBR value shall be checked to verify that it conforms with the
design assumptions for that section of pavement.
Final grading to subgrade level shall be conducted in conjunction with construction of

subsequent layers to minimize the damage to the subgrade from construction traffic and/or
inclement weather.
If subgrade is too weak to handle the construction traffic, the designer should consider a
capping layer to help protecting the subgrade from damage imposed by construction traffic.
The CBR values are measured using the AASHTO T193 or ASTM D1883, on soaked subgrade
samples compacted to 95 percent of the maximum dry density.
The specified subgrade strengths must be sustained for a depth of at least 500 mm and the
material below this must have a CBR, at the in-situ density, of at least 10 percent.

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If the subgrade soil strength does not match the requirement of the QCS 2014 (or the
latest version), then a capping layer should be provided. If designers adopt this solution, the
pavement design report shall include the design of the capping layer.
4.3.4 Groundwater Elevation

Subgrade drainage provisions and details may be required for localized conditions where a
constant 1.2-m buffer zone between the groundwater surface and the bottom of the subbase
layer may not be achievable, or to provide adequate subbase drainage protection from other
drainage sources. These provisions might include edge drains, filter drains, drainage blanket
or interceptor drains, geotextile membranes, or any other drainage solutions that are based
on sound value engineering. Moreover, the hydrogeology of the project area should be
investigated to verify factors (if any) influencing the groundwater in the project area. The
designer should consider these factors when designing the pavement subdrainage.
The designer should also consider reducing the MR of the subgrade as a viable design solution
when the required buffer zone is not achievable and when AASHTO empirical or mechanistic-
empirical methods are used.
When the buffer zone is less than 1.2 m and the above mitigations methods are not achievable,
then the pavement designer shall reduce the Design Resilient modulus as follows:
• For 600-mm buffer zone, a 25-percent MR reduction

4.4 Parameters and Correlations

To design the pavement structure using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method, the
mean CBR value of the subgrade is used to calculate the MR. In the 1993 AASHTO Guide,
the design MR for each subgrade area is the average value of the soil strength. The MR is a
measure of the elastic property of the soil, recognizing certain nonlinear characteristics. The
MR can be used directly for the design of flexible pavement, but is converted to an effective
modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value) for the design of rigid or composite pavements, using
Figures 3.3 through 3.6 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide. This process is explained in detail in
Because not all road agencies have the equipment to perform MR testing, several approximate
correlations have been developed to correlate other soil indicators to MR. These relationships
are approximate at best and need to be applied carefully.
Practice caution when selecting a design MR. Conduct an analysis of all the soils data prior
to selecting a value. If MR results are not available, the designer can use any of the empirical
equations developed for this purpose.
To correlate the CBR values to the MR of subgrade, many empirical equations have been
developed, as shown in Table 4.2. Each equation has some limitations.

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Table 4.2 Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations
Equation Reference Limitations
A fair conversion over a wide range

MR (psi) = 2555 · CBR0.64 AASHTO 2002 Design Guide
of values.
Only for fine-grained non-expansive
MR (psi) = 1500 · CBR Heukelom & Klomp (1962)
soils with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
For non-fine-grained soils with a
MR (psi) = 3000 · CBR0.65 AASHTO 1993 Design Guide
soaked CBR greater than 10.
MR (psi) = [1,500(CBR)- Only for fine-grained non-expansive
HDOT
1155]/555 soils with a soaked CBR of 8 or less.
Pavement Design—A Guide to
For fine-grained, nonexpansive soils
MR (MPa)= 10 × CBR the Structural Design of Road
with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
Pavements (Austroads, 1992)
Mechanistic-Empirical Design of
MR (MPa) = 17.6 × For fine-grained, nonexpansive soils
New and Rehabilitated Pavement
CBR^(0.64) with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
Structures (NCHRP, 2004)
MR (psi) = 1,000 + (555) Only for fine-grained, nonexpansive
1993 AASHTO Guide
(R-value) soils with R-values of 20 or less.
Notes:
psi = pounds per square inch
MPa = megapascals
The best estimate for the MR of the fine-grained materials can be obtained using the following
equation (National Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2004):
MR = 2555 × CBR^ (0.64)
where:
MR = resilient modulus in psi
CBR = California bearing ratio
Another method of determining MR is by correlating to unconfined compressive strength

from the following equation (Thompson and Robnett, 1979):
MR = 0.307 UC + 0.86
where:
MR = resilient modulus in kip per square inch
UC = unconfined compressive strength in psi
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method for pavement design uses the mean value of
subgrade strength modulus, back-calculated from deflection when FWD testing is conducted
and the back-calculated MR is determined, then:
design MR = 0.33 × back-calculated MR

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If CBR and back-calculated MR results are available, use the smaller design MR for pavement
design purposes.
For partially saturated soils, the stiffness mainly depends on the negative pore-water
pressure or soil moisture suction. Therefore, the laboratory-prepared specimen exhibits have
essentially the same stiffness as undisturbed specimens for comparable suction values.
The designer can determine the modulus of subgrade reaction, or k-value, for rigid pavement
design from plate load tests in the field by using established testing protocols. In the absence
of field testing, the designer can approximate the k-value from the American Concrete
Pavement Association k-value calculator tool, based on the Evaluation of AASHTO Interim
Guides for Design of Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 1972).
4.5 Drainage of Subgrade

High groundwater, surface drainage, or even landscape watering, combined with poorly
drainable, fine-grained soils, can cause a reduction in the strength of the natural subgrade.
This can lead to permanent deformation or loss of support (LS).
Unless subgrades are granular and self-draining, subgrade drainage will be necessary. The
capillary action of the groundwater rising to the surface in soils with high salt and chemical
contents can damage concrete pavement. The low rainfall levels in the State of Qatar result
in subgrade drainage being needed only in locations with a likelihood of high groundwater or
in areas where irrigation activities are expected on the sides of roads.
Subgrade drainage provisions and details may be required for localized conditions where a
constant 1.2-m buffer zone between the ground water surface and the bottom of the subbase
layer may not be achievable, or to provide adequate subbase drainage protection from other
drainage sources. These provisions might include edge drains, filter drains, drainage blanket
or interceptor drains, geotextile membranes, or any other drainage solutions that are based
on sound value engineering.
A reduction in the MR of the subgrade should also be considered a viable design solution
when the required buffer zone is not achievable and when AASHTO empirical or mechanistic-
empirical methods are used for the design.
When the buffer zone is less than 1.2 m and the above mitigations methods are not
achievable, then the pavement designer shall reduce the Design MR as follows:


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4.6 Stabilization of Subgrade

Under normal circumstances, the stabilization of sands and granular materials is unnecessary.
However, cement stabilization is a useful technique to provide a bound subbase for concrete
pavements.
4.7 Improvement of Subgrade

Where weak subgrades occur, several improvement methods can be used, as noted below.
Where subgrades are soft, it can be economically advantageous to excavate the soft material
and replace it with soils of better quality, especially if the excavated material can be used
elsewhere onsite for nonstructural uses, such as landscaping.
Geogrids and geotextiles can be used in two ways: 1) to separate subbase materials from
soft plastic subgrades where they can “punch-in” to subgrades of less strength and become
contaminated or 2) to reinforce subgrades and subbases. In some cases, a geogrid combined
with a bonded geotextile can be used.
When used for reinforcement, geogrids “stiffen” the layers above and below by the action
of aggregate locking into the grid interstices. Geogrids can also provide an element of
separation over a softer subgrade where aggregate from the overlying subbase locks into
the grid.
A geogrid can assist with placing subbases over soft ground, in which case the grid can be
laid directly on the soft subgrade (for example, sabkha). Where significant thicknesses of
subbase are needed, an extra grid can be placed, usually at the center of the subbase layer.
When used in well-graded aggregates, grids will generally influence a thickness ranging from
100 to 150 mm above and below the grid. Grids will rarely be beneficial in subbases when
the CBR is above 5 to 10 percent, which is the case in most of the State of Qatar subgrade,
or the thicknesses of granular material is less than 300 mm.
4.8 Protection of Subgrade

The subgrade needs to be protected from wet weather and construction traffic. Heavy rainfall,
which is not a significant risk in the State of Qatar, can damage subgrades, particularly in
the short term. In granular soils, the subgrade strength is likely to be reestablished if the
subgrade dries out; however, this condition can cause delays. Granular subbase is usually
designed to have a close-knit surface, which, if properly compacted and shaped, will help
protect the subgrade under normal circumstances.
Construction traffic can overstrain the subgrade, leaving it weaker than allowed for at the
design stage and resulting in ruts and deformation. If the subgrade/subbase is to be used
as a haul road, design the subbase layers accordingly to account for construction loads.
Alternatively, a capping or a sacrificial granular material can be used as a temporary running
surface to provide protection.

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4.9 Practical Guidelines for Subbase in Pavement Design

In-situ CBR measurements are valid only for prevailing conditions at a specific time. Consider
environmental factors that could reduce the subgrade strength during its service life or
during construction.
For subgrades with CBR values of 15 percent and greater, the subbase likely will have a
compacted thickness of approximately 150 mm. This thickness is considered the minimum
needed for spreading and compaction.
For subgrades with CBR values more than 30 percent and a low water table or hard rock
subgrades, the subbase can be omitted. If a rock layer is encountered, the layer is maintained,
and its surface scarified by digging approximately 10 centimeters (cm) into the layer. If there
is variability in stiffness or level, a subbase can help provide an adequate structural platform.
When determining the pavement section for a project, it is not advisable to vary the subbase
thickness over distances of less than 150 m. Instead, select an appropriate value for each
significant change in the subgrade properties and traffic levels.
During construction, check the CBR to confirm that it conforms with the design assumptions
for that pavement section. Check the subgrade in situ to verify the CBR is not less than
that used in design. If the in-situ CBR is greater than the design value, the thickness of the
designed subbase must be maintained, as the design will have taken long-term conditions
into consideration. Before construction of the subbase or base course, proof-roll the subgrade
with a loaded vehicle to check for localized areas of soft or weakened soil. Improve weakened
soil, as described in Section 4.7 in this Part. Compact subgrade foundations for pavement to
a minimum 95 percent density, as determined by the Standard Method of Test for Moisture-
Density Relations of Soils Using a 4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop
(AASHTO T-180-10-UL). Densities greater than 95 percent are difficult to achieve in the
field, but can be warranted for roadways with concentrated heavy loads, such as loading
stations, toll plazas, port entry ways, and industrial areas.

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5 Aggregate Bases and Subbases
5.1 Selection of Materials

Aggregates for base and subbase materials come from multiple sources both inside and
outside the State of Qatar. To incorporate these materials into the pavement section, verify
that the materials meet the physical and quality specifications of the latest edition of the
QCS, including amendments. Take extra caution in selecting design parameters to match the
materials available at the time of the project. Additional specifications for base and subbase
are presented in Specifications and Quality Control of Unbound Materials, Base Courses,
Sub-bases, and Subgrades (Ashghal, 2013b).
5.2 Aggregate Subbase

Aggregate or unbound subbase shall be constructed from well-graded crushed rock, whose
properties will be in accordance with the latest QCS version. The minimum CBR for subbase
shall be 70 percent.
5.3 Aggregate Base Course

Aggregate base will generally have similar features as the subbase, with tighter tolerances
than subbase, and improved physical properties. The aggregate base course properties will
be in accordance with the QCS 2014 (or the latest version) and the minimum CBR for base
course shall be 80 percent.
Recycled materials are encouraged to be used in base course if they meet the required
specifications.

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6 Stabilized Base Courses
6.1 Materials Selection

Aggregates, bitumen, and cement affect the quality, strength, and endurance of stabilized
bases. To incorporate these materials into the pavement section, verify that they meet
the specifications of the applicable sections of the latest edition of the QCS, including
amendments.
6.2 Asphalt Concrete Base Course

AC materials are characterized by an aggregate skeleton in which the individual particles are
mechanically interlocked; that is, usually bound with 60/70 penetration grade bitumen. The
aggregate skeleton provides deformation resistance, provided that in-situ air voids are in the
range of 6 to 8 percent, and contributes to stiffness. The binder content is such that binder
films are thick enough on the aggregate to resist fatigue and provide durability. Generally,
lower penetration binders are used for increased stiffness and deformation resistance.
PMBs in asphalt increase rut resistance and result in a slightly stiffer material without
making it more brittle; flexibility is retained. PMBs are most often used in wearing courses
and are used only in binder courses/bases with a greater than usual risk of rutting in the
lower material. The effect of introducing PMBs varies according to the type and percentage
used. PMBs such as styrene-butadiene-styrene and ethylene-vinyl acetate can have a similar
performance in increasing fatigue and rutting resistance.
6.3 Cement Treated Base

Cement treated base (CTB) is an aggregate base course in which cement has been added
for stabilization. Strength values of CTB vary with the gradation of the aggregate and the
amount of cement to be added. Before using CTB in a pavement section, perform trial mix
designs to determine the unconfined compressive strength. AASHTO layer coefficients and
corresponding resilient modulus values for this material can be determined using Figure 2.8
in the 1993 AASHTO Guide. Typical CTB mixes contain approximately 3 percent cement and
have a 7-day compressive strength of 4 MPa to 6.2 MPa (575 psi to 900 psi).
6.4 Roller-Compacted Concrete Base

Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a zero-slump concrete that uses conventional asphalt
paving equipment and compaction equipment. RCC can achieve compressive strengths
equal to or greater than conventional concrete mixes. RCC has a different mix design than
conventional pavement quality concrete and does not include reinforcing, jointing, or load
transfer. Because of the specific mix design and construction methods, RCC is not as common

12
in roadway construction but can be used as a rigid base in composite pavements. If used,
measures are needed to prevent bonding of PCC pavements and reflective cracking in flexible
pavement surfaces.

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7 Surface Courses
7.1 Asphalt Concrete

7.1.1 Materials and Mix Design Selection
The technology of asphalt mixes and materials is continually developing. It is important to use
the latest QCS and amendments when specifying materials. For mix design specifications,
mix design development, and binder specifications, use the Guide for Superpave Mix Design
and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures (Ashghal, 2012b). The Guide for Marshall Mix Design
and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures (Ashghal, 2013c) can be applied where Superpave
is not used.
7.1.2 Surface Courses

Surface courses for AC pavements can consist of dense-graded, open-graded, or stone matrix
AC. AC behavior depends on the quality and proportions of the aggregate and binder in the
mix.
Dense-graded AC is made with a polymer-modified binder. Practices in the State of Qatar

also include the use of scrap tire rubber in the binder as a modifier. Interim Advice Note 019,
Amendments to Earthworks, Unbound Pavement Materials and Asphalt Works of Qatar
Construction from Specifications (Ashghal, 2012c) provides the specification for asphalt
binders meeting Standard Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Using
Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test (AASHTO MP 19-10). The guides for Superpave
and Marshall mix designs provide additional specifications when crumb rubber is added to
the binder. Test dense-graded AC according to Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress
Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
(AASHTO TP 70-13) using the multiple stress creep recovery test. Binders used in the State
of Qatar are Performance Grade PG-76-10 and PG-76-22. The selection of binder grades,
designated “S,” “H,” “V,” and “E” in Interim Advice Notice 019, depends on traffic volume.
Guidance for the selection of binder designation based on traffic levels is provided in the
Ashghal guidance documents referenced in Clause 7.1.1 in this Part.
The benefits of open-graded AC are improved surface skid resistance, improved surface
drainage, and a quieter pavement than dense-graded asphalt. The concrete mix uses a gap-
graded aggregate and an asphalt content of 1 to 2 percent higher than dense graded mixes
because of greater void space and needs for more stability from the binder. It is placed in thin
lifts, with thicknesses of less than 25 mm. This material does not add any structural value
and, therefore, no layer coefficient is applied to this material.
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) surfacing is a gap-graded material with synthetic fibers that is
added to the aggregate matrix. The aggregate gradation is similar to open-graded asphalt,

12
yet has more fine aggregate. SMA has high stability to guard against rutting and is placed
in thicknesses of less than 150 mm. Material properties similar to those of dense-graded AC
can be used for SMA.
7.1.3 Intermediate Courses

In thicker asphalt pavements and perpetual pavements, an intermediate course is developed
as the main section of the pavement to carry traffic loads. The gradation and mix design of
this material is different than the surface course or base course and is described in more
detail in the latest QCS.
Intermediate courses in asphalt pavements can include the same dense-graded asphalt
mix as the surface course. This may be the case in pavements where the total asphalt
thickness does not justify the use of two mix types. Rather than construct the asphalt with
two separate mixes, it can be more economical to construct the asphalt with one mix for
consistency. When developing plans, the terms base lift and surface lift are sometimes used
for construction of a course and are not be confused with base course and surface course.
7.2 Portland Cement Concrete

PCC usually has a compressive strength of approximately 32 MPa to 40 MPa and is laid wet,
without compaction. In the State of Qatar, concrete is usually made with local limestone
aggregates.
The stress generated in a concrete slab partly depends on the stiffness ratio between
the slab and its underlying support. To maximize the pavement life, rigid pavements can
be designed with a bound subbase at least 150 mm thick to reduce stress at the base of
the concrete. For lower-trafficked roads with a minimum slab thickness for construction, a
granular subbase is usually sufficient.

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8 Design Elements and

Construction Considerations
8.1 Design Elements: Failure Mechanisms

The basic concept of the structural design of new and rehabilitated pavements is to reduce
the strains, deflections, and stresses under repeated traffic loads to acceptable levels that
can be resisted by the various pavement layers. There are two primary modes of failure:
• Fatigue in the asphalt or concrete at the base of the structural layer, where the horizontal
strain is exceeded for asphalt, or stress exceeded for cement-bound aggregate
• Rutting and permanent deformation of unbound granular materials caused by excess

vertical strain in the subgrade/subbase interface
Figure 8.1 shows the location and failure mechanisms in pavement layers.
Figure 8.1 Vertical and Horizontal Strain in Pavement Layers
8.1.1 Flexible Pavements with Flexible Base

Deterioration in flexible pavements with asphalt base is predominantly caused by traffic
loading, environmental factors, or a combination thereof. Deterioration from traffic loading is
associated with the following mechanisms:
• Repeated tensile strains within the bound layers under vehicle loading that cause fatigue
cracks to initiate in the asphalt. Traditional pavement analysis indicates that these
cracks start at the bottom of the asphalt base and then propagate upward through the

12
materials. Further investigations have shown that fatigue cracking in thicker pavements
is different. Fatigue cracking initiates as bottom-up cracking for thinner pavements; in
thicker pavements, failure tends to be top-down, with fatigue cracking starting at the
surface.
• Rutting caused by cumulative deformation of one or more of the layers within the
pavement structure including the subgrade. When rutting emanates from the subgrade
or base layers and the entire pavement structure is deformed, it is referred to as
structural deformation. When rutting is within the asphalt surfacing only, it is referred
to as nonstructural deformation (Department for Transport, 1992). Examples of each
are shown in Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2.
The main environmental causes of pavement deterioration are as follows:
• The asphalt binder hardens over time with consequent effects on the fatigue-resisting
properties of the mixture. Hardening of the binder is a result of oxidation occurring at
the surface of the pavement, which is exposed to air and solar radiation. Strains at the
pavement surface caused by thermal cycling and vehicle loading can eventually lead to
surface cracks. Over time, the cracks can propagate downward and ultimately reach the
base of the bound layers. Hardening can also reduce cohesion of the mixture, resulting
in a loss of aggregate; this is often called fretting, raveling, or surface disintegration.
• Asphalt binder is a material that shows both viscous and elastic behaviors under different
conditions, primarily temperature and loading. Performance of asphalt mixtures is
influenced by the service temperature. At higher temperatures, the binder is more fluid,
and the risk of the accumulation of permanent deformation in the surfacing increases.
This is referred to as nonstructural rutting. This risk is increased by slow-moving or
stationary traffic but can be mitigated by selecting appropriate, well-designed, and well-
placed materials.
• Deterioration can result from a variation in foundation strength caused by changes in

moisture levels, particularly on cracked pavements of thin construction (Department for
Transport, 1992).
8.1.2 Perpetual Pavements with Asphalt Base

Perpetual (long-life) pavement is an ultra-thick, full-depth asphalt pavement section
designed with multiple layers and specific mixes to guard against rutting and fatigue
cracking. A perpetual pavement system consists of a base layer with high asphalt content
for flexibility to guard against fatigue cracking, one or more intermediate courses designed
for high stability and rut resistance, and a high-performing surface course. Thick, well-
constructed, flexible pavements with asphalt bases on strong foundations will not suffer
structural deformation or bottom-up fatigue cracking of the base. The pavement section is
designed for a 50-year service life, with the only rehabilitation to replace the surface course
from normal wear. Environmental factors and repeated traffic loading can lead to cracking
at the surface that can increase in depth. Rutting in these pavements is limited to the
surfacing layers (that is, it is nonstructural). Long pavement life can be achieved by removing

12
and replacing the cracked or rutted surface material before the defect has progressed too
deeply and deterioration begins to affect the structural integrity of the road. For particular
materials and axle loads, there is a thickness of pavement beyond which a further increase
in thickness does not necessarily add service life. According to Interim Advice Notice 016,
Pavement Design Guidelines, traffic loads of more than 50 million standard axles warrant a
perpetual pavement design (Ashghal, 2012a).
8.1.3 Flexible Pavements with Cement-Bound Base

These pavements consist of a lower base, usually of CBM, designed to resist traffic-induced
stresses, and an asphalt upper base and surfacing that protect the CBM and help spread the
loading. The strength and thickness of the CBM layer significantly influences the progression
of deterioration, which is also associated with the effects of traffic and the environment, as
previously described.
Thermal stresses in this type of pavement usually result in transverse shrinkage cracks in
the CBM during construction. In time, shrinkage cracks can cause stresses in the overlying
asphalt, leading to reflective cracking. Reflective cracking, like environmental cracking, begins
in the surface but does not penetrate to the full depth of the asphalt layers. Reflective and
environmental cracks can allow the ingress of water to the pavement structure and moisture-
susceptible materials beneath the surface if left untreated. If transverse cracks are wide
enough, they can reduce aggregate interlock, resulting in reduced load transfer capacity,
which can cause significant pavement deterioration. Thermal cracking from CBM can be
reduced or eliminated by pre-cracking the CBM before paving the surface and overlaying it
with an adequate thickness of asphalt.
8.1.4 Rigid Pavements

Defects in rigid pavement include spalling, raveling, faulting, cracking, and loss of load
transfer. Surface spalling is associated with the durability of the concrete, but it is not
generally a sign of structural deterioration of the pavement.
The reasons for structural deterioration in rigid pavements are different from those in flexible
pavements. In rigid pavements, horizontal tensile stresses are generated by the combined
effects of wheel loading and thermally induced stresses. Under certain conditions, these
stresses can lead to cracking, especially in corners and along the edges of concrete slabs.
Such cracking is often associated with diminished support of the slab caused by drainage
problems or water ingress at joints.
The repeated traffic loads on rigid pavements create pumping under the transverse joint
because of excessive deflections that lead to joint faulting, corner and edge breaks, and
transverse cracking near the middle of the concrete slab. The corner/edge break and
transverse cracking are caused by the excessive tensile stresses on the top face of the slab
because of the cantilever action.
8.1.4.1 Jointed Rigid Pavements

JRC can be unreinforced or reinforced. They are designed to minimize the occurrence of
uncontrolled, random cracking. Dowel bars are used in JRC and URC for load transfer across

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joints. Cracking in URC pavements is a major problem because no reinforcement holds the
material together. JRC pavements can tolerate transverse cracking if good load transfer is
maintained.
Structural defects are mainly in the form of cracking. Settlement from joint failure can also
occur. If not remedied, this can lead to the development of cracks and subsequent failure.
Expansion joints in concrete pavement are placed at intervals and wide enough to allow for
expansion and contraction of the concrete because of temperature changes and thermal
expansion. In extremely high temperatures, concrete pavement can expand a distance that
exceeds the spacing provided by the joints. The dowels can become locked and debris can
fill the expansion gap, resulting in expansion joints that have lost their capacity to absorb
movement. In these instances, “blow ups,” where two consecutive slabs rise up in an
inverted “V,” can occur.
8.1.4.2 Continuously Reinforced Rigid Pavements

CRCPs and pavements with continuously reinforced concrete bases (CRCBs) have longitudinal
reinforcement without intermediate expansion or contraction joints. Thermally induced
stresses within the concrete slab are relieved by minor transverse cracks occurring at 1-m
to 2-m spacings held tightly closed by the reinforcement. The middle of a long slab of CRCP
does not move when subjected to temperature changes. Longitudinal movement is limited
to the ends of the slab. This end movement can be partly restrained with ground beams in a
ground beam anchorage or can be accommodated by a special joint.
Another form of defect called a punchout occurs when closely spaced transverse cracks are
connected by parallel longitudinal cracks. Small blocks of concrete are formed, become loose,
and eventually detach from the pavement when subject to repeated traffic loads.
8.2 Design Elements: 1993 AASHTO Guide

8.2.1 Input for the 1993 AASHTO Guide
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical pavement design method is widely used in many countries
and by many road agencies in the U.S. Factors other than the determination of pavement
layer thickness are to be considered for a reliable pavement design. The 1993 AASHTO Guide
empirical method includes consideration of the following:
• Design life
• Traffic
• Foundation ground conditions
• Pavement performance parameters
• Reliability
• Standard deviation
• Material properties
• Drainage coefficients of layers

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• Environmental conditions
• Life cycle cost
The following subsections provide brief guidelines on input values recommended for
pavement design in Qatar using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method. Appendix A
contains a table of parameters appropriate for use in the State of Qatar.
Most transportation agencies in the U.S. have recently implemented, or have plans to
implement, the mechanistic-empirical design method described in the MEPDG. These plans
include local calibration testing and verification to determine input values and failure criteria.
Furthermore, the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) advocates implementation
of the mechanistic-empirical design method. The Guide for the Local Calibration of the
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (AASHTO, 2010) describes the steps
necessary for full implementation of the mechanistic-empirical method.
8.2.2 Pavement Performance

The functional performance of a pavement depends on how well the pavement serves
the user. In this context, riding comfort or ride quality is the dominant characteristic. To
quantify riding comfort, the serviceability-performance concept was developed by AASHTO
in 1957. The serviceability of a pavement is expressed in terms of the Present Serviceability
Index. The PSI is obtained from measurements of roughness and distress, such as cracking,
patching, and rut depth at a time during the service life of the pavement. Roughness is the
dominant factor in estimating the PSI of a pavement. Both initial serviceability and terminal
serviceability are important for the pavement design. The initial serviceability index (pi) is
an estimate by the user of what the PSI will be immediately after construction. Values of
PSI established for AASHTO road test conditions were 4.2 for flexible pavements and 4.5 for
rigid pavement. The terminal serviceability index (pt) is the lowest acceptable level before
resurfacing or reconstruction is necessary for a class of road.
8.2.3 Reliability
Reliability is a means of incorporating certainty into the design process to increase probability
that the various design alternatives will function as planned through the analysis period.
Reliability can also be defined as the probability of achieving the design life that Ashghal
wants for a certain roadway. As the volume of traffic, difficulty of diverting traffic, and public
expectation of availability increase, the risk of not performing to expectations needs to be
minimized. This is accomplished by selecting higher levels of reliability.
Appendix A presents recommended levels of reliability for various functional classifications.

The higher levels correspond to the facilities that receive the most use, and the lowest level
corresponds to local roads. When selecting the appropriate level of reliability, consider such
factors as the importance of the roadway under consideration, new or rehabilitation design,
implications of future reconstruction, traffic level, and minor or major road classification.
Reliability levels can be slightly higher or lower based on specific site conditions and should
be confirmed with Ashghal.

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8.2.4 Standard Deviation

Select a standard deviation that is representative of local conditions. The 1993 AASHTO
Guide recommends a total standard deviation of 0.35 for rigid pavements and 0.45 for
flexible pavements.
8.2.5 Serviceability
The serviceability of pavement is defined as its ability to serve the type of traffic using the
facility. The primary measure of serviceability is the PSI, which ranges from 0 for an impassible
road to 5 for a perfect road. Selection of the lowest allowable PSI or pt is based on the lowest
index that will be tolerated before rehabilitation, resurfacing, or reconstruction is necessary.
In the 1993 AASHTO Guide, an index of 2.5 or higher is suggested for major arterials, and
2.0 for arterials with smaller traffic volumes. An index of 2.5 or 3 is often suggested for
the design of major roads and an index of 2 for roads with a lesser classification. For minor
roads, for which economic considerations dictate that initial expenditures be kept low, a
pt of 1.5 can be used. The time at which a given pavement structure reaches its terminal
serviceability depends on traffic volume and the original or initial serviceability.
Values of 4.2 for flexible pavement and 4.5 for rigid pavement are recommended in the 1993
AASHTO Guide. However, because of the variation of construction methods and standards,
it is recommended that more reliable levels to be established based on its own conditions.
Appendix A provides levels of serviceability for roadway classifications in the State of Qatar,
based on information provided in Interim Advice Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines
(Ashghal, 2012a).
Once pi and pt are established, the following equation is used to define the total change in
serviceability index:
ΔPSI = pi – pt
8.2.6 Material Properties: Flexible Design

A structural layer coefficient, ai, is assigned to each pavement layer thickness to convert
actual layer thickness to a structural number (SN). This coefficient is assigned to each layer
of materials in the pavement structure. According to AASHTO (1986), “This layer coefficient
expresses the empirical relationship between SN and thickness and is a measure of the
relative ability of the material to function as a structural component of the pavement”.
Appendix B provides charts for estimating the structural layer coefficient of AC, granular
base, granular subbase, and CTB. The structural coefficients of these materials are based
on their modulus of elasticity, or resilience. In order to avoid the possibility of proposing
impractical designs, the minimum thicknesses recommended are shown in Table 8.1.
When considering the modulus for asphalts, it is important to know the ambient temperature
under which the material will be operating. Values in the 1993 AASHTO Guide are based
on a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius (°C) and will need to be adjusted to account for the
climate in the State of Qatar.

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When a pavement has been in service for some time, it has been demonstrated that the
asphaltic materials (wearing, intermediate and base courses) would have lost some of their
load carrying ability. In order to represent this in the calculations of the existing structural
numbers (SNE), the following set of reduced layer coefficients reflecting the current
pavement condition can be used for rehabilitation projects on LRDP projects.
• For Wearing and Intermediate Courses, reduced layer coefficient for Good, Fair and Poor
condition shall be 0.34, 0.20 and 0.15 respectively.
• For Asphalt Base Course, reduced layer coefficient for Good, Fair and Poor conditions
shall be 0.25, 0.20 and 0.15 respectively.
• Granular base, subbase, and subgrade are assumed to remain at full strength and are not
reduced in the SNE calculations. However, where substandard materials are suspected,
a full evaluation shall be carried out to determine the extent of material deterioration
and either appropriate reduced layer coefficient can be assigned or a recommendation
for reconstruction of the affected segment of roadway can be recommended.
Pavement Condition should be based on visual pavement condition survey (cracking, patching,
rutting, etc.) and may be supplemented by additional testing where necessary.
The MR refers to the material’s stress-strain behavior under normal pavement loading
conditions. For pavement layer materials, the designer uses established laboratory tests to
calculate the MR of different materials. For example, the stiffness of AC can be assessed
using Standard Test Method for Determining the Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures
by Indirect Tension Test (ASTM D7369-11).
Table 8.1 Recommended Minimum Thickness (inches)

Traffic, ESAL’s Asphalt Concrete Aggregate Base
Less than 50,000 1.0 4
50,001-150,000 2.0 4
150,001-500,000 2.5 4
500,001-2,000,000 3.0 6
2,000,001-7,000,000 3.5 6
Greater than 7,000,000 4 6
The Resilient Modulus (MR) of asphalt concrete is less under a slow-moving load than under
a more dynamic, high speed load. As a result of this effect, slow moving or stopped trucks
have a greater potential to cause rutting. For situations with slow moving or standing truck
traffic and particularly those sections with a history of rutting (toll booths, intersections
with slow truck traffic, weigh stations with standing traffic), a Polymer Modified Bitumen
(PMB) should be considered.
The preferred application PMB for the Local Roads and Drainage Program (LRDP) projects
will be based on function/load basis (i.e. roads with heavier volumes) such as high volume
roundabouts and intersections, industrial areas and other routes that may have high

12
temporary construction traffic volumes. The decision to use PMB shall be on a project by
project basis and according to the design need within the project scope, and its use shall
be justified within the pavement design report. The normal PMB grade required shall be as
designated in the latest QCS.
PMB shall be used in only the wearing course for design ESALs between 10 million and 30
million, or where necessary in both the intermediate course and wearing course for design
ESALs greater than 30 million.
8.2.7 Material Properties: Rigid Design

Properties for rigid pavement design using the 1993 AASHTO Guide include:
• Concrete modulus of rupture

• Concrete modulus of elasticity
• Load transfer coefficient
• Loss of support factor
Concrete modulus of rupture is a measure of the concrete flexural strength. The flexural
strength varies with concrete mix design, aggregate type and gradation, and the amount of
cement. Flexural strength is proportional to compressive strength. The modulus of rupture
can be approximated by the following equation:
Modulus of Rupture (psi) = [fc]2 × 10
where:
fc = compressive strength in psi.
Values for modulus rupture range from 3.8 MPa to 5.2 MPa (550 psi to 750 psi). PCC
pavement has a value of approximately 4.5 MPa (650 psi).
Concrete modulus of elasticity can also be approximated from the compressive strength by
the following equation:
Elastic Modulus (psi) = [fc]0.5 × 59,000
where:
fc = compressive strength in psi
Values for concrete range from 20,700 MPa to 34,500 MPa (3,000,000 psi to 5,000,000 psi).
A typical value for paving grade concrete is 27,600 MPa (4,000,000 psi).
The load transfer coefficient number varies, depending on pavement type, reinforcing, joint
properties, and shoulder construction. The load transfer coefficient can be determined using

12
Table 8.2. In this example, a plain-jointed concrete pavement with dowelled joints and tied
concrete shoulders would provide a load transfer coefficient of 2.8.
Table 8.2 Recommended Load Transfer Coefficients for Various Pavement Types
and Conditions
Shoulder Asphalt Tied PCC
Load transfer devices Yes No Yes No
Pavement Type
Plain jointed and jointed reinforced 3.2 3.8–4.4 2.5–3.1 3.6–4.2
CRCP 2.9–3.2 Not applicable 2.3–2.9 Not applicable
Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
8.2.8 Drainage Condition

Drainage of water from over and under the pavement is an important consideration in
pavement design. Drainage condition is reflected in the design by drainage coefficient. The
drainage coefficient methodology uses a modified layer coefficient to represent drainage
conditions. For example, a higher effective layer coefficient would be used for improved
drainage conditions.
The process to select drainage coefficient (mi) is discussed in section 10.1.1 below. A drainage
coefficient (mi) is selected based on the quality of drainage on the pavement system and
percentage of time that the pavement structure is exposed to moisture levels approaching
saturation. These coefficients are used to modify the structural layer coefficients for granular
base and subbase. Recommended mi values are provided in Table 2.4 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide. For general use considering less rainfall & other associated factors in Qatar a value of
1.2 can be assumed, whereas if there are places of concerns it is recommended to go with a
value of 1.0.
8.2.9 Environmental Conditions

For pavement performance and pavement structural design, the two main environmental
factors are temperature and rainfall. Temperature affects the creep properties of AC,
thermal-induced stresses in AC, and contraction and expansion of concrete pavement.
Material properties used in designs need to be appropriate for the environmental conditions
anticipated.
8.2.10 Traffic
Traffic loading is input as a cumulative number of ESALs. Assessment and prediction of
traffic is discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part.

12
8.3 Construction Considerations

8.3.1 Asphalt Concrete
For AC to be effective in flexible or composite pavement structure, full adhesion is needed
between the individual layers of asphalt materials so that they act as a single monolithic
layer. To achieve this in practice and to help achieve good, long-life performance, a tack or
bond coat is needed between all layers.
A prime coat shall be placed on granular layers below the AC. The prime coat will aid in
binding and sealing the surface of the granular layer, and bonding the asphalt.
The jointing between paving lanes, if not constructed properly, can allow water to enter
the pavement structure, which could lead to stripping of the binder, loss of aggregate,
and raveling. When preparing specifications for construction, address joint construction.
Density along paving joints and staggering paving joints between successive lifts need to
be addressed. Check asphalt field density at the joint or within 60 cm of the joint. A wedge
detail can be used along edges of paving lanes to provide more surface contact between
adjacent lanes. Pavers can also be equipped with a joint-matching apparatus for continuity
between paving lanes or a joint heater device to ensure good bond between the existing
(cold) and new (hot) asphalt layers. Longitudinal joints between lifts of asphalt need to
overlap by at least 150 mm.
To facilitate the development of AC materials for pavement design purposes, Ashghal has
recommended specific performance tests to obtain specific information that can be used in
further pavement designs. Use the Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement
Layers (Ashghal, 2013a) as directed.
8.3.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete

CRCP and CRCB pavements develop a fine transverse crack pattern soon after the concrete
is laid. The crack spacing is initially approximately 3 m or 4 m. Further cracking is usual after
the road has been in service for a few years. Continuous longitudinal steel holds the cracks
tightly closed, ensuring load transfer by aggregate interlock and minimizing steel corrosion.
Crack propagation in CRCP/CRCB pavements is closely related to the subsurface friction, the
aggregate used, the strength of the concrete, and the proportion of steel.
The restraint provided by the subbase reduces the amount of movement and is related
to the desired crack pattern. The use of a layer of material under the CRCP/CRCB with
uniform surface properties, such as paver-laid wet-lean concrete or an asphalt material, is
recommended. The thickness of any underlying asphalt material can be considered as part
of the bound subbase.
Discontinuities in the slab need to be prevented, as they encourage the formation of

closely spaced cracks, which increases the risk of spalling. For this reason, locate gullies and
manholes outside the main CRCP/CRCB slab. If this is not possible, then heavily reinforce the
slab around the gullies and manholes.

12
Where a CRCP has an asphalt surface, including a wearing course, surface noise generation is
reduced and water penetration (and the potential for steel corrosion) is likely to be reduced.
A surfacing thickness of 100 mm (or greater) also provides a degree of thermal protection
from rapid temperature changes for the concrete base.
8.3.3 Joints in Rigid Pavements

Temperature and, to a lesser extent, moisture changes cause contraction/expansion of the
slab, which, if retained, induce stresses in the concrete. A separation membrane is needed
between the slab and subbase for URC and JRC pavements to reduce this effect and to inhibit
the formation of mid-bay cracks. The membrane also helps reduce the loss of water from
fresh concrete.
The types of joints used in concrete pavements include contraction, expansion, warping,
isolation, and construction joints. Each type of joint is described in the following paragraphs.
Contraction joints are constructed in strategic locations to allow the slab to shrink and crack
when its temperature decreases. Joints are saw-cut or formed to a depth of one-fourth to
one-third the slab thickness and sealed. Consequently, adequate joint design will allow
the slab to expand by approximately the same amount. Contraction joints are saw-cut to
relieve stresses from concrete shrinkage and to control the location of shrinkage cracks. Saw-
cutting is performed after concrete placement and before hardening, while the concrete is
still plastic. Saw-cut joints within 24 hours after placement to prevent random cracking away
from joints and load transfer devices.
Expansion joints allow movement that would naturally occur at temperatures higher than
that of the concrete at the time the slab was constructed and allow the slab to shrink.
Transverse joints are either expansion or contraction types.
Warping joints are provided for longitudinal joints only and tie the slabs together; they act
as hinges in the slab.
Isolation joints are used around structures such as manholes, catch basins, and vaults to
prevent bonding of the concrete to fixed objects, and to isolate areas of differing pavement
thicknesses and widths. Isolation joints can include a thickened edge of 150 percent of the
normal pavement thickness. They can be doweled if loads will be transferred across adjoining
pavement slabs. Spacing between the adjoining pavement and structure will be the same as
an expansion joint.
Construction joints are joints made at the end of a day’s paving in advance preparation
for future paving. Construction joints include load transfer through dowels in transverse
construction joints and tie bars in longitudinal joints and are sealed in the same manner as
contraction joints.
The permitted spacing of transverse joints is a function of slab thickness, aggregate type,
and, for JRC, the quantity of reinforcement. Joint spacing reflects the capacity of the slab to

12
distribute strain, rather than allow damaging strain concentrations. For jointed plain concrete
pavement, joint spacing is typically 5 m. Dowels are added to transverse contraction joints
for load transfer. Dowel bar sizes vary with slab thickness, but are typically 460 mm long
at 305-mm spacing. Dowel bar diameters are 20 mm to 40 mm for a concrete thickness of
160 mm to 320 mm.
The advantage of concrete containing aggregate with a lesser coefficient of thermal

expansion is that it results in less expansion/contraction of the slab, which allows greater
joint spacing.
The ability of reinforcement to distribute strain increases with the amount of reinforcement
used. Greater joint spacings can be used with larger areas of reinforcement, although this
results in greater movement at each joint and appropriate sealant must be used.
8.3.4 Smoothness of Pavement Surface

Pavement performance is affected by the smoothness of the pavement surface and ride
quality, which in turn is affected by sound subgrade, subbase, and base construction; proper
jointing in rigid pavements; control of finish grade; and final surface finish. Pavement surface
smoothness can be determined in several ways. The selection of the method depends on the
volume and speed of traffic, road category, and use.
In areas of light and low traffic, check surface deviations using a straight edge. In other
areas, use a rolling inclinometer, or profilograph, to check deviations to grade along the
profile. In higher speed and higher classifications of pavement, the International Roughness
Index (IRI) is used to determine ride quality. If using of a profilograph, follow the procedures
in Standard Test Method for Using a Rolling Inclinometer to Measure Longitudinal and
Transverse Profiles of a Traveled Surface [ASTM E2133-03 (2013)]. The IRI is reported in
accordance with Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of Roads
from Longitudinal Profile Measurements (ASTM E1926-08).
The latest QCS lists the specifications for testing with a 3-m straight edge on minor roads. A
laser road surface testing machine is used to test the finished wearing course of major roads,
such as freeways, expressways, and arterials. The latest QCS provides acceptable IRI values
for new construction, rehabilitation, and flexible and rigid pavement. Select the method of
testing and determining pavement smoothness with concurrence with Ashghal procedures
at the time of construction.

12

12
9 Traffic Analysis
Traffic is one of the key inputs required for pavement design. It controls the pavement layer
thickness and material type used in pavement construction. Overestimation of traffic in
pavement design may lead to an overdesigned pavement structure with higher associated
costs, while underestimation of traffic may lead to pavement structures that are susceptible
to premature pavement failure, resulting in increased maintenance costs and a negative
impact on the driving public.
The traffic analysis shall be performed in accordance with the general guidelines described
in the following two cases:
• Case I: Existing Roads

• Case II: Non-Existing Roads or Roads in Partially Developed Areas
9.1 Case I: Existing Roads

This case is followed when:
• The project is an upgrade of an existing road.
• The traffic expected on a new road can be estimated (without the need for traffic
modeling) from existing traffic surveys or other existing roads surveys that will be
connected to the new road.
9.1.1 Estimation of Average Daily Traffic

Vehicle classification counts shall be performed and included in the pavement design
report for existing roads even if significant changes in traffic levels are anticipated after
construction. When significant developments are expected, the additional traffic can be
included as generated and diverted traffic. The vehicle classification count shall be used in
the estimation of the current (normal) traffic level as well as the percentage of heavy goods
vehicles (HGV%) and vehicle class distribution at the proposed project location.
Vehicle classification counts shall be conducted using the vehicle classes presented in
Section 9.1.4.1. The vehicle classification counts shall be performed in both directions for a
minimum of five consecutive days, excluding Fridays and Saturdays and times of abnormal
traffic activity, such as public and school holidays. During the count period, at least two
traffic counts should be performed for a full 24 hours. The count totals for the other days
should be factored up to obtain the 24-hour totals.
The average daily traffic (ADT) can be calculated for all vehicles or for each individual vehicle
class by summing the traffic counts for all 5 days in both directions and dividing the total
by five. The ADT should be converted to an annual average daily traffic (AADT) based on

12
the appropriate factor and the number of count days and other applicable variables, such as
seasonal adjustment factors. In the absence of any relevant information, a factor of 1.0 can
be used for the conversion.
In pavement design, only buses and trucks are considered in the analysis because of
their disproportionate effect on the resulting pavement structure and future pavement
performance. Motorcycles, passenger cars, and light pickup trucks are excluded from the
analysis because of their relatively light weight and low impact on pavement performance.
Therefore, the analysis of the traffic data shall focus on moderately heavy and heavy vehicles
(that is, light goods vehicles, medium buses, big buses, rigid trucks, articulated trucks, multi-
trailer trucks, and rigid trucks with trailers).
For major roadway projects, the 5-day counts shall be repeated several times throughout the
year to ensure the accuracy of the ADT value.
Adequate justification shall be provided if the ADT values used in the pavement design are
different than those obtained from the vehicle classification counts.
Potential construction and diverted traffic shall be included in estimation of the initial-year
average daily traffic (ADTi) using the following equation:
ADTi = ADTclassified count + ADT diverted + ADTconstruction
where:
ADTi = average daily traffic for the initial year
ADTclassified count = average daily traffic measured during the design stage
ADTdiverted = average daily traffic expected from diverted traffic when the new
pavement is open to traffic
ADTconstruction = average daily traffic expected from construction activities that affect
the road to be designed.
The pavement design report shall include a detailed explanation of how the anticipated
construction traffic and diverted traffic are estimated. The pavement design report shall also
include consideration of changes in traffic patterns during the weekdays and/or weekends.
This may include (but is not limited to) changes on road links serving retail land uses (for
example, malls) that are likely to be busier during weekends.
9.1.2 Traffic Growth

The following sources of data may be used to estimate the traffic growth:
• Historical Traffic Counts

• Qatar Strategic Traffic Model (QSTM) intermediate-year forecasts
• Population growth data using the “Planning Data Interface” spreadsheet

12
• Change in catchment area land use and/or density, such as number of dwelling units
• Change in the number of employees in a commercial area
• Change in road type and function
Regardless of the growth data source used, the design report shall include a discussion of
the future development plans and land use of the area surrounding the proposed project
location to justify the selection of the growth rate value(s) obtained. Moreover, the State of
Qatar National Masterplan (and its components) of the MME should be considered.
When the traffic growth trend is estimated from the base QSTM runs of 2011, 2016, 2021,
2026, and 2031, the estimated one-way ADTs for these years shall be plotted against
time (years) and the traffic growth rate shall be estimated from exponent or linear model,
assuming a growth rate of R and open year traffic ADTi, the future-year traffic ADTf can be
calculated using following equation:
Exponent Relationship:
ADTf = ADTi (1 + R) f-i
Linear Relationship:
ADTf = ADTi (1 + R(f-i))
where:
ADTf = average daily traffic for the future year
ADTi = average daily traffic for the initial year
i = initial year for ADT
f = future year for ADT
R = growth rate
The exponent method will result in higher predicted traffic and it is more suitable for
predicting future traffic specially with current prediction of economical and traffic growth in
the State of Qatar. Transportation modeling software can be used to support both methods
based on engineering judgement.
If sufficiently detailed information is available, use different growth rates for different
vehicle classes. Experience in the State of Qatar road projects has shown that growth factors
for traffic to be used to estimate design ESALs are as shown in Interim Advice Notice 016,
Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a), provided here as Table 9.1. Higher growth
rates are unlikely to be sustained for the whole of the design life; few economies will
sustain the economic growth needed for continuing high traffic growth. Growth rates were
determined at the time of the development of this manual, and care needs to be taken when
selecting and verifying the growth rate to be applied at the time the roadway is opened

12
to traffic. Because the growth rate will influence the total traffic volume for the life of the
pavement, consider all factors and resources to determine a sustainable growth rate for the
entire design life.
Table 9.1 Growth Rate for Traffic to be Used to Estimate Design ESALs for Qatar
Traffic Growth Rate per

Type Annum Compoundeda Remarks
New construction This value is subject to change because of
4–6%
projects significant proposed construction work.
Rehabilitation and This value is subject to change because of

2–4%
twinning projects significant proposed construction work.
Notes:
a
These values are estimates only; use actual figures where possible.
Further growth should not be applied to any given lane once traffic levels are saturated.
Source: Table A-2 in Interim Advice Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a)
9.1.3 Directional Distribution and Lane Factors

ADT accounts for traffic in all lanes and both directions of travel. To design the required
pavement, ADT needs to be adjusted to represent loading in the design lane. This can be
achieved by multiplying ADT by the directional distribution factor (D%), which defines the
percentage of trucks in the design direction, and the lane factor (LN%), which defines the
percentage of trucks in the design lane.
For existing roads where it is possible to obtain vehicle classification counts in both directions,
the directional distribution factor shall be estimated by dividing the number of trucks in each
direction by the total number of trucks in both directions, and taking the higher of the two
values. If the directional distribution factor is greater than 55 percent, the design report
shall include a discussion to support the use of the higher directional distribution value.
The design report shall also include a discussion of any potential changes in the directional
distribution of truck traffic upon the completion of the proposed project.
The lane factor shall be selected based on the number of lanes that are open to truck traffic
as shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Traffic Distribution and Percentage of Design Traffic in the Design Lane
for Qatar
Number of Lanes per Direction Percent of Truck Traffic in Design Lane

1 100
2 90
≥3 80 (Major Roads) & 60-80 (Local Roads)
9.1.4 ESAL Factors

Determination of ESAL factors for roads classified as per Table 5.1 in Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual, are as follows:
• Expressways and Major Arterial Roads

12
It is advisable that project specific ESAL data is collected. However, in the absence of
project-specific weigh-in-motion(WIM) data, the ESAL factors presented in Table 9.3 shall
be considered along with the vehicle classification count data obtained from the site to
estimate the ESALs for pavement design under normal traffic conditions. The ESAL factors
shown in Table 9.3 were obtained by analyzing continuous WIM data collected along Salwa
Road, North Road, and Dukhan Road. These values shall be used with caution if unusual
traffic conditions, such as the presence of a nearby quarry or major construction project,
are observed. The designer may also calculate (and submit to the Engineer for approval) the
ESAL Factors from the 90th percentile of the gross vehicle weight obtained from a nearby
WIM data. In such a case, Appendix C of the AASHTO 1993 guide (Tables D.1 through D.9)
shall be followed to calculate the ESAL factors for each axle.
Table 9.3 Recommended ESAL Factors by Vehicle Type

Class Typea Axlesb GCCc Class Design ESAL Factord or TF
C1 RT 11 2 3.2
C2 RT 12 4, 5 2.4
C3 AT/RT 111 22 6.1
C4 RT 22 10, 11 2.7
C5 RT 23 16, 17 2.0
C6 RT 32 50, 51 1.8
C7 RT 13 52, 53 2.1
C8 AT 112 23, 24 5.1
C9 AT 121 28, 29 5.1
C10 AT 113 25, 26 5.0
C11 AT 122 30, 31, 32, 33 3.5
C12 AT 114 27 4.9
C13 AT 123 34, 35 3.5
C14 AT 124 36, 37 4.1
C15 AT 222 40, 41, 42, 43 2.5
C16 AT 223 45, 46, 47 1.7
C17 AT 224 48, 49 2.0
C18 RT+T 1112 3 5.0
C19 RT+T 1211 6, 7 1.1
C20 RT+T 1212 8, 9 2.0
C21 RT+T 2211 12, 13 2.1
C22 RT+T 2212 14, 15 1.9
C23 LGV 11 2 0.1
C24 M. Bus 11 NA 0.2
C25 L. Bus 11 NA 1.1
Notes:
a
RT = Rigid Truck, AT = Articulated Truck, RT+T = Rigid Truck + Trailer, LGV = Light Goods Vehicle, M. Bus =
Medium bus (e.g., School Bus, Mosque Bus), L. Bus = Large bus (e.g., Mowasalat buses).
b
11 = single-single, 112 = single-single-tandem, 123 = single-tandem-tridem. See Appendix F for the
images of each of these truck classes.
c
GCC truck types are available in Appendix F.

12
d
The values of the proposed truck factors were calculated using the WIM data from the WIMS stations
located on Salwa Road (6 stations), North Road (3 stations), Dukhan (1 station), and the Temporary Truck
Route (4 stations).
If no other information is available, then the Qatar average proportion of trucks for the
appropriate road classification can be used. Figure 7.1 from Guidelines and Procedures for
Transportation Studies, Rev. 3 (Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning, 2011), can
also be used to estimate the percentage of heavy vehicle by road classification.
• Recommended Truck Factors for Arterials

In absence of project-specific vehicle classification counts and WIM data, use an ESAL Factor
of 1.20.
• Recommended Truck Factors for Local Roads

Similarly, for local roads in absence of project-specific WIM data, use an overall ESAL Factor
of 0.90 to 1.05.
9.1.5 Cumulative Design Standard Axles

After the traffic level (ADTf) is calculated for each individual year, cumulative traffic shall be
calculated using the following formula:
20
ADTtotal = ∑ ADTf
f=1
where:
ADTf = Average Daily Traffic for each individual year
ADTtotal = Cumulative Average Daily Traffic for the entire 20-year analysis period
The following equation shall be used to calculate the cumulative number of standard axles
over the pavement design life for each truck class and for buses:
ESALTC = ADTtotal(TC%)(TF)(D%)(LN%)(365days/yr)
where:
ESALTC = Cumulative number of equivalent single axle loads for a particular truck
class
ADTtotal = Two-way cumulative average daily traffic for the entire 20-year analysis
period
TC% = The percentage of truck traffic for a particular truck class
D% = The directional distribution factor
LN% = Lane factor
TF = Truck load factor

12
Equation above shall be used for each truck class, and the values obtained for all truck
classes shall be summed to obtain the total number of ESALs for pavement design.
NTC
ESAL = ∑ ESALTC
TC = 1
9.2 Case II: Non-Existing Roads or Roads in Partially Developed

Areas
This case is used when:
• The design is for a road in an area that is not developed, or
• The traffic expected on the road cannot be estimated from nearby existing roads that
will be connected to the road. In such case, the pavement design report shall include
a clear and detailed analysis of the level of development of the project area and/or
the applicability/non-applicability of traffic counts. The analysis should consider the
Qatar National Masterplan of the MME. The analysis shall include one (or more) of the
following:
−− Expected changes in traffic patterns, road class, and function resulting from
developments within and/or around the catchment area.
−− Recent valid satellite images and/or ground observations.
−− Data from a valid traffic model for the catchment area.
9.2.1 Estimation of Average Daily Traffic

For non-existing roads, the QSTM can be used to estimate the initial-year ADT. The initial-
year ADT shall be back-calculated using a valid variant of the 2031 QSTM and expected
traffic growth. A peak hour (PH) model can be used with appropriate and justifiable PH factor
(for example, using data from traffic counts) when the full-day model is unavailable. Because
of the strategic nature of the QSTM, the model flows may need to be adjusted to obtain
reasonable link flows specific to the project area, as such, the abovementioned PH model
flows should be capped by the maximum level of road capacities. The details of the link flow
adjustments shall be included in the pavement design report.
The steps for obtaining future-year ADTs and the cumulative traffic are the same as Case I.
The HGV%, including school and company buses, restricted and permitted heavy vehicles,
and light goods vehicles, shall be estimated as a percentage of the total adjusted QSTM link
flows, representative of the expected road network and planning data.
The QSTM has not been calibrated using detailed truck traffic information. Therefore, care
must be taken when using QSTM forecasts of HGV% for pavement design. Designers are

12
required to provide information from new or historical vehicle classification counts for near-
by roads to justify the selection of the HGV% for the design.
9.2.2 Directional Distribution and Lane Factors

Same procedure described for Case I shall be used.
9.2.3 Traffic Load or ESAL Factors

9.2.4 Cumulative Design Standard Axles


12
10 Design of New Pavements
10.1 Flexible Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide

The following steps are used for the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for
flexible pavement.
Step 1: Estimate future traffic for the performance period in ESAL.
This is explained in detail in Chapter 9 in this Part.
Step 2: Calculate appropriate SN for the initial pavement.
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for flexible pavement is based on
identifying a flexible pavement SN to withstand the projected level of axle load traffic.
The following information will be needed to calculate SN:
• The estimated future traffic for the performance period in ESALs

• The reliability, R, which assume all inputs at average value
• The overall standard deviation, S0
• The effective resilient modulus of roadbed material, MR
• The design serviceability loss, ∆PSI = Terminal PSI - Initial PSI
The SN can be calculated from the formula or nomograph presented in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide and reproduced in Appendix C.
Step 3: Select layer thicknesses.
Once the SN for an initial pavement structure is determined, identify a set of pavement layer
thicknesses that, when combined, will provide the load-carrying capacity corresponding
to the design SN. The following equation provides the basis for converting SN into actual
thickness of surface, base, and subbase:
SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3
where:
a1, a2, a3 = Layers coefficient representative of surface, base, and subbase courses,
respectively
D1, D2, D3 = actual thicknesses (in inches) of surface, base, and subbase courses,
respectively
m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for base and subbase, respectively

12
The SN equation does not have a unique solution. Many combinations of layer thicknesses
are satisfactory solutions. The design process is an example of the 1993 AASHTO Guide
empirical design method. Other considerations are also included in the process, such as the
minimum design thickness of pavement layers from the layered design analysis. This is
needed to design an adequate thickness for each pavement layer under traffic loading.
The layered design analysis is used for solving the design equation in this step. Figure 10.1
shows the procedures for determining thickness of the pavement layers using a layered
analysis approach. In a layered analysis approach, the SN needed over the roadbed soil and
each pavement layer is determined using the applicable strength values for each. Using the
differences between the computed SNs over each layer, the minimum allowable thickness
of any given layer can be determined. Figure 3.2 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide is provided
herein as Figure 10.1 and Appendix C. Note that the 1993 AASHTO Guide and the equations
and nomographs within that are referenced and used in this Manual are in imperial units.
Therefore, the example provided is in imperial units and the designer must convert to metric
units as appropriate. Software for the empirical design method is available.
Figure 10.1 Procedure for Determining Thickness of Layers Using a Layered Analysis
Approach

VOLUME 2 PART 12
PAVEMENT DESIGN
12
The The
AASHTO (1993)
AASHTO pavement
(1993) pavementdesign is an
design is empirical method
an empirical widely
method usedused
widely in many countries
in many
around the world.
countries around The
theequation below
world. The is the
equation AASHTO
below (1993) relationship
is the AASHTO that relates
(1993) relationship that the
structural
relatescapacity (SN),capacity
the structural subgrade MRsubgrade
(SN), , expected MRserviceability and reliability
, expected serviceability to the traffic
and reliability
to
level: the traffic level:
οܲܵ‫ܫ‬
݈‫݃݋‬ଵ଴ ቀ
ቁ
‫݃݋ܮ‬ଵ଴ (ܹଵ଼ ) = ܼோ ܵ௢ + 9.36[݈‫݃݋‬ଵ଴ (ܵܰ + 1)] െ 0.20 + 4.2 െ 1.5 + 2.32 × ݈‫ ) ܯ( ݃݋‬െ 8.07
1094 ଵ଴ ோ
0.4 +
(ܵܰ + 1)ହ.ଵଽ
[10.1.1]
where:
where:
W18W18
= = expected
expectednumber
numberof ofEquivalent SingleAxle
Equivalent Single AxleLoads
Loads(ESALs)
(ESALs)
ZR ZR= = standard
standardnormal
normaldeviate
deviatecorresponding
corresponding to to the
the design
designreliability
reliability
S0 = standard deviation
S0 = standard deviation
'PSI = difference between initial design serviceability index, po, and the design
ΔPSI = difference between initial
terminal serviceability design
index, serviceability
pt ('PSI = P0 – Pt) index, po, and the design terminal
MR = serviceability
subgrade resilient
index,modulus
pt (ΔPSI(psi)
= P0 – Pt)
SN = structural number (SN= a1D1 + a2D2m2 +a3D3m3 + ........., where
MR = subgrade resilient modulus (psi)
ai= ith layer coefficient, Di= ith layer thickness (inches), mi= ith layer
SN = structural
drainage number (SN= a1D1 + a2D2m2 +a3D3m3 + ........., where
coefficient).
ai= i layer coefficient, Di= ith layer thickness (inches), mi= ith layer
th
AASHTO drainage
(1993) general guidelines shall be followed to determine the thickness of each
coefficient).
pavement layer. The parameters shown in Appendix A shall be used for serviceability
and reliability.
AASHTO (1993) general guidelines shall be followed to determine the thickness of each
pavement layer. The parameters shown in Appendix A shall be used for serviceability and
10.1.1 Drainage Coefficients
reliability.
10.1.1 Drainage Coefficients

Drainage coefficients shall be estimated from percent of time pavement structure is
Drainage
exposedcoefficients
to moisture shall be approaching
levels estimated from percent
saturation, of the
using timeAASHTO
pavement
1993structure
table is
shown in Table 10.1. Considering various factors in the State of Qatar,
exposed to moisture levels approaching saturation, using the AASHTO 1993 table shown recommended
drainage
in Table 10.1.coefficients
Consideringfor aggregate base and
various factors in subbase
the State areof1.15 to 1.20.
Qatar, A specific factor
recommended drainage
can be used if verified onsite based on the pavement materials characteristics and
coefficients for aggregate base and subbase are 1.15 to 1.20. A specific factor can be used
exposure to moisture saturation. Changing the drainage coefficient will only affect the
if verified onsite
pavement based onItthe
thickness. willpavement
not makematerials
any layer characteristics and exposure
denser or address to moisture
any drainage
saturation.
problemsChanging
that canthe drainagereduce
significantly coefficient will only serviceability
the pavement affect the pavement thickness.
life. Actual drainage It will
not make
problemany(such
layerasdenser or address any
high groundwater drainage
levels, problems
pavement that canflood
in high-risk significantly
zones, orreduce
pavement adjacent
the pavement to excessive
serviceability landscape
life. Actual drainageirrigation)
problem should
(suchbeasaddressed directly bylevels,
high groundwater
designing
pavement a drainageflood
in high-risk system or increasing
zones, layersadjacent
or pavement density totominimize
excessive water infiltration.
landscape irrigation)
Use the Flood Model of the MME to determine the flood risk zone classification of the
should be addressed directly by designing a drainage system or increasing layers density to
project area.
minimize water infiltration. Use the Flood Model of the MME to determine the flood risk zone
classification
Appendix D ofexplains
the project area.
the procedures for obtaining other coefficients.
Appendix D explains the procedures for obtaining other coefficients.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 53

12
Table 10.1 AASHTO (1993) inputs for drainage coefficients
Recommended m1 Values for Modifying Structural Layer Coefficients of Untreated base and
Subbase Materials in Flexible Pavements
Percent of Pavement Structure is Exposed to Moisture Levels Approaching Saturation
Quality of Less than 1% 1-5% 5-25% Greater than 25%

Drainage
Excellent 1.40-1.35 1.35-1.30 1.30-1.20 1.20
Good 1.35-1.25 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.00 1.00
Fair 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.05 1.00-0.80 0.80

Poor 1.15-1.05 1.05-0.80 0.80-0.60 0.60
Very Poor 1.05-0.95 0.95-0.75 0.75-0.40 0.40
10.1.2 Example Flexible Pavement Design
10.1.2.1 Assumptions
Design period: 40 years

Two-way AADT: 10,000 vehicles
Number of lanes in each direction: 2
Percentage of traffic in design direction: 60%
Percentage of trucks in design lane: 90%
Annual growth: 2.7%
AADT in design direction = 10,000 × 0.6 = 6,000
AADT in design lane = 6,000 × 0.9 = 5,400
10.1.2.2 Determine Design Traffic

The truck factor depends on the weight of the vehicle and the wheel configuration. The truck
factors, or ESALs per truck, are assumed for this example and are shown in Column (b) of
Table 10.2, which summarizes the design traffic calculations. The truck factors are provided
for this illustration only and are not intended to apply to any or all cases of actual loads.
Actual truck factors are to be verified for design.

12
Table 10.2 Summary of Design Traffic Calculations
(a) (c) (d) (e)

Assumed (b) Commercial ESALs per ESALs per
Percentage ESALs per Vehicle Per Day Vehicle per Vehicle per
Category of AADT Truck (5,400 × (a/100)) Day, (b) × (c) Year, (d) × 365r
3 1 0.5 54 27 9,855
4 1 2 54 108 39,420
5 1 2 54 108 39,420
6 1 4 54 216 78,840
7 1 4 54 216 78,840
8 1 5 54 270 98,550
9 1 5 54 270 98,550
10 1 6 54 324 118,260
11 1 6 54 324 118,260
12 0.5 6 27 162 59,130
13 0.5 6 27 162 59,130
(f) (g) ESAL
Assumed Annual 40-year Compound Growth Factor (Compound)
Category Growth, g (1+g)t – 1)/g (e) × (g)
3 2.7 70.474 694,521
4 2.7 70.474 2,778,085
5 2.7 70.474 2,778,085
6 2.7 70.474 5,556,170
7 2.7 70.474 5,556,170
8 2.7 70.474 6,945,213
9 2.7 70.474 6,945,213
10 2.7 70.474 8,334,255
11 2.7 70.474 8,334,255
12 2.7 70.474 4,167,128
13 2.7 70.474 4,167,128
Total ESAL: 56,256,223
Notes:
ESAL = equivalent single-axle load
10.1.2.3 Selection of Design Parameters

Reliability is a means of incorporating a degree of certainty in the design process to increase
the probability that the various design alternatives will function as planned through the
analysis period. The reliability factor accounts for variations in the traffic and performance
predictions and, therefore, provides a predetermined level of reliability that facility will
correctly function for the design period.

12
Select higher levels of reliability to minimize the performance risk as the volume of traffic,
the difficulty of diverting the traffic, and public expectations of availability increase.
Reliability (Freeway–Rural): 90%
Serviceability is the ability of a pavement to serve the type of traffic that uses it. The primary
measure of serviceability is the PSI, which ranges from 0 (impassible road) to 5 (perfect
road). The basic design philosophy is the serviceability-performance concept, which provides
a means of designing a pavement based on a specific total traffic volume and a minimum
level of serviceability desired at the end of the performance period (1993 AASHTO Guide).
Standard Deviation (Flexible): 0.45
Assumed Serviceability Index:
P0 (initial) = 4.2
Pt (Terminal) = 2.5 minimum
ΔPSI = P0 – Pt = 1.7
Layer coefficient: a
Three-layer designs (asphalt, aggregate base, subbase):
Surface course: 3,000 MPa = 435,000 psi (assumed)
Aggregate base: 200 MPa = 30,000 psi (assumed)
Subbase: 145 MPa = 21,000 psi (assumed)
According to Figure 10.2, Figure 10.3, and Figure 10.4, the coefficients of layers are
summarized below. Copies of these figures are provided in Appendix B.
a1 (asphalt) = 0.44
a2 (aggregate base) = 0.14
a3 (subbase) = 0.10

12
Figure 10.2 Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient of Dense-Graded
Asphalt Concrete Based on Elastic (Resilient) Modulus
Figure 10.3 Variation in Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) with Various Base
Strength Parameters

12
Figure 10.4 Variation in Aggregate Subbase Layer Coefficient (a32) with Various
Subbase Strength Parameters
10.1.2.4 Layered System Analysis

With flexible pavements, the structure is a layered system and is designed accordingly. The SN
needed over the roadbed soil, subbase layer, and base layer is calculated using the applicable
strength values for each, with the layer immediately below acting as the foundation. This
provides the minimum allowable thickness for any given layer. The SN for the subbase layer
is equal to the SN over the subbase layer, subtracted from the SN needed over the roadbed
soil.
Assumed CBR: 5%
Roadbed soil MR: 1,500 × CBR
MR: 1,500 × 5% = 7,500 psi
SN needed above the subgrade from Figure 10.5:

12
SN3 = 6.3 for surface course + base course + subbase
SN2 above subbase with a CBR of 26 percent assumed:
From Figure 10.3, MR = 21,000 psi
Using Figure 10.5, SN2 = 4.50 for surface course + base course
SN1 above aggregate base with a CBR of 100 percent assumed:
From Figure 10.3, MR = 30,000 psi
Using Figure 10.5, SN1 = 4.00 (surface course)
Figure 10.5 Design Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input
For calculating the layer thickness according to layered method:
D1 (asphalt) > SN1/a1
= 4.0 ÷ 0.44 = 9.09 inches, use 9.5 inches
SN1 = a1 × D1 = 0.44 × 9.5 = 4.18

12
D2 (base course) > (SN2 - SN1) ÷ a2m2; where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for no
drainage issues
= (4.50 - 4.18) ÷ (0.14 × 1.0) = 2.28 inches, assume minimum of 6 inches
SN2 = (D2 × a2 × m2) = 6 × 0.14 × 1.0= 0.84
D3 (subbase) > SN3 – (SN1 + SN2) ÷ a3m3, where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for no
drainage issues.
= 6.30 - (4.18 + 0.84) ÷ (0.1 × 1.0) = 12.8 inches, assume 13 inches
SN3 = D3 × a3 × m3 = 13 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 1.30
Check:
Total SN needed = 6.30
SN1 = 4.18 (asphalt)

SN2 = 0.84 (aggregate base)
SN3 = 1.30 (subbase)
Total = 6.32 > 6.30; the design is sufficient
There is no unique answer for the pavement design. This procedure will give a preliminary
design thickness for each layer. However, it is possible to increase the thickness of one layer
and consider the effect on other layers. For example, if we consider 11 inches for asphalt,
the subbase thickness will be reduced as shown in the following:
SN1 = 0.44 × 1 = 4.84
Maintain the minimum 6 inches of base.
SN = 6 × 0.14 = 0.84
D3 (subbase) > SN3 – (SN1 + SN2) ÷ a3m3, where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for no
drainage issues.
= 6.30 - (4.84 + 0.84) ¸ (0.1 × 1.0) = 6.2 inches, assume 7 inches
By adding 1.5 inches of asphalt, the subbase thickness will be reduced by 6 inches.

12
Check:
Total SN needed = 6.30
SN1 = 4.84 (asphalt)

SN2 = 0.84 (aggregate base)
SN3 = 0.70 (subbase)
Total = 6.38 > 6.30; the design is sufficient
Table 10.3 summarizes the two pavement design options. It shows the subbase thickness
can be reduced by 6 inches by increasing the asphalt thickness by 1.5 inches. There is no
unique answer for the pavement design. The designer needs to choose the appropriate
design option based on constructability, material availability, and cost. When evaluating a
reduced subbase alternative, verify that the subbase can adequately support construction
traffic.
Table 10.3 Summary of Pavement Options
Layer Option 1 Option 2

Asphalt thickness (inches) 9.5 11
Granular base thickness (inches) 6 6
Subbase thickness (inches) 13 7
10.2 Rigid Pavement Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide

The following steps are used for the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for rigid
pavement:
Step 1: Estimate future traffic for the performance period in ESAL
As discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part, the ESAL value for each vehicle depends on pavement
type, serviceability, and slab thickness. Because damage factors are different for rigid
pavement, ESAL values for rigid pavement are greater than those for flexible pavement for
the same mix of traffic. However, for this example, the same number of ESALs will be used
as in the flexible design examples. When specific axles weights are known, determine the
design ESAL values, using:
Design ESALs = 56,256,223
Step 2: Determine the effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k-value, of the supporting
foundation, determined by subgrade soil Resilient Modulus (MR) and thickness and
Elastic Modulus of any subbase layers.
For this example, the foundation will consist of 150 mm of aggregate subbase, placed on the
same subgrade as in the flexible design example.

12
The following information will be needed to calculate the effective k-value:
• Subgrade soil MR
• Base MR and thickness
• Depth to bedrock
• Loss of support factor
Determine the effective subgrade k-value by using Figure 3.3 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide,
included herein as Figure 10.6. Figure 3.3 is also provided in Appendix E.
Figure 10.6 Chart for Determining Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
In this example, the effective k-value is approximately 400 pounds per cubic inch (pci). This
value is then corrected for depth to bedrock, if applicable, and LS, depending on the material.
Figure 3.4 from the 1993 AASHTO Guide is used to correct the k-value for the effects of
bedrock. Table 2.7 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide, included herein as Table 10.4, can be used to
estimate the Loss of Support, LS, value.

12
Table 10.4 Typical Ranges of Loss of Support Factors for Various Types of Materials
Type of Material Loss of Support

Cement Treated Granular Base (E = 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Cement Aggregate Mixtures (E = 500,000 to 1,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Asphalt Treated Base (E = 350,000 to 1,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Bituminous Stabilized Mixtures (E = 40,000 to 300,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Lime Stabilized (E = 20,000 to 70,000 psi) 1.0 to 3.0
Unbound Ground Materials (E = 15,000 to 45,000 psi) 1.0 to 3.0
Fine Grained or Natural Subgrade Materials (E = 3,000 to 40,000 psi) 2.0 to 3.0
Note:
psi = pounds per square inch
Assuming an LS value of 2.0 for a granular subbase with an MR value of 145 MPa, and a
depth to bedrock of greater than 10 feet, use the previously determined effective k-value
(400 pci) and Figure 3.6 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide, reproduced herein as Figure 10.7, to
determine the final effective k-value. In this example, the value is 40. Figure 3.6 is also
provided in Appendix E.

12
Figure 10.7 Correction for Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Loss of
Support
Step 3: Determine values for design parameters
The following information will be needed to determine the slab thickness:
• Reliability
• Serviceability loss
• Overall standard deviation
• Concrete modulus of rupture
• Concrete modulus of elasticity
• Load transfer coefficient
Overall Reliability: Reliability for this example is the same as for the flexible design example.
Reliability (Freeway–Rural): 90%

12
Serviceability for rigid pavements differs from that for flexible pavements. Initial serviceability
is set at 4.50 for rigid pavements. Terminal serviceability varies with the classification of
roadway. In this case, for a roadway with a high traffic volume, a terminal serviceability is
set at 3.00.
Assumed Serviceability Index: P0 (initial) = 4.5
Pt (Terminal) = 3.0 minimum
ΔPSI = P0 - Pt = 1.5
Standard Deviation (Rigid): 0.35
Concrete Modulus Rupture: As discussed in Section 8.2 in this Part, a value of 4.5 MPa is
used.
Concrete Modulus of Elasticity: As discussed in Section 8.2 in this Part, a value of

28,000 MPa is used.
Load Transfer Coefficient: The load transfer coefficient is discussed in Section 8.2 in this
Part. In this example, a plain-jointed concrete pavement with doweled joints and tied concrete
shoulders would provide a load transfer coefficient of 2.8 (see Table 8.2).
Drainage Coefficient: For this example, 1.0 will be used for granular subbase, as in the
flexible design example. If using an open-graded drainable base, a value of 1.2 can be used.
Step 4: Determine slab thickness
With the values determined in Steps 1 through 3, use Figure 3.7 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, reproduced here as Figure 10.8, to determine slab thickness. In this example, the slab
thickness is 13.2 inches, or 340 mm.

12
Figure 10.8 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for Each
Input Variable

12
10.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method

From the early 1960s until recently, all versions of AASHTO pavement design were based
on empirical performance equations developed at the AASHTO Road Test facility in the late
1950s using limited data. In the late 1980s, the need for and benefits of a mechanistic-
based pavement design procedure were recognized. To meet that need, a new method was
commissioned that resulted in MEPDG software and the MEPDG (AASHTO, 2008).
In this approach, the main pavement design inputs are the same as empirical method
regarding design traffic and subgrade calculations. The subgrade needs to be characterized
in terms of its modulus (MR) and Poisson’s ratio. These are best measured directly by repeated
triaxial loading (MR) testing. Other construction materials used in pavement layers are also
characterized by modulus (MR) and Poisson’s ratio to build the pavement design model.
Loading positions and critical strain locations are to be estimated by the design engineer
based on the pavement layering system and other design inputs.
The mechanistic-empirical design method has the following main advantages:
• The reliable performance of a pavement structure includes determining the pavement

layer thickness, material specifications, construction specifications, and quality control.
• The design of pavement layer thicknesses depends on many parameters, such as traffic,
geotechnical, and material information.
• Other parameters such as reliability, safety, and serviceability are key inputs for the
pavement design.
• Unless these parameters can be accurately identified, care should be taken when
adopting pavement designs and design methods.
• Analytical methods need detailed analysis of multilayered structures. Historically,

therefore, pavement design has tended toward empirical methods.
Because of the complexity of the mechanistic-empirical design method, software must be

used for this analysis. AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design 2.0 (formally known as DARWin-
ME™) builds on the research-grade MEPDG software and is intended to support the MEPDG
(AASHTO, 2008). ME Design is a production-ready software tool that supports the mechanistic-
empirical pavement design and analysis. This software represents a major change in the
way pavement design is performed by providing a direct link between pavement materials,
structure, construction practices, climate, traffic, and pavement design features.
The AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design software needs correct input data by an experienced
pavement engineer to provide accurate pavement design. The software is suitable for
different types of pavement, including flexible, flexible composite, and rigid pavements.

12
10.3.1 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Process

Figure 10.9 shows the design process used in the mechanistic-empirical design method.
Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)
Figure 10.9 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Process
The mechanistic-empirical design method consists of three stages of input parameters,

analysis, and strategic selection. The most important part is to select appropriate input
parameters, which include traffic, foundation, climate, and material properties. Also, design
criteria for analysis need to be specified, which will have a significant impact on pavement
design thicknesses. Design criteria consist of design life, reliability, and performance criteria.
10.3.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters

The fundamental input parameters are for traffic, including axle loads, configuration, and
axle number, material properties, and foundation modulus. These are described in detail
in the following subsections. Table 10.5 describes the design parameters and input levels.
There are three levels of input. Level 1 is the highest level, indicating a thorough knowledge
of the information needed for design. At Level 2, the designer has a modest understanding
of the information. At Level 3, the information is not as thorough and the designer has only
basic knowledge; in this case, the software will populate the data with best-fit default data
and the designer needs to be aware of the limitations and sensitivity of the design outcome.
Table 10.5 Design Parameters and Input Levels
Input Level Determination of Input Values Knowledge of Input Parameter

1 Project/segment specific measurements Good
2 Correlations/regression equations, regional values Fair
3 Defaults, educated guess Poor

12
10.3.3 Traffic Input Parameters

As shown on Figure 10.10, the number of axles by axle type, truck type, and axle load
intervals are needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method. In addition, the number
of axles for each year, each season, and each hour can be considered in the mechanistic-
empirical design method. Input Levels 2 and 3 can be considered if insufficient information
exists for these parameters.
Figure 10.10 Traffic Data for the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method
Traffic data are a key element for pavement structure analysis. Load estimates and
frequencies throughout the life of the pavement are needed. The following traffic data are
needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method:
• Base-year truck volume and speed

• Traffic capacity
• Axle configuration
• Lateral wander
• Wheelbase
• Vehicle class distribution and growth
• Hourly adjustment
• Axles per truck
• Monthly adjustment
• Axle load distribution factors
• Initial two-way annual average daily truck traffic (AADTT)
• Number of lanes in design direction
• Percent of trucks in design direction
• Percent trucks in design lane
• Operational speed
Only part of the above information may be available. Therefore, traffic inputs can be provided
in three levels, depending on the traffic information available for the project and the accuracy
of that information. Traffic assessment and prediction is discussed further in Chapter 9 in
this Part.
Level 1: Actual numbers of trucks, truck weights, axle loads, and truck volumes are known.
Obtaining these data involves gathering and analysis of site-specific traffic volume and load
data. The traffic data measured at or near a site includes counting and classifying the number

12
of trucks travelling over the roadway, a breakdown by lane and direction, and measuring the
axle loads for each truck class. These data determine the truck traffic for the first year after
construction. Level 1 traffic data are the most accurate.
Level 2: Enough truck traffic information is obtained at a site to measure truck volumes
accurately, accounting for any weekday/weekend volume variation and any significant
seasonal trends in truck loads (for example, areas affected by heavy, seasonal, or agricultural
hauls). Regional weight summaries maintained by each government organization can be used
to determine vehicle weights. An example is the “truck weight road groups” defined in the
Traffic Monitoring Guide (FHWA, 2013). This information is used to differentiate routes with
heavy or loaded trucks weights, from those with light or unloaded truck weights. Regional
axle load spectra for each truck class are analyzed and then completed separately to the
traffic module.
Level 3: There is little information about truck traffic. Only the AADT and truck percentage
are known, with no site-specific information. AADT and percent trucks or from simple truck
volume counts with no knowledge on the size of the loads those trucks are carrying. This
needs the use of a regional average load distribution information or other default load
distribution information. An estimate of traffic inputs based on local experience is also
considered Level 3.
The FHWA defines 10 truck classes that need to be considered with Vehicle Classes 4
through 13 (see Table 10.6 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in
MEDPG)Table 10.6.
Table 10.6 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG
Class Schematic Description
Class 1 Motorcycles
Class 2 Passenger cars
Other two-axle, four-tire, single unit

Class 3
vehicles
Buses: Two-axle/six-tire, or three or

Class 4
more axles
Class 5 Two-axle, six-tire, single unit trucks

12
Table 10.6 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG
Class Schematic Description
Class 6 Three-axle, single unit trucks
Class 7 Four or more axles single-unit trucks
Class 8 Four or less axles, single trailer trucks
Class 9 Five-axle single trailer trucks
Class 10 Six or more axles single trailer trucks
Five or less axles multi-trailer trucks,

Class 11
three or more units
Six-axle multi-trailer trucks, three or

Class 12
more units
Seven or more axle multi-trailer

Class 13
trucks, three or more units
Figure 10.11 demonstrates the traffic data input for Levels 1, 2, and 3:

12
Figure 10.11 Traffic Input for Various Input Levels in the Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Method

12
10.3.4 Climate
Environmental conditions affect the performance of flexible and rigid pavements.
Precipitation, ambient temperature, and depth to water table may affect the temperature
and moisture content of unbound materials. Changes to aggregate materials directly affect
the load-carrying capacity of the pavement. Furthermore, temperature levels have a direct
bearing on the stiffness of asphalt materials, and temperature gradients induce stresses
and deformations in PCC layers. The mechanistic-empirical design method considers the
effects of environmental factors, and it models diurnal and seasonal changes in the moisture
and temperature of the pavement structure caused by changes in groundwater table,
precipitation/infiltration, freeze-thaw cycles, and other external factors. Climate data have
been prepared for different states in the U.S., and those with a similar climate to the State of
Qatar can be used for the design input.
All distresses are affected by the environmental factors to some extent. Therefore, diurnal
and seasonal fluctuations in the moisture and temperature of the pavement structure brought
about by changes in groundwater table, precipitation/infiltration, freeze-thaw cycles, and
other external factors are modeled in a comprehensive manner in the mechanistic-empirical
design method.
Temperatures and moisture profiles in the pavement and subgrade are modeled using the
Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (EICM) software, which is integrated into the MEPDG
software. The EICM consists of three major components:
• Climatic-Materials-Structural Model
• CRREL Frost Heave and Thaw Settlement Model
• Infiltration and Drainage Model
Moisture and temperature profiles are predicted through the EICM module integrated in the
MEPDG software.
10.3.5 Subgrade
Level 1, 2, and 3 input parameters for subgrade are as follows:
• Level 1 MR values for unbound aggregate materials, subgrade, and bedrock are
determined from cyclic triaxial tests on prepared representative samples.
• Level 2 analysis uses resilient modulus (MR). Level 2 inputs use general correlations
between soil index and strength properties and resilient modulus to estimate MR. The
relationships could be direct or indirect. For the indirect relationships, the material
property is first related to CBR and then CBR is related to MR.
• Level 3 inputs uses a default value for the MR of the unbound material. For Level 3, only
a typical representative MR value is needed at optimum moisture content. Climate data
are used to modify the representative MR for the seasonal effect of climate.

12
Typical MR values for unbound granular and subgrade materials at optimum moisture content
for input Level 3 are shown in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7 Unbound Granular and Subgrade Resilient Modulus Values (psi) for
Level 3 Input
Material Classifications Mr Range Typical Mr

A-1-a 18,500–42,000 40,000
A-1-b 15,500–40,000 38,000
A-2-4 28,000–37,500 32,000
A-2-5 24,000–33,000 28,000
A-2-6 21,500–31,000 26,000
A-2-7 21,500–28,000 24,000
A-3 24,500–35,500 29,000
A-4 21,500–29,000 24,000
A-5 17,000–25,500 20,000
A-6 13,500–24,000 17,000
A-7-5 8,000–17,500 12,000
A-7-6 5,000–13,500 8,000
CH 5,000–13,500 8,000
MH 8,000–17,500 11,500
CL 13,500–24,000 17,000
ML 17,000–25,500 20,000
SW 28,000–37,500 32,000
SP 24,000–33,000 28,000
SW-SC 21,500–31,000 25,500
SW-SM 24,000–33,000 28,000
SP-SC 21,500–31,000 25,500
SP-SM 24,000–33,000 28,000
SC 21,500–28,000 24,000
SM 28,000–37,500 32,000
GW 39,500–42,500 41,000
GP 35,500–40,000 38,000
GW-GC 28,000–40,000 34,500
GW-GM 35,500–40,500 38,500
GP-GC 28,000–39,000 34,000
GP-GM 31,000–40,000 36,000
GC 24,000–37,500 31,000
GM 33,000–42,000 38,500
For Level 2 input parameters, Table 10.8 summarizes the correlations the MEPDG has
adopted to estimate modulus from other material properties.

12
Table 10.8 Subgrade Correlations for Level 2 Input for Use in the Mechanistic-
Empirical Design Method
Subgrade/Index
Property Model Comments Test Standard
CBR MR (psi) = 2555(CBR)0.64 CBR = California bearing AASHTO T-193, Standard
ratio Method of Test for the
California Bearing Ratio
R-value MR (psi) = 1155 + 555R R = R-value AASHTO T-190, Standard
Method of Test for
Resistance R-Value and
Expansion Pressure of
Compacted Soils
AASHTO layer MR (psi) = 3000(ai/0.14) Ai = AASHTO layer Guide for the Design of
coefficient coefficient Pavement Structures
(1993 AASHTO Guide)
PI and Gradation CBR = 75/(1+0.728(wPI)) wPI = P200 × PI AASHTO T-27, Standard
P200 = percent passing Method of Test for Sieve
No. 200 sieve Analysis of Fine and
PI = plasticity index, Coarse Aggregates
percent AASHTO T-90, Standard
Method of Test for
Determining the Plastic
Limit and Plasticity Index
of Soils
DCP CBR = 292/DCP1.12 CBR = California bearing ASTM D6951/D6951M
ratio, percent 09, Standard Test Method
DCP = DCP index, in/blow for Use of the Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer
in Shallow Pavement
Applications
Note:
DCP = dynamic cone penetrometer
10.3.6 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Flexible Pavement

The following AC surfaced pavements are considered flexible pavements in the mechanistic-
empirical design method:
• Conventional Flexible Pavements: Pavements with AC surfaces less than 150 mm

thick and unbound aggregate base layers of crushed stone or gravel, and soil-aggregate
mixtures.
• Deep-strength AC Pavements: Pavements with AC surface greater than 150 mm and

a dense-graded AC or asphalt stabilized base placed over an aggregate base. These
pavements also include a stabilized or treated subgrade.
• Full-depth AC Pavements: AC layers placed on a stabilized subgrade or directly on the

prepared embankment or foundation soil.

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• “Semi-rigid” Pavements: AC placed over a chemically stabilized layer. Chemically

stabilized materials include lime, lime-fly ash, and Portland cement stabilizers. Allowable
cross sections for a flexible pavement include conventional layering and sandwich
aggregate layers. In conventional layering, material quality decreases in depth. A
sandwich aggregate layer involves an unbound aggregate layer placed between two
stabilized layers. Regardless of the materials and stiffness of layers underneath an AC
surface, the MEPDG methodology analyzes the pavement as a flexible pavement. This
pavement structure maintains contact with, and distributes loads to, the subgrade while
relying on aggregate interlock, particle friction, and cohesion for stability.
10.3.6.1 Performance Criteria

The mechanistic-empirical design method is based on pavement performance; therefore, the
critical levels of pavement distresses that can be tolerated at the selected level of reliability
needs to be specified by the user. If the simulation process shows the trial design produces
an excessive amount of distresses, then the trial design is modified accordingly to produce a
feasible design in the future trials.
The distress types considered in the design of a new flexible pavement are: total rutting of
all layers and subgrade; AC rutting; load-related, longitudinal top-down cracking in the wheel
path; and bottom-up fatigue cracking or alligator cracking. In addition, pavement smoothness
is considered for performance verification and is characterized using the IRI. Table 10.9
shows typical values for performance criteria.
Table 10.9 Typical Performance Criteria (Flexible Pavements)

Performance Criteria Limit Reliability
Initial IRI (m/km) 1 Not applicable
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.7 90
AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km) 378.8 90
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent) 25 90
Chemically stabilized layer—fatigue fracture (percent) 25 90
Permanent deformation—total pavement (mm) 19 90
Permanent deformation—AC only (mm) 6 90
Reflective cracking (percent) 100 50*
Notes:
* For reflective cracking, the form of distress is only applicable to a flexible pavement with a chemically
stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. The limit control allows you to define the not-to-exceed
limit for reflective cracking at the end of the design life at 50 percent reliability level.
m/km = meters per kilometer
mm = millimeters
Source: DARWin-ME software, Version 3.1 (Applied Research Associates, 2014)

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The following summarize each of the performance criteria, limits, and reliability values in
Table 10.10:
• Performance Criteria: Performance indicators to evaluate if a pavement design will

perform satisfactorily over its design life.
• Limit: Threshold values of these performance indicators to evaluate the adequacy of a

design.
• Reliability: The probability at which the predicted distresses and smoothness will be
less than the limits over the design period.
• Initial IRI (m/km): The limit control definition of the expected smoothness immediately
after new pavement construction (expressed in terms of IRI). Initial IRI is an important
input because the time from initial construction to attaining a threshold IRI value
depends on the initial IRI obtained at the time of construction. Thus, the initial IRI value
provided is what is typically obtained in the field.
• Terminal IRI (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion allow definition
of the not-to-exceed limit for IRI at the end of the design life at a specified reliability
level.
• AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion
allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for surface-initiated fatigue cracking at the
end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
• AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion controls allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for bottom-initiated fatigue
cracking at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
• AC thermal fracture (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion allow
definition of the not-to-exceed limit for non-load related transverse cracking at the end
of the design life at a specified reliability level.
• Chemically stabilized layer with fatigue fracture (percent): The limit and reliability
controls for this criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for fatigue fracture
in the underlying chemically stabilized base layers at the end of the design life at a
specified reliability level. This form of distress is only applicable to a flexible pavement
with a chemically stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. Therefore, no inputs
are needed if the pavement structure is otherwise.
• Permanent deformation in total pavement (mm): The limit and reliability controls for
this criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for total rutting at the end of
the design life at a specified reliability level. Total permanent deformation at the surface
is the accumulation of the permanent deformation in all of the asphalt and unbound
layers in the pavement system.
• Permanent deformation in AC only (mm): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for rutting contributed by the AC
layers at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.

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• Reflective cracking (percent): This form of distress is only applicable to a flexible

pavement with a chemically stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. The limit
control allows definition of the not-to-exceed limit for reflective cracking at the end
of the design life at a 50 percent reliability level. In Pavement ME Design, reflective
cracking is computed as a fraction of the fatigue cracking in the chemically stabilized
layer that reflects through the HMA layer to the surface. The sum of reflective cracking
and bottom initiated fatigue cracking is reported as total cracking.
10.3.6.2 Pavement Structure Definition and Materials

The AC material types that fall under the following general definitions can be defined as an
asphalt layer:
• Dense-graded asphalt
• Open-graded asphalt
• Asphalt-stabilized base mixes
• Sand asphalt mixtures
• Stone matrix asphalt
• Cold-mix asphalt
• Central plant processed asphalt
• Cold in-place recycling
If a small amount of asphalt, emulsion, or a combination thereof, is added to granular base

materials, and can be produced at a plant or mixed in-place, this material is not considered
an AC layer. If needed, it is combined with the crushed stone base materials or considered an
unbound aggregate mixture.
The key material inputs needed for AC layers are:
• Dynamic modulus of asphalt mixtures.
• Rheological properties of asphalt binders that include viscosity, penetration, complex

modulus, and phase angles.
• Creep compliance and indirect tensile strength,
• Mix-related and other properties, such as effective binder content, air voids, heat
capacity, and thermal conductivity,
Other input parameters are material thickness and mix volumetric, which consist of:
• Unit weight (kilograms per cubic meter)

• Effective binder content (percent)
• Air voids (percent)
• Poisson’s ratio
Other parameters for granular materials, such as subbase, also exist. These materials are
called nonstabilized materials. Nonstabilized materials include AASHTO soil classes A-1

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through A-3, and those commonly defined in practice as crushed stone, crushed gravel, river
gravel, permeable aggregate, and recycled asphalt material, which includes millings and in-
place pulverized material.
Inputs needed for nonstabilized materials include physical and engineering properties,
such as dry density, moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, specific gravity, soil-water
characteristic curve parameters, classification properties, and the MR. Methods for estimating
the MR include the following:
• Resilient modulus (MPa)

• CBR (percent)
• R-value
• Layer coefficient (ai)
• DCP penetration (mm per blow)
• Plasticity index and gradation (percent passing 0.075-mm sieve)
Subgrade materials include AASHTO soil classes A-1 through A-7-6, defined in accordance
with the AASHTO soil classification system. Inputs for subgrade materials are the same as
those for nonstabilized materials and include physical and engineering properties, such as dry
density, moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, specific gravity, soil-water characteristic
curve parameters, classification properties, and the MR.
10.3.6.3 Perpetual Pavement

Perpetual pavement designs are considered in cases where traffic loads exceed 50 million
ESALs and with low reliability in predicting traffic. A perpetual pavement is an asphalt
pavement designed to last 50 years or more without requiring major structural rehabilitation
or reconstruction. Perpetual pavements are not maintenance-free; periodic surface renewal
is still needed in response to distresses confined to the top part of the pavement. If this
maintenance is not completed and cracks propagate into the structural layers, then major
rehabilitation will be necessary.
The design concept of perpetual pavements is to combine 1) a rut-resistant and high-friction-

wearing course layer, 2) a rut-resistant and durable intermediate/leveling course, and 3) a
fatigue-resistant and durable lower base layer. These layers are designed to minimize the
horizontal tensile stresses at the bottom of the asphalt base layer, and the compressive
vertical stresses at the top of the subgrade.
The designer needs to select proper asphalt mixtures for each layer of the perpetual
pavement to meet its specific functions. See Sections 8.1.2 in this Part and Interim Advice
Notice 016 for more information on the selection of mix design and material specifications.
The designer also needs to design the surface wearing layer to provide smooth, high-friction,
and quiet pavement. An SMA with a high-quality, polymer-modified binder is recommended
for the wearing surface layer. The durability and the rutting resistance of the upper part of
the structural layers, surfacing, and intermediate/leveling course can be achieved using a
Superpave mix with a polymer-modified binder. The fatigue resistance of the lower base layer

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can be achieved by using a fine mix with rich-binder content. Performance tests characterize
the resistance of the asphalt layers to permanent deformation and fatigue cracking. The
long-term performance of the pavement structure depends on good bonding between the
pavement layers.
In summary, perpetual pavement options can be used in the following cases:
• Direct instruction from the client to adopt one of the typical perpetual pavement
structures with a design life of 50 years or more regardless of traffic level and subgrade
condition.
• Lack of information on future changes in traffic loads.
• Design traffic volumes and axle loading cannot be estimated accurately because of
uncertain development or planning policies.
• Design traffic loading exceeds 50 million ESAL over the design period.
10.3.7 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Rigid Pavement

There are different input parameters and design criteria for jointed plain concrete pavement
(JPCP), which is a PCC pavement that can be used:
• With no steel reinforcement for controlling random cracking.
• With or without transverse joint load transfer devices, such as dowels.
• With joints spaced 3 m to 6 m to minimize transverse cracking from temperature gradient

and drying gradient shrinkage stresses.
• With mostly PCC or AC shoulders.
• With or without tied lane to lane or lane to PCC shoulder longitudinal joints.
Although the JPCP’s PCC slab can be placed directly over the pavement foundation subgrade,
there is usually a base layer. Any other layers underneath the base layer are described as
subbase, and there can be several types of these. The base and subbase layers can consist
of a wide variety of materials, including nonstabilized, asphalt stabilized, cement stabilized,
lean concrete, crushed concrete, lime stabilized, recycled asphalt pavement (RAP), and other
materials. The base and subbase layers can be dense-graded or a combination of dense-
graded and permeable drainage layers. JPCP is typically placed over a natural subgrade
foundation or embankment soil.
Pavement design begins when users establish a trial JPCP design by selecting appropriate
inputs for the following:
• Site conditions, including traffic, climate, and subgrade.
• Design features, such as layer types and thicknesses, edge support, transverse joint
load transfer mechanism, and shoulder type.

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• Materials properties.
• Performance criteria.
The trial design is checked for compliance with user or agency performance criteria. The
prediction of distresses and smoothness at a given reliability level are evaluated against
the criteria. If the design does fails the performance criteria at the specified reliability,
changes are made to the pavement section and the evaluation process is repeated. Thus,
the pavement designer is engaged throughout the design process and can consider different
design features and materials.
10.3.7.1 Performance Criteria

Performance verification forms the basis for determining the adequacy of a trial design.
Adequacy for the mechanistic-empirical design method analysis implies that the trial design
meets all performance criteria at a user- or agency-selected level of reliability over the
trial pavement’s design life or the mechanistic-empirical design method analysis period. If
distress/smoothness levels exceed the user’s or agency’s threshold levels, then the trial
design is modified to produce more acceptable levels of distress and smoothness. Trial
design modification includes changes to layer material types and properties and JPCP design
features. In general, trial design site properties, such as climate, traffic, and foundation/
subgrade type, cannot be altered to improve design adequacy. The distress types considered
in JPCP design are transverse slab cracking and transverse joint faulting. The mechanistic-
empirical design method analysis predicts transverse joint spalling, which is used as the sole
input for predicting smoothness characterized by using the IRI. Table 10.10 shows typical
performance criteria for rigid pavements.
Table 10.10 Typical Performance Criteria for Rigid Pavements

Performance Criteria Limit Reliability
Initial IRI (m/km) 1 Not applicable
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.715 90
JPCP transverse cracking (percent slabs) 15 90
Mean joint faulting (mm) 3.048 90
Notes:
m/km = meters per kilometer
mm = millimeters
Source: DARWin-ME software, Version 3.1 (Applied Research Associates, 2014)
The following summarizes each of the performance criteria, limits, and reliability values in
Table 10.10:
• Performance criteria: Distresses and smoothness criteria by the mechanistic-empirical

design method to assess adequacy of JPCP trial design.
• Limit: The limit or threshold values of the distresses and smoothness provided.
• Reliability: The probability that the trial design using a combination of variables, such

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as climate, materials, and design features, will perform as predicted during the design
life of the JPCP for a given level of traffic loading.
• Initial IRI (m/km): The limit control defines the level of smoothness immediately after
JPCP construction, expressed in terms of IRI. Initial IRI is an important input, as the
time from initial construction to attaining a threshold IRI value depends on the initial
IRI obtained at the time of construction. Thus, the initial IRI value provided is what is
typically obtained in the field.
• Terminal IRI (m/km): The limit and reliability controls allow the definition of the threshold
value for IRI at the end of the design life at a user- or agency-specified reliability level.
• Mean transverse joint faulting (mm): The limit and reliability controls allow the
definition of the threshold value for transverse joint faulting at the end of the design
life at a user- or agency-specified reliability level. Transverse joint faulting is the
differential elevation across the transverse joint measured approximately 0.3 m from
the slab edge or longitudinal joint for a conventional lane width, or from the rightmost
lane paint stripe for a widened slab. Because joint faulting varies significantly from joint
to joint, the mean faulting of all transverse joints in a pavement section is the parameter
predicted by the mechanistic-empirical design method analysis.
• Transverse cracking (percent of all slabs): The limit and reliability controls allow the
definition of the threshold value for transverse cracking at the end of the design life at
a user- or agency-specified reliability level. The mechanistic-empirical design method
analysis predicts the combined percentage of PCC slabs with bottom-up and top-down
transverse cracks, which occur mostly in the middle third of the slab. It is reported as
percent of slabs cracked.
The two main transverse cracking mechanisms are described below:
• Bottom-up transverse cracking: When the truck axles are near the longitudinal edge of
the slab, midway between the transverse joints, a critical tensile bending stress occurs
at the bottom of the slab under the wheel load. This stress increases greatly when there
is a high positive temperature gradient through the slab (the top of the slab is warmer
than the bottom of the slab). Repeated loadings of heavy axles under those conditions
result in fatigue damage along the bottom edge of the slab, which eventually results in
a transverse crack that propagates to the surface of the pavement.
• Top-down transverse cracking: Repeated loadings by heavy trucks when the pavement
is exposed to high negative temperature gradients (the top of the slab cooler than the
bottom of the slab) result in fatigue damage at the top of the slab, which eventually
results in a transverse or diagonal crack that is initiated on the surface of the pavement.
The critical wheel loading condition for top-down cracking involves a combination of axles
that load the opposite ends of a slab simultaneously. In the presence of a high negative
temperature gradient, such load combinations cause a high tensile stress at the top of
the slab near the critical pavement edge. This type of loading is most often produced by
the combination of steering and drive axles of truck tractors and other vehicles. Multiple
trailers with relatively short trailer-to-trailer axle spacing are other common sources of
critical loadings for top-down cracking.

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10.3.7.2 Materials Input for PCC (New JPCP) Layer

PCC consists of Portland cement, water, and fine and coarse aggregates. In general, PCC
properties, such as early and long-term strength, elastic modulus, shrinkage, thermal
expansion, and durability depend on the quantities and qualities of its components. Some
special applications, as in the need to open a pavement early for traffic, use special cements,
such as high-early strength cements, to provide higher levels of properties or blended
cements with aggregates susceptible to alkali-aggregate reactions. Pavement designers
need to select the type of cement and aggregates that will provide suitable performance.
This choice involves knowing the correct relationship between cement and aggregate
properties and PCC performance.
The key PCC materials inputs needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method are as
follows:
• Flexural strength (MR)
• Elastic modulus
• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Ultimate shrinkage
• Concrete mix properties, such as cement type, cement content, and aggregate type
These inputs are needed to predict pavement responses to applied loads, long-term strength
and elastic modulus, and effect of temperature, moisture, and humidity on PCC expansion
and contraction.
10.3.8 Run Analysis and Report

The mechanistic-empirical design method is an iterative process. It does not determine a
pavement section; rather, it evaluates the performance of a user-specified section. A trial
section is defined and evaluated by its predicted performance against the design criteria.
If the result is unsatisfactory, the section is modified and reanalyzed until an acceptable
design is reached.
After an analysis run has been successfully completed, the AASHTOWare Pavement ME
Design 2.0 application will generate and display a report that contains an input summary
and output results of the trial design. The output results indicate the proposed pavement
thickness to satisfy the performance criteria. The report will also include the calculated
strain and stress in pavement layers.
As noted, the design procedure is based on pavement performance; therefore, the critical
levels of pavement distresses that can be tolerated at the selected level of reliability need
to be specified by the user. The definition of the trial section, selection of critical levels of
pavement distress, and assessment of the analysis need to be completed by a competent
and experienced pavement engineer.
10.4 Ramp and Shoulder Pavements

For design of pavement for ramps and shoulders, follow the same procedures as for the
main roadway. Ramps are designed for the intended traffic and appropriate subgrade CBR

12
value. Mainline shoulders can be designed for a reduction of traffic, but must be verified and
confirmed. Usual practice on freeways and expressways is to maintain the same pavement
section through the shoulders to allow for future widening and movement of traffic during
future maintenance and construction. However, management practices may allow for
reduction of traffic and corresponding pavement or the use of asphalt concrete or aggregate
for shoulders. In all cases, maintain the same subgrade elevation through the shoulder to
allow for continuity of subdrainage. This will result in a thicker subbase with less surfacing.
In cases where traffic estimation is impractical or uncertain:
Ramp Design
On new ramps construction where future traffic is uncertain, it can be conservatively

assumed that 50 percent of the mainline design ESAL will use for ramp in urban areas and
25 percent of the mainline design ESAL for ramps in rural areas.
Shoulders
Shoulder thickness design should be performed using 3 percent of the design ESAL to
calculate the required SN. This represents a conservative estimate of the number of trucks
that will be riding or parking on the shoulder during the life of the pavement. Under severe
conditions where the shoulders are expected to carry substantial amounts of traffic as a
part of a Maintenance of Traffic (MOT) scheme or as part of evacuation route, then full-depth
shoulders matching the thickness of the travel lane pavement may be warranted.
10.5 Design for Special Pavements

Modular paving can take several forms, from block paving and setts, to larger element slabs
of natural stone, and flags of concrete. There are three main paving systems:
• Flexible: typically blocks on laying course of sand with a granular base
• Flexible/rigid with flexible surfacing: typically blocks on laying course of sand over an
asphalt or cement-bound or concrete base, with flexible joints
• Rigid: typically slabs, flags, or setts on mortar bed over asphalt or cement-bound or
concrete base, with rigid pointing in joints
For roadworthy, highway-legal vehicles, the British Standards Institution Standard Elemental
Pavements—Pavements Constructed with Clay, Natural Stone or Concrete Pavers (BS 7533
Series, various dates) is appropriate for use in the State of Qatar. The documents are in 13
volumes and include design guides, specifications, workmanship, and construction. For all
types of pavement, use the appropriate specification and construction guide. For this reason,
it is not possible to simplify the standard for use in this Manual. Because the construction
elements of pavers, laying course, and base are less influenced by environmental factors,
BS 7533 can easily be adapted for use in the State of Qatar.

12
For heavily laden pavements, or pavements with abnormal wheel loads, use The Structural
Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and Other Industries (Knapton, 2008), previously
known as the British Ports Association Manual.
Several important design considerations exist for modular pavements. Modular pavements
have different performance characteristics than fully flexible, flexible-composite, or rigid
pavements.
Slabs and flags are to be designed for overall structural strength and for individual
catastrophic failure as well. It is insufficient to design for cumulative ESALs; the individual
loads on the paving elements need to be considered. Even if the overall depth of the
pavement is adequate for structural thickness, this is insufficient. It is necessary, by design
and construction, that individual slabs or flags prevent cracking under loads. Unlike flexible
pavements, a slab or flag will crack and fail if overloaded. Overloads can occur if the volume
or type of traffic is inaccurately anticipated, or if the construction omits some element of the
design. Large pavers, such as flags and slabs, used by heavy vehicles will usually need a rigid
construction. The deflection of the base needs to be restricted, and the slab, laying course,
and base all should be monolithic. If any elements debond, then the redistributed strain will
cause the surfacing elements to crack.
In areas that are predominantly for pedestrian use, consider heavy-truck traffic. Even a single
vehicle can overload the pavement and make it unserviceable.
The designer needs to consider several elements for block paving. The laying course of
sand is used for the placement of and leveling of the pavers. Therefore, the thickness and
compaction need to be consistent. For pavements carrying heavy vehicles, the laying course
is determined by the design methodology. Edge restraint is vital; without it, the blocks can
spread and lose their load-carrying capacity. The laying pattern of blocks is an important
consideration. Stretcher bond is less able to resist traffic loads; therefore, a herringbone
pattern at 45 degrees to direction of traffic is the best pattern to resist load.
Drainage of the subgrade is considered as for any other pavement. With modular pavements,
drainage of the laying course sand is also considered. If the sand may become saturated,
either fin drains could be installed at the edges, or preferably, holes can be cored through the
base into the subgrade and backfilled with laying course.
Ashghal has developed separate guidelines for cycle paths and sidewalks. Because these
pavements are intended for cycle and pedestrian traffic only, design these facilities in
accordance with the Cycleways and Footways Pavement Design Guidelines, Revision No. A1
(Ashghal, 2013d).
10.6 Junctions and Roundabout Circulatory Areas

At the junctions and roundabout circulatory areas, thicknesses of base and subbase layer is
increased by 15 percent accounting for centrifugal force that unbalances the load distribution,

12
higher dynamic as well shear loading because of frequent braking and acceleration, and static
wheel loads by lesser speed, which increases the duration of loading period. The designer
needs to provide special treatments at these locations by using high resistive and durable
materials, such as PMB, calcium bauxite, etc. in the surface course.
10.7 Parking Areas and Busbays

The designer needs to follow the minimum pavement structures, as listed below:
• For traffic <0.5 m ESAL

−− 80 mm precast interlock block
−− 50 mm bedding Sand
−− 150 mm granular base material, CBR ≥80%
−− 150 mm granular subbase material, CBR ≥70%
−− +300 mm subgrade of CBR >15%
Notes:
1. Where the existing CBR is greater than 25 percent, the subbase layer should be reduced
to 100 mm.
2. Where the existing CBR is greater than 50 percent, consider eliminating the subbase
layer altogether.
• For traffic 0.5 m to 1.0 m ESAL

−− 80 mm precast interlock block
−− 50 mm bedding sand
−− 150 mm granular base material, CBR ≥80%
−− 200 mm granular subbase material, CBR ≥70%
−− +300mm subgrade of CBR >15%
Notes:
to 150 mm.
to 100 mm.

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11 Overview of Rehabilitation
Design and Data requirement of
Existing Pavements
11.1 Rehabilitation Design Process

The rehabilitation of pavements involves restoring ride quality, improving performance,
repairing defects, and restoring or improving structural integrity. Restoration to improve
performance and repair defects may improve structural integrity but may not necessarily be
designed to a specific design life for a certain level of traffic. These methods may include
crack sealing, seal coats, milling and nominal asphalt replacement, joint seal repair and
resealing, diamond grinding, partial or full-depth slab repairs, dowel bar retrofit, and localized
repairs.
This Chapter discusses aspects of rehabilitation that are required to restore structural
capacity. It involves designing a new pavement structure over an existing pavement structure
to provide the necessary structural capacity for a given design life. The following are basic
design principles to accomplish this:
• Determining the repairs required of the existing pavement.
• Determining the structural capacity, or SN, of the existing pavement after repairs.
• Determining the strength of the subgrade.
• Determining the future traffic and required structural number for the selected design
life.
• Determining the overlay thickness, or alternative pavement methods.
As part of the design process, it is necessary to determine what repairs are needed before
resurfacing may take place. The intent of repairing existing pavements is to prepare the
pavement to a uniform condition on which to evaluate structural capacity and to avoid
overdesigning the new section based on locally failed areas. For flexible pavements, this
would include sealing cracks and the localized repair of major ruts, depressions, and potholes
by removing and replacing the pavement in its entirety, or by milling or applying a leveling
course, or both. For rigid pavements, it may be necessary to repair joints, repair dowel bars,
partially replace slabs, or underseal slabs that have lost support. Chapter 4 of the 1993
AASHTO Guide contains information on rehabilitation strategies for different pavement
types and distresses. The amount and extent of repair is to be evaluated with the overall
cost of the project and compared against the value of providing a better structural number
for the existing pavement. In some cases, the pavement may be in such poor condition that
repair is infeasible.

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11.1.1 Basis of Rehabilitation Design

An experienced engineer might be able to present a reasonable remedial solution based on
a visual inspections and core data, and possibly DCP data alone. This might be appropriate
for minor roads but may carry high design risk for major roads or where major expenditures
are expected.
FWD back-analysis results will be used for calculating pavement residual life and pavement
rehabilitation design. All deflection bowls obtained from the FWD data are analyzed using
a computer program that determines the effective stiffness of the various pavement and
subgrade layers by matching measured deflections to computed values. The program uses a
multi-layer linear elastic model for the pavement layers and a nonlinear model for unbound
material below formation level consisting of fill and natural ground, the stiffness of which
is stress-dependent. The thickness of pavement layers is needed for this back-analysis,
and this are usually determined by coring the bound layers followed by DCP testing of
the unbound layers, in conjunction with ground-penetrating radar (GPR), for a continuous
thickness profile, where appropriate.
Pavement evaluation uses the same principles as analytical pavement design, except that the
effective stiffness and material properties represent the in-situ pavement condition. Multi-
layer elastic theory allows designers to define interactions between the different pavement
layers. The stresses/strains generated in the pavement are calculated for the loading from
the design vehicle. Designers can analyze compressive strains on the subgrade, tensile
strains in the bottom of the surface layer, and total deflection. Using typical properties of
the pavement materials, relationships are obtained between the stress/strain criteria and
the number of load applications before the pavement reaches its design life.
Perform material testing on samples cored from the pavement to better characterize material
behavior. Stiffness modulus test results provide data on stiffness at different temperatures
and strains, which is used in the interpretation of the FWD data.
According to Pavement Testing Services International (2013):
“For concrete slabs, the life of the pavement is assessed by calculating the stresses that
are induced under the passage of the design loading. The most significant stresses are
the horizontal tensile stress at the bottom of the concrete in a slab center location, and
the tensile stress at the top of the concrete at an edge or corner location. The former is
calculated using the pavement model determined from the back-analysis, and then factors
are applied (based on developments of the Westergaard equations) to determine the edge
or corner stresses. The stresses caused by restraint of temperature-induced movements can
also be considered. The life prior to the onset of fatigue cracking can then be determined
from the ratio of induced stress to concrete strength. For a lean concrete base, the design
criterion relating to fatigue is maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the layer.”

12
If the residual life of the existing pavement is inadequate, the pavement needs to be
refurbished. Remedial treatment often takes the form of overlays and inlays.
An overlay is placed where the finished pavement level is higher than the existing pavement
after maintenance. Essentially, new material is laid over the existing surface, but removal of
some of the deteriorated material may be necessary. Overlays are the most effective form of
remedial treatment. An overlay has the advantage adding thickness to the surfacing, hence
reducing the horizontal strain in the bound layer and the vertical strain in the foundation.
An inlay is placed where material is removed and replaced to the existing level with material
of higher strength. Inlays are effective where existing materials have become relatively
weak. However, inlays only strengthen the pavement to the extent to which the newer
material is stronger than the existing material in the limited depth of replacement.
Where levels and overlaying of structures permit, overlays are usually the optimum solution.
If existing layers are weak, particularly the upper layers, a combination of inlay and overlay
can be used. For example, plane out 100 mm of existing pavement and replace with 150 mm
of new pavement. Hence, replacing weak layers with an inlay is advantageous.
Modulus values for new materials can be assessed by experience or by laboratory testing. In
an iterative process, several designs can be assessed until a variation is found that gives the
desired residual life. Full or partial reconstruction options can be assessed using stiffnesses
of lower pavement layers and subgrade, which are based on the back-analyzed values.
11.1.2 Rehabilitation Design Using the 1993 AASHTO Guide

The structural capacity and effective structural number of the existing pavement can be
determined in many ways. The preferable method is to perform in-place testing and coring of
the existing pavement as discussed in this Chapter. Other methods as presented in the 1993
AASHTO Guide include visual condition surveys and remaining life.
Visual condition surveys involve determining the extent and severity of existing cracking in
the pavement that result in a reduction of the layer coefficient for that material. Table 5.2
of the 1993 AASHTO Guide provides guidance on the selection of layer coefficients based
on condition surveys. Table 5.3 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide can be used as a worksheet to
determine effective structural number for this method, as well as for using non-destructive
test data. Tables 5.5 and 5.6 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide provide guidance for layer
coefficients and a worksheet to determine effective structural number of existing rigid
pavements.
The remaining life method involves determining the amount of traffic the existing pavement
has carried during its design life against the amount of traffic the pavement can carry to
failure, or a serviceability index of 1.5. A condition factor is obtained using Figure 5.2 of the
1993 AASHTO Guide based on the percentage of remaining life. The condition factor is then
applied to the layer coefficients and layers to determine and effective structural number.

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11.2 Pavement Assessment and Need for Rehabilitation

Road pavements will eventually need rehabilitation. Signs of wear and surface disintegration
through polishing, rutting, fretting, raveling, and cracking will show on road surfaces. When
wear affects the quality of service and the integrity of the pavement structure, maintenance
is needed to restore the pavement to an acceptable level. To be cost-effective, a logical
assessment is needed to determine the most effective and timely maintenance treatment.
If strengthening or resurfacing, a carefully considered and designed pavement assessment is
performed to determine if it is warranted and will accommodate future traffic, and to prevent
laying improvements on structurally inadequate pavement.
Pavements gradually deteriorate with time because of environmental and traffic loading.
Environmental deterioration can take the form of bitumen surface-hardening because
of aging. This increases brittleness, which can cause early cracking. Poorly designed or
maintained drainage systems can lead to a reduction in the pavement system’s structural
capacity, which can result in various pavement distresses under vehicular loading. Traffic-
related deterioration can take many forms, including the development of ruts and cracking,
which can lead to heaving, pop-outs, and potholes.
Determining when a pavement has failed or no longer provides the intended level of service
needs structural or functional pavement evaluations, or a combination thereof. Criteria for
“failure” are based on the severity and extent of distress, such as rut depth, roughness,
pavement deflection under known loading, surface distress, or the level and frequency of
maintenance and its extent.
Major deterioration can sometimes occur over a short period because of the use of
inappropriate or moisture-susceptible materials, inadequate construction practices, and
the presence of high groundwater levels. Distress at the surface of the pavement does not
necessarily indicate structural failure. Surface cracking and rutting within the wearing course
material can be mitigated without major structural rehabilitation if the main structural layers
of the pavement are intact or are structurally sound. Surface cracking, sometimes called
block cracking, is common in hot climates and occurs because of the hardening of the binder
in the surfacing caused by oxidation.
11.3 Methods of Rehabilitation

11.3.1 Bituminous Overlays
The most common method of rehabilitating flexible pavements is to place new bituminous
surfacing over the existing surface. The thickness of the overlay depends on the structural
capacity of the existing pavement. The added asphalt will provide the SN for future design
traffic when it is added to the SN of the existing pavement in its condition. Before placing new
asphalt, existing pavement distresses, such as cracks, raveling, localized subgrade failure, or
rutting, needs to be repaired. If the depth needed for repair is such that it is infeasible to
construct, full-depth replacement might be necessary.

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11.3.2 Mill and Overlay

Another method of rehabilitating flexible pavements is to mill the pavement to a specified
depth before placing the new bituminous surfacing. The depth of milling depends on the
depth of rutting, the depth of surface cracking, the existing cross section, and the ability
to raise the grade. Milling needs to be deep enough to remove surface cracking and rutting
to create a smooth profile. At least 150 mm of surface needs to remain to support paving
equipment. For thinner pavements, complete removal of the asphalt surfacing might be
necessary.
11.3.3 Concrete Overlays
11.3.3.1 Concrete over Concrete

Concrete overlays on concrete pavement can be bonded or unbonded. Bonded overlays are
to be placed only on pavements that are in good condition. Pavement jointing and joint types
on bonded overlays need to mirror the joints of the existing pavement.
Unbonded concrete overlays typically are applied over concrete pavements in poor condition.
A stress absorbing membrane interlayer acts as a bond-breaker to relieve the stress from
existing cracks and pavement deformities and to prevent them from affecting the new
overlay.
For both cases, existing pavement distresses need to be addressed.
11.3.3.2 White Topping

White topping is a rehabilitation method that involves the overlay of bituminous pavement
with concrete. The existing pavement acts as the base for the new concrete. The 1993
AASHTO Guide empirical method can be used to develop an effective k-value to determine
the concrete thickness.
Ultrathin white topping is 50 mm to 100 mm thick. The thinness of the concrete necessitates
detailed surface preparation, joint spacing, and joint design.
11.3.4 In-Place Recycling

Existing pavement can be rehabilitated in place by adding stabilizers and rejuvenating
agents to produce a new base or a new surface with the existing materials. These methods
are described in greater detail in Chapter 13 in this Part.
11.4 Pavement Deterioration Mechanisms

To decide which test methods are appropriate and which means of refurbishment are
necessary, understand how pavements perform and deteriorate. Pavement surfaces
eventually lose skid resistance. In flexible pavements, loss of surface texture and rutting can

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occur in surfacing materials with high binder contents. Rutting can result from shear failure
of the asphalt courses or deep structural failure from the subgrade and base layers, as shown
in Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2, respectively.
Figure 11.1 Plastic Rutting (Internal Shear Failure)
Figure 11.2 Structural Rutting
11.5 Pavement Survey and Investigation

A pavement assessment is usually completed first at the network level and then at the
project level. Different survey types tend to be more applicable at one level or the other, but
rarely both.
The purpose of a network-level survey is to determine an approximate, needs-based level

at which informed decisions can be based on where and how to obtain more detailed
information to identify projects. Network-level data are useful for identifying annual trends

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and establishing a cost-effective sifting process to determine existing problem areas and
where problems are likely to occur in the near future.
Network-level data can be used to:
• Provide a network-level performance indicator.

• Determine an appropriate level of budget.
• Determine physical condition, defects, etc.
• Target more detailed assessments for scheme identification.
At project level, the data can be used to:
• Inform decisions on what, where, and how to treat defects.

• Provide information for conceptual design.
• Develop options for conceptual designs and subsequent detailed designs.
11.6 Network-Level Surveys

Network-level surveys are usually based on surface characteristics and can vary from simple
drive-through surveys, to visual surveys where data on general deterioration, cracking,
and rutting are obtained. Surface characteristics can be measured from visual surveys or
automated surveys. Ride quality can also be measured using profilometers and output such
as the IRI. The IRI is sometimes used to assess pavements. A maximum IRI can be used
to identify “failure,” or lack of serviceability. The usual characteristics for measurement
are rutting, cracking, edge deterioration, fretting, and raveling. Surface characteristics can
provide a great deal of data about the condition of a road. However, they cannot directly
evaluate residual life, although combinations of defects can be combined to give a proxy
value. It is important to measure and collect appropriate data for the design.
Network surveys indicate the sections of roadway that need further investigation, usually
for a scheme design. Project-level surveys are conducted as needed, rather than cyclically.
11.7 Project-Level Investigation and Assessment

When assessing existing pavements, the following processes are needed:
• Review existing information

• Visual survey
• Establish construction from coring, DCP, test pits, or GPR
• Assess “strength”

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11.7.1 Review existing information

The first stage of any pavement assessment is to review existing information, including:
• As-built records
• Maintenance records
• Records of repeated maintenance or specific maintenance issues
• Network surveys to determine general condition (cracks, ruts, IRI)
Assessment of this information can indicate the pavement condition and the reasons for
failure or lack of serviceability, such as aged, inadequate construction, or high traffic. Such
indicators can be considered when designing the remaining investigation.
11.7.2 Visual Survey

A detailed visual survey needs to be completed by an experienced pavement engineer.
Ideally, this is done before core positions are established, to inform the process of core
position. The survey is done on foot and in good weather, and it includes inspecting for the
following defects and the severity of the following:
• Transverse cracking
• Longitudinal cracking
• Crazing
• Rutting
• Signs of previous maintenance, such as patching, crack seal, and slurry seal
• Settlement or subsidence
• Off-road features, such as drainage features, signs of defective drainage, adjacent trees,
and steep side slopes
In addition to a narrative report, it is useful to indicate defects on a diagram of the site or

a chart. Site record charts are particularly useful when surveying rigid pavements. Charts
showing defects, such as joint faulting, corner spalling, and cracking, can be quickly completed
onsite.
11.7.3 Coring
Existing pavement construction typically will be determined by coring, which requires road
space and disrupts traffic. Choose locations that represent the overall construction as well
as weak and defective areas. It is important to target the worst areas, but it is also important
to core good areas to compare materials and performance. Cores will identify many features
and provide significant information that GPR cannot.
Extend cores through all bound materials wherever possible. Recovery can be difficult in weak,
broken materials. Cores provide information on overall pavement depth and construction and
the means for carrying out DCP testing, sampling for laboratory testing, and correlating GPR.
Where cores are taken to establish cracking, take an adjacent core in sound material to
ascertain thickness. Where rutting has occurred, take at least three cores to establish a

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profile. Where cores are taken in heavily cracked areas, expect only partial recovery. If coring
is used to establish the reason for failure, note that cracking will have allowed ingress of
water, deterioration of subgrade, and other factors. Although it is important to assess the
additional damage to design the remedial work, the cause of failure can be disguised. For
example, the primary mode of failure may be cracking that causes a secondary mode of
failure of a weak subgrade.
Cores need to be properly logged with the following data:
• Core reference.
• Unique location reference, such as road/lane/chainage/direction of traffic/core number

referenced to site plan.
• Layer and total thickness, and depth of core hole to identify lost material.
• Material type, thickness, and condition, such as sound, friable, or cracked, for each layer.
• Missing layers.
• Material.
• Voiding and segregation.
• Binder stripping.
• Debonding and any detritus between debonded layers.
• Depth of cracking.
• Material type at base of core.
• Photograph with scale.
11.7.4 Test Pits

Test pits are disruptive and are made only where necessary. The bound materials, particularly
the upper layers, are always saw-cut. Test pits can provide a cross section of layers to
identify rutting or other deformation and to allow inspection of the behavior of the material
under the excavation. In addition, test pits allow further testing, such as in-situ CBR, and
the collection of bulk samples of bound materials, subbase, and subgrade. Test pits are most
likely to be used for investigations of premature failure.
11.7.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

GPR is used to gather data on pavement thickness and construction. It is useful in
determining continuous information on pavement structures. GPR can identify anomalies and
discontinuities that coring would miss. It can also be used to build a database of pavement
constructions. This is useful at the initial assessment stage, as changes or deficiencies in
construction can be identified and compared with the incidence of defects. GPR involves
correlation and calibration with core data. It is nondestructive and can be conducted at normal
road speeds. GPR might give only approximations of construction. If detailed information is
needed, such as accurate layer thickness and the presence of underslab voids, then walking-

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speed surveys could be necessary. GPR provides little information about the condition of a
pavement, but adds significantly to other surveys and assessments.
11.7.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

DCP consists of a specific cone driven by a specific drop-weight. The equipment is low-
cost and is easy to transport and use. Published correlations of blows against penetration
provide values of CBR. In pavement investigations, DCP is usually driven from the base of the
bound material. The thickness of the underlying layers can, to some extent, be estimated by
changes in blow count, and hence stiffness. Individual readings are not to be used to define
a CBR value at a specific depth. Results need to be plotted graphically with cumulative blows
against depth. Sections with similar gradients can be plotted. Figure 11.3 shows that the
bound material was approximately 270 mm thick, followed by a layer 150 mm thick with a
CBR of 138 percent. A base layer with a CBR of 30 percent is also visible as is an intermediate
300 mm layer of CBR of 7 percent. This indicates a subbase over a relatively stiff subgrade
with an upper layer of soft subgrade.
Figure 11.3 Sample of DCP Test
11.8 Pavement Strength

Surveys of surface characteristics alone can be misleading. A rutted, cracked surface does
not always indicate a failing pavement, and recent thin resurfacing can disguise a failing
pavement. Therefore, particularly on major projects, the designer needs to assess the
structural capacity of the pavement through testing procedures to estimate the residual
life of a pavement structure and to establish information about layer stiffness to be used in
analytical techniques to design refurbishment works.

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11.8.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

As noted, DCP can be used to assess CBR values beneath pavements. It can also be a good
guide about changes in strength with depth immediately below the pavement, even if the
absolute strength cannot be measured.
11.8.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer

An FWD (see Figure 11.4) can be used to identify the “strength” or modulus values in
pavement layers. This allows a back-analysis to determine residual life, as well as an analysis
of proposed strengthening measures. It is possible to analyze overlays and inlays.
Figure 11.4 Falling Weight Deflectometer
FWD testing is conducted using integral trailer-mounted equipment. The equipment is static
at each test location, so traffic management is needed. The FWD can be used as a network
tool but it is more usual to use an FWD for information at the scheme or project level. FWD
testing needs to be conducted on projects consisting only of superficial resurfacing to
uncover underlying, unidentified structural problems.
The trailer consists of an impulse-generating device with a guide system that comprises a
variable weight that can be dropped from different heights, a loading plate that uniformly
distributes the force on the test layer, a load cell to measure the actual applied impulse,
and a row of geophones spread along the length of the trailer to measure deflection. The

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weight is dropped onto the loading plate. The impulse is similar in magnitude and duration
to a single, heavy wheel load. The reflection of the impact is measured by the geophones
and can be interpreted as a “bowl.” For detailed design, the spacing between drops is usually
10 m to 20 m, with closer spacings in areas of greater interest. The shape of the reflected
bowl is an indication of the strength, or modulus value, of the basic layers in the pavement
construction. The software used calculates the modulus values from the deflection data.
A road pavement is a multi-layered structure. The modulus values of the layers can be used
to analyze strains in the layers, and hence its residual life. The equipment is static at each
test location, so traffic management is needed.
11.8.3 Data Handling of FWD Results

The FWD results are tabulated in the form of normalized deflection bowls for each FWD
test. Deflections are adjusted to a common contact pressure of the FWD loading plate on
the pavement surface and calibrated based on the pavement temperature measured on
site. In addition, statistical analyses are performed for three or more deflection criteria. The
central deflection (d1) indicates overall pavement performance; the deflection difference,
d0 to d300, d0 to d900, or d300 to d900, indicates the condition of the bound pavement
layers at different depths. Deflection d1500 helps indicate the subgrade condition.
The statistical analyses indicate the spread of results by giving maximum, minimum, and
85th, 50th, and 15th percentile values for the three deflection criteria. The 85th percentile
value is such that 85 percent of the measured deflections are less than or equal to it.
Alternatively, the mean and standard deviations are calculated. The statistics are used later
to obtain representative effective stiffnesses for the various pavement and subgrade layers,
which are then used to assess residual life and the design of strengthening measures.
Profiles of deflection criteria are often plotted to show the variation of pavement layers and
subgrade stiffnesses along a length of pavement. The profiles support the development of
appropriate strategies for future maintenance and strengthening measures.
11.8.4 Interpretation of FWD Data

Before data analysis, the FWD data are checked first for abnormalities. Data with abnormalities
are discarded and noted when reporting the FWD results.
Depending on the collected FWD data, two types of methods can be used to back-calculate
the modulus of pavement layers: the closed-form method and the iterative method. The
iterative method is more commonly used. Various iterative back-calculation programs are
available, such as MICHBAK, Evercalc©, MODULUS, and ELMOD. The agency reviewing and
approving the analysis must preapprove the software to be used. Regardless of the software
selected, follow the flow chart shown on Figure 11.5 to obtain the reasonable modulus value
for each layer.

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Document and report data with the FWD results on the following items:
• Pavement surface condition. Conduct a pavement survey before FWD testing to identify
distress type, severity, extent, and exact location.
• Pavement layer structure information. For most pavements, the exact structure is
unknown; therefore, pavement cores are usually extracted. For materials above the
subgrade, record the following information: layer material, layer thickness, layer
condition, and material type. For the subgrade, record the following information: soil
classification, natural moisture content, and laboratory CBR and MR. This information can
be used to validate the FWD data analysis results.
For quality assurance, a lightweight deflectometer (LWD), a portable, lighter version of the
FWD, can be used after compaction of unbound pavement materials. It can be also used
for QC of asphaltic bound materials immediately after compaction, to determine appropriate
timing to open the road after construction. Relative to the FWD, the LWD has a shallow depth
of influence because of the lighter weight, less than 20 kg, being dropped by hand.
Figure 11.5 Flow Chart for Iterative Back-Calculation of Pavement Layer Modulus

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12 Evaluation of Pavement
Alternatives
12.1 Engineering and Design

The selection of pavement type will usually be based on lowest first-time cost for a given
design period. This assumes that special factors, such as rut resistance, special drainage
conditions, high water table, and long-term settlement, were considered in the design.
There can be special circumstances. CRCP is the only type suitable where large or significant
differential movement or settlement is expected, as it can withstand large strains and
remain intact. Flexible pavements with asphalt base and jointed, reinforced pavements are
suitable where slight differential movements, or settlement caused by compressible ground,
or subsidence are expected. Flexible pavements with cement-bound bases and unreinforced
concrete pavements are not suitable where differential movement, subsidence, or appreciable
settlement is expected.
When evaluating different paving alternatives, construction methods, and practices,

availability and quality of materials, time of construction, and maintenance during the life
of the pavement all need to be considered. The economic analysis and value engineering of
these alternatives are described in this Chapter.
12.2 Economic Analysis and Value Engineering

12.2.1 Life Cycle Cost
Life cycle costing is a method of assessing the overall cost of an asset, in this case pavement
over a specified duration. It uses a structured approach to identify the direct and indirect
costs that can be incurred during the life of the pavement. It can also be used to identify the
cost-effectiveness of future planned maintenance treatments. Life cycle costing, or value
comparison, can compare the cost-effectiveness or value of options for the same scheme or
compare the effectiveness of schemes. The adoption of a life cycle cost approach enables
informed maintenance decisions.
Life cycle costing involves the evaluation of treatment costs for a range of alternative
maintenance treatments over a set period. All costs and any benefits are then discounted
back to a common reference point, typically the current works year. The discounting process
reflects the “time value of money,” usually borrowing or interest rates, and enables options
to be assessed on a comparable basis. The option with the lowest total discounted cost
indicates the most advantageous investment. Life cycle costs can be developed for a newly

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constructed road or a road receiving a maintenance treatment at a given time. The intent is
to determine the likely cost of construction or maintenance, or a combination thereof, for a
given period. The life cycle period needs to be at least as long as the longest design life for
the alternatives that are analyzed, and extend to the next maintenance period. By comparing
life cycle costs for a long period, the effectiveness of different construction, maintenance
techniques, and treatments can be assessed. The following factors are to be considered:
• The period to be used: 10, 20, 40 years, or more.
• Initial construction costs, including full construction for new build, or cost of maintenance
treatment for an existing road.
• Traffic control costs.
• Road user costs during work, including time delay and additional vehicle operating costs.
• Future treatment costs.
• Timings of future treatments.
• Salvage value or disposal costs of materials and recycling.
• Interest rate.
Determining the future maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements involves reviewing

historical information and considering the maintenance practices of the owning agency.
These practices depend on available funding and priorities of roadways. Confirmation of
the selected maintenance strategy needs to take place before a life cycle cost analysis is
performed. In the absence of such information, the following can be used as a guide for
flexible and rigid pavements.
Flexible Pavement
• Year 5: Clean and seal 25 percent of longitudinal joints; clean and seal cracks, 100 m/
km of lane width.
• Year 10: Full-depth patching of 2 percent of pavement; mill and inlay pavement, 10 mm
to 25 mm depth.
• Year 15: Clean and seal 15 percent of longitudinal joints; clean and seal cracks, 100 m/
km.
• Year 20: Full-depth patching of 2 percent of pavement; mill wearing course and replace;
apply 10 mm to 50 mm of overlay.
• Repeat maintenance tasks from years 5 to 20, beginning year 25, applying to year 40.

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Rigid Pavement
• Year 8: Clean and seal 25 percent of longitudinal and transverse joints.
• Year 15: Patch 2 percent of pavement area with new concrete; diamond-grind or refinish
50 percent of pavement area; clean and seal all longitudinal and transverse joints.
• Year 25: Concrete-patch 8 percent of pavement area; clean and seal all longitudinal and
transverse joints; place bituminous leveling course; place 100-mm overlay; saw and seal
all transverse joints.
• Year 30: Clean and seal 25 percent of sawed and sealed joints; clean and seal cracks,
100 m/km.
• Year 35: Partial-depth patching of 5 percent of pavement area; mill wearing course,
10 mm to 25 mm bituminous overlay; saw and seal all transverse joints.
• Year 40: Clean and seal 25 percent of sawed and sealed joints; clean and seal cracks,
100 m/km.
• Year 45: Full-depth patching of 8 percent of pavement area; place bituminous leveling
course; place 10 mm to 25 mm thick bituminous overlay; saw and seal all transverse
joints.
A life cycle analysis can indicate which set of treatments are most appropriate. The life cycle
costing approach offers the following benefits:
• Provides a means of evaluating maintenance options over a defined period.
• Increases awareness of the life cycle costs of various maintenance options.
• Can demonstrate to decision makers the long-term performance and economic

implications of various treatment strategies and funding levels.
By using life cycle costing to aid investment planning, engineers can demonstrate long-term
value.
12.2.2 Value Engineering

Value engineering can be a useful tool in the overall design process. When significant
elements of the design and construction process have been established, they need to
be analyzed to verify the initial concepts and parameters are still valid, and to determine
whether improvements can be made. Value engineering can be an integral stage of any
project to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness in design and construction, and
sometimes to compare the effectiveness of different schemes for prioritization. With respect
to pavement alternatives, value engineering can compare different sections that would add
value in the following ways:
• Reducing cost, time of construction, or maintenance

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• Increasing design life
• Increasing quality
• Deferring costs with staged construction
• Using alternative materials
• Improve life quality because of safety, reduced delay, improved sustainability, and
environment

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13 Sustainable Pavement Practices
13.1 Overview
The design methods in this Manual direct the designer to assess the strength of available
materials and design accordingly. This allows the designer to choose materials suitable
to achieve the optimum design. The key drivers for sustainability are reuse, reduce, and
recycle. Reuse of pavement materials is usually limited to curbs and paving elements, such
as concrete blocks and slabs. Reduction in the use of materials can be achieved by adopting
the most appropriate materials in the design.
This Manual is only a guide regarding materials. If the designer can assess the necessary
parameters, any appropriate material can be used. The design methods adopted allow the
designer to compare many options, substituting different thicknesses of different materials
to achieve the overall objective. Many materials can be recycled. In the case of granular
material, if a material meets the specifications it can be included, even it is not a prime
material. Again, if the necessary design parameters can be assessed, such as primarily
modulus, recycled materials can be used.
Particularly for lesser classes of road, reduced specifications could be permitted, if the
relevant parameters can be identified and the material will perform in the conditions and
environment. Durability of recycled materials is always considered.
13.2 Recycled Aggregates

The most common applications of recycled aggregates include crushed recycled concrete and
RAP. Crushed recycled concrete can be used as a base or subbase material, provided it meets
the gradation and physical qualities of the applicable specification. It can be blended with
virgin aggregate or used in CTB or concrete. RAP is typically used in AC, but it can also be
used as a subbase or base course when blended with virgin aggregate. The designer must
verify the origin of recycled materials to check for contaminants or previous material flaws.
Existing pavement can be recycled in situ. Cold in-situ recycling is a rehabilitation method
that reduces the cost of the pavement structure by reusing the existing asphalt pavement.
Existing asphalt is pulverized in place and mixed with native base. New binder is added, and
the asphalt/base mixture is compacted in place to form a new asphalt stabilized layer. The
process uses 100 percent RAP mixed with a new binder consisting of either emulsion or
foamed asphalt cement. Because heat is not used in the process, less energy is used, and
the impact on the environment is less. Hot in-situ recycling involves heating the existing

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pavement before it is milled, adding hot emulsified asphalt binder, and replacing and repaving
the RAP in the field. It is used for thinner pavement sections because of the limits of the
depth of recycling. Cement recycled asphalt base is a method of milling and pulverizing
existing asphalt with part of the aggregate base and adding cement to produce a new CTB
in situ.
13.3 Warm-Mix Asphalt

Warm-mix asphalt is a technology that uses admixtures and changes in production to help
inhibit the coating of the aggregate using asphalt with a reduced viscosity to allow AC to be
produced and placed at temperatures of 10°C to 40°C less than conventional asphalt. Warm-
mix is attained through chemical admixtures, organic additives (wax), foaming, materials
processing, or combinations at the asphalt paving plant. By decreasing the mix temperature,
the warm-mix process has the following environmental benefits:
• Reduced volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
• Less energy and less fuel usage.
• A better work environment with fewer fumes, less heat stress, and improved air quality.
• A higher percentage of RAP usage by decreasing the aging of the binder during
production, rejuvenating the old binder in the RAP, offsetting stiffness from added RAP,
and aiding in compaction.
Warm-mix asphalt is an emerging technology. Its use and implementation on projects needs
to be evaluated against cost, contractor experience, and available suppliers. The following
are sources of additional information on warm-mix asphalt:
• Mix Design Practices for Warm Mix Asphalt (NCHRP, 2011).
• Warm-Mix Asphalt: Best Practices (National Asphalt Pavement Association, 2012).
• Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice (FHWA, 2008).
13.4 Two-Lift Concrete Construction

Two-lift concrete construction, originally developed in Europe, is a process involving placing
a concrete pavement with two separate mixes. The lower lift is made of coarse-graded
concrete consisting of recycled aggregate. The upper lift consists of a finer, dense-graded,
high-quality concrete. The benefits of dual-layer concrete are the use of recycled materials,
low cost, and smooth pavement surface.
Two-lift concrete construction has been used and evaluated on multiple projects. Additional
information can be obtained from the FHWA.

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13.5 Noise-Reducing Pavements

On high-speed expressways, tire contact on the pavement surface can generate noise levels
greater than 100 decibels. Noise levels are directly related to surface texture. To reduce
noise and noise pollution, certain methods of surface finish and mix types can be used for
better results. For flexible pavement, an open-graded surface course provides the best results
for noise reduction. For rigid pavements, next-generation concrete surfacing provides the
lowest noise levels. Diamond grinding, drag texturing, and longitudinal tining have provided
results similar to and better than transverse tining, shot peening, and grooving. Next-
generation concrete surfacing is produced with a new type of diamond grinding apparatus
that creates a smooth profile with consistently spaced grooves. The method is still being
researched. Table 13.1 and Table 13.2 compare the noise levels of different concrete and
asphalt surfaces, respectively, from previous studies.
Table 13.1 Noise Level Ranges for Different Concrete Surfaces

Est. Noise Level
Noise Level at the Est. Noise Level at 100 feet
Texture Type Source (dBA) at 50 feet (dBA) (dBA)
Next-generation concrete surfacing 99–100 71–73 68–70
Conventional diamond grinding 100–104 72–76 69–73
Drag texture 100–102 72–74 69–71
Longitudinal tines 101–106 73–78 70–75
Grooving 106–108 78–80 75–77
Shot peening 105–108 77–80 74–77
Transverse tines 103–100 75–82 72–79
Random transverse tines 103–100 75–82 72–78
Note:
dBA = decibels (A-weighted scale)
Sources: Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface (Scofield, 2012);
“Quieter Pavement Research” (Washington State Department of Transportation, 2013); ISU-FHWA-ACPA
Concrete Pavement Surface Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data Collection (National
Concrete Pavement Technology Center, 2007); Tire-Pavement and Environmental Traffic Noise Research
Study (Rasmussen and Sohaney, 2012); “Pavement Noise” (Pavement Interactive, 2014).
Table 13.2 Noise Level Ranges for Different Asphalt Surfaces

Est. Noise Level Est. Noise Level
Texture Type Noise Level (dBA) at the Source (dBA) at 50 feet (dBA) at 100 feet
HMA (open-graded, 98–99 (after construction) 70–71 67–68
modified) 102–104 (after 3–4 years of service) 74–76 71–73
HMA (dense- 99–101 (after construction) 71–73 68–70
graded) 104–105 (after 3–4 years of service) 76–77 73–74
SMA 101–103 73–75 70–72
Note:
dBA = decibels (A-weighted scale)
Sources: Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface (Scofield, 2012);
“Quieter Pavement Research” (Washington State Department of Transportation, 2013); ISU-FHWA-ACPA
Concrete Pavement Surface Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data Collection (National
Concrete Pavement Technology Center, 2007); Tire-Pavement and Environmental Traffic Noise Research
Study (Rasmussen and Sohaney, 2012); “Pavement Noise” (Pavement Interactive, 2014).

12
13.6 Porous Pavement

Porous pavements are constructed with permeable materials to allow stormwater to infiltrate
to the subsurface. Surface materials can consist of permeable concrete pavers, concrete, or
AC with at least a 20 percent void content to allow for infiltration. Base materials are free-
draining and open-graded.
The benefits of porous paving are improved stormwater quality, replenishment of the
groundwater, and elimination or reduction of drainage system infrastructure.
Porous pavement sections are limited to areas that have reduced vehicle speeds and light
traffic, such as parking areas and sidewalks. Porous pavements are maintained to prevent
clogging of the surface. They are best used in granular soils but can be used in fine-grained
soils with the addition of subdrains. More information on subdrains is provided in Volume 2,
Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.

12
References
AASHTO MP 19-10. 2010. Standard Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Using Multiple
Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
AASHTO T-90. Standard Method of Test for Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2008.
AASHTO TP 70-13. 2013. Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test of
Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. August.
AASHTO T- 27. Standard Method of Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. American
AASHTO T-180-10-UL. 2010. Standard Method of Test for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using
a 4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States.
AASHTO T-190. Standard Method of Test for Resistance R-Value and Expansion Pressure of Compacted
Soils. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States.
2009.
AASHTO T-193. Standard Method of Test for the California Bearing Ratio. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2013.
AASHTO. 1993. Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States.
AASHTO. 2008. Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual of Practice
(MEPDG). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United
States. July.
AASHTO. 2010. Guide for the Local Calibration of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States.
November.
AASHTO. Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 1986.
Applied Research Associates. 2014. DARWinME™ software. Version 3.1. http://www.ara.com/products/

DAR-win.htm. Accessed June 13.
Ashghal. 2012a. Pavement Design Guidelines, Interim Advice Notice 016. Rev. No. 2. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. July 26.

12
Ashghal. 2012b. Guide for Superpave Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
Ashghal. 2012c. Amendments to Earthworks, Unbound Pavement Materials and Asphalt Works of Qatar
Construction Specifications. Interim Advice Note 019. Rev. No. 1. State of Qatar Public Works Authority:
Doha, Qatar.
Ashghal. 2013a. Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement Layers. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
Ashghal. 2013b. Specifications and Quality Control of Unbound Materials, Base Courses, Sub-bases, and
Subgrades. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. November.
Ashghal. 2013c. Guide for Marshall Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
Ashghal. 2013d. Cycleways and Footways Pavement Design Guideline, Revision No. 1A. Interim Advice
Note No. 021. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. September.
ASTM E1318-09. Standard Specification for Highway Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Systems with User
Requirements and Test Methods. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States.
2009.
ASTM D6951/D6951M-09. Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Shallow
Pavement Applications. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States. 2009.
ASTM D7369-11. Standard Test Method for Determining the Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures
by Indirect Tension Test. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States. 2011.
ASTM E1926-08. Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of Roads from
Longitudinal Profile Measurements. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2008.
ASTM E2133-03. 2013. Standard Test Method for Using a Rolling Inclinometer to Measure Longitudinal
and Transverse Profiles of a Traveled Surface. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania,
United States.
Austroads. 1992. Pavement Design—A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements. Sydney,
Australia.
BS 7533 Series. Elemental Pavements—Pavements Constructed with Clay, Natural Stone or Concrete
Pavers. Parts 1 to 13. British Standards Institution: London, England. Various dates.
Department for Transport. “New Roads Heritage.” 1992. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 10,
Section 1, Part 5. HA 60/92. UK Highways Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/
dmrb/vol10/section1/ha6092.pdf. December.

12
Department for Transport. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volumes 0 to 15. UK Highways Agency:
London, England. Various dates.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2008. Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice. Report
No. FHWA-PL-08-007. International Technology Scanning Program, U.S. Department of Transportation:
Washington, DC, United States. February.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2013. Traffic Monitoring Guide. Publication No. FHWA-
PL-13-015. Office of Highway Policy Information, U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, DC,
United States. September.
Heukelom, W., and A. J. G. Klomp. 1962. “Dynamic Testing as a Means of Controlling Pavements During
and After Construction.” Proceedings of the (1st) International Conference on the Structural Design of
Asphalt Pavements. Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. pp. 667-685. August 20-24.
Huber, G.A. 1994. Weather Database for The Superpave® Mix Design System. Strategic Highway Research
Program Report SHRP-A-648A. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board of the National Academies.
Knapton, John. 2008. The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and Other Industries,
Edition 4. Uniclass L534. (previously known as the British Ports Association Manual.) Interpave (a Product
Association of the British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd.): Leicester, England. December.
Losa, M. and Di Natale, A. 2012. Evaluation of Representative Loading Frequency for Linear Elastic
Analysis of Asphalt Pavements. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research
Board, No. 2305, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
Ashghal. Qatar Construction Specifications. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning. 2011. Guidelines and Procedures for Transport Studies,
Revision 3. Transportation and Infrastructure Planning Department; State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. May.
National Asphalt Pavement Association. 2012. Warm-Mix Asphalt: Best Practices. 3rd edition. Quality
Improvement Publication 125. Lanham, Massachusetts, United States. January.
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center. 2007. ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface
Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data Collection. Prepared for Federal Highway
Administration. Iowa State University: Ames, Iowa, United States.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). 1972. Evaluation of AASHTO Design Guides
for Design of Pavement Structures. Report 128. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United
States.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). 2004. Mechanistic-Empirical Design of

New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. Research Report 1-37-A. Transportation Research Board:
Washington, DC.

12
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). 2011. Mix Design Practices for Warm Mix
Asphalt. Report 691. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States.
Pavement Interactive. 2014. “Pavement Noise.” http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/pavement-

noise/. February 28, 2008. Accessed 2014.
Pavement Testing Services International (PTS). 2014. Adlington, Lancashire, United Kingdom. http://
www.ptsinternational.co.uk/. Accessed June 13.
Rasmussen, R. O., and R. C. Sohaney. 2012. Tire-Pavement and Environmental Traffic Noise Research
Study. Final Report. Report No. CD-OT-2012-5. Prepared for Colorado Department of Transportation:
Denver, Colorado, United States. June.
Scofield, Larry. 2012. Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface. Final
Report. American Concrete Pavement Association: Rosemont, Illinois, United States. January.
Thompson, Marshal R., and Quentin L. Robnett. 1979. “Resilient Properties of Subgrade Soils.”
Transportation Engineering Journal. Vol. 105, No. 1: pp. 71-89. January/February.
Washington State Department of Transportation. 2013. “Quieter Pavement Research.” Olympia,

Washington, United States. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Business/materialslab/quieterpavement. Accessed
April 17.

12
Appendix A
Parameters Appropriate for
Use in the State of Qatar

12

12
Design Parameters for Qatar for Use in 1993 AASHTO Design
Reliability (Standard Normal Standard

Deviate, ZR) Deviation (S0) Serviceability Serviceability
Road Class ΔPSI
(Initial) (Final)
Rural Urban Flexible Rigid
Freeways and
97% (-1.881) 97% (-1.881) 0.45 0.35 4.2 3.0 1.2
Expressways
Arterials 95% (-1.645) 85% (-1.037) 0.45 0.35 4.2 2.5 1.7
Collectors 90% (-1.282) 80% (-0.841) 0.45 0.35 4.2 2.0 2.2
Local Roads 80% (-0.841) 75% (-0.674) 0.45 0.35 4.2 1.5 2.7

12

12
Appendix B
Layer Coefficient Graphs from
the 1993 AASHTO Guide
for the Design of Pavement
Structures

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

12
Appendix C
Design Charts from the 1993
AASHTO Guide for the Design
of Pavement Structures

12

12

12

12

12

12
Appendix D
Procedure for Obtaining
Layer Coefficients

12
D.1 Layer Coefficients (ai) for the Asphalt Concrete Courses

Asphalt mixtures are viscoelastic materials, whose responses to traffic loads depend on both time (that is,
vehicle speed) and temperature. The viscoelasticity and temperature dependency of the asphalt mixtures
shall be indirectly accounted for while calculating the layer coefficients (ai). This will be accomplished by
first calculating ‘equivalent’ modulus of the asphalt layers from the dynamic modulus (|E*|) master curve,
which will be predicted using the Hirsch model. This ‘equivalent’ modulus will be used to calculate the
layer coefficients. The following steps should be used to determine the layer coefficients as a function of
climate and traffic speed.
Steps of calculating ‘equivalent’ modulus and layer coefficients of asphalt concrete courses:
Step 1: Start with an estimated preliminary layer structure and select initial lift thicknesses for the asphalt
concrete wearing and base courses and create sublayers (based on lifts) as illustrated in Figure D-1. The
steps described herein will be repeated and the number of sublayers (that is, lifts) and their thicknesses
will be adjusted until the SN produces the required ESAL according to the Equation [10.1.1].
(a) Typical flexible pavement structure (b) Sublayering of AC courses based on the lifts
with unbound aggregate base
AC Wearing Course
50-100mm AC Lift 1
AC Base Course
50-100mm AC Lift 2
Unbound Base Course(s)

50-100mm AC Lift 3
Natural Subgrade
Figure D-1. Example Sub-layering of AC Courses Based on Lifts
Step 2: Obtain average monthly air temperature profile for the design location for 1 year. If data for
multiple years are available, take the average monthly temperature across multiple years and list the
standard deviation. If temperature records are unavailable, the temperature profiles given below for the
weather station closest to the project location should be used.
Monthly air temperature profiles for different regions of the State of Qatar are shown in Table D-1.
Figure D-2 shows the regions where the temperature profile data was collected.

12
Table D-1. Monthly Air Temperature Profiles for Different Regions in the State of Qatar
Station °C Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Min 14.3 15.2 17.4 23.4 30.1 31.2 32.8 32.9 30.6 27.7 23.2 18.6
Doha International
Avg 18.4 19.1 22.1 28.0 35.8 37.1 38.1 37.4 35.1 31.9 26.7 22.0
Airport (2012)
Max 22.5 22.9 26.8 32.6 41.5 43.0 43.3 41.9 39.6 36.1 30.2 25.3
Min 10.6 11.6 14.3 20.6 26.5 27.4 29.3 29.2 26.3 22.6 18.7 14.6
Al Karanaaha
Avg 16.4 17.5 20.8 27.2 34.6 35.5 37.3 36.8 33.8 29.7 24.1 19.5
(2012)
Max 22.2 23.3 27.2 33.7 42.6 43.6 45.3 44.3 41.3 36.8 29.5 24.3
Min 13.4 14.2 16.6 21.1 27.7 28.3 30.3 30.1 28.0 24.4 21.2 16.9
Dukhan (2012) Avg 16.7 17.6 20.2 25.8 32.5 33.8 35.1 34.9 32.7 29.2 24.4 19.8
Max 20.0 21.0 23.7 30.5 37.3 39.2 39.9 39.7 37.4 33.9 27.6 22.6
Min 15.2 15.5 17.2 22.3 28.4 29.6 31.1 31.0 29.8 26.1 22.8 14.2
Al Ruwais (2012) Avg 17.8 22.7 20.2 25.1 31.7 32.3 34.2 34.3 32.5 29.5 25.2 18.5
Max 20.3 29.9 23.1 27.9 34.9 35.0 37.3 37.5 35.2 32.9 27.5 22.8
Min 11.7 13.3 15.9 21.7 27.1 27.3 29.8 29.9 27.0 24.5 20.4 15.7
Ummsaid (2012) Avg 16.9 18.0 21.1 26.8 33.8 34.9 36.0 35.6 33.3 29.8 25.2 20.3
Max 22.0 22.6 26.3 31.9 40.5 42.4 42.2 41.3 39.5 35.0 29.9 24.9
Reference: Environment Statistics Annual Report (2013), Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, State of Qatar.

12
Figure D-2. Regions Where the Temperature Profile Data Were Collected
Reference: Environment Statistics Annual Report (2013), Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, State of Qatar.

12
Step 3: Estimate the maximum and minimum daily pavement surface temperature (°C) using the following
formulation (Huber, 1994):
Ts(max) = Tair(max) -0.00618 Lat2 +0.2289 Lat +24.38 [D.1]

Ts(min) = 0.859Tair(min) +1.7 [D.2]
where:
Ts(max) = maximum pavement surface temperature (oC)
Tair(max) = maximum air temperature (oC)
Lat = latitude of the location of the pavement
Ts(min) = minimum pavement surface temperature (oC)
Tair(min) = minimum air temperature (oC)
Step 4: Calculate the average surface temperature from the maximum and minimum temperatures
calculated in Step 3 above.
Ts(min) + Ts(max) [D.3]

Ts(avg) =
2
Step 5: From the average surface temperature calculated in Step 4 above, calculate the pavement
temperature at the center of each layer for each month using the BELLS2 model given in the following
equation:
Tz = 2.78 +0.912Ts(avg)
+[log10(z) -1.25] [-0.428Ts(avg) + 0.553 (1 - day) + 2.63sin(hr18-15.5)
+0.027Ts(avg) sin(hr18 – 13.5) [D.4]
where:
Tz = Pavement temperature at depth z (˚C)
Ts(avg) = Surface temperature (˚C)
z = Depth at which material temperature to be predicted (mm)
1 – day = Average air temperature on the day before (˚C) (use average monthly temperature
when the average air temperature on the day before is not available)
sin = Sine function on an 18-hr clock system, with 2π radians equal to one 18-hour cycle
hr18 = Time of day light, in 24-hr system, but calculated using an 18-hr asphalt concrete
(AC) temperature sun rise and fall time cycle.
Step 6: Calculate the equivalent loading frequency from the average vehicle speed using the following
formula (Losa and Di Natale, 2012):

12
V
f = 0.043 e -2.65z+β(T) [D.5]
2a
where:
f = Frequency (Hz)
V = Vehicle speed (m/s)
a = Radius of tire pressure (m)
z = Distance from surface to the center of the AC sublayer (m)
β(T)=1.25x10-5T3-1.6x10-3T2+9.2x10-2T [D.6]
where: T = average pavement temperature (oC).
Step 7: Perform laboratory frequency sweep Dynamic Shear Modulus (|G*|) tests using a Dynamic Shear
Rheometer (DSR) on representative asphalt binder samples that are expected to be used in the pavement
being designed. The |G*| tests shall be conducted in accordance with AASHTO T315 “Determining the
Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)” on Rolling Thin Film
Oven aged residue. Frequency sweep tests shall be conducted at temperatures of 15, 30, 46, 60 and
76°C. At each temperature, tests shall be run at 11 frequencies varying between 1.0 and 100.0 rad/sec.
Three replicate asphalt binder samples shall be tested at each temperature and frequency. The average
of the three replicates is used to develop the |G*| master curve.
At the preliminary design stage (until |G*| data for the anticipated binder to be used in the construction
are available), the designer may calculate |G*| values for the temperature and frequency calculated above
from typical |G*| master curves of binders similar to those used in the State of Qatar, which are included
below. It also provides step by step description of obtaining |G*| values from |G*| master curve coefficients.
Table D-2 shows the |G*| master curve coefficients of typical binders used in the State of Qatar. To
determine the |G*| values at any temperature and frequency, the following basic steps are followed:
• Step 1: Calculate the shift factor coefficient a(T) using the following equation described earlier:
log(a(T))=a1(T2-T2ref)+a2(T-Tref)
Note Tref = 46oC for the binders
• Step 2: Calculate the reduced frequency from the frequency of the traffic load: fR = f a(T)
b2
•Step
Step
3: 3: Calculate
Calculate the
the |G*|: log (|G* |) = b1 +
|G*|:
1 = exp(-b 3 -b4 log(fa))

12
Table D-2. |G*| master curve coefficients of typical binders used in the State of Qatar.
These coefficients will produce |G*| in Pascal (Pa)
Binder a1 a2 b1 b2 b3 b4
60/70pen 0.00104 -0.169 -0.738 8.848 -0.033 0.588
PG76E-10 0.00067 -0.143 -0.945 10.473 0.096 0.308
PG76V-10 0.00062 -0.146 -0.053 9.376 0.041 0.310
Step 8: From the |G*| master curve developed in the previous step, obtain individual |G*| values
corresponding to the temperatures and the loading frequency calculated in the previous steps, then use
these values in the Hirsch model to calculate the |E*| values of the asphalt mixture using the following
formula:
mixture using the following formula:
VMA VFA*VMA
|E*|m=Pc 4,200,000 1- +3|G*|b
100 10,000
(1-Pc)
+
VMA
1- 100 VMA
+
4,200,000 3|G*|b(VFA) [D.7]
(20 + 3 | G*|b (VFA)/(VMA))0.58

Pc =
650 + (3|G*|b (VFA)/VMA))0.58 [D.8]
where:
|E*|m = Dynamic modulus of HMA (psi)
|G*|b = Dynamic shear modulus of binder (psi)
VMA = Voids in mineral aggregate
VFA = Voids filled with asphalt
Typical VMA and VFA values used in the State of Qatar are listed in Table D-3.
Table D-3. Typical Volumetrics of Asphalt Mixtures Used in the State of Qatar*
NMAS P0.075
Layer Binder type %Binder Va [%] VMA [%] VFA [%]
[mm] [%]
ASC 60/70pen 19 4.8 3.9 6.2 15.5 61.4
ASC PMB 19 4.7 4.3 6.0 15.9 63.8
AIC 60/70pen 19 4.5 3.7 6.4 16.1 57.8

12
AIC PMB 19 4.7 4.3 6.0 15.4 63.0

ABC 60/70pen 25 4.2 3.6 6.3 15.1 59.4
ABC PMB 25 4.8 3.6 5.7 14.1 59.7
ABC 60/70pen 19 4.6 3.9 6.1 16.0 60.4
ABC PMB 19 5.0 3.8 5.0 14.7 64.0
*The data are based on QA/QC Project monitoring effort for the past 4 years.
Step 9: Use the following relation to convert the modulus (|E*|m) computed in the previous step to layer
coefficient (a1) for the AC layers using the following formula (AASHTO (1993)):
a1 = 0.171*1n(|E*|m) – 1.784 [D.9]
where
|E*|m = Dynamic modulus of HMA (psi)
a1 = Layer coefficient for the AC sublayer
Step 10: Calculate the layer coefficients for each month for each sublayer. Then, calculate the yearly
average of the coefficients for each sublayer and use in the design.
D.2 Layer Coefficients (ai) for Base, Subbase and Cement Bound Materials
As per QCS, minimum CBR required for the base and subbase are 80 percent and 70 percent, respectively.
However, the designer can propose materials with higher CBR values. The layer coefficients for the base
and subbase shall be obtained using the charts given in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 the AASHTO 1993
Guide. These charts are provided in Appendix B (Reference: AASHTO (1993)).
The minimum 7 days cube strength of CBMs shall be between 1 to 2.1 MPa. For such materials, use a layer
coefficient of 0.16 in AASHTO 1993 design procedure. This value is proposed as a slight modification
of the unbound subbase coefficient to account for the increase in strength resulting from the cement
added. CBM with greater strength values are not considered in this design procedure because of high risk
of cracking that will be reflected in the surface layers (see references: IS537 (2003) and EB052 (1992)).

12
Appendix E
Effective k-value charts from
1993 AASHTO Guide for the
Design of Pavement Structures

12

12

12

12

12
Appendix F
Vehicle Classifications

12
Axle GCC Truck QHDM

Class Type Truck Image
Configuration Classification Classification
C1 RT 11 2 5, 6
C2 RT 12 4, 5 -
C3 AT 111 22 7, 8
C4 RT 22 10, 11 -
C5 RT 23 16, 17 -
C6 AT 112 23, 24 9
C7 AT 121 28, 29 11
C8 AT 113 25, 26 10
C9 AT 122 30, 31, 32, 33 12
C10 AT 114 27 -
C11 AT 123 34, 35 13
C12 AT 124 36, 37 -
C13 AT 222 40, 41, 42 -
C14 AT 223 43, 44 -

12
Axle GCC Truck QHDM

Class Type Truck Image
Configuration Classification Classification
C15 RT+T 1112 3 5+14
C16 RT+T 1211 6, 7 -
C17 RT+T 1212 8, 9 -
C18 RT+T 2211 12, 13 -
C19 RT+T 2212 14, 15 -
C20 LGV 11 2 5
C21 M. Bus 11 2 3, 4
C22 L. Bus 11 - -

Volume 2
Part 13
Structures Interfaces
STRUCTURES INTERFACES PART
13
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART STRUCTURES INTERFACES
13

13
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
2 Structure Design and Approval......................................................................................3

2.1. Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual........................................................................................... 3
2.2. Technical Approval of Highways Structures...................................................................................... 3
2.3. Structures Requiring Approval in Principle........................................................................................ 4
2.4. Submission of Approval in Principle...................................................................................................... 4
2.5. Departures from Standard........................................................................................................................ 7
3 Structure Interfaces with Highway Design.............................................................. 10

3.1. Headroom to Structures......................................................................................................................... 10
3.2. Highway Configuration on Bridges.................................................................................................... 10
3.3. Highway Configuration in Tunnels and Underpasses................................................................. 11
3.4. Special Consideration for Tunnels...................................................................................................... 11
3.5. Clearance to Obstacles............................................................................................................................ 12
3.6.Parapets........................................................................................................................................................ 12
3.7. Waterproofing of Bridge Decks............................................................................................................ 13
3.8. Pavement on Bridges............................................................................................................................... 13
3.9. Lighting, Sign, and Gantry Supports.................................................................................................. 13
4 Maintenance Requirements........................................................................................ 16
4.1. Bridge Structures...................................................................................................................................... 16
4.1.1. Bearings....................................................................................................................................17
4.1.2. Expansion Joints....................................................................................................................17
4.1.3. Access to Edges and Overhangs.....................................................................................18
4.1.4. Access at Bridge Abutments.............................................................................................18
4.1.5. Access within Bridge Decks..............................................................................................18
4.1.6. Drainage of Bridge Decks...................................................................................................19
4.2. Tunnels, Underpass Structures, and Retaining Walls................................................................. 19
4.2.1. Drainage of Tunnels and Underpass Structures.......................................................19
4.2.2. Associated Drainage Structures......................................................................................20
4.2.3. Fire Life Safety Equipment................................................................................................20
5 Pedestrian Crossings................................................................................................... 21
5.1. Pedestrian and Bicycle Bridges........................................................................................................... 21
5.2. Pedestrian and Bicycle Underpasses................................................................................................ 21
6 Animal Crossings.......................................................................................................... 23
References............................................................................................................................... 25

13
Table
Table 2.1. Technical Approval Categories......................................................................................................................5
Figure
Figure 2.1. Cantilever Signal and CCTV Masts...............................................................................................................7
Appendixes
Appendix A. Appendix Approval……………………………………………………………………………………....................................…………27

Appendix B. Sample Certificates........................................................................................................................................36

13
AIP Approval in Principle
BS EN European Standard adopted as British Standard
CCTV closed-circuit television
CDM Construction Design and Management
DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (United Kingdom)
m meter(s)
m2 square meter(s)
mm millimeter(s)
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PD Published Document by the British Standards Institution
QHSDM Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual
RPZ Railway Protection Zone

13

13
1 Introduction
Most highway projects employ structures to carry the highway over obstacles, support
the highway, or create space to allow the project to fit harmoniously and safely into the
built environment. Structures may take the form of bridges or underpass tunnels that cross
obstacles or promote traffic movements. Retaining walls, culverts, or sign gantries may also
be required for the safe operation of a highway.
The integration of structures into the highway environment requires that designers consider
the life cycle of the highway and the structure. Particular consideration is to be given to the
safety of operatives and the public during construction, operation, maintenance, and final
demolition. Other essential factors to consider are the overall experience of the users and
the cost-benefit balance for the Overseeing Organization. The designer should consider the
possibility of future modifications to the structure or change of use and, where practical,
incorporate them into the initial design.
The design of highway projects that incorporate structural elements shall include structural
bridge or tunnel engineers working as part of the design team. The structural engineers
should be included in the early design stages to support the development of an efficient and
cost-effective integration of the highway with the structures. This Part identifies criteria for
the integration of highway structures into a highway project. It refers to a separate document
for the details of structures design. It also refers to other Parts of the Qatar Highway Design
Manual where appropriate.

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2 Structure Design and Approval
2.1 Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual

Structures shall be designed to the latest revision (A2) of IAN009 - Criteria for Highway
Structures, (Ashghal, 2016 or future updates).
2.2 Technical Approval of Highways Structures

Designers shall submit Approval in Principle (AIP) reports to the Overseeing Organization
to document and agree the design approach and parameters of a structure. The AIPs shall
be prepared in accordance with the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) BD 2/12,
“Technical Approval of Highway Structures” (Department for Transport, 2012), unless
directed otherwise by the Overseeing Organization.
For structures within the RPZ designers shall consult Qatar Rail to establish particular
requirements and design parameters for bridges crossing the Rail Corridor. Also refer to
Qatar Rail guidelines.
The following interpretations of DMRB BD 2/12 are to be observed:
• The Overseeing Organization for public works projects is the Qatar Public Works
Authority (Ashghal).
• The approach for non-Eurocode design is generally to be followed unless the basis
for design identified in QHSDM is taken as the Eurocodes and for Eurocode approach -
reference to CG 300 Technical Approval of Highway Structures shall be made.
• Appendix A contains the model AIP form.
• The technical approval category of highway structures is provided in Section 2.3 in this
Part.
• The consultant shall confirm the check category of structures with the Overseeing
Organization, particularly those requiring a design check through an independent design
consultant.
• Construction design and management (CDM) regulations and the role of the CDM
Coordinator are to be applied in accordance with Section 11 of the Qatar National
Construction Standards 2014 (Ministry of Environment, 2015).
• Reference to the Commission for Architecture in the Built Environment does not apply.
The Overseeing Organization may specify that the designer is to conduct architectural
studies or appoint a bridge architect or urban realm consultant to assist with bridge
aesthetics.

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• Use of trenchless methods for installation of services undertaken either as part of

a highway project or as a standalone project is subject to Geotechnical Certification,
as described in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical
Design Guide, of this Manual.
• Structural design checks shall comply with the IAN009 requirements and QCS 2014 or
the latest available standard shall be adopted for the design.
• Significant temporary works shall require the submission of an AIP. Designers of

temporary works shall seek confirmation from the Overseeing Organization as to
whether the temporary works under design are considered significant and require an
AIP, and what level of design check is required.
2.3 Structures Requiring Approval in Principle

AIP documents are required for Categories 1, 2, and 3 structures but not for Category 0
structures.
Table 2.1 identifies the technical approval categories for structures. A designer who is unsure
about the appropriate category for a structure should contact the Overseeing Organization.
2.4 Submission of Approval in Principle

Stage 1: Prior to Completion of Design
• The outline AIP is to be submitted with concept designs.
• When preparing the AIP document, designers shall consult with the Ashghal Roads
Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Department, and any agreed amendments shall be
incorporated into the final version of the AIP before submitting to Ashghal’s Technical
Approval Authority for acceptance.
• Where Departures from Standard (Departures) are proposed or input from the Overseeing
Organization is required on complex structures, the designer may submit an interim AIP.
• A complete AIP for each structure is to be submitted for agreement during the preliminary
design. Designers should not proceed with detailed design until the AIP is agreed to.
• Where required by the Overseeing Organization, a design check may be required to

review and validate the contents of the AIP prior to the detailed design stage.
• AIPs are to be submitted both electronically and in hard copy.
Stage 2: On Completion of Design
• The designer and checking engineers shall submit copies of certificates to the Overseeing
Organization to declare the satisfactory completion of the design and check works with
due professional skills and diligence.

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• Design checkers shall endorse Departures and addendums to the AIP.
• The design, all relevant calculations reports and check certificates shall refer to the
relevant AIP and any addendums or Departures.
• Sample forms of certificate are provided in Appendix B. If the certificate consists of more
than one page, each page shall be identifiable by the name of the project, the name and
reference number of the structure, and the date of preparation. The form of certificate
may vary depending on the particular requirements of the Overseeing Organization.
Table 2.1 Technical Approval Categories
Category Structure Type Criteria

Structures Traffic signs and Posts less than 7 m in height from the top of post to bottom of
not signal posts flange plate or top of foundation, whichever is less.
Requiring Earth-retaining structures Effective retained height <1.5 m
Technical Note: effective retained height is the level of the fill at the back
Approval of the structure above the finished ground level in front of the
structure).
Category 0 Lighting columns For steel, aluminum, fiber-reinforced, and concrete columns:
• Post top columns <20 m nominal height
• Columns with brackets <18 m nominal height
• Bracket projections—not exceeding the lesser of
0.25 × nominal height or 3 m
CCTV masts (see Figure For nominal height of steel CCTV mast ≤25 m. The nominal
2.1) height is the vertical distance between the underside of the
flange plate and the top of the mast. This height excludes the
height of camera, mounting, or other attachments.
The design height of a CCTV mast shall be the vertical distance
between the underside of the flange plate and the top of
the CCTV mast, camera in its operating position, or other
attachments, whichever is greater.
Note: “Design height” differs from “nominal height” and is
required for wind loading calculations.
Cantilever masts For cantilever masts:
(see Figure 2.1) • Nominal height ≤8.5 m, where nominal height is the distance
between the underside of the flange plate and the highest
point on the mast.
• Cantilever projection ≤8.5 m.
• The horizontal projected area of any signs, traffic signals,
speed cameras, and associated equipment suspended
above the roadway shall not exceed 1.2 m2, and the vertical
projection shall not exceed 0.3 m2.
Traffic signs and 7.0 m ≤ nominal height ≤ 9.0 m.
signal posts
Earth-retaining structures 1.5 m ≤ effective retained height ≤ 2.0 m
Note: Effective retained height is the level of the fill at the back
of the structure above the finished ground level in front of the
structure.
Bridge and tunnels Single-span, simply supported structures with spans less than
5.0 m.
Buried concrete boxes, buried rigid pipes, and corrugated steel
buried structures of less than 3.0 m clear span/diameter and
having more than 1.0 m cover.
Multi-cell buried structures, where the cumulative span is less
than 5.0 m, and having more than 1.0 m cover.

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Table 2.1 Technical Approval Categories
Category Structure Type Criteria

Category 1 Lighting columns, Structures not included in Category 0.
CCTV masts, cantilever
masts, traffic signs, and
signposts
Category 2 Sign or signal gantries Cantilever: All
above roadways (portal) Portal: Clear span ≤50.0 m.
Category 3 Sign or signal gantries Structures not included in Category 2.
above roadways (portal)
Earth-retaining structures Structures not included in Category 0.
Bridges and tunnels Structures not included in Category 0.
Notes:
CCTV = closed-circuit television
m = meter(s)
m2 = square meter(s)

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Figure 2.1 Cantilever Signal and CCTV Masts
2.5 Departures from Standard

The procedures for registering Departures from Standard are provided in Volume 3, Part 25,
Departures from Standard Process, of this Manual. Departures are to be listed in the AIP.
The Overseeing Organization’s agreement of the AIP does not constitute agreement to the

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Departures identified in it. Agreement of Departures from Standard can be recorded only
through the process identified in Volume 3, Part 25, Departures from Standard Process, of
this Manual.
A complete justification for proposed Departures from Standard shall be submitted to the
Overseeing Organization at an early stage in design. The justification shall include an
assessment of risk level with and without the Departure, and demonstrate that the risk level
of the proposed solution is as low as reasonably practicable. The justification should include
a cost-benefit analysis.
All Departures from Standard shall be agreed before incorporation into the design and before
construction begins. An application for a Departure shall be made for each occurrence, and
Departure agreed between similar situations should not be assumed.

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3 Structure Interfaces with

Highway Design
3.1 Headroom to Structures

Headroom to structures shall be the vertical clearance in accordance with Volume 1, Part 3,
Headroom to structures on a high-load route shall have a posted clearance between 5.5 m
and 6.5 m. Headroom on other routes shall have a posted clearance of 5.5 m, unless agreed
otherwise with the Overseeing Organization. Designers shall confirm with the Overseeing
Organization whether the highway structure crosses over a high-load route.
Utility structures crossing above highways (such as pipe galleries) shall have the same
vertical clearance as pedestrian footbridges, unless directed otherwise by the utility provider.
Over-height protection systems shall be specified for structures with headroom less than
6.5 m. These systems shall be designed in accordance with the IAN 009 .
3.2 Highway Configuration on Bridges

The arrangement of the highway cross section for the road classifications is given in
Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. For bridges of 60 m or less,
the highway cross section on the approaches shall be maintained. For bridge spans longer
than 60 m, the adjustments to the sidewalk, cycle lane, shoulder, and median dimensions
indicated in the cross sections given in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual may be applied, provided the designer gives justification in the AIP document for
review and agreement by the Overseeing Organization. Adjustment to these dimensions
shall be in accordance with the criteria given in the relevant sections of this Manual.
Changes in highway alignment made to tie in with the adjustments in the cross section over-
bridges shall be carried out in accordance with Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this Manual.
Any amendment to the highway configuration shall take into account measures required for
the safe maintenance and inspection of the bridge.
If sidewalks are not continued over bridges, safe alternative routes shall be provided and
measures taken to discourage pedestrian traffic over the bridge.
On long bridge structures with horizontal grades, the highway designer should consider
using an appropriate vertical crest curve to avoid the illusion of sag. Vertical alignment of

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highways is addressed in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
Where bridge structures cross an obstruction at a skew angle, consideration should be given
to reducing the angle of the skew as far as is practical.
If the bridge spans an area where access for under-bridge inspection is difficult, such as
access restrictions associated with a railway, then consideration should be given to increasing
the bridge spans to provide access on either side of the restricted area to aid bridge soffit
inspection.
3.3 Highway Configuration in Tunnels and Underpasses

The arrangement of the highway cross section for the road classifications is given in
Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. For underpass and underpass-
approach road lengths of 500 m or less, the highway cross section on the approaches shall
be maintained. For underpass and underpass approach road lengths of more than 500 m, the
adjustments may be applied to the sidewalk, cycle lane, shoulder, and median dimensions
indicated in the cross sections given in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual, provided the designer gives justification in the AIP document for review and
agreement by the Overseeing Organization. Adjustment to these dimensions shall be in
accordance with the criteria given in the relevant sections of this manual.
Changes in highway alignment made to tie in with the adjustments in the cross section
through tunnels or underpasses shall be carried out in accordance with Volume 1, Part 3,
Any amendment to the highway configuration shall take into account measures required for
the safe maintenance and inspection of the underpass or tunnel.
If sidewalks are not continued through tunnels or underpasses, safe alternative routes shall
be provided and measures taken to discourage pedestrian traffic through the tunnel or
underpass.
Where underpass structures cross an obstruction at a skew angle, consideration should be

given to reducing the angle of the skew as far as is practical.
3.4 Special Consideration for Tunnels

Operating highways in subsurface structures presents increased risk to the health and
safety of those using the tunnels. In particular, a fire in a confined environment presents a
significant safety concern that will dictate the measures required for supporting the safety
of the tunnel users. The consequences of any incident are dependent on the tunnel length
and the proximity or means of escape. As a result, tunnel designs shall be undertaken under
the supervision of an engineer experienced in tunnel design and associated fire and life
safety measures.

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The design of fire and life safety measures is to be dictated by the tunnel designer based on
a risk assessment approach to the safety concerns associated with the tunnel environment.
The tunnel design engineer is directed to the Road Tunnel Fire and Life Safety Systems
(IAN020), in accordance with the Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges and Other Limited
Access Highways (National Fire Protection Association, 2014).
3.5 Clearance to Obstacles

Highway structures shall be arranged such that adequate protection measures are provided
in situations where roadside obstacles are within the clear zone. The clear zone and the
protection requirements are covered in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
Manual.
Designers shall specify the clearance to obstacles and protection measures on the drawings
and in the AIPs.
3.6 Parapets
The performance of bridge parapets shall be in accordance with Volume 1, Part 23, Design
and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual. Safety-fence end treatments shall be avoided
on bridge structures. Designers shall specify the safe working widths of barrier systems
adjacent to structures on the drawings and in the AIPs. When specifying the working width
for bridge parapets, designers should take into account the behavior of the vehicle and debris
on the environment around and under the bridge in the event of a crash.
Deck edges shall be provided with a minimum 100-millimeter (mm) vertical upstand to
prevent debris from falling from the bridge deck, except where an alternative arrangement
has been agreed by the Overseeing Organization.
The designer should take into account the ease of maintaining or replacing damaged parapets
during the design or specification of the bridge parapet.
Masonry vehicle parapets shall not be used on road bridges and structures over or adjacent
to roads, except where their use has been agreed by the Overseeing Organization.
The designer should consider the aesthetic effects of the vehicle parapet construction,
including its connection and finishing details, at the initial stage of the design of the
structure. The aesthetic considerations should complement the aesthetic treatment of other
nearby highway elements.
The requirements of pedestrians and other users need to be considered, particularly sidewalk
widths and vehicle restraint systems in the event of a vehicle crash.
Mesh infilling shall be provided to discourage climbing where pedestrians have access to
open vehicle-deck edge parapets on bridges. The parapet detail shall not provide footholds.
Any Departure from the criteria requires prior agreement by the Overseeing Organization.

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Designers shall consult with the rail authority to establish particular requirements for bridge
parapets over railways. Where open parapets are permitted by the rail authority, mesh
infilling shall be provided to prevent climbing of the barrier. Unless permitted otherwise by
the rail authority or the Overseeing Organization, the height of the barrier shall not be less
than 1.5 m. In addition, measures shall be taken to eliminate footholds on the outer (no
traffic) face and prevent access to the outer edge. Any outstands on the outer face shall not
be greater than 15 mm unless agreed otherwise by the rail authority and the Overseeing
Organization. Access restriction can be achieved through solid or mesh sheeting, or through
profiling in the case of concrete barriers.
Refer to Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual regarding
performance requirements for impact severity levels. Departures from these performance
criteria require prior agreement by the Overseeing Organization.
Pedestrian bridge-edge restraint systems shall be in accordance with British Standard PD

CEN/TR 16949:2016 “Road Restraint Systems Pedestrian Restraint System - Pedestrian
Parapets”.
3.7 Waterproofing of Bridge Decks

Designers should refer to the IAN 009, 028 & 004 regarding the application of waterproofing
to bridge decks.
3.8 Pavement on Bridges

Designers should refer to the QHSDM regarding the design of pavements on bridges.
The designer should include measures for draining subsurface water from the pavement
layers.
3.9 Lighting, Sign, and Gantry Supports

Lighting of streets on or under structures shall be provided in accordance with Volume 3,
Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual.
Road signs and gantries on or within structures shall be provided in accordance with Volume 3,
Part 17, Intelligent Transportation Systems, and Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this
Manual.
When locating post supports, electrical equipment, feeder pillars, and other mechanical
and electrical equipment, designers shall make provision for their safe inspection and
maintenance. The designer shall identify in the AIP the measures required for maintenance
of the lighting, equipment, and signs, and include any requirements (such as lane closures or
operating procedures) on the design drawings.
Where signs or lighting are provided on columns or gantries, designers shall arrange the
means of support so as to protect it from errant vehicles. Where this requirement is achieved

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by providing corbels on the bridge parapet stringcourse of decks, designers should consider
the aesthetic integration of the corbels into the overall bridge appearance.
The use of passive safe posts for lighting or signage in situations where the barrier working
width exceeds the distance to the post should be avoided.
Passive safe posts require the prior agreement by the Overseeing Organization, and should
not be used where a risk exists that the post may fall onto trafficked areas if struck.
Where their use is agreed, passive safe posts are to be designed in accordance with BS EN
12767:2019 and Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this Manual.
Designers should make provisions for adequate space for electrical cabinets, feeder pillars,
and other mechanical and electrical equipment, as well as space for them to be safely
maintained. The designer should consider providing spare cable ducts, particularly when the
ducts are cast into concrete surrounds.

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4 Maintenance Requirements
The type of structure and the materials used can significantly affect the maintenance liability
of the structural form. The designer should consult with the Ashghal Road Operations and
Maintenance Management Department at key stages of the design development, particularly
at the concept development stage when maintenance requirements can be readily
incorporated into the design. In addition, the designer should consider the requirements of
the Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual (Ashghal, in preparation) for particular maintenance
requirements.
Highway structures shall be designed with due consideration for the safe inspection and
maintenance of the structure.
Good detailing practices shall be adopted during design to minimize the maintenance
liability during the service life of the structures. Unless specified otherwise in this manual,
structures shall be detailed in accordance with the IAN009, which refers to the following
detailing guides:
• Bridge Detailing Guide (Construction Industry Research and Information Association,

2001)
• Durable Post-tensioned Concrete Structures (The Concrete Society, 2010)
The design life of structural components shall be taken from the QHSDM.
Intelligent transportation systems may be required to supplement the safe operation and
maintenance of the highway environment, including structures. In such instances the
designer is directed to the current edition of Intelligent Transportation Systems Standards
and Specifications (Ashghal, in preparation) for detailing and inclusion of equipment.
Where specific measures for inspection and maintenance are identified, such as the use
of under-bridge inspection vehicles, the designer shall provide for these measures in the
design of the structure so that they can be safely deployed during operation.
4.1 Bridge Structures

The design of bridge components is covered in the corresponding PWA-IANs.
The following measures are specific maintenance items identified for the design and detailing
of bridge structures. Where these measures are not adopted, the reason for the Departure
from this manual shall be described in the AIP and agreed by the Overseeing Organization
before implementation. Where alternative approaches to maintenance are required, these
shall be described in the AIP and documented on the design drawings.

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Where structures interact with rail structures the designer shall ensure a design life of 120
years.
4.1.1 Bearings
Where practical, bridges should be designed with integral connections between the
substructure and the superstructure to minimize the requirements for bearing replacement.
Piers and abutments with bearings shall have provision for the safe replacement of the
bearings by using the permanent works. Where it is not possible to use the permanent works
for bearing replacement, designers shall submit the proposals for bearing replacement in the
AIP for review and agreement by the Overseeing Organization.
Bearing replacement operations shall be carried out with no more than a 50 percent
reduction in the number of marked lanes. This requirement shall apply to bridge decks and to
roads under the bridge. Shoulders or untrafficked areas may be used to maintain this traffic
capacity, but this requirement shall be included in the design of the bridge and indicated in
the AIP and on the design drawings.
Jacking points and jack loads shall be identified on the design drawings. Unless advised
otherwise by the Overseeing Organization, sufficient space shall be provided on top of
bridge supports (i.e. at abutments and piers) and on the soffit of bridge superstructures to
place jacks during bearing replacement.
All bearings shall be replaceable and replacement methods shall permit the controlled removal
and replacement of bearings without damaging the bearing or the permanent bridge works.
Where applicable, measures that facilitate bearing removal should be incorporated, such as
the use of bearing adaptor plates on mechanical bearings; for service life of bearings refer to
clause 3.1.3-3 of IAN006/14.
Unless advised otherwise by the Overseeing Organization, bearings should be protected

by a removable dust cover on the circumference of the pier top and along the face of the
abutment, or on the circumference of each bearing.
4.1.2 Expansion Joints

Design and detailing around expansion joints should be based on the assumption that they
will leak. As a result, designers shall make a space provision for the safe inspection and
maintenance of the expansion joint as well as the structure at the joint. The designer shall
incorporate appropriate means for draining water that may run through the joint such that
no standing water occurs. Drainage paths shall be kept clear of post-tension tendons and
anchorages, for details and requirements, refer to IAN031.
Stainless steel reinforcement should be used in areas of an in situ fixing recess of an

expansion joint where a potential water path exists.

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All limited design life components of a joint shall be designed so that they can be easily
replaced, with minimum delay to road users.
Cover plates shall be provided on the curb lines to protect expansion joints. Other measures
should be considered to prevent the accumulation of debris in the joint.
The use of half joints in bridge decks should be avoided. Where half joints are necessary,
the designer shall seek confirmation from the Overseeing Organization that their use is
acceptable and shall incorporate measures within the design for their safe inspection and
maintenance.
4.1.3 Access to Edges and Overhangs

Reasonable measures shall be made to restrict public access to edges and overhangs. Edges
or overhangs that are to be accessed for maintenance shall allow safe access and shall have
suitable fixing points for fall-arrest harnesses or for temporary edge protection.
To prevent rainwater from edges to run along concrete surface, provide drip mold/groove
near soffit edges.
4.1.4 Access at Bridge Abutments

The clear distance between the bridge soffit and the made ground, or revetment, at the face
of the abutment shall be greater than 2 m.
Bearings and expansion joints in abutments shall be accessible through an inspection gallery.
The access door shall be lockable and should be located on the front face. Where side or top
access is more convenient for maintenance, a reason for this location shall be provided in
the AIP for review and agreement by the Overseeing Organization. Where appropriate, the
designer should consider providing a permanent means of access to the bridge abutment
access door.
The inspection gallery shall have a minimum 600-mm-wide clear walkway. Where possible,
the minimum clear height inside abutment gallery should be 1800 mm, and the abutment
bearing seat should be elevated by 600 mm minimum from the abutment gallery floor to
facilitate inspections of the bearings from within the abutment gallery.
Where significant internal safety concerns exist, the designer should consider the provision
of gallery lighting as appropriate. The gallery should incorporate drainage weep holes to
drain internal moisture buildup, and drip features to prevent tracking of water leaking from
the expansion joint. Ventilation openings to the gallery shall be covered with anti-vermin
screens, with a maximum grid of 12 mm by 12 mm.
4.1.5 Access within Bridge Decks

Each deck void greater than 800 mm by 800 mm in cross section shall be accessible through
at least two 800-mm by 1,000-mm openings in the bottom slab (one at each end). The

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positioning of the openings in the bridge decks shall be such that they can be safely
accessed. Where such access requires a lane closure, the AIP shall describe the procedures
for achieving the lane closure and identify the residual road capacity while the closure is in
place.
The following bridge detailing should be considered in addition to those presented in the
IAN009:
• A minimum of 600-mm-wide clear walkway shall be provided in all accessible voids in

bridge decks. The designer should consider the use of internal deck void lighting where
significant internal safety concerns exist.
• Access openings of at least 800 mm in diameter shall be provided through deck
diaphragms at piers and abutments to connect accessible deck voids.
• Deck voids shall incorporate drainage weep holes to drain internal moisture buildup.
• Ventilation openings to internal deck voids shall be covered with anti-vermin screens
with a maximum grid of 12 mm by 12 mm.
4.1.6 Drainage of Bridge Decks

Drainage from structures shall be designed in accordance with Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage,
of this Manual.
Where drainage is provided on bridge decks, the design shall make provision for safe access for
inspection and maintenance of the drainage system. Where permitted in Volume 2, Part 10,
Drainage, of this Manual, direct discharge scuppers or simple traps with easy access should
be used to minimize cleaning and maintenance requirements. When the bridge crosses the
Rail Corridor, no direct water discharge is allowed. Alternative designs for water drainage of
the bridge deck should be performed in such a case of Rail crossing.
External surface-mounted drainage pipes should be avoided. The designer should also avoid
casting lengths of pipe into a significant length of concrete structure. Where cast-in pipes
are required, these shall comprise a single length of pipe without joints.
When the bridge crosses the Rail Corridor, no direct water discharge is allowed. Alternative
designs for water drainage of the bridge deck should be performed in such a case of Rail
crossing.
4.2 Tunnels, Underpass Structures, and Retaining Walls

The designs of underpass and buried structure components are covered in the IAN009. The
measures discussed in this section are specific requirements for the design and detailing of
underpasses, buried structures, and retaining walls.
4.2.1 Drainage of Tunnels and Underpass Structures

Access to pump rooms and sumps for the drainage of underpasses shall be arranged such
that the pump equipment can be safely accessed for maintenance and inspection. The

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designer shall include provisions for the removal and replacement of equipment. Access
doors to sumps or pump rooms shall be lockable to prevent unauthorized access.
The designer shall identify the drainage provisions based on requirements given in Volume 2,
Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual and should modify the highway cross section to incorporate
any particular requirements.
4.2.2 Associated Drainage Structures

The design of drainage structures is presented in Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual,
which also describes the measures for stormwater retention, pump rooms, and containment
of spills and flammable liquids.
The design of the drainage structure is covered by the QHSDM.
4.2.3 Fire Life Safety Equipment

Using the findings of the risk approach outlined in Section 3.4, the tunnel designer is to
identify equipment required within the tunnel cross section. The designer shall arrange the
equipment such that it can be safely accessed for use and maintenance. Where possible,
the designer should avoid the need for lane closures. Any closures that are required for
maintenance shall be identified on the design drawings.

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5 Pedestrian Crossings
5.1 Pedestrian and Bicycle Bridges

Pedestrian and cycle bridges shall be designed in accordance with Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual. Designers may refer to DMRB BD 29/04, “Design
Criteria for Footbridges” (CD 353 to be referred for Eurocode approach), and the Qatar
Pedestrian Crossings Manual (Ministry of Transport and Communications).
The design of pedestrian or cycle bridges shall be subject to technical approval in accordance
with Chapter 2 in this Part.
Surface water shall be positively drained from the bridge deck, ramps, and stairs, in compliance
with the IAN009.
The requirements for measures such as air conditioning, property privacy screens, and lift
access are location-sensitive and shall be established with the Overseeing Organization.
Designers shall establish with the Overseeing Organization whether a bridge requires full
enclosure.
5.2 Pedestrian and Bicycle Underpasses

Pedestrian and bicycle underpasses shall be designed in accordance with Volume 3, Part 19,
Pedestrian and Bicycle, of this Manual. Designers may also refer to DMRB CD 143, “Designing
for Walking, Cycling and Horse-riding”, and the Qatar Pedestrian Crossings Manual (Ministry
of Transport and Communications).
Underpass lighting shall be provided in accordance with Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting,
of this Manual. Where the highway has an overall median greater than 2 m, the top slab may
include openings for natural light and ventilation.
Underpasses shall be positively drained to sumps in accordance with Volume 2, Part 10,
Drainage, of this Manual. Where pump rooms are required, these too shall comply with
Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.
Where there is a high possibility that windblown sand will enter the underpass and affect its
operability, designers should provide methods for preventing the accumulation of sand and
measures to facilitate the cleaning and removal of the sand.

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6 Animal Crossings
Where possible, pedestrian underpasses are to be dual function so they can accommodate
pedestrian and animal traffic. For underpasses that accommodate animals, pedestrians,
or cyclists, with no vehicular access, the minimum headroom shall be 3.7 m, except where
suitable facilities are provided to allow riders to dismount and remount then the headroom
can be reduced to 2.7 m. The headroom for camel underpasses is given in Volume 1, Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. The distinction between animal and camel
crossings depends on the primary use and shall be defined by the Overseeing Organization.
The minimum width for an animal crossing without pedestrian, bicycle, or vehicular access
shall be 3.0 m.
If animal crossings are to be combined with vehicular access under a highway, then the
minimum headroom clearances identified in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual shall be maintained. The cross section requirements shall also be maintained,
although the minimum width shall be 10 m.
Wingwalls or retaining walls at the entrance and exit of an animal crossing shall have a
45-degree splay or greater. The gradient of the ground leading into the entrance and exit
shall be no greater than 1:14.
Where the highway has an overall median greater than 2 m, the top slab may be discontinued
to provide an opening for natural light and ventilation.
The barrier heights on over-bridges used for animal crossings shall be amended as follows:
• 1.8 m for crossings for mounted riders and large animals

• 1.5 m for dismounted riders
Consideration should be given to screening and the use of solid barriers on the edge of
bridges to prevent visual and audible distractions to animals.
Where there is a high possibility that windblown sand will enter the underpass and affect its
operability, designers should provide methods for preventing the accumulation of sand and
measures to facilitate removal of the sand.

13

13
References
Ashghal. Criteria for Highway Structures. Interim Advice Note009. Rev.No. A2.State of Qatar Public Works
Authority:Doha,Qatar.2016.
Ashghal. Road Tunnel Fire and Life Safety Systems. Interim Advice Note020.Rev.No.A2.State of Qatar
Public Works Authority:Doha,Qatar.2016.
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Standards and Specifications. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. In preparation.
Ashghal. Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. In
preparation.
Ashghal. Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. In
preparation.
BS EN 12767:2019 “Passive Safety of Support Structures for Road Equipment - Requirements, Classification
and Test Methods “British Standards Institution: London, England. August 2019.
The Concrete Society. Durable Post-tensioned Concrete Structures. Technical Report 72. Surrey, England.
2010.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). Bridge Detailing Guide.
Publication 543. London, England. 2001.
Department for Transport. “CD 143 “ Designing for Walking, Cycling and Horse-riding”. Rev.No.01, January
2020.
Department for Transport. “Loads for Highway Bridges.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 1,
Section 3, Part 14. BD 37/01. UK Highways Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/
standards/dmrb/vol1/section3/bd3701.pdf. August 2001.
Department for Transport. “Design Criteria of Footbridges” CD 353 shall be referenced for a Eurocode
approach.
Department for Transport. PD CEN/TR 16949:2016 “Road Restraint Systems. Pedestrian Restraint
System - Pedestrian Parapets” British Standards Institution:London,England.2016.
Ashghal. Qatar Construction Specification . State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2014.
National Fire Protection Association. Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other Limited Access
Highways. NFPA 502. Quincy, Massachusetts, United States. 2014.
PD CEN/TR 13-17-6:2012. Road Restraint Systems—Pedestrian Restraint System—Pedestrian Parapets.

British Standards Institution: London, England. 2012.

13

13
Appendix A
Approval Principle Form

13
MODEL FORM: APPROVAL IN PRINCIPLE DOCUMENT
COVER
Include Project Number, Project Name and Bridge Name.
Include and document control information, forms, and sheets required by the designer’s quality assurance
system.
The document should have a revision number and a record of revision history.
1 HIGHWAY DETAILS
1.1 Type of Highway
Describe all roads, including roads over and under bridges; for example, freeway,
expressway, arterial, collector, local, and high-load route.
1.2 Permitted Traffic Speed
Indicate for all roads, including those over and under bridges.
2 SITE DETAILS
2.1 Obstacles Crossed
List all obstacles; for example roads, rail lines, tracks, watercourses, major and pipelines.
3 PROPOSED STRUCTURE
3.1 Description of Structure
Basic description; for example, four-span road over road bridge.
3.2 Structural Type
Basic description to include proposed basic material and form of construction; for example,
in situ post-tensioned concrete box girder.
3.3 Foundation Type
Basic description to include proposed basic material and form of construction; for example,
in situ reinforced concrete pile cap on bored cast in situ piles.
3.4 Span Arrangements and General Dimensions
List number and dimensions of spans, deck width, skew angle, and other dimensions.
3.5 Articulation Arrangements
Describe articulation arrangements, including location of any fixed, guided, and free
bearings.
Indicate type of any bearings proposed; for example, pot bearing or spherical bearing.
Indicate type of any expansion joints proposed; for example, slip strip or elastomeric.
3.6 Types of Road Restraint Systems
Parapet or barrier shape, material, containment level, height, and other details.
3.7 Maintenance and Inspection

13
3.7.1 Traffic Management

Indicate any requirements during access for maintenance and inspection; for example,
road closures and lane closures.
3.7.2 Access
Access proposals for maintenance and inspection; for example, abutment galleries,
access hatches, and access equipment.
3.8 Materials and Finishes
Include details of materials and finishes. Refer to the appropriate contents of the Criteria
for Highway Structures (including revision number) published by Ashghal.
3.9 Risks and Safety Concerns
Document risk assessment undertaken and any unusual or exceptional risks identified.
3.10 Estimated Cost and Alternatives Considered
Estimated cost of proposed structure together with other structural forms considered.
3.11 Proposed Arrangements for Construction
Describe the construction method and requirements.
3.11.1 Traffic Management
If traffic management is required to construct the structure, provide a brief description.
3.11.2 Utility Diversions
Note any diversion of major utilities required specifically to construct the structure and
those with significant cost or program implications.
3.11.3 Interface with Existing Structures
If applicable.
4 DESIGN CRITERIA
4.1 General Criteria
Sample text:
The structure shall be designed in accordance with the Qatar Highway Structure Design
Manual, revision XX.
4.2 Live Loading and Headroom
4.2.1 HA Loading
Sample text:
HA loading shall be applied in accordance with the Qatar Highway Structure Design
Manual, revision XX. This includes traffic live loading to the full width of the structure
between parapet faces and not to the width between curbs, as required by DMRB
BD 37/01 (Department for Transport, 2001) and CS 454 Revision 1 (Assessment of
Highway bridges and Structures) to be referenced for a Eurocode approach.
4.2.2 HB Loading
Sample text:
Forty-five units of HB loading shall be applied in accordance with the Qatar Highway
Structure Design Manual, revision XX. This includes traffic live loading to the full width
of the structure between parapet faces and not to the width between curbs as required
by DMRB BD 37/01 (Department for Transport, 2001).

13
4.2.3 Sidewalk or Footbridge Live Loading

If required.
4.2.4 Loading Related to Exceptional Loads
Document any exceptional loads being designed, including location of vehicle track on
deck cross section.
4.2.5 Any Special Loading Not Yet Covered
As required.
4.2.6 Heavy or High-Load Route
Document heavy or high-load route requirements and arrangements being made to
preserve the route, including any provision for future heavier loads or future widening.
4.2.7 Minimum Headroom Provided
State the minimum headroom provided to each obstacle crossed. The clearance envelopes
should be shown on the design drawings.
4.2.8 Authorities Consulted and Any Special Conditions Required
List authorities and all conditions imposed.
4.3 List of Relevant Documents from the Technical Approval Schedule
List all relevant documents proposed for use in the design. This should be included as an
appendix to the AIP. The format and guidance given in DMRB BD 2/12 (Department for
Transport, 2012) shall be adopted and CG 300 Technical Approval of Highway Structure
shall be referenced for a Eurocode approach.
4.3.1 Additional Relevant Standards
List all relevant documents proposed for use in the design that are not included in the
Technical Approval Schedule. The list should be included as an appendix to the AIP.
4.4 Proposed Departures
Provide details of proposed Departures from Standard given in 4.2 and 4.2.1 and from
the Criteria for Highway Structures published by Ashghal. Include details of proposed
departures together with reasons and justification, including benefits to Ashghal.
Note: Endorsement of an AIP by Ashghal is not an approval or agreement of proposed
Departures listed in that AIP. A separate approval procedure exists for Departures.
4.5 Proposed Methods for Dealing with Aspects Not Covered by Standards in 4.2 and 4.2.1
As required.
5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
5.1 Methods of Analysis Proposed for Superstructure, Substructure, and Foundations
5.2 Description and Diagram of Idealized Structure to be used for Analysis
5.3 Assumptions Intended for Calculation of Structural Element Stiffness
5.4 Earth Pressure Coefficients
Provide details of proposed earth pressure coefficients (active earth pressure coefficient
[Ka], at rest earth pressure coefficient [Ko], or passive earth pressure coefficient [Kp]) to
be used in the design of earth retaining elements.

13
6 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
6.1 Acceptance of the Geotechnical Report
Give acceptance of recommendations of the geotechnical report to be used in the design
and reasons for any proposed changes.
If the geotechnical report is not yet available, state when the results are expected and
list the sources of information used to justify the preliminary choice of foundations.
When the results of the ground investigation become available, an addendum to the AIP
or a reissue, covering Section 6, shall be submitted to Ashghal. If an addendum is issued,
it shall have its own Sections 8, 9, and 10 to provide a list of drawings, documents, and
signatures.
6.2 Geotechnical Summary
Provide a brief description of the ground conditions and any relevant soil or rock properties
assumed in the design.
6.3 Differential Settlement
Clarify differential settlement to be allowed for in the design of the structure.
7 CHECKING
7.1 Proposed Category
Refer to table 2.1-Technical Approval Categories.
7.2 Name of Proposed Independent Checker
7.3 Erection Proposals or Temporary Works
Erection proposals or temporary works for which an independent check will be required,
listing parts of the structure affected and providing reasons for recommending an
independent check.
8 DRAWINGS AND DOCUMENTS
8.1 Drawings and Documents
List of documents and drawings (including numbers) appended to the AIP.

13
9 THE ABOVE IS SUBMITTED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY
Signed
Name
Position Held
Engineering Qualifications
On behalf of (Organization)
Date
Organizations’ Stamp

13
10 THE ABOVE IS ACCEPTED BY [Insert Overseeing Organization Title]

(SUBJECT TO THE AMENDMENTS AND CONDITIONS SHOWN BELOW)
[Insert Overseeing Organization Title] confirms that this Approval in Principle is compliant with the current
Criteria for Highway Structures.
Signed Organization’s Stamp
Name
Position Held
Engineering Qualifications
Acceptance
Date
AMENDMENTS AND CONDITIONS
This acceptance in no way modifies:

1. The contractual and statutory responsibility of any party for the work carried out
2. The legal responsibility of professional engineers, the consultant, or both
This acceptance does not relieve the designer/checker or the Category 3 checker of the responsibility for:
1. The validity and arithmetic correctness of the calculations and their translations into the design
details, design drawings, specification clauses, and other documentation.
2. The applicability and accuracy of all computer programs.
3. Verifying the validity to the programs for each application.

13
DOCUMENTS TO BE APPENDED TO THE AIP DOCUMENT
Include, without limitation:

(a) Copy of the proposed Criteria for Highway Structures being adopted for the design.
(b) Technical Approval Schedule.
(c) Site Location Plan at 1:50,000 or other agreed scale.
(d) General Arrangement Drawings. These shall be drawn to scale with a border and should include
the following details as appropriate:
Plan
North arrow
Right-of-way
Chainage
Earthworks profile
Plan dimension on roadway(s)/watercourse/railway
Skew angle
Service ducts/chambers
Lighting
Interface with existing or proposed structures
Direction of flow for watercourses
Articulation arrangement
Elevation
Existing ground profile
Rock profile/competent strata
Intermediate and end support details
Foundations (hidden detail)
Access arrangements
Paving details
Slope protection
Lighting
Safety barriers
Interfaces with existing or proposed structures
Clearance envelope
Overall length
Span dimensions
Water levels (flood level assumed)
Road/rail under cross slope, dimensions
Watercourse cross section dimensions
Parapets/pedestrian guardrail

13
Earthworks profile
Cross Section
Bridge cross section dimensions
Cross slope
Superstructure cross section
Interface with existing structures
Interface with intermediate supports
Raised shoulder/sidewalk details
Services
Parapet/pedestrian guardrail
Surfacing and waterproofing
Miscellaneous
Wingwalls
Approach arrangements
Finishes
Waterproofing details
Indicative location of construction joints
(e) Relevant extracts from the geotechnical report

(f) Departures from Standard
(g) Methods of dealing with aspects not covered by standards

13
Appendix B
Sample Certificates

13

13
DESIGN INTERIM CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
1.0 Certificate No: DIC (S)..........................................................................................................................................................

1.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the design of the following further
divided part of the Design or Design Element; namely:
.................................................................…………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………
(Name of further divided part of Structure)

...........................................................................................................................…………………………………………………………………..
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us with a view to securing that the
further divided part of the Design or Design Element:
(a) Complies with the Particular Overseeing Organization’s Requirements;
(b) Has been accurately translated into the execution drawings and bar bending schedules
bearing the unique numbers listed below; and
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element and will not affect the
completion of the Certificate(s).
We agree that the words and phrases herein, unless otherwise stated, have the same meaning as
attributed to them in the Contract between the Overseeing Organization and Consultant.
Signed: ............................................................................. Firm ...........................................................................................

Team leader for Consultant
Name: ............................................................................... Date ............................................................................................
Signed: ............................................................................. Firm .............................................................................................

Consultant’s Representative
Name: ............................................................................... Date ...........................................................................................
1.2 Receipt of this Certificate is acknowledged
Signed: .............................…...........….………………………………………
On behalf of the ENGINEER
Name: ............................................................................... Date ............................................................................................

13
DESIGN CHECK INTERIM CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
2.0 CERTIFICATE NO: CIC (S) ....................................................................................................................................................

2.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the Design Check of the following
further divided part for the Design or Design Element; namely:
........................................…….............................................................................................……………………………………………………..
(Name of further divided part of Structure)
......................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us in carrying out the independent
heck of the part of the Design or Design Element with a view to securing that the further divided
part of the Design or Design Element:
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element and will not affect the completion
of the heck Certificate(s).
We agree that the Words and phrases herein, unless otherwise stated, have the same meaning as
Signed: ................................................................................... Firm ......................................................................................

CHECKER (Team leader for Checker)
Name: ..................................................................................... Date ......................................................................................
Signed: ................................................................................... Firm ......................................................................................

Name: ..................................................................................... Date ......................................................................................
Signed: .............................…...........….………………………………………
Name: ..................................................................................... Date ......................................................................................

13
DESIGN CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
3.0 Certificate No: DC (S) ..........................................................................................................................................................

3.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the Design of the following part of
the Design or Design Element, namely
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us with a view to securing that the
part of the Design or Design Element:
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element.
Signed: ............................................................................. Firm .............................................................................................

Team leader for Consultant
Name: ............................................................................... Date: ...........................................................................................
Signed: ............................................................................. Firm .............................................................................................

Name: ............................................................................... Date ............................................................................................
Signed: .............................…...........….………………………………………
Name: ............................................................................... Date ............................................................................................

13
DESIGN CHECK CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
4.0 Certificate No: CC (S) ...........................................................................................................................................................

4.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the Design Check of the following
part of the Design or Design Element; namely
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us in carrying out the independent
Design Check of the part of the Design or Design Element with a view to securing that the part of
the Design or Design Element:
(b) Has been accurately translated into the execution drawings and bar bending
schedules bearing the unique numbers listed below; and
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element.
attributed to them in the Contract between the Overseeing Organization and Consultant
Signed: ................................................................................... Firm .......................................................................................

CHECKER (Team leader for Checker)
Name: ..................................................................................... Date ......................................................................................
Signed: ................................................................................... Firm .......................................................................................

Name: ..................................................................................... Date ......................................................................................
Signed: .............................…...........….……………………………………
Name: ..................................................................................... Date ......................................................................................

13

Volume 2
Part 14
Earthworks
EARTHWORKS PART
14
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART EARTHWORKS
14

EARTHWORKS PART
14
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1.Scope................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Use of Soil and Rock Terms...................................................................................................................... 1
2 Planning of Earthworks..................................................................................................3
2.1.Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Sustainable Practices................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2.1. Materials Stewardship............................................................................................................3
2.2.2. Preservation of Topsoil..........................................................................................................3
2.2.3. Use of Nonstandard or Recycled Materials....................................................................4
2.2.4. Minimization of Erosion.........................................................................................................4
2.3. Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Assessments and Ground Investigation for
Earthworks...................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4. Consideration of Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures......................................... 6
2.5. Existing Earthworks.................................................................................................................................... 7
3 Earthworks Design..........................................................................................................9
3.1. Balancing Earthwork Materials Volume.............................................................................................. 9
3.2. Potential Effects of Sustainable Drainage...................................................................................... 11
3.3. Disposal of Surplus Fill............................................................................................................................ 11
3.4. Design of Cuttings.................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.1. Modes of Slope Failure........................................................................................................11
3.4.2. Cutting Slope Design...........................................................................................................12
3.5. Influence of Construction Procedures on Cutting Slope Stability......................................... 15
3.5.1. Seismic Effects.......................................................................................................................15
3.6. Design of Embankments and Filled Areas....................................................................................... 15
3.6.1. Fill / Embankment Design..................................................................................................15
3.6.2. Seismic Effects.......................................................................................................................17
3.7. Embankments over Weak Ground....................................................................................................... 17
4 Earthworks Construction............................................................................................. 19
4.1. Quality Control of Earthworks Materials.......................................................................................... 19
4.2. Placement of Earthworks Materials................................................................................................... 19
4.2.1.Soils.............................................................................................................................................19
4.2.2.Rocks..........................................................................................................................................20
4.3. Slope Inspections...................................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.1. Soil Slopes................................................................................................................................21

PART EARTHWORKS
14
4.3.2. Rock Slopes..............................................................................................................................21

4.4. Minimizing the Effects of Construction Plant Operations........................................................ 21
4.5.Blasting......................................................................................................................................................... 21
5 Information on Specific Materials and Issues.......................................................... 25

5.1. Soils and Bedrock Strata......................................................................................................................... 25
5.2. Seismic Hazard........................................................................................................................................... 25
5.3.Geosynthetics............................................................................................................................................. 25
5.4. Prevent the Spread of Plant and Animal Diseases...................................................................... 25
6 Highways in Dune Areas............................................................................................. 27

6.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 27
6.2. Dune Formation and Movement.......................................................................................................... 27
6.3. Design and Construction in Dune Areas........................................................................................... 27
6.3.1. Highway Location..................................................................................................................27
6.3.2. Design Elements....................................................................................................................27
6.3.3. Design and Construction Considerations.....................................................................30
6.3.4. Dune Stabilization.................................................................................................................31
6.3.5. Dune Destruction..................................................................................................................32
References............................................................................................................................... 33

EARTHWORKS PART
14
Tables
Table 3.1. Typical Bulking Factors for Rock and Soil.................................................................................................9

Table 3.2. Typical Permanent Slopes in Cut for Various Soil and Rock Materials.......................................13
Table 3.3. Typical Permanent Slopes in Fill for Various Soil and Rock Materials........................................16
Figures
Figure 6.1. Typical Schematic Embankment Using Dune Sand Fill.....................................................................30

Figure 6.2. Sand Dune Fill—Embankment Planting...................................................................................................31
Appendixes
Appendix A . Potential Modes of Slope Failure..............................................................................................................35

Appendix B . Dune Areas and Example Treatment.......................................................................................................41

PART EARTHWORKS
14

EARTHWORKS PART
14
BS British Standard
cm centimeter(s)
H horizontal
m meter(s)
Mg/m3 megagrams per cubic meter
mm millimeter(s)
mm/s millimeter(s) per second
MOE Ministry of Environment
ppv peak particle velocity
QCS 2010 Qatar National Construction Standards
RQD rock quality designation
SuDS sustainable drainage systems
V vertical

PART EARTHWORKS
14

EARTHWORKS PART
14
1 Introduction
1.1 Scope
This part of this Manual covers the design and construction of earthworks. It is applicable to
arterials, expressways, and freeways.
1.2 Use of Soil and Rock Terms

Numerous published definitions of “soil” and “rock” are often related to specific fields of
work. These definitions usually are based on characteristics such as particle size, hardness,
durability, inertness, and combinations thereof. The way in which rock is defined can have
significant implications for road project construction costs; consequently, the Qatar National
Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (Ministry of Environment [MoE], 2011) provides the
definition of rock for use in construction contracts. In this part, the terms soil, rock, and
material reflect general geotechnical engineering designations, and no contractual definition
should be inferred.

PART EARTHWORKS
14

EARTHWORKS PART
14
2 Planning of Earthworks
2.1 Introduction
The strategy of the earthworks designer should be to provide a design that is feasible,
functional, constructible, and suitable for the proposed end use. Consideration should be
given to land requirements, including temporary works. The design should be developed to
minimize environmental impact during the construction phase, during use, and for future
maintenance operations. This part summarizes the main issues to consider when planning
the earthworks of a highway project.
2.2 Sustainable Practices

2.2.1 Materials Stewardship
To the extent practicable, earthworks volumes should be balanced to avoid the need to
import material from elsewhere to make up a shortfall to dispose of surplus fill, particularly
off-site. Section 3.1 in this Part provides further discussion, as does Volume 3, Part 21,
Environmental, of this Manual.
Rock excavated on-site can provide an opportunity for producing aggregates that can reduce
the need for imported materials. Surplus processed materials of soils-type grading, subject
to meeting specification requirements, can be used as general earthworks and landscape
earthworks fill. Thoughtful design and construction can maximize reuse of larger rock
fragments, as discussed in Clause 4.2.2 in this Part.
2.2.2 Preservation of Topsoil

Topsoil is the uppermost layer of soil, usually the top 5 to 20 centimeters (cm), which will
normally contain organic matter, microorganisms, and a seedbank for the vegetation cover
they support. Topsoils are important for re-establishing vegetation cover along a highway
corridor after construction. In Qatar, topsoils are mostly sands with limited organic matter;
nonetheless, it is important to preserve and reuse the topsoil horizon and its seedbank.
Geotechnical investigations should clearly identify the depth of available topsoil in both cut
and fill areas. This information can then be used by the designer to establish the appropriate
depth of stripping to maximize the availability of local topsoil and minimize requirements for
import. It is important to avoid loss of organic material through soils mixing and by general
overlay of earthworks fill. The designer should consider topsoil-forming materials balance,
taking into account the volume of material needed to cover areas such as embankment
and cutting slopes and shoulders and also for reinstatement of borrow pit areas, where
appropriate, after completion of materials extraction.

PART EARTHWORKS
14
The stripping of vegetation before topsoil removal should be undertaken so as to maximize

the vegetative matter and natural seedbank in the recovered topsoil. This will assist and
promote the regeneration of native vegetation that can be expected to be tolerant of local
conditions. To the extent practicable, the material should be reused near to where it is
extracted to maintain the integrity of the topsoil and support a cost-effective operation.
Further information on the preservation of topsoil can be found in Volume 3, Part 21,
Environmental, of this Manual.
Slopes with a gradient of 1 vertical to 4 horizontal (1V:4H) or less generally will have greater
success than steeper slopes in retaining topsoil, limiting its loss from erosion processes, and
encouraging more successful planting establishment and long-term growth.
In cases where it is necessary to import topsoil, the material should be certified as being free
of pathogens, toxins, weeds, and their roots.
2.2.3 Use of Nonstandard or Recycled Materials

Where projects involve the demolition of structures, removal of existing highway pavement,
or both, suitable opportunities should be sought to reuse those materials within the new
works rather than dispose of them off-site. Concrete and other suitable structure materials
might be crushed and processed to produce aggregates, as well as specific and general
engineering fills. The recycled materials also might be blended with virgin materials.
Recycled materials normally are tested to establish their engineering and chemical properties
to verify their suitability for the proposed end use. Approvals for their use also might need
to be sought from relevant authorities. Further information on the use of nonstandard and
recycled materials can be found in Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this Manual.
2.2.4 Minimization of Erosion

To minimize the potential for erosion and landslips, where practical, the road alignment
should avoid steep topography, and the earthworks should be designed to suitably stable
slopes.
Chapter 6 discusses aspects of wind erosion. The main risk of water erosion relates to
occasional (once or twice per year) high-intensity rainfall that generates high overland
flow. Therefore, the designer should consider the controlled discharge of water from the
road pavement and over earthworks slopes. Where there is sufficient road corridor space,
designing slopes to be as flat as 1V:6H and to support denser plant growth will reduce the
potential for soil erosion.
Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual discusses the use of swales to intercept flow
from the highway and convey runoff slowly along their length, which limits erosion. Particular
attention should be given to the erosive power of stormwater flowing from a culvert outlet
so the designer can ensure that design outflow velocity accounts for local soils and thereby
minimizes the potential for downstream scouring. Dispersive materials will require very
detailed treatments.

EARTHWORKS PART
14
2.3 Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Assessments and

Ground Investigation for Earthworks
The geotechnical assessment and any associated ground investigation for the design and
construction of highway earthworks should be advised and implemented by the project’s
geotechnical practitioners as part of overall geotechnical studies, which are described in
Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this
Manual. The advice of a geoenvironmental specialist should be obtained for projects where
there is known or potential contamination, a need to manage waste materials as part of
the project earthworks, or both. The geoenvironmental specialist should assess the risks of
hazardous substances and address aspects such as waste classification and its management.
These activities will require appropriate testing as part of the ground investigation. The
geotechnical assessment, together with any required geoenvironmental work, should be
conducted according to the geotechnical certification procedure set out in Volume 2, Part 16,
Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual.
The geotechnical practitioner and, where required, the geoenvironmental practitioner, need
to consider the following matters in relation to project earthworks:
• Existing ground and reuse of materials:
−− Establishing the location and extent of the various materials available in cuttings
and borrow areas that may be suitable for use as select fill, structural fill, capping
layer, and pavement subbase. High-quality materials may be nominated for special
uses or stockpiled for later use on other stages of a project or on other projects.
In cases where significant quantities of sound rock can be extracted from large
cuttings, a mobile crushing plant might be used to produce aggregate and graded
fill materials for a variety of uses.
−− Performing “relationship testing” to establish the suitability of materials for use in

construction.
−− Assessing the chemical environment of the ground, particularly in relation to

concrete, and mitigation measures to be taken.
−− Performing contamination testing that is sufficient to develop a conceptual model

of the site to inform an appropriate risk assessment.
• Modification of marginal materials for use as engineering fills
• Use of unsuitable materials for landscape earthworks
• Enhancement of soils as a growing media
Materials generated on-site for which there is no suitable reuse in project construction,
such as excavated soils, are commonly referred to as “waste.” Such materials usually are
classified as inert, nonhazardous, or hazardous waste. The cost of off-site disposal is higher
for hazardous wastes than for nonhazardous wastes, with the disposal of inert waste being

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the least expensive. When contamination is identified as an issue for a project and a design
requires off-site disposal of waste, there is likely to be a significant commercial benefit in
reducing the proportion of material classified as hazardous or nonhazardous waste and
increasing the proportion classified as inert waste. The following treatment methods may
be cost-effective, depending on the condition and volumes of the materials for disposal:
• Sorting or screening to separate inert materials from hazardous materials

• Stabilizing with hydraulic binders (cement stabilization)
• Bioremediation
• Soil washing
In such cases, detailed ground investigation and testing may be required to assist in the
assessment and detailed design of the treatment process to manage the waste materials
from a site.
Materials that might require off-site disposal should be tested to assess the following:
• Classification under relevant international standards and guidelines. No Qatari soil

or groundwater standards have been established. The typical default standard is the
“Circular on Target Values and Intervention Values for Soil Remediation” (Ministerie van
Volkshuisvestig, 2000), commonly referred to as the “New Dutch List.”
• Classification with regard to waste acceptance criteria.
• Suitability for off-site reuse (subject to acceptance by the Ministry of Environment,

State of Qatar Public Works Authority (Ashghal), and Ministry of Municipality & Urban
Planning).
2.4 Consideration of Environmental Impacts and Mitigation

Measures
The planning of earthworks should consider the environmental impacts of the proposed
works and appropriate mitigation measures that might be implemented. The following
aspects should be considered:
• Habitat loss and opportunities for existing habitat enhancement and new habitat
formation, or both. Loose tipping (reduced compaction) of subsoil or shallow ripping of
placed subsoils to loosen near-surface materials can promote vegetation establishment.
These techniques might be adopted in areas where they would not be detrimental to the
engineering performance of the earthwork. Refer to Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental,
of this Manual.
• Use of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS). Such systems can provide for enhanced
biodiversity, but there can be downsides, as discussed in Section 3.2 in this Part. See
also Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, and Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this Manual.

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• Geodiversity and its enhancement through the retention of exposures in cutting and
the retention of spoils of mineralogical or paleontological interest.
• Maximizing use of local resources, including recycled and secondary aggregates, to

avoid unnecessary disposal of materials off-site. This includes use of excess materials in
landscaping earthworks or environmental earthworks, such as noise reduction mounds,
to reduce the need for off-site disposal. Refer to Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of
this Manual.
• Land-take options. The physical footprint of an earthwork can be modified by design

to mitigate adverse impacts of land-take. A narrow footprint reducing land-take
requirements in areas where limited land is available or where land has particular
environmental value might be achieved by use of reinforced soil. A wide footprint
with gentle slopes in other areas would be beneficial in establishing vegetation and
minimizing erosion and would assist with integration into the adjacent landforms. Refer
to Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this Manual.
• Air and noise quality in the immediate area that can be influenced by the form of the
earthwork. Refer to Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this Manual.
2.5 Existing Earthworks

In situations where existing earthworks are subject to modification, such as embankment
widening, special consideration should be given to establishing the necessary information
through the ground investigation to assess any issue of differential settlement between the
existing and new construction. Likely changes, if any, in pore water pressures within the fill
or founding soils also should be determined to assess any impact on stability.
Where an existing earthwork is to be modified and shows signs of distress or has failed, the
ground investigation should be designed to identify the failure mechanism and to provide
sufficient information to design an engineering remediation solution.

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3 Earthworks Design
3.1 Balancing Earthwork Materials Volume

Once a highway grade line has been selected that satisfies geometric requirements,
consideration should be given to raising or lowering it between control points to achieve a
close balance between the volume of cut materials and the volume of fill materials, referred
to as an earthworks balance. If an earthworks balance cannot be achieved, it will be necessary
to import material from elsewhere to make up a shortfall or to dispose of surplus fill, which
may be difficult in urban or environmentally sensitive areas.
In assessing the earthworks balance, consideration should be given to the potential volume
change between materials excavation and their placement in engineered earthworks. The
in situ density of solid rock can range typically from 2.1 to 2.7 megagrams per cubic meter
(Mg/m3), whereas the density of placed rockfill will normally be lower, generally from 1.9 to
2.2 Mg/m3). Consequently, rock from an excavation will normally facilitate filling of a larger
volume of earthworks fill. The magnitude of the change is typically referred to as the bulking
factor and is dependent on the type of rock.
The aeolian sands, continental soils, and residual soils of Qatar normally provide about the
same volume of compacted fill as was excavated. Small changes on large volumes of filling
can, however, have a significant impact on a project. The in situ density of the source soil
materials and their compacted density in the engineered earthworks, therefore, should be
considered. Table 3.1 lists the typical ranges of bulking factors for rock and soils.
Table 3.1 Typical Bulking Factors for Rock and Soil
Material Bulking factor

Solid rock 1.2 to 1.6a
Aeolian sand 0.95 to 1.15
Note:
a
Relative to the type of rock
In assessing cut-and-fill volumes in earthworks, allowance should be made for waste due
to spillage, disposal of surplus oversize rock which is not to be processed, and materials
obtained from areas such as excavations for trench drainage and structure foundations.
Waste can vary from 5 percent to 15 percent, depending on the topography (more waste is
typically generated in hilly country) and the large particle content of blasted rock excavated
material.

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Slopes will influence the level of the highway grade line required to achieve an earthworks
balance. Consideration should be given to the difference in cost of achieving an earthworks
balance by raising the grade line and providing steeper slopes in rock cuttings to reduce
cut volume or by lowering the grade line and flattening slopes in soft rock or soil cuttings
to increase cut volume. Rock excavation requiring blasting and loading into dump trucks is
significantly more expensive than excavation of materials that can be ripped by a bulldozer
and transported by scrapers.
For an earthworks balance, it is important that allowance is made for the backfill of
excavations associated with the removal of topsoil, soil-forming materials, and unsuitable
material such as sabkha. This is discussed further in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation
and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual. Allowance should also be made
for the overall thickness of the proposed highway pavement.
Where massive rock excavation is to be performed, it is good practice to identify areas, such
as mounding and fill slope flattening, where rock boulders too large to be placed as common
fill can be buried as low-grade, nonstructural fill.
Where an earthworks balance cannot be readily achieved and a shortfall of fill remains, a
ready supply of fill must be made available from either borrow areas, another project, or
commercial sources such as a local quarry, sand pit, or gravel pit.
During construction, the earthworks should be monitored and steps should be taken to
maintain the earthworks balance to the extent practicable. Factors that can alter the cut-fill
balance include the following:
• Unforeseen unsuitable earthworks materials.
• Unforeseen contaminated material that cannot be remediated.
• Unforeseen factors affecting the execution of the works (for example, traffic
management constraints, land access constraints, or program constraints, all of which
can create local surpluses or shortfalls).
• Inappropriate use of material with specific performance criteria (for example, use of
structural backfill for embankment construction).
• The magnitude of bulking that occurs when any material is excavated and recompacted.
• Poor management of surface water and groundwater or construction plant resulting in

suitable fill becoming unsuitable.

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3.2 Potential Effects of Sustainable Drainage

Surface water drainage systems developed in line with the ideals of sustainable development
are collectively referred to as SuDS. SuDS are designed to manage the environmental
risks resulting from urban runoff and to contribute wherever possible to environmental
enhancement. The philosophy of SuDS is to replicate, as closely as possible, the natural
drainage from a site before development. SuDS are increasingly being adopted as the main
form of drainage for highway projects and other developments.
From an earthwork perspective, the most notable aspect of SuDS is the encouragement of
surface water infiltration into the ground rather than its runoff over impermeable surfaces.
Poorly planned SuDS that introduce water or enhance groundwater levels within a slope can
have a potentially deleterious effect on the stability of either existing or newly constructed
earthworks. Therefore, close liaison among the earthworks and drainage designers and the
landscape architect is important, so that the benefit of SuDS may be gained while avoiding
introduction of any significant additional risks to the earthworks. Possible increase in
risk of instability is best managed by providing infiltration away from such areas. Further
information on SuDS can be found in Volume 2, Part 10, Drainage, of this Manual.
3.3 Disposal of Surplus Fill

If excess fill is generated because of an earthworks imbalance, its disposal as a waste to
an off-site facility should be avoided, where possible. Opportunities to use the surplus
material on other projects should be considered. The surplus materials might also in effect
be disposed of within the highway corridor by flattening embankment slopes, mounding,
or landscaping. The ability to perform such work will depend on the area available and the
nature of the excess material. Boulders too large for narrow slope flattening or mounds can
generally be buried, removed to a crushing plant, or split with rock hammers or explosives so
that the rocks can then be used in embankment construction. The amount of unsuitable fill
needs to be quantified.
3.4 Design of Cuttings

3.4.1 Modes of Slope Failure
When preparing designs for the alignment and slopes of a cutting, in addition to assessing
the overall stability against the various forms of failure described in Appendix A, the
possibility of local landslips and rockfalls on the slopes faces should be considered. Local
landslips or rockfalls can typically result from random pockets of weak, unstable, or water-
bearing soils or from thin layers of weak or shattered rock. In most cases, local instability may
be addressed as it becomes evident by implementing appropriate remedial works. Flattening
of slopes in an effort to limit local landslips and rockfalls is rarely justifiable.
The overall stability of cutting slopes should be assessed using the design standard adopted
for the project.

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3.4.2 Cutting Slope Design

The excavation of a road cutting inevitably results in the removal of support to higher
ground on one or both sides of the cutting. As a result, the slopes local to the cutting, and
possibly those at some distance, may be destabilized or may be prone to landslips or falling
rock. The impact of such events is high and in extreme cases can result in road closures,
death or personal injury, and extensive damage to nearby property and to the highway.
The proximity, type, and condition of adjacent buildings and other structures need to be
considered in design.
The natural groundwater levels and possible future changes in the groundwater regime
should be considered in the design of the base platform to underpass and cutting areas and
in the design of their associated drainage. Groundwater levels representative of long-term
conditions may not be established during the relatively short period of ground investigation
site works because of seasonal variations, the influence of dewatering exercises in
surrounding areas, or the effects of groundwater rise. Refer to Volume 2, Part 15, Ground
Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual. Such factors should
be considered in the assessment of the groundwater levels to be used in design. Appropriate
adverse groundwater levels for the structure or earthwork location, over the designated
design life of the infrastructure, should be used in design.
Determining the maximum slopes in cuttings depends on aspects such as the following:
• Types of materials in the cutting.

• Groundwater tables, current levels taking into account any local lowering or rise and
possible future levels.
• Locations of buildings.
• Angle of rock and soil bedding planes relative to the slope.
• Presence of soft, weaker materials that are more prone to failure or are easily eroded by
wind or surface water.
• Environmental constraints.
For deep cuttings, it is common practice to provide benches (often referred to as berms)
at regular intervals based on the stability of the slope, requirements for drainage of water
permeating from the ground within the cutting face, and the width of the road corridor.
Benching reduces risks associated with landslip and falling rock, facilitates the maintenance
and repair of cut slopes, and improves the access safety for maintenance workers. In rock
cuts, berm widths of 3 meters (m) to 4 m typically are adopted. In soil slopes, berm widths of
at least 5 m typically are adopted.
The gradient of a slope may not depend wholly on the stability of the material as determined
by geotechnical design, but may be influenced by factors such as aesthetics, landscaping
requirements, and whether there is a shortage of fill. Generally, for cuttings through soft,
highly fractured, or weathered rock and soil, the maximum slopes should be no steeper

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than 1V:2H and will normally need to be 1V:4H or less to establish vegetation and limit soil
erosion. Cuttings through stable rock formations where planting is not required to prevent
erosion may be up to 6V:1H, depending on the strata joints orientations and the quality of
the rock. Table 3.2 provides guidance on the typical geometry for safe slopes in the range
of rock and soil conditions generally found. The actual slope design details should, however,
be established based on the actual site conditions, the materials’ characteristic engineering
parameters interpreted from the geotechnical investigations conducted, and relevant slope
stability analyses.
Table 3.2 Typical Permanent Slopes in Cut for Various Soil and Rock Materials
Typical Slope Typical Maximum Slope Height

Ratio (vertical : before Incorporating a Berm or
Rock/Soil Material horizontal) Between Berms (m)
Good to excellent rock conditions, RQDa >75b 6V:1H to 5V:1Hc 10
Poor to fair rock conditions, 25 < RQD <75 4V:1H to 2V:1Hc 8
Very poor rock conditions, RQD <25 2V:1H to 1V:2Hc 6
Gravelly materials 1V:1.5H to 1V:2Hd 6

Sand 1V:1.5H to 1V:2.5Hd 6
Notes:
a
RQD = rock quality designation (ratio of length of solid core pieces longer than 100 millimeters to length
of core run [%])
b
Rock of this quality is rarely found in Qatar.
c
Depends on joint orientation, the extent of clay interbeds, and groundwater conditions.
d
Slopes of gradient 1V:4H or less generally will have a greater success in retaining topsoil, limiting its loss
from erosion processes and encouraging more successful planting establishment and long-term growth
compared to steeper slopes.
The behavior of a rock mass is dominated by discontinuities such as faults, joints, and
bedding planes. Therefore, cuttings in rock are commonly designed by kinematic assessment,
as detailed in Hoek and Bray (1981) and others. Limit equilibrium stability analyses design
methods are also used in the design of rock slopes, particularly when construction is in
poor quality rock. For limit equilibrium analyses of rock slopes it is necessary to establish
engineering properties representative of the rock mass, which is not readily practicable from
testing.
Rock mass classification systems including the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system (Bieniawski
1973 and 1989) and the Q system (Barton et al 1974) are commonly used to make an initial
assessment of the excavation procedures to be used in tunnel and underground space
construction in rock and of the measures required to support the exposed excavated rock
wall (eg rock bolts or shotcrete). The RMR system can be used to estimate the rock mass
properties and is utilized in the Hoek-Brown failure criterion (Hoek, et al., 2002) widely used
to establish rock mass engineering parameters for use in design. A software program for
determining rock mass strength parameters, RocLab, has been developed to apply the Hoek-
Brown failure criterion.

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The excavated rock slopes should, however, be inspected by a suitably experienced

geotechnical practitioner to identify any areas of the face that require removal of loose
material, localized rock bolting to secure specific rock blocks, or dentition work to secure
and protect particular weak horizons. For unnetted faces, a rock trap should be provided at
the toe of the cut slope to capture small-scale fall debris and prevent it from reaching the
highway. For particularly unstable rock strata, extensive rock bolting and netting may be
needed. Fookes and Sweeny (1976) provided information on stabilization and control of local
rock falls, including the design of rock traps.
The limit equilibrium methods of stability analysis are normally used in Qatar for design
of soil slopes. A limit-state design approach is now commonly used in Europe and may be
adopted in Qatar at some future date. If a limit-state design approach is adopted in Qatar,
refer to BS EN 1997-1:2004.
The safety factors adopted for use in limit equilibrium-stability analyses for design of a soil
slope should be derived by the geotechnical practitioner after careful consideration of the
following:
• The complexity of the ground conditions.
• The adequacy of the ground investigation.
• The certainty with which the design parameters (for example, shear strength and
groundwater pressures) represent the actual in situ conditions.
• The length of time over which stability has to be assured.
• The likelihood of unfavorable changes in groundwater regime.
• Surface profile or other factors occurring in the future.
• The likely speed of movement and consequences of any failures.
In general, it is important to distinguish between first-time failures and failures involving

preexisting slip surfaces. For first-time failures at a site, where there is a good standard of
ground investigation, analyses performed using suitably conservative characteristic shear-
strength parameters and design water conditions, and for which no unusually risks are
associated with a failure, a safety factor between 1.3 and 1.4 would normally be appropriate.
For a failure involving a preexisting failure and analyses using back-analyses parameters,
but otherwise of similar status, a safety factor of 1.2 would normally be appropriate.
The design water conditions should take into account those conditions that could
reasonably be expected to occur over the design life of the earthworks, with allowance
where appropriate for higher groundwater levels or higher pore water pressures than those
observed in the ground investigation and subsequent monitoring periods. Information on
groundwater problems in Qatar is provided in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual.

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3.5 Influence of Construction Procedures on Cutting

Slope Stability
Cutting slope stability can be influenced by construction-related factors, including the
following:
• Sequence and geometry of excavation. Stability of the slopes must be maintained.

Where appropriate, temporary slopes and excavations might be designed with safety
factors lower than those used for design of permanent works. The safety factors to be
used, however, must be assessed on a risk basis by a suitably experience geotechnical
practitioner.
• Effect of explosives. Vibrations from blasting should be considered in the design.
• Control of groundwater. The potential for groundwater conditions during construction to

have detrimental effect on the earthworks should be considered and, where necessary,
appropriate measures should be incorporated within the works. This might necessitate
control of the rate of excavation in pervious water-bearing soils to achieve a gradual
reduction in the water table or dewatering techniques to release pore water pressures
trapped by low-permeability strata.
• Control of surface water. The works should be shaped to prevent water flow or ponding
conditions where these are likely to have a detrimental effect on the earthworks.
• Construction of drain trenches at the base of the slope.
The potential for construction-related factors to affect cutting slope stability should be
assessed in design and appropriate allowance made to maintain adequate stability.
3.5.1 Seismic Effects

The designer should assess the potential seismicity of the location and make appropriate
allowance for seismicity in the design of cutting slopes. Further information on seismic loading
in Qatar and associated ground risks is given in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual.
3.6 Design of Embankments and Filled Areas

3.6.1 Fill / Embankment Design
Embankments and filled areas should be designed to have adequate stability against
shear failure and to ensure that any deformation is within acceptable limits. The following
information should be obtained to design the cross section of an embankment:
• Ultimate width at the top of the embankment.
• Loading on the top of the embankment.
• Geotechnical properties of the foundation soils and fill materials.

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• Restrictions on width of land available for construction.
• Groundwater tables and current levels, taking into account local lowering or rise and
possible future levels.
• The bearing capacity of the subsoil is satisfactory.
• The Settlements are within the allowable limits.
• The overall stability of embankment.
• The fill material is as per QCS 2014 or the latest requirements.
• The drainage of the various fill layers is satisfactory.
• The embankment (water retaining earthen structures, like lagoons) is safe against
piping or erosion.
• Special conditions to which the embankment would be subject (for example, tidal
waters, natural cavities, environmental, and economic factors that could influence the
final choice of cross section, such as earth banks for sound screening or flattening of
slopes for promoting vegetation establishment and providing for landscape and an
aesthetic earthwork).
Table 3.2 provides guidance on the typical geometry for safe embankment slopes in the
range of rock and soil conditions generally found in Qatar. However, the actual slope design
details should be established based on the actual site conditions, the materials’ characteristic
engineering parameters interpreted from the geotechnical investigations conducted, and
relevant slope stability analyses.
Table 3.3 Typical Permanent Slopes in Fill for Various Soil and Rock Materials
Typical Slope Ratio Typical Maximum Slope Height before

Rock/Soil Material (vertical : horizontal) Incorporating a Berm or Between Berms (m)
Selected hard rock fill 1V:1.4Ha 6
Selected gravel material 1V:1.5H to 1V:2Ha 6
Selected sand 1V:1.5H to 1V:2.5H a
6
Note:
a
Slopes of gradient 1V:4H or less generally will have a greater success in retaining topsoil, limiting its loss
from erosion processes and encouraging more successful planting establishment and long-term growth
compared to steeper slopes.
The overall stability of embankment slopes should be analyzed using the design standard
adopted for the project. The limit equilibrium method of stability analysis is typically used for
design in Qatar. The factors to be considered by the geotechnical practitioner in determining
the safety factors to be adopted in limit equilibrium stability analyses of embankments and
fill areas and typical safety factors adopted are as described for cutting slopes in Clause 3.4.2
in this Part. A limit-state design approach is now commonly used in Europe and may be
adopted in Qatar at some future date. If a limit-state design approach is adopted in Qatar,
refer to British Standard 1997-1 (BS EN 1997-1:2004).

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The water retaining earthen embankments (like, lagoons) shall be analyzed for the following
conditions:
• End-of-Construction
• Long-term (steady seepage, maximum water storage)
• Rapid Drawdown
The required minimum safety factor for the long-term and rapid drawdown condition shall be
1.5 and 1.1 respectively.
Some deformation of the fill and of foundation soils is to be expected, and the magnitude
of those movements should be assessed using data obtained as part of the project ground
investigation. In some instances, it may be desirable to analyze embankment deformations
using finite-element methods to determine whether deformation is acceptable.
3.6.2 Seismic Effects

The designer should assess the potential seismicity of the location and make appropriate
allowance for it in the design of embankments and fill slopes. Further information on
seismic loading in Qatar and associated ground risks is given in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground
Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, in this Manual.
3.7 Embankments over Weak Ground

Weak, compressible soils, such as sabkha, are typically near the surface and are of shallow
depth in Qatar. In many instances, existing ponds are reclaimed using poor quality compressible
soils. Where such deposits lie below an embankment footprint, they are generally removed
and replaced with engineered fill.
In some instances, it may be necessary or preferred to leave the weak, compressible deposits
in place. In these cases, ground treatment measures will likely be required to ensure stability
of the embankment and to limit post-construction ground movements to within serviceability
limits. Geotextiles might be also included within the base of the embankment to distribute
expected loading and to reduce differential movements. Implemented ground treatment
works and post-treatment ground performance should be monitored to verify the design.

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4 Earthworks Construction
4.1 Quality Control of Earthworks Materials

The nature of materials to be used in earthworks construction should be checked against the
design and the findings of any project ground investigation to confirm that when placed and
compacted, they remain in accordance with the contract specification.
The designer should provide a table that clearly sets out the testing requirements for
earthworks materials as they are excavated on-site. The designer should include the
frequency or number of tests, depending on the size or duration of the works being
performed. Testing should be carried out at excavation for materials found on-site, unless
the material is likely to change between excavation and deposition, in which case further
sampling and testing should be carried out at deposition.
Where earthworks materials are to be imported for use on-site, initial source testing should
be specified along with compliance testing requirements.
4.2 Placement of Earthworks Materials

4.2.1 Soils
The placement of soil fills in earthworks typically is controlled by either an end-product
specification or method specification to confirm that adequate compaction is achieved in
construction. End-product specification is mainly used in Qatar, including in the QCS 2010
(MoE, 2011), with placed fill compacted to 95 percent maximum dry density, as determined
by Test 13: 4.5-kilogram rammer method in British Standard 1377-4 (BS 1377-4:1990). If
required, further information on the use of method specification can be found in HA 70/94
(UK Highways Agency, 1994).
When using an end-product specification, it is useful to establish a rolling/compaction

procedure that should achieve the required degree of compaction and for that to be adopted
as the minimum requirement for construction of the permanent works. The adoption of such
a procedure should minimize disruption related to compliance testing and any requirement
to apply additional compaction to a fill layer with associated further compliance testing.
The compaction procedure is normally defined in terms of a maximum thickness of each fill
layer placed and the number of passes applied to it by a roller of specific type and size. The
QCS 2010 requires compaction trials before construction of any permanent earthworks and
specifies that the trials be carried out on areas of 50 m by 10 m (MoE, 2011).
Rapid verification of the compacted density of placed earthworks fill is essential if

earthworks filling operations are not to be unduly disrupted. Consequently, nuclear methods
are normally used as the primary means of establishing the in situ density and moisture

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content of the placed soils and compliance with the specification. Nuclear density and
moisture content testing should be carried out in accordance with QCS 2010 requirements
(MoE, 2011). Calibration of the equipment is required, and personnel conducting the tests
require approved user certification by the Qatar Ministry of Environment.
If particular concerns exist regarding the results of nuclear test methods or the ability of the
test to provide accurate results in particular circumstances, then the in situ density of the
placed fill should be determined using by the appropriate sand replacement method suitable
for the soil grading, in accordance with QCS 2010 testing requirements (MoE, 2011).
Intelligent compaction technology systems can optimize earthworks construction and provide
a comprehensive geographic information system–based record of the quality of earthworks
compaction at a site. The systems involve continuous assessment of the mechanistic soil
properties (for example, stiffness modulus) through compaction-roller vibration monitoring
and continuous modification of roller vibration amplitude and frequency. Research findings
in Europe and the United States show that use of such equipment can significantly improve
the efficiency and quality of the compaction process. Further information on these systems
can be found in Use of Intelligent Compaction Technology (Transport Research Laboratory
[TRL], 2009).
4.2.2 Rocks
To the extent practicable, rock excavated on a project should be reused. Subject to crushing
and processing, it might provide a suitable source for aggregate or soils-type graded
earthworks fill. Larger rock fill may be used in earthworks construction subject to the rock fill
being placed in layers not exceeding twice the average size of the larger fragments, with no
layer exceeding 800-millimeter (mm) loose thickness. The largest boulders and fragments
should be placed and spread so that they are evenly distributed within the fill and the voids
between them should be completely filled with smaller rock fragments, sand, or gravel. The
in-filling of the voids can be promoted by the use of watering techniques.
The QCS 2010 provides details of the acceptable compaction procedures for rock fill in terms
of the depth of fill layer and the number of passes to be applied for particular sizes of vibratory
roller (MoE, 2011). The placement of rock fill is not normally subject to density verification
testing, but it should be subject to inspection by experienced and qualified personnel.

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4.3 Slope Inspections

4.3.1 Soil Slopes
The soil slopes of cuttings and embankments should be inspected during construction, and
at regular intervals thereafter, for signs of cracking or bulging that might indicate imminent
failure of the slope or for seepage that could lead to instability. Instability early in a soil slope’s
life is likely to be deep-seated, related to some form of discontinuity such as a preexisting
shear plane or a thin weak layer. The consequences are likely to be severe and may involve
considerable amounts of failed material. Shallow failures are relatively rare on new soil
slopes when compared to slopes older than 10 years, but they do occur more frequently on
steep, recently constructed rock fill slopes due to of topsoil slippage. The failure is not of the
rock fill itself. Where a failure has occurred or appears to be developing, remediation works
will need to be implemented.
4.3.2 Rock Slopes

The exposed faces of rock cuttings should be inspected for discontinuities, especially those
oriented in a manner that would lead to instability. The face should be examined at regular
intervals and for signs of excessive weathering after a period of exposure, preferably through
the winter season. If left unchecked, excessive weathering could lead to instability and high
future maintenance costs incurred due to frequent removal of large amounts of debris from
the base of the face. The inspections should be performed by an experienced geotechnical
practitioner, who should then prepare a report on the stability of the face and whether
remedial action is needed. Guidance on the recording of rock exposures is provided by the
International Society for Rock Mechanics (1981); Transport Research Laboratory (2011a and
2011b); and Hoek and Bray (1981). The method to be adopted on a project will need to be
determined by a qualified and experienced geotechnical practitioner.
4.4 Minimizing the Effects of Construction Plant Operations

The designer should be alert to the problems that could arise when earthmoving construction
equipment and vibratory compaction equipment are operating in urban areas and other
sensitive locations. The Transport Research Laboratory (2000) provides guidelines on
acceptable vibration levels, and British Standard 7385-2 (BS 7385-2:1993) provides guidance
on the evaluation and measurement of vibration in buildings. Where practical, the design
should avoid or minimize noise and vibration effects (for example, by microrouting away
from sensitive receptors). Contract specifications should include appropriate restrictions on
working hours, noise levels, and vibration levels.
4.5 Blasting
The designer should consider possible requirements for blasting works on a project. Blasting
works have to be carried out in accordance with The Guide for Civil Users of Explosives
in Qatar (Ministry of Industry and Public Works, 2001). The personnel conducting blasting
works are required to be licensed.

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The designer should be aware that to establish safe and environmentally acceptable
working procedures, blasting trials should be performed by the contractor prior to executing
blasting operations on contract works. These trials should include establishing the delay
between explosions necessary to avoid superposition of vibrations from successive delays.
Preliminary blasting trials also might be performed as part of the project geotechnical
studies. Trial explosions should start with small charges and increase to charges similar to
the working charges, but only if the measurements show that it is safe and environmentally
acceptable to do so.
At the preconstruction consultation stage, a condition survey of neighboring properties at

risk from blasting should be carried out, including photographs. Selected critical properties
should then be monitored as part of preworks blasting trials and also during the works
themselves. Information on the procedures and equipment necessary for effective vibration
studies is provided by Transport Research Laboratory (2000). Instruments exist that can
measure both the peak overpressure associated with air blast and ground vibration in three
orthogonal planes.
Factors affecting vibration levels when explosives are used include the following:
• Size of the explosive charge
• Pattern of charges
• Confinement of charge
• Geology and nature of the ground (for example, the dip, depth and type of rock, and
presence of fault planes)
The safe level of peak particle velocity (ppv) is governed by the type and state of repair
of the structure affected and, very importantly, by the frequency of the vibration of the
structure. Peak particle velocities in excess of 50 millimeters per second (mm/s) may be safe
and acceptable for some structures, but often much lower limits will need to be applied,
particularly for domestic structures. Advice on acceptable levels of vibrations in structures
is given in British Standards references BS ISO 4866 (BS ISO 4866:2010), BS 7385-2
(BS 7385-2:1993), and BS 5228-1 (BS 5228-1:2009+A1:2014).
An accepted maximum safe value for air-blast or peak overpressure is 0.7 kilonewton per
square meter, but this value is unlikely to be reached where the ground vibration ppv is kept
below 50 mm/s. Windows may rattle with a peak overpressure of 0.3 kilonewton per square
meter, and this may alarm to the public unless they are informed in advance.
Good public relations and an education program are essential. Human reactions to vibration
can be a limiting factor because perceived ppv nuisance levels can be as low as 2 mm/s.
British Standards BS 6472-1 (BS 6472-1:2008) and BS 6472-2 (BS 6472-2:2008) provide
valuable guidance on acceptable levels of human exposure to vibration. Human response
should be considered when determining a criterion for ppv but should not be regarded as
paramount provided the public is kept well informed.

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Safety is also an important consideration, and work should be performed in accordance with
local regulations. British Standard BS 5607 (BS 5607:1998) also provides useful information
on safe use of explosives in the construction industry.

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5 Information on Specific
Materials and Issues
5.1 Soils and Bedrock Strata

The designer should refer to Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of
Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual for information on the engineering characteristics,
typical uses, and issues of the main soils and bedrock strata units in Qatar.
5.2 Seismic Hazard

The designer should refer to Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of
Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual for information on the seismic hazard in Qatar and
seismic loadings to be used in design.
5.3 Geosynthetics
The designer should be alert to the risks of physical and chemical damage to geosynthetics
during construction because such damage can lead to a reduced life and failure of the
material and the constructed works. Typical physical damage includes puncturing by
sharp projections, tearing during placement, or as a result of the construction equipment
running over the geosynthetic once laid. The main chemical damage to geosynthetics is
embrittlement caused by ultraviolet light. The designer should make appropriate allowances
during design for possible damage during construction. In addition, geosynthetics used in
construction should be afforded appropriate protection in transit from the manufacturer,
during storage on-site, and in placement within the works to avoid any significant damage.
5.4 Prevent the Spread of Plant and Animal Diseases

The designer should be alert to the potential for biological pathogens in surface soils from
past disposal of animal carcasses, including camels, horses, and other livestock, both buried
and unburied in rural areas. The designer also needs to be alert to the potential spread of
invasive animal and plant species associated with earthworks operations.

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6 Highways in Dune Areas
6.1 Introduction
This chapter provides information on dune formation and movement and on the design and
construction of highways in dune areas from the Sultanate of Oman’s Ministry of Transport
and Communication (2010).
6.2 Dune Formation and Movement

Appendix B contains information on dune formation and movement.
6.3 Design and Construction in Dune Areas

6.3.1 Highway Location
It is always preferable to avoid routing highways through sand dune areas and, if such an
option exists, it should be considered as part of a value engineering exercise and in the
comparison of route options. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to locate highways within
sand dune areas, in which case the design principles set out in Clause 6.3.2 in this Part
should be followed.
Locating interchanges or intersections within sand dune areas should be avoided where
possible. Where it is necessary to locate an intersection within a dune area, the design
principles set out in Clause 6.3.2 of this part should be followed. Additionally, there should
be a site-specific assessment of conditions to determine the need for special treatment or
protection measures with regard to sand movement.
Grade-separation interchanges usually involve bridge structures and embankments. The

design and alignment of any bridges should be such that the prevailing wind can easily
pass through the structure without turbulence, which should help to reduce sand deposition
within the interchange area. Where such an alignment is not feasible, use of windbreaks,
located so that they unload windborne sand before entering the interchange area, should be
considered. Such windbreaks could consist of appropriate plantings and fences or sand walls.
6.3.2 Design Elements

Sand will be deposited whenever the wind velocity falls below the critical velocity at which
it can carry sand particles (see Appendix B). Disruption to wind laminar flow is likely to
result in a drop in the wind speed and sand deposition. Turbulence also can create areas of
high velocity that can result in erosion or abrasion. For these reasons, design elements and
roadside features and furniture within the road corridor should provide the most aerodynamic
profile possible, facing the prevailing wind direction.

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Highway pavements are usually smoother than natural soil. Consequently, they provide less
friction for wind and, thus, tend to promote an increase in wind speed that limits deposition
of sand particles and their accumulation on the road surface. Elevating the road platform
above the desert floor can further help in keeping the roadway surface clear of sand.
To avoid creating turbulence, earthwork side slopes should be fairly flat. Typically, in dune
areas, 1V:10H maximum slopes should be used for cuttings and 1V:6H maximum should be
used for fill slopes. Wide toe-ditches of 3-m minimum width should be provided to allow for
the accumulation of deposited sand.
At selected locations and only in very special circumstances, steeper slopes of 1V:6H
maximum for cuttings and 1V:4H maximum for fill slopes might be adopted, depending on the
type of sand and frequency of sandstorms in the project area. The use of steeper gradients
will, however, be subject to the agreement to a Departure from Standard by the Overseeing
Organization, and detailed design should not commence until that agreement is in place. The
request for a Departure from Standards should be fully evidenced and, where appropriate,
might include a physical test—possibly at reduced scale compared to the proposed works—
conducted at critical locations on the project site.
The design principles for highways in dune areas include the following:
• Highway alignment
−− The highway should be located on the windward side of large dunes or isolated
dune fields.
−− Alignments running parallel to the prevailing wind direction will present less
potential for sand accumulation.
−− Grade lines should be kept above the elevation of upwind topography as much as
possible.
−− Through-cuts and cuts to the upwind dune slopes should be avoided as much as
possible.
−− Superelevation should not exceed 4 percent, and horizontal curvatures in particular

should be set such that this can be achieved.
−− Alignments should be located to minimize the need for drainage provision,

particularly box culverts.
−− When an upwind dune crest is above the roadway elevation, whether the road
is in cut or in fill, it is necessary to determine the relative positions of the dune
crest and the edge of road to determine the method of stabilization needed (see
Appendix B).

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• Slopes
−− The general aerodynamic features of the natural topography should be maintained

to prevent or reduce sand accumulation, erosion, or both that might affect the
integrity of the roadway.
−− Cut slopes should be 1V:10H or flatter, regardless of material excavated.
−− Fill slopes should be 1V:6H or flatter when the maximum height of fill does not
exceed 4 m.
• Medians
−− Wide, shallow medians should be used where possible to remove any need for
median safety barriers.
−− Drainage drop inlet structures, if used in medians, should be designed with flat
grates.
−− To ensure that medians are kept clear of sand accumulation, paving the median
could be considered. Paving would provide a similar friction resistance to that of
the road to avoid differential friction that could create turbulence or reduce wind
velocity, resulting in sand deposition and accumulation.
• Highway and structures construction, highway furniture, and planting
−− Highway curbs should not be used.
−− Raised pavement markers should be avoided where possible because their

protrusion could produce a break in wind speed and result in sand deposition.
−− Bridge openings at grade separations must be as large and clear as possible.

Elimination of piers by increasing bridge spans is desirable. Bridge railings should
be the “open tubular” type, while bridge deck sections should be designed to be as
aerodynamic as possible.
−− Vehicle restraint systems should be avoided wherever possible, which should

generally be practical where slopes are flatter than 1V:5H. If a vehicle restraint
system is required, steel beam and concrete barriers should not be employed, and
open-cable-type construction should be used.
−− Where feasible, signs should be mounted on grade-separation bridges rather than

creating additional supporting structures at ground level.
−− Structures or roadside items that might cause an obstruction to the natural flow of
the wind or cause wind turbulence should be avoided.
−− Consideration should be given to the use of wire fencing developed for specific
use as a right-of-way fence in sand dune areas. This fence type is more open than
chain link. Other types of fence that have a tendency to trap paper and debris,
which can cause sand deposition.
−− The top of concrete foundations for items such as small supports and fence posts,
where used, should be at least 100 mm below the sand surface.
−− Planting should be limited.

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6.3.3 Design and Construction Considerations

Dune sands, known as aeolian sands, essentially lack cohesion and are single sized. Although
they can be used for embankment construction both in and outside dune areas, some
precautions are necessary. Unless placed quite flat or appropriately confined, dune sands are
readily susceptible to sloughing due to vibration and erosion by both wind and water. To use
dune sands in embankment construction, the sand core typically is confined with an outer
shell of less-erosive soils. Figure 6.1 presents basic dimensions for sand dune embankments.
Figure 6.1 Typical Schematic Embankment Using Dune Sand Fill
Highway construction in sandy and sand dune areas presents unique challenges for
contractors unfamiliar with practices and methods in such areas. The most common approach
for road construction is to establish a working platform at the base of the embankment;
otherwise, sand can cause substantial rolling resistance for construction equipment and
vehicles.
Figure 6.2 presents a detailed section showing the typical construction layers for an
embankment that uses sand fill, highlighting the disposition of the capping material on the
sides and the series of working platforms constructed in the core of the fill.
To start the construction process, the area of sand fill is normally rolled with steel rollers,
after which, a 50-mm working platform is spread and compacted. Spreading of this layer is
usually performed by end-tipping by truck and spreading forward onto the in situ dune sand
by bulldozers. In this way, the contractor’s hauling equipment is not subject to the high rolling
resistance of the dry sand, and the sand is intermixed with the working platform material.
The establishment of this initial working platform is necessary to provide a firm foundation
upon which the embankment can be constructed in uniform layers. It is generally impractical
to require a high degree of compaction in this working platform because the support from the
underlying dry sand can be quite variable. A minimum of 90 percent maximum dry density is
usually acceptable.

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Figure 6.2 Sand Dune Fill—Embankment Planting
On top of the working platform, uniform layers of sand, not exceeding 200 mm compacted
thickness, can be placed by forward spreading and can be compacted with steel-wheeled
rollers to 95 percent maximum dry density. Trucks with high tire-contact pressure should
not be used on dry sand embankment areas until after the subsequent intermediate capping
layers have been placed and compacted.
6.3.4 Dune Stabilization

Stabilizing dunes and other loose-sand areas involves immobilizing the sand. The figures in
Appendix B depict typical details of dune stabilization works.
In the case of small to medium Barchan dunes, stabilizing the crest and wings of a dune
causes the trough of the dune to trap sand. Sand then accumulates in the trough until an
aerodynamic profile to the dune is established. Once established, that profile will usually
remain essentially stable, even without any subsequent stabilization of the trapped sand.
Dune stabilization may be performed in other ways. The application of a gravel blanket will
provide a protective layer that is not as susceptible to erosion or saltation. The dune sand
can be treated to bind the sand particles and provide some cohesion through the application
of crude oil, crude-oil blends, and emulsified asphalts. Some chemical stabilizers also can be
used; however, their effect is usually temporary.
Stabilizing large dunes with complete coverage can be quite expensive. However, treated
strips created perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing winds can be successful in

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immobilizing large dune features. The width of untreated area between the stabilized strips
should not exceed 4 m to maintain the effectiveness of the treatment. Wider untreated areas
will encourage sand movement and erosion of the treated strips. Strip stabilization may be
achieved by spray application or by injection methods. Injection methods provide greater
control with respect to the applied width and depth of penetration, which is reflected in the
typical treatment patterns used, as shown in Figure B.10 in Appendix B.
The depth of penetration of sprayed materials varies with the type of material being sprayed,
the type and natural density of the dune sand, and to a lesser extent the rate of application.
The use of sand fencing is effective in immobilizing dunes but ultimately requires frequent
maintenance. As each fence installation becomes buried, it must be extended in height.
Raising the height effectively can result in the trapping of many thousands of cubic meters
of sand, if properly maintained. Sand fences should be considered on the upwind side of
an interchange in a dune area. For such installations, two or more parallel rows of fencing
should be located perpendicular to the prevailing wind. The upwind fence will likely fill in
very quickly and will need to be raised first. The second and possibly third fence downwind
can be used to gauge the rate of sand accumulation to plan future fence installations and
maintenance (see Figure B.12 in Appendix B). Vegetation also can be used to stabilize dune
areas. The arid environment of Qatar, however, makes the use of this method extremely
limited.
6.3.5 Dune Destruction

In certain instances, commonly where dunes have migrated to a location close to a road,
it may be desirable to destroy them (see Figure B.13 in Appendix B). For example, dune
destruction might be beneficial where an overhead power line lies between the highway
and an approaching dune. Destruction or lowering of this dune would preserve the vertical
clearance to the power line.
The forces of the wind can be used to erode and lower a dune formation by orienting
strip stabilization in a direction parallel to the prevailing wind. For smaller dune features,
differential oiling of the wings or the center section of the crescent-shaped dunes can be
effective in inducing dune destruction.
Extreme caution must be exercised when using dune destruction because the eroding sand
must pass across the downwind road section. Aerodynamic slopes combined with minimal
obstructions will be essential to facilitate the sand moving across the highway and prevent
it from being deposited on the road surface. The downwind side of the road also should be
evaluated so that the increased sand accumulation coming to this area does not cause new
problems.

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References
Bagnold, Ralph A. The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Methuen & Company: London, England.
1941.
Barton N., Lien R. and Lunde J. 1974. Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of tunnel
support. Rock Mechanics, 6(4): 189-236.
Bieniawski Z. T. 1973. Engineering classification of jointed rock masses. Trans. S. African Inst. Civ. Engners,
15(12): 335-344.
Bieniawski Z. T. 1989. Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. Wiley, New York.
BS 1377-4:1990. Part 4: Compaction-related Tests. Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering
Purposes. British Standards Institution: London, England. 1990.
BS 5228-1:2009+A1:2014. Code of Practice for Noise and Vibration Control on Construction and Open
Sites—Part 1: Noise. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2008.
BS 5607:1998. Code of Practice for the Safe use of Explosives in the Construction Industry. British
Standards Institution: London, England. 1998.
BS 6031:2009. Code of Practice for Earthworks. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2009.
BS 6472-1:2008. Guide to Evaluation of Human Exposure to Vibration in Buildings—Part 1: Vibration

Sources Other than Blasting.. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2008.
BS 6472-2:2008. Guide to Evaluation of Human Exposure to Vibration in Buildings—Part 2: Blast-Induced

Vibration. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2008.
BS 7385-2:1993. Evaluation and Measurement for Vibration in Buildings—Part 2: Guide to Damage Levels
from Groundborne Vibration. British Standards Institution. 1993.
BS EN 1997-1:2004. Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General Rules. 2004 (incorporating

corrigendum February 2009). British Standards Institution: London, England. 2010.
BS ISO 4866:2010. Mechanical Vibration and Shock – Vibration of Fixed Structures – Guidelines for the
Measurement of Vibrations and Evaluation of their Effects on Structures. British Standards Institution.
2010.
Department for Transport. “Construction of Highway Earthworks.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 4, Section 1, Part 5. HA 70/94. UK Highways Agency: London, England. 1994.
Fookes, P. G. and M. Sweeny. “Stabilization and Control of Local Rock Falls and Degrading Rock Slopes.”
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology. Vol. 9. pp. 37–55. 1976.
Hoek, Evert, and John W. Bray. Rock Slope Engineering. Revised 3rd edition. Spon Press for Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy: London, England. 1981.

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Hoek, Evert, Carlos Carranza-Torres, and Brent Corkum. “Hoek-Brown Criterion – 2002 Edition.” Proceedings
of the 5th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium and the 17th Tunnelling Association of Canada
Conference (NARMS-TAC 2002), Toronto, Ontario, Canada. https://www.rocscience.com/hoek/references/
H2002.pdf. Volume 1. pp. 267-273. 7-10 July 2002.
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM). Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring I.S.R.M.
Suggested Methods. Ed. E. T. Brown. Pergamon Press: Oxford, England. 1981.
Ministerie van Volkshuisvestig. “Circular on Target Values and Intervention Values for Soil Remediation”
Dutch Target and Intervention Values 2000 (the New Dutch List). Dutch Ministry of Housing Spatial
Planning & Environment. http://www.esdat.net/Environmental%20Standards/Dutch/annexS_
I2000Dutch%20Environmental%20Standards.pdf. Updated Soil Remediation Circular: http://www.esdat.
com.au/Environmental%20Standards/Dutch/ENGELSE%20versie%20circulaire%20Bodemsanering%20
2009.pdf. Government of the Netherlands: Amsterdam, Netherlands. 2000. Updated 2009.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2011.
Ministry of Industry and Public Works. The Guide for Civil Users of Explosives in Qatar. State of Qatar:
Doha, Qatar. 2001.
Ministry of Transport and Communication. Highway Design Standards. Prepared by Dar Al-Handasah (Shair
and Partners) for Sultanate of Oman. 2010.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Groundborne Vibration Caused by Mechanised Construction Works.
TRL Report 429. UK Highways Agency: Berkshire, England. 2000.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Use of Intelligent Compaction Technology. TRL Published Project
Report PPR406. Berkshire, England. August 28, 2009.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Rock Engineering Guides to Good Practice: Road Rock Slope
Excavation. TRL Published Project Report PPR556. Berkshire, England. October 5, 2011a.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Rock Slope Risk Assessment. TRL Published Project Report PPR554.
Berkshire, England. October 24, 2011b.

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Appendix A
Potential Modes of
Slope Failure

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Table A.1 Potential Modes of Slope Failure

Failure Mode Description Sketch
Rotational— Rotational slide—Rotation of a mass of soil along a curved
Circular slip surface.
Circular slide—Rotational slide on a slip surface that is

roughly circular.
Rotational— Noncircular slide—Rotational slide on a slip plane that is

Noncircular not wholly circular.
Translational Translational slide—Movement of a shallow soil mass in a

plane roughly parallel to the slope due to weakness on the
plane.
Compound Compound slide—Movement of a soil mass that combines

the characteristics of a rotational slide and a translational
slide.
Flow slides Flow slide, mud flow—Translational slide in saturated soil,

caused by a sudden increase in pore water pressure in
which the soil flows as a viscous liquid.
Debris slide—Translational slide of debris, forming a

mantle on a slope or the disturbed material at the toe of
a rotational slide, when rainfall or diverted surface water
causes downward movement of the debris. Includes debris
flows.

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Slab slide Slab slide—Translational slide in which the sliding
mass remains more or less intact. Usually occurs in the
weathered surface of a slope.
Block slide Block slide—Translational slide in which a block of

relatively strong rock or stiff to hard clay moves down a
slope as a unit.
Progressive Progressive failure can occur in a mass of brittle soil when

failure it is not loaded uniformly. Failure first develops along a
rupture surface or zone within part of the soil mass and
as the post-peak strains within the failure zone increase;
the soil strength within the failure zone reduces from
peak toward residual. Final rupture of the soil mass occurs
before the failure surface has developed fully.
Scour Removal of soil from the ground surface by surface water

that might be flowing within a watercourse or occur as
floodwater or surface water run-off. Scour is a common
problem for slopes, riverbanks, or around structures. On
slopes, scour erosion can quickly lead to the development
of gullies.
Surface water runoff erosion of earthworks also are

referred to as “washouts.”
Internal erosion Loss of soil from a slope face as a consequence of seepage

of groundwater from a preferential flow path at the slope
face (often referred to as piping), or the slumping of a
saturated mass of soil prompted by water seeping through
a slope (commonly referred to as slumping or sloughing).

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Rock slope— A block of relatively strong rock or stiff to hard clay moves
plane failure down slope as a unit on a plane of weakness in the form
of a fissure or joint.
Rock slope— Three-dimensional occurs when a wedge of rock or stiff

wedge failure clay slides bodily forward and downward on two or three
well-defined joint planes that intersect behind the slope.
Rock slope— Toppling failures occur in rock slopes where discontinuities

toppling failures behind the face are steeply inclined.
Falls Falls occur from steeply cut faces in soils, such as

excavations for trenches or foundation pits when only
short-term stability is required. Cracks open behind the
face as a result of stress relief or drying shrinkage. Failure
occurs near the base of the freestanding column of soil
bounded by the crack system, and the mass of soil falls
forward or slides into the cut.
Source: BS 6031:2009. Code of Practice for Earthworks. British Standards Institution. 2009.

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Appendix B
Dune Areas and
Example Treatment

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Sand Movements and Deposition

A dune is a hill of sand built by aeolian processes: the wind’s ability to shape the surface of the earth.
Dunes exist in different forms and sizes based on their interaction with the wind. Most dune shapes are
longer on the windward side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and shorter on the slip face in the
lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called a slack. Figure B.1 shows the general shape
of a sand dune.
Figure B.1 Sand Dune General Shape
A dune field is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. The southeast coast of Qatar and central south
area of the state are dominated by sand dunes occasionally interrupted by interdune areas occupied by
sabkha plains, further details of which are given in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects
of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual. As part of site reconnaissance, the designer should assess
whether the proposed highway route is located in a mobile dune area and the degree of hazard to which
the proposed facilities will be subject due to windblown sand.
Sand dune areas present exceptional challenges to the designers of roads and associated facilities. During
sandstorms, blowing and shifting sand flows like fluid, filling every gap and tracing each contour until a
drop of momentum is encountered, resulting sand deposition. Sand flow and deposition affect not only
the maintenance costs of a facility but also user safety. It is virtually impossible to eliminate all problems
and hazards associated with blowing sand given variations in site and sand conditions, the ever-changing
wind direction, and natural topography.
In the absence of moist or cohesive binders, which is typical of sand dune areas in Qatar, the movement
of sand particles is largely a function of wind velocity and particle size. The research of Ralph A. Bagnold
(1941), as well as wind tunnel experiments and field observations in the Libyan Desert, provide a basic
foundation for theories and equation of sand movements.
To show the amount of sand that could accumulate on a roadway or within a facility, Figure B.2 presents
a plot of wind speed versus rate of sand erosion per square meter as determined from wind tunnel tests.

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Figure B.2 Wind Speed versus Quantity of Sand Movement
Sand movement in dune areas occurs in four basic modes:
1. Suspension: The movement of sand particles in suspension occurs when the upward wind velocity
component exceeds the downward gravitational forces of the sand grain size. The sand particle
assumes the wind speed and becomes suspended. This mode of movement dominates during high-
speed wind with associated with sandstorms or dust storms. Depending on wind velocity, this mode
of transport is limited to particles smaller than 0.08 mm.
2. Saltation: Saltation is particle transport wind or the more dense fluid, water. It occurs when loose
material is removed from a bed and carried by the fluid, before being transported back to the bed
surface. Saltation occurs during moderate wind velocities, at what is known as the ‘fluid threshold’
wind velocity, capable of lifting a sand grain and carrying it forward in the wind direction. As the sand
grain falls back to the bed surface, it either bounces back up or hits and ejects other grains, which
in turn move forward bounding and ejecting other sand grains. Once such a process is initiated by
blowing wind, it propagates downwind and intensifies or fades depending on wind speed increase or
decrease. Figure B.3 presents the path of a single sand grain in saltation. Figure B.4 shows the paths
of multiple sand grains in saltation.
Figure B.3 Path of a Single Particle in Saltation

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Figure B.4 Sand Particles in Saltation
In a naturally graded dune, less than 5 percent of sand movement occurs by suspension, 75 to 80 percent
occurs by saltation, and 20 to 25 percent occurs by creep. Figure B.5 presents the theoretical relationship
between grain size and mode of transport and the percentages of each mode for a naturally graded sand
dune.
Figure B.5 Grain Size Related to Movement Mode with Percentages for Each Mode
Figure B.6 through Figure B.13 present details related to dune stabilization and dune destruction
measures.

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Figure B.6 Dune Stabilization

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Figure B.7 (1 of 2) Dune Treatment in Fill Section Stabilization

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Figure B.7 (2 of 2) Dune Treatment in Fill Section Stabilization

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Figure B.8 Dune Treatment in Cut Section Stabilization

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Figure B.9 Small and Intermediate Dune Immobilization

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Figure B.10 Large Dune Immobilization

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Figure B.11 Dune Stabilization with Sand Fence
Figure B.12 Major Interchange Dune Stabilization with Sand Fencing

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Figure B.13 Dune Destruction

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Volume 2
Part 15
Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical
Design Guide
GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE PART
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of any kind.

PART GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE
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Contents Page
Nomenclature and Symbols.................................................................................................... xi
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
2 Qatar General Geology and Geotechnical Hazards.....................................................3

2.1.Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Geology of the Region............................................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1. Solid Geology.............................................................................................................................4
2.2.2. Superficial Geology..................................................................................................................8
2.3. Characteristics of Qatar Strata............................................................................................................. 11
2.3.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................11
2.3.2. Aeolian Sands.........................................................................................................................11
2.3.3.Sabkha.......................................................................................................................................12
2.3.4. Marine Sediments..................................................................................................................13
2.3.5. Continental Sediments........................................................................................................13
2.3.6. Residual Soils..........................................................................................................................13
2.3.7. Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone).................................................................14
2.3.8. Rus Formation Unit 2 (Undifferentiated Carbonate and Sulfate Facies)........14
2.4. Groundwater Problems in Qatar.......................................................................................................... 17
3 Preliminary Sources Study.......................................................................................... 21

3.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2. Scope of Preliminary Sources Study.................................................................................................. 21
4 Ground Investigation Planning................................................................................... 23

4.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 23
4.3. Ground Investigations Proposals........................................................................................................ 25
4.3.1. Phasing of Ground Investigation.....................................................................................25
4.3.2. Guidelines for Overall Coverage of Exploratory Hole Spacing and Depth......26
4.3.3. Ground Investigation Requirements with Regard to Contaminated Land......27
4.4. Soils and Rocks Sampling and Testing to Obtain Engineering Parameters for
Use in Geotechnical Design................................................................................................................... 33
4.4.1.General.......................................................................................................................................33
4.4.2. Difficulties in Parameter Determination......................................................................34
4.4.3. Natural Variability and Variability due to Past Land Use......................................38
4.4.4. Sampling and Testing Procedures..................................................................................38
4.4.5.Interpretation..........................................................................................................................40
4.5. Guidelines for Typically Required Engineering Parameters..................................................... 42

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4.6. In Situ Tests for Determining Soils, Groundwater, and Rock Properties and
Engineering Parameters......................................................................................................................... 42
4.7. Laboratory Tests for Determining Soil, Groundwater, and Rock Properties and
Engineering Parameters......................................................................................................................... 43
4.7.1. Soils and Groundwater........................................................................................................43
4.7.2.Rock............................................................................................................................................54
4.8. Monitoring Instrumentation.................................................................................................................. 57
5 Ground Investigation Procurement........................................................................... 59

5.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 59
5.2. Procurement of a Ground Investigation Company....................................................................... 59
5.2.1. Quality of Ground Investigation Personnel.................................................................60
5.2.2. Laboratory Quality................................................................................................................61
5.3. Ground Investigation Company Performance................................................................................ 62
6 Ground Investigation Specification and Bill of Quantities..................................... 63

6.1. Specification and Bill of Quantities.................................................................................................... 63
6.2. Specification of Ground Investigation of Contaminated Land................................................ 64
7 In Situ Testing and Its Interpretation........................................................................ 67

7.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 67
7.2. Standard Penetration Testing.............................................................................................................. 67
7.2.1. Influence of Different Practices and Equipment on SPT Results......................68
7.2.2. Corrections Applied to SPT Results...............................................................................70
7.2.3. Engineering Parameters and Direct Design Methods.............................................72
7.3. Cone Penetration Testing...................................................................................................................... 73
7.3.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................73
7.3.2. Test Methods...........................................................................................................................75
7.3.3. Factors that Can Affect CPT Results.............................................................................75
7.3.4. Presentation of Results......................................................................................................76
7.3.5. Soils Characteristics, Engineering Parameters, Direct Design Methods
and Other Applications......................................................................................................78
7.4. Dynamic Cone Penetration Testing.................................................................................................... 81
7.4.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................81
7.4.2. Description of DCPT Equipment and Operation of Equipment............................81
7.4.3. DCPT Application...................................................................................................................82
7.4.4. DCPT Data Analysis..............................................................................................................83
7.4.5. Relationship between Penetration Index and Other Geotechnical
Parameters...............................................................................................................................83
7.5. In Situ Density Tests................................................................................................................................ 84
7.6. Pressuremeter Tests................................................................................................................................ 84
7.6.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................84
7.6.2. Test methods..........................................................................................................................86

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7.6.3. Factors that can affect pressuremeter test results................................................87

7.6.4. Data Processing and Results Presentation.................................................................87
7.7. Packer Testing (Lugeon)......................................................................................................................... 90
7.7.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................90
7.7.2. Test Methods...........................................................................................................................90
7.7.3. Factors that can affect packer test results.................................................................90
7.8. Falling/Rising/Constant Head Permeability Tests....................................................................... 91
7.8.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................91
7.8.2. Test Methods, Data Processing, and Results Presentation..................................91
7.9. Infiltration testing..................................................................................................................................... 91
8 Geophysical Surveys.................................................................................................... 94
8.1.Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 94
8.2.Planning........................................................................................................................................................ 95
8.3.Seismic........................................................................................................................................................... 96
8.4. Electrical Resistivity................................................................................................................................. 98
8.5. Ground-Penetrating Radar..................................................................................................................... 98
8.6.Microgravity................................................................................................................................................. 99
8.7. Borehole Geophysics............................................................................................................................... 99
8.8. Procurement of Geophysical Survey Work................................................................................... 100
9 Ground Investigation Reporting............................................................................... 103

9.1. Description of Soils and Rocks, Borehole and Trial Pit Records........................................... 103
9.2. Laboratory Test Reporting.................................................................................................................. 103
9.3. Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical Data..................................................................................... 103
10 Geotechnical Design.................................................................................................. 104

10.1. Interpretative Ground Model.............................................................................................................. 104
10.2. Selection of Geotechnical Design Parameters............................................................................ 104
10.3. Geotechnical Design............................................................................................................................. 107
10.4. Seismic Loading...................................................................................................................................... 112
10.5. Ground Improvement............................................................................................................................ 117
10.6. Underground Structures and Roadway Tunnels........................................................................ 118
11 Trenchless Installation of Services below Roads.................................................. 121

11.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 121
11.2. Trenchless Technology Methods...................................................................................................... 121
11.3. Managing Risk Associated with Trenchless Methods.............................................................. 122
11.4. Geotechnical Certification.................................................................................................................. 126
References............................................................................................................................. 128
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................... 146

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Tables
able 2.1. Qatar Main Soils and Bedrock Strata Units............................................................................................11

Table 4.1. Guidelines for Overall Exploratory Holes Spacings for Detailed Design...................................28
Table 4.2. Guidelines for Exploratory Holes Depths...............................................................................................31
Table 4.3. Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units....................................................35
Table 4.4. Rock Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units..................................................37
Table 4.5. Proposed Sampling Techniques for Qatar Soils..................................................................................39
Table 4.6. Guidelines on the Minimum Number of Samples to be Tested for Particular Soils
Laboratory Tests..............................................................................................................................................41
Table 4.7. Guidelines on the Minimum Number of Samples to be Tested for Particular Rock
Laboratory Test................................................................................................................................................42
Table 4.8. Design Considerations, Engineering Parameters and Testing Requirements for Road
Projects...............................................................................................................................................................44
Table 4.9. Soil and Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from
In Situ Tests for Qatar Road Projects......................................................................................................47
Table 4.10. Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory
Tests for Qatar Road Projects....................................................................................................................49
Table 4.11. Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from
Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects.............................................................................................51
Table 4.12. Groundwater Properties Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road
Projects...............................................................................................................................................................53
Table 4.13. Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory
Tests for Qatar Road Projects....................................................................................................................55
Table 4.14. Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from
Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects.............................................................................................56
Table 4.15. Typical Instrumentation for Qatar Road Projects...............................................................................57
Table 6.1. Site Categorization in Relation to the Ground Investigation of Landfills and
Contaminated Land........................................................................................................................................65
Table 7.1. Correction Factors in Sands for Rod Length.........................................................................................70
Table 7.2. Correction Factors CN for Vertical Effective Stress (σv’) due to Overburden of the
Soils......................................................................................................................................................................71
Table 7.3. Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived from SPT Results...................................................72
Table 7.4. Soil Characteristics and Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived from Cone
Penetration Testing Results.......................................................................................................................80
Table 7.5. Tests Commonly Undertaken for Qatar Road Projects for Determining the In Situ
Density of Soils................................................................................................................................................84

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Table 8.1. Summary of Geophysical Survey Techniques and their Application...........................................95

Table 8.2. Summary of Uses and Limitations of Frequently Used Seismic Methods................................97
Table 10.1. International Standards and References Commonly Used for Geotechnical Design in
Qatar Road Projects..................................................................................................................................... 109
Table 10.2. International Standards—Limit State Geotechnical Design.......................................................... 110
Table 10.3. Summary of Seismic Hazard Studies Results for Qatar at Various Return Periods........... 114
Table 10.4. Suggested Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in Preliminary
Seismic Design.............................................................................................................................................. 115
Table 10.5. Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in Preliminary Seismic Design.......... 115
Table 11.1. Trenchless Technology Methods............................................................................................................ 122
Table 11.2. Trenchless Technology Method Main Risks....................................................................................... 125
Table 11.3. Summary of Levels of Risk for Trenchless Technology Installations below Roads........... 125
Figures
Figure 7.1. Cone Penetrometer Components..............................................................................................................75

Figure 7.2. Structure of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer............................................................................................82
Figure 8.1. Refraction Methodology...............................................................................................................................97
Figure 10.1. Examples of Moderately Conservative and Worst Credible Values and Parameters......... 107
Appendixes
Appendix A . Qatar Geological Map, LithoStratigraphy, Tectonic Setting, and Earthquake Maps........... 151
Appendix B . Qatar Soils and Rock Strata Typical Geotechnical Hazards and Risks..................................... 157
Appendix C . Preliminary Sources Study........................................................................................................................ 161
Appendix D . Example Template Evaluation Sheets for Ground Investigation Companies....................... 169
Appendix E . Template Bill of Quantities for Ground Investigation.................................................................... 179
Appendix F . SPT Corrections Spreadsheet Template.............................................................................................. 211
Appendix G . Cone Penetration Testing......................................................................................................................... 215
Appendix H .Borehole Geophysical Techniques......................................................................................................... 219
Appendix I . Example Exploratory Hole Record......................................................................................................... 225
Appendix J . Example Geological Profiles..................................................................................................................... 231
Appendix K . Trenchless Installations............................................................................................................................. 235

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AGS Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists
AS aeolian sand
ASD Allowable Stress Design
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BRE Building Research Establishment
BS British Standards Institution
CBR California bearing ratio
CIRIA Construction Industry Research and Information Association
cm2 square centimeter(s)
CPT cone penetration test
CPTU cone penetration test with porewater pressure measurement
CU+PWP consolidated undrained with porewater pressure measurement (triaxial test)
DCPT dynamic cone penetration test
GIS geographic information system
GPR ground-penetrating radar
H horizontal
IBC International Building Code
ICBO International Conference of Building Officials
ICE Institution of Civil Engineers
IRTP International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test
ISSMFE International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

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ISSMGE International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
ISRM International Society for Rock Mechanics
kg kilogram(s)
kPa kilopascal(s)
L/sec liter(s) per second
L/min liter(s) per minute
LRFD Load and Resistance Factored Design
LSD Limit State Design
MASW multichannel analysis of surface waves (related to geophysical survey)
m meter(s)
mm millimeter(s)
m/sec meter(s) per second
mm/sec millimeter(s) per second
MMUP Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (Now known as MME)
MPa megapascal(s)
PGA peak ground acceleration
PIdc Penetration Index
R rock
S sabkha
SASW spectral analysis of surface waves (related to geophysical survey)
SLS serviceability limit state
SPT standard penetration test
TRL Transport Research Laboratory

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TV television
UCS uniaxial compressive strength
UK United Kingdom
ULS ultimate limit state
U.S. United States of America
USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
UU unconsolidated undrained (triaxial test)
V vertical

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Nomenclature and Symbols
Symbol Units Property or Engineering Parameter

c’ kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
Drained cohesion intercept
cr kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
Remolded shear strength
c r’ kPa (kN/m2)a Drained residual cohesion intercept
c’crit kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
Critical state cohesion intercept (usually zero)
CN — Correction factor related to standard penetration test (SPT) rod length
cu kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
Undrained shear strength
cv m2/yr Coefficient of consolidation (one dimensional)
CaCO3 % Carbonate content (total)
CBR % California bearing ratio
Cl %, mg/L Chloride (total, water soluble)
Dr — Relative density
Ip % Plasticity index (PI)
E MPa Young’s modulus of elasticity
E’ MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Young’s modulus of elasticity (drained)
Eh mV Redox potential
E’0.01 & Es MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Young’s modulus of elasticity (small strain)
Er — Energy ratio of SPT hammer
Eu MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Young’s modulus of elasticity (undrained)
fs MPa Sleeve friction- cone penetration test
G MPa (MN/m2)a Shear modulus
Gmax MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Very low strain shear modulus
Gs MPa Shear modulus (small strain/initial modulus)
γ Mg/m3 Bulk density/Mass density
I50 — Point load index, axial (I50a), diametral (l50d), lump (I50l)
ID — Density index
j — Mass factor j
k m/sec Coefficient of permeability, horizontal (kh), vertical (kv) as appropriate
Ko — Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
ks kN/m 3
Modulus of subgrade reaction
LL % Moisture content at liquid limit (wI)
m — Rock material constant
mv m /MN
2
Coefficient of volume compressibility (one dimensional)
n % Porosity
N — SPT blow count (uncorrected)
N60 — SPT blow count corrected to a standard energy ratio of 60 percent of the theoretical
free-fall hammer energy (and rod length where appropriate)
(N1)60 — SPT blow count corrected to a standard energy ratio of 60 percent of the theoretical
free-fall hammer energy (and rod length where appropriate) and the effective
overburden pressure
OCR — Overconsolidation ratio

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Symbol Units Property or Engineering Parameter

PI % Plasticity index
PIdc mm/blow Penetration index (dynamic cone penetration test)
PL % Moisture content at Plastic limit (wp)
PSD — Particle size distribution
qc MPa Cone resistance—cone penetration test
RMR — Rock mass rating
rs Ohms.m Apparent resistivity
s — Rock material constant
SO4 %, mg/L Sulfate (total, water soluble)
u kN/m 2
Porewater pressure
UCS MPa Uniaxial compressive strength
ν — Poisson’s ratio
ν’ — Drained Poisson’s ratio
νu — Undrained Poisson’s ratio
w % Moisture content
wI % Liquid limit (LL)
wp % Plastic limit (PL)
γd Mg/m 3
Dry density
γdmax Mg/m 3
Maximum dry density
γdmin Mg/m 3
Minimum dry density
λ — Correction factor related to SPT rod length
ρs Mg/m 3
Particle density
σh kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
In situ horizontal stress
σv kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
In situ vertical stress
f’ degrees Peak drained (effective stress) angle of shear resistance
f’crit degrees Critical state drained (effective stress) angle of shear resistance
fr’ degrees Residual drained (effective stress) angle of shear resistance
Notes:
a
Units in brackets also commonly used.

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1 Introduction
This Part provides guidance on Qatar soils and bedrock strata and the geotechnical hazards
they can present. It also provides guidance on undertaking preliminary sources studies,
the planning and procurement of ground investigations, in situ and laboratory testing, and
geotechnical design.

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2 Qatar General Geology and

Geotechnical Hazards
2.1 Overview
This chapter presents a general description of the geology of the region and a generalized
interpretation of the characteristics of Qatar strata and the typical geotechnical hazards
that they may present, based on available factual and interpretative data from several
sources. The generalized interpretation does not necessarily reflect variations that can
occur in the vertical and horizontal geology across the country. The specific geology at a
project site should therefore, be established based on the procedures detailed in this Part
and in Volume 2, Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual. The Designer’s
Geotechnical Advisor (DGA) shall have the sole responsibility to ensure that the geotechnical
data are complete and accurately represents the ground conditions across the project site.
2.2 Geology of the Region

Figure A.1 in Appendix A is a geological map of Qatar. Table A.1 lists the litho-stratigraphy
of Qatar.
Qatar is an exposed part of the Arabian Shelf, between the stable Arabian Shield of western
Saudi Arabia and the Mobile Belt of southwestern Iran. It is located within the interior
platform of the shelf, between the basins of the northern Arabian Gulf and the Rub Al Khali
desert. Within those basins, sedimentation was mostly continuous, and the deposits are
relatively thick. The tilting and continuous gradual subsidence of the region to the north
and east started in Permian time. The accumulation of large volumes of sediments on the
shallow southern margin of the Tethys Ocean led to instability and orogenic movement that
created a regional homocline.
Although Qatar is within the relatively stable interior platform of the Arabian Shelf, its
proximity to the Tethys Ocean to the northeast resulted in gentle tectonic activity in the
region. The tectonics persisted over a considerable period and produced significant folding.
The largest of the folds is the Qatar Arch, a broad, gently warped anticline with a north-south
axis through the Qatar peninsular. The Qatar Arch is truncated in the west by the larger
Dukhan Anticline, as shown in Figure A.1 in Appendix A.
The solid geology of Qatar comprises Eocene and Miocene formations of the Tertiary Period. In
western Qatar, the Midra Shale and Dukhan Limestone Members (of middle Eocene-Lutetian
age) uncomfortably overlie the Rus Formation (of Ypresian age). In northeastern Qatar, the
Umm Bab Member (formerly named Simsima Limestone) overlies the Rus Formation, and the
entire Midra Shale unit is absent (Boukhary and Alsharhan, 1998).

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Superficial deposits are thin to absent across much of Qatar, with geological maps showing
rock outcrop. Significant thickness of superficial deposits are, however, present in the
southeast of the county dominated by aeolian sand dunes. Superficial deposits of residual
soils are to be found within the center of Qatar. Along the coastlines of Qatar, there are
areas dominated by surficial deposits of sabkha and evaporates, and thick marine sediments
including marine silts, marine sands, and caprock (calcarenite).
2.2.1 Solid Geology

Discussion on the solid geology strata is restricted to the Tertiary formations that extend
to almost 150 meters (m) below ground. Deeper formations would not be expected to be
encountered in highway construction. The following Tertiary formation lithologies are
discussed below:
• Umm Er-Radhuma
• Rus Formation
• Damman Formation
• Dam Formation
• Hofuf Formation
2.2.1.1 Umm Er-Radhuma (60 million to 54 million years ago)

The Umm Er-Radhuma Formation is not known to outcrop in Qatar, but it has been proven
in several locations across the country in deep boreholes at depths in excess of 100 m.
The formation exceeds 300 m in thickness and generally comprises dolomites of various
harnesses, often fractured, with bands of chert, marl, and clay intercalations (Cavelier, 1970).
2.2.1.2 Rus Formation (54 million to 50 million years ago)

During Rus Formation deposition, in the late Paleocene to early Eocene epochs, the present
Qatar peninsula had a lagoonal/supratidal sabkha environment. The seawater level was
generally high with frequent regression events (Ziegler, 2001).
The thickness of the Rus Formation in Qatar is based on borehole results. The formation
displays a minimal thickness of 28 m in Latariyah, within the sharp anticline of the Qatar
Arch. In the north of Qatar, the formation is up to 44 m thick and, in the area surrounding
Doha, up to 80 m thick.
According to Geologic Description of the Qatar Peninsula (Arabian Gulf) (Cavelier, 1970), the
Rus Formation consists of three members, of which only Unit 1 and Unit 2 are found in Qatar.
The Units found in Qatar in stratigraphic order (oldest to youngest) are as follows:
• Unit 1 (Al Khor limestone), characterized by the presence of a white, generally weak,
often porous limestone

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• Unit 2 (undifferentiated carbonate and sulfate facies), characterized by the presence of

a highly variable anhydrite, compact, finely crystalline, with interbedded green shale or
grey marl, with interbedded shales and limestone
Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)
Unit 1, the uppermost part of the Rus Formation, is formed of a granular limestone of
calcarenite type, of average strength, greyish, sometimes with secondary dolomitization,
and often fossilliferous. It is generally of uniform 0.8 to 1 m thickness. It is often referred to
as the Al Khor Limestone and is well exposed in the Al Khor area at the top of the coastal
cliffs. Unit 1 is characterized by the presence of weak limestone, and is whitish or yellowish
due to oxidation, soft, of chalky aspect, with thin intercalations of veins of greenish to
brownish clay (from a few centimeters up to 0.50 m thick). Several beds of whitish to greyish
dolomitic limestone, generally strong, vesicular, often spongy or tufaceous in aspect, and of
limited thickness, about 1 m, have also been identified in the sedimentary sequence. Unit
1 outcrops in the west of Qatar in the area of Jabal Dukhan and in the north and northwest
around Lusail and Al Khor.
Unit 2 (Undifferentiated Carbonate and Sulfate Facies)
Unit 2 of the Rus Formation comprises undifferentiated carbonate and sulfate facies,
including marls, siltstones, and thin limestones with the numerous and extensive beds of
evaporates, mainly gypsum, and anhydrite. The gypsum beds, which individually can be up
to 4 m thick, are present beneath much of the current ground surface throughout southern
Qatar.
The Unit 2 deposits are generally divided in two subunits:
• Subunit 1, an upper predominantly carbonate facies developed over roughly 20 m

thickness and represented by calcarenite, calcisiltite, and limestone with thin interbeds
(roughly 0.5 m thick) claystone and calcilutite layers
• Subunit 2, a lower sulfate facies represented by massive gypsum and anhydrite with
incrustation of siltstone, calcarenite, and claystone.
Subunit 2 extends northward to a belt between the Dukhan Anticline, the central Qatar
Arch, and the area south of Al Khor. North of the belt, evaporates are absent from the Rus
Formation. The absence of the evaporates is probably a result of the Qatar Arch rising during
the Lower Eocene epoch, preventing their deposition. The gypsum beds, where present, have
been subjected to extensive dissolution by circulating groundwater, resulting in collapse of
the overlying strata in places with occasional development of collapse structures to ground
surface.
North of Doha, in the West Bay and Lusail area, the sulfate facies (Subunit 2) is replaced by
a clay facies roughly 30 to 40 m in thickness. Toward the northern boundary of the sulfate
facies, the clay facies become more predominant. Sampling by coring of the unit is very
difficult, and often no cores are retrieved from the borehole.

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2.2.1.3 Dammam Formation (50 million to 33.7 million years ago)

During the middle to late Eocene epoch, the eustatic sea level gradually fell, and a relatively
small part of the Arabian Shield became exposed, at least at the beginning of the depositional
sequence (Ziegler, 2001). The wide eastern shelf of the Arabian Plate was covered by the
Dammam Formation and reached about 30 m in thickness. The base of the Dammam unit is
represented by an open-marine environment, whereas the upper part indicates a shallow-
marine environment and a siliciclastic influence from the west (Ziegler, 2001).
According to Geologic Description of the Qatar Peninsula (Arabian Gulf) (Cavelier, 1970), the
Dammam Formation consists of four members (oldest to youngest in stratigraphic order):
• Midra Shale
• Dukhan Alveolina Limestone
• Umm Bab Limestone (formerly named Simsima Limestone)
• Arbarug Limestone
Midra Shale
The Midra Shale is located at the base of the Dammam Formation, and it consists of pale
yellow-orange to yellow-green shale and clay and very pale orange marl and dolomite. The
shales are finely fissile (papyraceous) and contain clays, dolomite, and gypsum. The dolomitic
marl is laminated and contains ferricrete. The Midra Shale ranges between 2 m and about
6 m in thickness.
The maximum flooding surface during the Eocene epoch represents a key element in
correlation of lithologies throughout Qatar. That horizon is located in the lower part of the
Midra Shale, where argillaceous rocks rich in marine fossils such as shark teeth and abundant
allogenic palygorskite (attapulgite) are present.
Dukhan Alveolina Limestone
The Dukhan Alveolina Limestone Member is represented by a massive limestone, generally

about 1 m thick but which can be up to 2 m thick. It is characterized by a hard, microcrystalline,
partly recrystallized, and dolomitized limestone (Cagatay, 1990).
The Dukhan Alveolina Limestone is fairly continuous, but occasionally the limestone is divided
by a bed of intercalated attapulgite shale. The limestone is characterized by an abundance of
Alveolina fossils. The spread of the Dukhan Limestone appears more restricted than that of
the lower shales in northwestern Qatar, but it is not likely to have been recognized in some
cases, because of intensive dolomitization that obliterates the typical fauna.
Umm Bab Limestone (formerly called Simsima Limestone)
The official term for this member is the Umm Bab Limestone, but it is still frequently referred
by its former name, Simsima Limestone. The unit is widely present throughout Qatar, except

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for localized areas where it has been removed by erosion. It is known to be up to 15 m thick,
the thickest development being in the extreme north of Qatar, particularly away from the
Qatar Arch anticline. The unit is believed to have a restricted thickness over the Qatar Arch,
the Simsima Arch, and Dukhan Anticline.
The lithology is essentially represented by a highly recrystallized chalky limestone. At the

base of unit (over a maximum thickness of 5 m) the lithology includes marls and thin stringers
of attapulgite shales rich in fossils. Toward the bottom of the unit, the unit is represented
by a light cream and light brown limestone with many yellowish brown stains. The less-
crystalline nature of this horizon suggests a low diagenetic process. This limestone generally
tends to be more competent in situ, being less broken and less brittle.
Abaruq Limestone
The upper part of the Dammam Formation, which is roughly 10 m thick, comprises a slightly
calcareous clayey dolomite, often brightly colored, compact at depth, but with dusty surface
weathering and nodules at the upper part. The upper 2 m thickness of the unit comprises
a yellowish grey to brown, crystalline, and moderately strong calcareous dolomite. The only
variations are related to the intensity of the dolomitization, and to the clay content of the
lower layers.
The Abaruq limestone has a very limited extent in Qatar, being identified only in the hills of
the Zekreet area. It is, however, widely present offshore towards Bahrain, where it correlates
well with the Orange Marl member.
2.2.1.4 Dam Formation (16 million to 21 million years ago)

The Dam Formation represents a complete sabkha sequence in Miocene sediments from
offshore to continental deposits. Cavelier (1970) subdivided the formation into two members,
the lower Dam and the upper Dam. Dill et al. (2005) subsequently refined the formation,
subdividing it into seven members (oldest to youngest in stratigraphic order):
• Lower Salwa Member
• Middle Salwa Member
• Upper Salwa Member
• Lower Al Nakhsh Member
• Middle Al Nakhsh Member
• Upper Al Nakhsh Member
• Abu Samrah Member
The Salwa Members at the base of the Dam Formation consist of heterolithic siliciclastic-
calcareous sediments that were laid down under meso-to-microtidal conditions. The Salwa
Members have a total thickness of over 27 m.

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The Al Nakhsh Members were formed under macrotidal conditions with sub-to-supratidal
depositional environment passing into a continental environment. Celestite, gypsum, and
microbial mats (stromatolites) are very widespread in these sabkha sediments. Crystals
of gypsum and the thickness of stromatolites increase markedly towards the younger
sediments of the Al Nakhsh members, indicating a close genetic link between the growth of
microbial domes and gypsum precipitation. The Al Nakhsh Members have a total thickness
of roughly 33 m.
The Abu Samrah Member is about 48 m thick and consists of marine calcareous sediments
deposited in a microtidal wave-dominated environment.
Dam Formation deposits crop locally in the southwestern part of Qatar.
2.2.1.5 Hofuf Formation (13 million to 16 million years ago)

The Hofuf Formation in Saudi Arabia comprises four members (in stratigraphic order, youngest
to oldest):
• Conglomerate—grey marly conglomerate, limestone boulders in a quartz sand matrix
• Sandstone—alternating red and white argillaceous sandstone
• Limestone—off-white, partly impure sandy limestone
• Conglomerate—red and white conglomerate; boulders and pebbles of limestone in a

quartz sand matrix
Only the lowest (and oldest) stratigraphic member is present in Qatar, in the southwestern
part of the country, generally at high elevation. The deposits in Qatar do not exceed 10 m
thickness. The deposits at the base of the member consist of sandy red and greenish clay
and coarse sands and sandstones overlain by deposits comprising pebbles of various rocks
including quartz, limestone, and jasper in a sandy matrix. The upper lithologies of the member
are represented by loose, reworked lower Hofuf Formation deposits.
2.2.2 Superficial Geology

The superficial deposits comprise the following:
• Aeolian sands deposited during periods of lower sea levels, most notably during the last
ice age when sea levels were low
• Sabkha deposits laid down during periods of marine transgression
• Marine sediments deposited during period of higher sea levels, often reworked by wave
activities
• Continental sediments of reworked gravels and depression muds and silts, as well as
residual soils derived from the in situ alteration of the underlying rock strata; these
deposits are often reworked locally in their upper part by wind
These superficial deposits are described in the following paragraphs.

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2.2.2.1 Aeolian Sand

The southeast coast of Qatar and central south area are dominated by aeolian dune sands
occasionally interrupted by interdune areas occupied by sabkha plains. The aeolian sands
exhibit four main depositional morphologies, with a general northwest to southeast
alignment:
• Surface sands in uneven and thin sheets representing the constantly reworked material
with a temporal character
• Sand clusters of no definite shape, located in depressions, acting as natural barriers.

These deposits occur in depressions in areas with scarce tree vegetation
• Dunes of barchans type, with the apex of the crescent orientated from north-northwest
to northwest, corresponding with the Shamal direction. Barchan dunes dominate the
area around Al Kharrara (known as “The Singing Sand Dunes”) between the Sealine
Beach Resort and the Inland Sea and are up to 40 m high above interdune areas
• Elongated dunes or dunes with shapes no longer discernable, developed parallel to

the east coast of Qatar in the areas of Ras Laffan, Fuwairit, Al Khor, Inland Sea, and
southeast of Abu Samrah
The aeolian sands are generally silico-calcareous in nature, except for the deposits in the
northeast of Qatar around Ras Laffan, Fuwairit, and Al Khor that are essentially calcareous.
The grains of the aeolian sand deposits are worn, rounded, dull, and uniform in size. The
aeolian sand is often white in color. Inland, the aeolian sand changes from white to reddish
in color owing to an increase in iron oxide amount.
2.2.2.2 Sabkha
Sabkha are extensive salt flats underlain by sand, silt, and clay that are often encrusted with
salt (halite). Sabkha occur generally along the coast (coastal sabkha). There are also inland
occurrences of isolated lagoons (inland sabkha), especially in the area northeast and east
of Mesaieed Industrial City and east of the Jabal Dukhan. The main factors that control the
formation of the sabkha are the depth to the water table, high temperature, and the effects
of wind deflation. The two types of sabkha may be summarized as follows:
• Coastal sabkha dominate the east coast of the Qatar Peninsula. They are extremely flat
and are formed in conditions of a shallow brine water table located within the capillary
zone. The brine groundwater evaporates from the free water surface bringing to the
surface the salts within the surrounding soils. The upper soils become salt saturated
and crusts of halite precipitate on the surface. Beneath the crust, calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
becomes concentrated forming a mush of gypsum crystals. As ground temperatures rise,
water of crystallization is driven from the gypsum crystals to form anhydrite. Active
coastal sabkha also feature a mat of thin black algae. Most of the time, the mat surface
is dry and cracked. During spring tides and storms, however, seawater can inundate the
mats causing the algae to regenerate into a slimy, rubbery surface. With time, the mat
once again becomes dry and a halite crust forms.

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• Inland sabkha have no direct hydrological connection with the sea and derive moisture
from rare rainfall and a very shallow water table within the capillary zone. They occur in
areas dominated by high thickness of aeolian sand or residual soils. The best examples
of inland sabkha are found in area of Jabal Dukhan and north of Mesaieed. As with
coastal sabkha, inland sabkha develop halite crusts concentrated by evaporation of
groundwater, which contains dissolved salts from the surrounding rocks and soils. Algae
mats do not develop on inland sabkha.
2.2.2.3 Marine Sediments

The marine sediments in Qatar may be summarized as follows:
• Pseudo-oolitic and conglomeratic limestone (calcarenite). These deposits are present

along and close to the current coastline of Qatar and are represented by rounded
cemented calcarenite, often classified as pseudo-oolitic limestone. The sediments
generally are coarsely graded and include numerous boulders of limestone. The rounded
calcarenite develops in the zone where wave breaking occurs during the strong shamal
(east wind) periods.
• Beach gravels or marine terraces. These deposits occur in only a few locations in
Qatar and are at most 2 m thick. The deposits are made up of coarse-grained sand and
gravel size pebbles of limestone or quartz. These deposits generally overlie the marine
conglomeratic limestone (calcarenite) deposits described above, with which they are
sometimes interbedded.
• Marine calcareous silts and sands. These deposits occur at the edge of sabkha deposits.
The grain size of these deposits is uniformly graded, mainly of calcareous type, with
local worn elements of rounded calcarenite and shell fragments. The deposits are
locally abundant along the west coast of Qatar, representing a redeposition of Hofuf
Formation, and south of Mesaieed where they are derived from aeolian sand deposits.
The thickness of these deposits varies considerably, from 2 m to 4 m in Lusail and West
Bay area, to between 5 m and 12 m south of Doha and north of Mesaieed.
2.2.2.4 Continental Sediments

Based on the material origin, the continental sediments can be divided as follows:
• Gravel deposits, which are generally reworked deposits present at the base of the
Miocene hillocks. The gravel deposits typically have a sandy matrix. The composition of
the gravel pebbles indicates their origin to be either Hoful Formation or Dam Formation
strata, within a sandy matrix. The deposits occur around Kraij, Al Kharrara, and Jebel
Dukhan.
• Depression muds and silts, which fill the numerous depressions of various depths present
across topographic surface of Qatar. The muds and silts are deposited by runoff carrying
alteration or weathering products from surface rocks of neighboring areas.

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2.2.2.5 Residual Soils

Residual soils, representing the in situ alteration and weathering products of the underlying
rocks, are widely spread throughout Qatar. The thickness of these deposits rarely exceeds
2 m.
2.3 Characteristics of Qatar Strata

2.3.1 Introduction
This section provides a description of the engineering characteristics and the typical uses
and issues relating to the main soils and bedrock strata units encountered in Qatar, as listed
in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Qatar Main Soils and Bedrock Strata Units

Qatar Main Strata Units
Soils Aeolian sands
Sabkha
Marine sediments
Continental sediments
Residual soils
Bedrock strata Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)
Rus Formation Unit 2 (undifferentiated carbonate and sulfate facies)
Dammam Formation - (Midra Shale)
Dammam Formation - (Dukhan Alveolina Limestone)
Dammam Formation - Umm Bab Limestone (formerly known as Simsima
Limestone)
Table B.1 in Appendix B summarizes the typical geotechnical hazards and risks in Qatar
associated with these main strata units. Geotechnical practitioners need to identify all
project-specific geotechnical hazards for a project and to prepare a geotechnical risk register
to provide for active management of the geotechnical risks during the lifetime of a project.
Detailed information related to geotechnical risk management is presented in Volume 2, Part
16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual.
2.3.2 Aeolian Sands

The aeolian sands are fine to medium-grained and contain sub-rounded to well-rounded
particles of quartz and carbonate. The deposits are generally free of clay and silt and have
moderate to good permeability. The consistency of the materials varies from loose to medium
dense. Many of the larger sand dunes comprise an upper layer of loose, mobile, single-sized
sand grains overlying a core of denser, single-sized sand that has been cemented by pressure
solution and recementation of the carbonate and evaporate particles.
Aeolian sands may be used as general earthworks fill or structural backfill in combination
with other materials; however, this often requires implementation of special measures
during placement. Depending on source area and history of deposition, the sands can have a
high salt content and thus should be checked for aggressiveness before using the materials
close to concrete foundations or as fine aggregate in concrete mixes.

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Owing to the uniform grading of the deposits, there can be issues related to poor compaction
of the sands where standard compaction procedures are used to place the material in
engineering works. It is often necessary to flood the deposits with water and to use a heavy
vibratory roller to achieve the required compaction. Sometimes, however, the moisture
content versus maximum dry density curve for the deposits is very flat, allowing them to be
compacted in a completely dry state (known as dry compaction) to achieve reasonable levels
of compaction.
Migration of aeolian sand particles associated with irrigation water flow can result in cavities
forming below ridged surfaces, such as highway pavement asphalt, which may collapse
because of this migration.
2.3.3 Sabkha
Sabkha comprises fine, poor- to well-graded sands or silts that have been flooded by hyper-
saline groundwater, typically of 1 m or less thickness.
The coastal sabkha consists of highly variable materials both horizontally and vertically. Much
of the horizontal variation can be considered to be related to the position of the material
relative to the shoreline. In the vertical dimension, the coastal sabkha comprises a series
of layers having a range of textures and varying degrees of cementation, depending on the
quantities and state of the calcium carbonates and calcium sulfates present.
Inland sabkha varies in the horizontal direction only, because of the relatively constant
groundwater level beneath the ground surface.
Due to its mode of deposition, sabkha typically contains high concentrations of chloride and
sulfates, giving rise to aggressive environments for buried concrete and steel. This, together
with its fine grading, usually makes it unsuitable as structural fill.
Due to the large variability, these deposits typically are either excavated and replaced or
left in place and treated when encountered for a road project. Ground improvement methods
typically used on sabkha deposits include preloading and surcharging, dynamic compaction,
and stone columns, the method employed being dependent upon the type and thickness of
sabkha.
Historically, existing unpaved tracks followed sabkha flats as they provided a hard surface to
travel along in comparison with the surrounding loose desert sand. During periods of heavy
rain, the roads often become impassable since the surface crust of the sabkha tends to lose
strength when saturated, resulting in collapse of the deposits under their own weight.
Gypsum and anhydrite typically are abundant in sabkha deposits. These minerals can
undergo alternate hydration and dehydration under hot and humid conditions, resulting in
corresponding swelling and shrinkage volume changes that can affect foundations and road
pavements founded on the deposits.

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Significant variability in the compressibility (ranging from high to low compressibility)

characteristics of sabkha sediments can be expected, which can result in large differential
settlements.
2.3.4 Marine Sediments

The upper horizon of the marine sediments, the pseudo-oolitic and conglomeratic limestone
(calcarenite) deposits, show the characteristics of a rock. The unit typically has numerous
voids and shell content. The unit is consequently very porous, but generally it is of high
strength with unconfined compressive strength values greater than 15 megapascals (MPa).
The beach gravels (marine terraces), which include coarse sand materials, are generally
of uniform grading and, as such, they can be problematic to compact in earthworks when
used as excavated. These deposits can, however, be mixed with aeolian sand to produce
a more well-graded earthworks fill, compared to the two original materials, with improved
compaction and engineering properties.
The marine calcareous silts and sand commonly are very loose with very high moisture
content and low strength. Owing to their low strength, fine-grained marine sediments are
susceptible to bearing capacity failure and are problematic for trafficking. Fine-grained
marine sediments usually require either removal or treatment.
2.3.5 Continental Sediments

The continental deposits generally are the result of alluvial transport and deposition in
the wadis, which activate during rainy seasons or in a local depression developed as result
of karstification. Based on the transport energy, the continental deposits contain the full
spectrum of grain sizes from clay sizes to coarse gravel, with fines of medium plasticity.
With limited treatment, these deposits may be used as earthworks fill. The generally high
soluble salt content of the deposits, however, makes them unsuitable for use as structural
fill without treatment such as washing the material with clean water.
2.3.6 Residual Soils

The residual soils are generally derived from physical and chemical breakdown of the
underlying limestone bedrock. The unit is generally described as medium dense to very
dense, light brown to brown, slightly to highly gypsiferous, poorly graded to well graded,
fine to coarse grain silty sand, and gravel with local limestone cobbles. The gravel and cobble
fractions become larger and more frequent in depth. When residual soils are generated from
the weathered section of the Umm Bab unit (with excess of attapulgite clay pockets), the
materials exhibit very high plasticity with swelling characteristics.

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2.3.7 Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)

Rus Formation Unit 1 is characterized by both dolomitized and porous limestone. The strata
in Unit 1 are unconformably overlain by Midra Shale deposits predominantly. The Unit 1
deposits at the interface are consequently prone to cavity development.
The intact uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) values of the strata generally range from
2 MPa to 100 MPa, with a conservative average of 10 MPa.
The Unit 1 strata can usually be excavated by means of a pecker and mechanical excavators.
The material makes a good general fill for use in embankments or for the construction of
building platforms. The strata generally have high concentrations of sulfates and chlorides
that provide an aggressive chemical environment for concrete.
Rock slopes excavated in Rus Formation Unit 1 tend to be stable in dry conditions and
minimum protection of the slope face materials is required.
Generally, the stability of rock slopes in Rus Formation Unit 1 is governed by the spacing,
orientation, and condition of the discontinuities within the rock mass; therefore, excavations
must be designed accordingly based on geological discontinuity mapping and rock mass
characterization.
2.3.8 Rus Formation Unit 2 (Undifferentiated Carbonate and Sulfate Facies)

Rus Formation Unit 2 is represented by two distinct facies represented by an undifferentiated
carbonate facies and an undifferentiated sulfate facies.
2.3.8.1 Undifferentiated Carbonate Facies

The undifferentiated carbonate facies occurs as a more or less irregularly dolomitized
limestone, whitish or yellowish due to oxidation, soft, and of chalky aspect, with thin
intercalations or veins of greenish to brownish clay (from a few centimeters up to 0.5 m).
The intact strength of the subunit ranges from 1 MPa to 20 MPa with a conservative average
value of 4 MPa to 5 MPa. The lenses and veins of clay exhibit high plasticity.
Rock slopes excavated in the subunit tend to be stable under dry conditions. In wet conditions,
however, the clayey interbeds can often provide a barrier to water flow, resulting in elevated
pore pressure that can initiate slope failure.
The strata belonging to the undifferentiated carbonate facies of Rus Formation Unit 2 strata
may be used as general earthworks fill. The combination of high fines content, high plasticity,
high sulfates content, and the presence of gypsum in the Rus Formation Unit 2 deposits,
however, makes them unsuitable for filling to structures.
2.3.8.2 Undifferentiated Sulfate Facies

The lower subdivision of Rus Formation Unit 2 is represented by strata characterized by the
presence of a highly variable anhydrite, compact, finely crystalline, with interbedded green

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shale or grey marl, with interbedded shales and limestone. The strata shows simple folding
from differential dissolution and rock plastic behavior.
The UCS values of anhydrite and gypsum typically are in the range 20 MPa to 100 MPa,
whereas the strengths of the shales, marls, and limestone vary from 1 MPa to 10 MPa.
Cavities are known to occur because of dissolution of the anhydrite and gypsum, where
groundwater flow tends to concentrate at the shale, marl, and gypsum interface. Owing to
their strength and massive nature, excavation of the thick gypsum deposits typically requires
heavy ripping or cutting machinery. The shales, marls, and limestone are easily excavated by
mechanical means but tend to disintegrate.
Excavations in the strata will result in stress release leading to increases in moisture content
in the shales and consequent loss of strength, which can initiate shallow landslides in cut
faces over time.
2.3.8.3 Midra Shale

The Midra Shale generally comprises finely fissile shales and contains clays, dolomite, and
local gypsum.
The Midra Shale deposits show a large degree of anisotropy with UCS values in the vertical
direction of generally between 8 MPa and 15 MPa with much lower UCS values, as low as
1 MPa, laterally. The rock elastic properties follow the same pattern. The intact strength of
the dolomitic deposits is generally up to 80 MPa.
The Midra Shale deposits typically can be easily excavated by mechanical excavator. The
dolomitic deposits, however, normally require excavation using a pecker or by ripping. In
extreme cases, blasting may be necessary, but this is uncommon.
Owing to the large amount of high-plasticity fines, the Midra Shale deposits are not usually
considered suitable fill material.
Permanent cut slopes in Midra Shale deposits are susceptible to disintegration and will
normally require protection.
2.3.8.4 Dukhan Alveolina Limestone

Dukhan Alveolina Limestone is characterized by very high strength, with UCS values between
25 MPa and 100 MPa and high elastic properties. The presence of fines is generally limited,
and consequently the rock is good for producing concrete aggregate. It can also be used for
earthworks fill, particular if mixed with fine-grained materials, such as aeolian sand, marine
gravels, or both, and sands to produce a well-graded fill.
Excavation of the Dukhan Alveolina Limestone usually requires use of at least a peck hammer
and normally requires ripping. Blasting may be necessary in rare cases.

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Excavated slopes in Dukhan Alveolina Limestone generally are not susceptible to degradation.
Consequently, protection of the cut faces normally is unnecessary if the slope is designed
appropriately.
2.3.8.5 Umm Bab Limestone (Formerly Simsima Limestone)

The Umm Bab Limestone is typically described as weak to moderately weak and moderately
strong, occasionally strong, and off-white to light grey and light brown, fine-grained, or
crystalline, or a combination thereof, limestone with joints and fractures of variable spacing,
typically nonintact, crystalline, or pseudo-brecciated dolomitic limestone, along with
calcareous siltstone. Thin bands or lenses of carbonate siltstone and marl and interconnecting
voids and cavities in-filled with silt, marl, calcite, or gypsum are often observed. The upper
layers of the formation are typically highly weathered and tend to be more competent in
terms of cementation, strength, fractures, and weathering with depth. The limestone is
frequently intermixed with or contains pockets of poorly to moderately cemented light
greenish-grey to purple diagenetically derived carbonate silt and siltstone. The secondary
carbonate siltstone may constitute up to 60 percent of the rock mass.
The upper layers of the Umm Bab Limestone tend to be highly weathered to the extent
that the limestone forms gravel and cobbles within a silt, sand, or marl matrix. The Umm
Bab Limestone generally is bimodal, comprising hard recrystallized predominantly calcareous
(occasionally dolomitic) “original” limestone and a variable percentage of secondary
attapulgitic mudstone, clay, and siltstone. The engineering properties of the limestone are
largely influenced by:
• The relative percentage of original limestone to secondary material.
• The degree of cementation of the secondary material. Where the rock comprises a high
percentage of weakly cemented secondary attapulgite, the whole rock mass generally
is more fractured and considerably weaker in terms of the bearing capacity of the strata.
The quality and strength of the limestone can vary significantly over relatively small lateral
and vertical distances. Wetting or saturation of the rock mass causes significant reductions in
the rock mass strength, because the secondary attapulgite clay becomes highly plastic upon
wetting. This phenomenon is particularly important in zones where the rock mass comprises
a relatively high percentage of secondary attapulgite (>50 percent).
The Umm Bab Limestone might also be represented by a change of facies from the crystalline
dolomitic limestone into a lighter cream and light brown limestone with many yellowish
brown stains. The less-crystalline nature of this zone suggests that it has not undergone
a diagenetic process to the same degree as the overlying strata. This zone generally tends
to be more competent in situ; that is, less broken and less brittle than the overlying strata.
The Umm Bab Limestone can be excavated by means of a pecker and mechanical excavators,
but patches of hard crystalline rock might require heavy rippers or blasting. When excavated,

15
the materials make good general earthworks fill for use in embankment or building platform
constructions. However, they can contain high concentrations of sulfates and chlorides
that create an aggressive chemical environment for concrete. They can also contain high-
plasticity fines (attapulgite clay) that should normally be screened out.
Excavated rock slopes in Umm Bab Limestone tend to be prone to failure in highly weathered
zones, generally the upper 2 m to 3 m of the sequence, unless properly designed and
protected. The rock slope stability is governed by the spacing, orientation, and condition
of the discontinuities within the rock mass, and excavations in these materials must be
designed based on geological discontinuity mapping and rock mass characterization.
Temporary cut slopes in Umm Bab Limestone can be designed to be near vertical but may
require a retaining system if the slope is to remain open for a significant period.
Cavities (dahal) are common with the Umm Bab Limestone. They tend to be largest near the
Qatar Arch, where their size of these cavities can be more than 20 m in height with similar
dimensions laterally but their size decreases with distance from the Arch to the east and
west.
2.4 Groundwater Problems in Qatar

Establising groundwater flow conditions that may affect the foundation construction, slope
stability of embankments or cuttings as well as design of infiltration systems is one of the
foremost requirements for the design of highways and other infrastructure.
The pace of development in Qatar has generated a number of legacy issues including
adverse impacts on the groundwater table and issues with the satisfactory functioning
of surface water drainage systems. Within Doha, a fundamental concern is the rising
groundwater table that has resulted from recharge by water lost from piped water systems.
The rising groundwater table adversely affects infrastructure, the built environment, and
the natural environment, and can place constraints on development. Ashghal contracted
Schlumberger Water Services to conduct a program of groundwater monitoring; the results
were presented in several project reports (Schlumberger Water Services, 2012a, 2012b,
and 2013). Information on further update reports may be obtained from Ashghal Drainage
Design Department.
Without mitigation, the extent and scale of the problems are expected to worsen with time;
consequently, the Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013) has been
prepared to develop a strategy that controls and mitigates the rising groundwater problem in
urban Qatar. The strategic approach recommended by the Qatar Integrated Drainage Master
Plan, with regard to the control and management of the ground and surface water, is as
follows:
• Primary road infrastructure to be served by piped systems to ensure high level of

protection and minimal disruption to the core transportation infrastructure.

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• As far as practical, adopt Sustainable Drainage System approaches to the management

and control of surface water.
• Resolve the rising groundwater table issues in the metropolitan area by achieving zero
net inflow, then lowering the groundwater to achieve the level of service needed for
the satisfactory performance of Sustainable Drainage System, such as soakaways and
infiltration systems. The level of service will help arrest the nuisance of groundwater,
especially in terms of protection of basements and mitigation of flow into the wastewater
system. The level of service is defined in term of two zones:
−− Inland Zone: 4 m below ground
−− Coastal Zone: 4 m below ground where possible, but not lower than mean sea level
Geotechnical practitioners should ensure that they are familiar with the Qatar Integrated
Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013), its strategic approach, the results of the
monitoring study, and subsequent updates. Geotechnical practitioners must consider the
current state of the groundwater table and anticipated future change, if any, as part of their
assessment of geotechnical risks to a project. Future changes might include ongoing rise,
the effects of implementation of Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan and its controls, and
ultimately reversing the trend to lower the groundwater table. The expected groundwater
conditions must be fully considered in temporary works design, including dewatering, and,
in the design of the permanent works, possible medium- and long-term changes. Within the
design, appropriate provision should be made for maintenance of the drainage measures.
To establish the groundwater conditions at a site, instrumentation in the form of standpipes

or piezometers, or both, usually will need to be installed as part of ground investigation
works, as noted in Sections 4.6 and 4.8 in this Part. To establish seasonal and other trends,
the instruments will need to be monitored regularly over several months, and possibly over
a year. Data loggers can be used in place of manual readings.
Geotechnical practitioners need to establish the geology and hydrogeology together with
the permeability and infiltration characteristics of the deposits. The information is normally
required for the assessment and design of groundwater systems or infiltration systems such
as soakaways. Information on in situ (field) tests that geotechnical practitioners might use
to determine strata permeability and infiltration characteristics are discussed in Section 4.6
in this Part.

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3 Preliminary Sources Study
3.1 Overview
The preliminary sources study is an important part of the geotechnical studies for any Qatar
highway project. This chapter provides guidance for carrying out a preliminary sources study
and associated site reconnaissance. It also provides details on the types of information
typically available and to be considered for review.
3.2 Scope of Preliminary Sources Study

A preliminary sources study should be conducted at an early stage in any geotechnical
investigation. The preliminary sources study is Substage 2A in the geotechnical certification
process, as described in Volume 2, Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual.
The primary objectives of the preliminary sources study are to evaluate the ground and
groundwater conditions based on existing information and to assess the scope of further
investigation that may be required. This should cover both engineering and environmental
assessment aspects of a project. Table C.1 in Appendix C lists the types of information
routinely required for a preliminary sources study. This includes services in and around the
site that need to be considered in the design and implementation of any ground investigation,
and in the design and construction of the highway project. The precise information to be
gathered will be project-specific, with the scope of the preliminary sources study being
determined by the project geotechnical practitioner.
A significant amount of information about a site may be available in existing records. Table C.2
in Appendix C lists the most important sources of information.
As part of the preliminary sources study, reconnaissance of the site should be made and,
where possible, the area immediately surrounding it. Table C.3 in Appendix C summarizes
the procedure for site reconnaissance and the main points to be considered. The precise
extent of the reconnaissance required at any site should, however, be established by the
geotechnical practitioner taking account of the particular circumstances of the site and
project. The geotechnical practitioner should extend or modify the standard procedure to
reflect the site and project needs.
Inspection of road cuttings, open cuts for building construction, utility excavations, and
areas such as quarries near a site can provide useful information on soil and rock types and
their stability characteristics. Similarly, embankments, buildings, or other structures with a
history of settlement can provide useful evidence of unstable or compressible soils. Surface
(geomorphological) features on a site can also provide evidence of the ground conditions
that exist; for example, ground collapse depressions might be indicative of underground

15
cavities (dahal). Areas of silty alluvium may be indicative of collapse features (Ministry of
Municipality Affairs and Agriculture et al., 2005).
Further information on carrying out preliminary sources studies can be found in the following
documents:
• Code of Practice for Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010)
• Manual on Subsurface Investigations (AASHTO, 1988)
• The Value of Geotechnics in Construction: Proceedings from the Seminar (ICE, 1998)
• Subsurface Investigations—Geotechnical Site Characterization (FHWA, 2002)

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4 Ground Investigation Planning
4.1 Overview
This chapter provides guidance on the phasing of ground investigations, and guidelines for
exploratory holes spacing and depths. It also provides advice on soils and rock sampling,
engineering parameters typically required for geotechnical design, and soil and rock
laboratory testing to obtain those engineering parameters.
4.2 Introduction
The composition and the extent of the geotechnical investigations for a project should
reflect the anticipated type and design of the proposed construction. Consequently,
the geotechnical practitioner should seek all pertinent information for a project from the
designer at the early stages of geotechnical investigation planning and design. For guidance,
the sorts of details that should be obtained are given below:
• Road earthworks: locations, layout, dimensions, geometry, and elevations of the sections
at grade, in cutting, and on embankment.
• Road structures: locations of bridges and their approaches, tunnels and their approaches,
retaining walls, gantry signage, and buildings (for example, toll booths, low-rise office
buildings, or maintenance depots). Information on the structures layout, type of
construction anticipated, together with design load and performance criteria.
• Borrow pit requirements and reuse of earthworks materials.
• The precise details to be obtained will be project-specific and must be established by

the geotechnical practitioner.
With such information, the geotechnical practitioner can optimize the design of the
geotechnical investigations and thereby provide overall value for money.
The geotechnical investigations should provide sufficient data on the ground and
groundwater conditions to facilitate a full description of the essential ground properties and
a reliable assessment of the soil and rock parameters to be used in design calculations.
The typical aspects to be considered by the geotechnical practitioner when scoping a ground
investigation based on Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 2: Ground Investigation and
Testing (BS EN 1997-2:2007) are as follows:
• Ground:
−− Suitability of the site with respect to the proposed construction and the level of
acceptable risks

15
−− Deformation of the ground caused by the structure or earthworks or resulting from

construction works and its behavior over time
−− Safety with respect to limit states; for example, settlement, subsidence, ground
heave, uplift, slippage of soil, and rock masses
−− Loads transmitted to the structure from the ground; for example, lateral pressures
on piles, and the extent to which they depend on its design and construction
−− Foundation methods; for example, ground improvement, whether it is possible to

excavate, drivability of piles, drainage
−− Sequence of foundation works
−− Effects of the proposed structure on the surroundings, for example, on an adjoining

structure
−− Any additional structural measures required; for example, support of excavations,

anchorage, sleeving of bored piles, and removal of obstructions
−− Effects of construction on the surroundings; for example, on an adjoining structure
−− Type and extent of contamination on and near the site from historical land use,
including the effectiveness of any existing measures installed to contain or
remediate contamination
−− Ground effect due to potential liquifaction of the ground due to seismic events
• Use of excavated materials for construction:
−− Suitability for the intended use
−− Extent of the deposits
−− Whether it is possible to extract and process the materials, and whether and how
suitable material can be separated and disposed of
−− Prospective methods to improve soil and rock
−− Workability of the soil and rock during construction and possible changes in their
properties during excavation, transport, placement, and further treatment
• Groundwater
−− Depth to groundwater
−− Thickness, extent and permeability of water bearing strata in the ground and joint
systems in rock
−− Elevation of the groundwater surface or piezometric surface of aquifers and their

variation over time and actual groundwater levels including possible extreme
levels and their periods of recurrence
−− Porewater pressure distribution

15
−− Chemical composition and temperature of groundwater
−− Scope and nature of groundwater lowering work
−− Harmful effects of the groundwater on excavations or slopes; for example, the risk
of hydraulic failure, excessive seepage pressure, or erosion
−− Necessary measures to protect the structure; for example, waterproofing, drainage,

and measures to protect against aggressive water
−− Effects of groundwater lowering, desiccation, and impounding on the surroundings
−− Capacity of the ground to absorb water injected during construction
−− Whether it is possible to use local groundwater, given its chemical composition, for
construction purposes
−− Presence of existing groundwater controls near the site, which will need to be
considered
−− Tidal waters and groundwater monitoring over a tidal cycle
−− Hydrogeological study and modelling
• Constructability
−− Effects of construction traffic and heavy loads on the ground
−− Prospective methods of dewatering or excavation (or both), effects of

precipitation, resistance to weathering, and susceptibility to shrinkage, swelling,
and disintegration
Further information on the planning of ground investigations can be found in the Part 2:
Planning, Procurement and Quality Management, Part 3: Specification for Ground
Investigation, and Part 4: Guidelines for the Safe Investigation by Drilling of Landfills and
Contaminated Land, and (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993a, 1993b, and 1993c).
4.3 Ground Investigations Proposals

4.3.1 Phasing of Ground Investigation
Typically, ground investigation for road projects is performed in a three-phased approach as
follows:
· Preliminary Ground Investigation: Undertaken in the early stages of a project, such as

route selection and concept design. May also be undertaken to provide information
for project preliminary design for tendering a design and build contract for project
construction.
• Detailed Design Ground Investigation: Usually performed in advance of, or at the start
of project detailed design. The investigation provides earthwork and structure-specific
information, supplementing any preliminary ground investigation findings. Occasionally,

15
there could be additional phases of “detailed design” ground investigation prior to

project design finalization and construction.
• Construction Ground Investigation: Usually performed during project construction for

controlling and monitoring purposes. For example, to investigate particular ground
conditions and verify the extent of construction works such as the treatment of solution
cavities (dahal) or for the installation of piezometers to monitor groundwater levels
associated with dewatering of a deep excavation.
The composition and the extent of the ground investigations should reflect the amount and
quality of available historical exploratory hole information, the particular stage of a project,
and also the ground risks as established from a Geotechnical Risk Assessment and reflected
in the Geotechnical Category of the project (as discussed in Section 3.3 of Volume 2, Part 16,
Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual).
4.3.2 Guidelines for Overall Coverage of Exploratory Hole Spacing and Depth
The term “exploratory holes” is used here as it covers all forms of possible investigative
holes including boreholes, trial pits, and trial trenches that the geotechnical practitioner may
wish to use in a ground investigation.
The geotechnical practitioner should plan each phase of ground investigation to supplement
information already available to ensure that an appropriate level of geotechnical information
and data are available at the particular project stage. The information obtained must be
sufficient to enable the geotechnical practitioner to assess the geotechnical risks relative
to the project stage. The ground investigation would normally be required to establish the
soil, rock, and groundwater conditions; identify the level of contamination (if present); and
determine the properties of the soil and rock.
The type, frequency, and spacing of exploratory holes required for a particular phase of
investigation depends on the quantity and quality of information already available, the
variability of subsurface conditions, the type of earthworks and structures proposed, and
the geotechnical category of the project. Where appropriate, the geotechnical practitioner
should incorporate in situ cone penetration testing (Section 7.3 in this Part) within the overall
ground investigation design to obtain the necessary information on ground and groundwater
conditions at a site. Consideration should also be given to geophysical testing to establish
rock/soil boundaries.
For project elements such as route selection studies and conceptual design, overall coverage
of exploratory holes (comprising good quality available historical exploratory holes and any
required Phase 1 ground investigation to supplement those data) of up to 300 m spacing
may be appropriate. For simple projects in areas of generally uniform or simple subsurface
conditions, it may be appropriate to adopt a greater spacing of up to 500 m. For preparing
a preliminary design for a project, an overall reduced spacing of roughly 200 m may be
appropriate with at least one exploratory hole at important structures such as a bridge

15
foundation. However, the overall coverage of exploratory holes and the extent of any
Phase 1 ground investigation to supplement available historical records should be limited to
that necessary for making basic design decisions.
For project-detailed design, a much denser spacing of exploratory holes (comprising good
quality available historical records, any Phase 1 ground investigation previously undertaken
and any required Phase 2 ground investigation to supplement those data) will be required.
The locations of exploratory holes and the depths of the investigations should reflect the
expected ground conditions, the dimensions of the structures and earthworks, and the
engineering problems.
Guidelines on the layout of exploratory holes for detailed design of project structures and
earthworks are given in Table 4.1, based on Subsurface Investigations—Geotechnical Site
Characterization (FHWA, 2002) and Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General Rules
(BS EN 1997-1:2004). Guidelines on the minimum depths requirements for the exploratory
holes below the lowest point of the structure foundation or earthwork are shown in Table
4.2 and are based on those references. However, the precise numbers, locations, and depths
of exploratory holes must be determined by a suitably experienced geotechnical practitioner
and must be based on the project-specific geotechnical risk assessment. Guidelines on the
geotechnical risk-management process are provided in Volume 2, Part 16, Geotechnical Risk
Management, of this Manual.
When selecting the exploratory holes locations the following should be observed:
• Investigation points should be arranged in such a pattern that the soils and rock
stratification can be assessed across the site.
• Investigation points for structures and any buildings should be placed at critical points
relative to the shape, structural behavior, and expected loading.
• For linear structures, the exploratory holes should be arranged at adequate offsets to
the centerline, depending on the overall width of the structure, such as an embankment
footprint or a cutting.
• For structures on or near slopes and changes in the terrain (including excavations),
the exploratory holes should be located so that the stability of the slope or cut can be
assessed. Where anchorages are installed, the extent and likely stresses in their load
transfer zone should be considered.
4.3.3 Ground Investigation Requirements with Regard to Contaminated Land

Depending on past use of a site or part of it, geo-environmental ground investigation
works, which typically include soils and groundwater sampling and laboratory testing for
contaminants, may need to be performed. The scope of any geo-environmental ground
investigation works should be established based on the historical land use as established
from the preliminary sources study (described in Chapter 3 in this Part) with reference to the

15
Ministry of Environment (MoE, 2012) requirements, and be made by a suitably experienced

and qualified geo-environment specialist.
To provide best value, an integrated approach to the geo-environmental and geotechnical

engineering ground investigation works should be employed. Similarly, an integrated
approach developed among these disciplines should be used in overall highway project
development.
Table 4.1 Guidelines for Overall Exploratory Holes Spacings for Detailed Design
Project Element Project Exploratory Hole (Typically Boreholes, Trial Pits, and
or Geotechnical Element Size In Situ Cone Penetration Tests, where Appropriate)
Hazard Layout Minimum Requirements Additional Considerations
Bridge — Advice on the design of the ground Additional exploratory holes to be
foundations investigation should be sought from provided in areas of variable subsurface
a geotechnical practitioner with conditions.
knowledge and experience in bridge Additional exploratory holes to be
design and construction. provided for unusual foundation shape
For piers or One exploratory hole at each and loading.
abutments less foundation
than 25 m wide
For piers or Two exploratory holes at each
abutments over foundation
25 m wide
Road underpass Ground bearing Dmin=1.5 times the underpass width -
from bottom level of foundation
Piled Dmin must be greater than B for the -
area circumscribing the pile group area
in competent strata.
Tunnel (bored) — Advice on the design of the ground If the exact tunnel location/alignment
investigation should be sought from is known, drilling through the proposed
a geotechnical practitioner with tunnel location may have to be avoided.
knowledge and experience in tunnel
design and construction.
— One exploratory hole at each portal or
launch (or both) and reception shafts.
One exploratory hole at intermediate
shafts
Exploratory holes at 20 to 200 m
intervals along the tunnel alignment
depending on the initial geological
assessment or terrain, or both.
Retaining walls For retaining One exploratory hole at each retaining Additional exploratory holes inside and
walls less than wall outside the wall line to define conditions
25 m long at the toe of the wall and in the zone
For retaining Spacing between exploratory holes behind the wall to estimate lateral loads,
walls over 25 m should be no greater than 25 m at engulfing slope failure, and anchorage
long each retaining wall. capacities.
Gantry signs — One exploratory hole at each —

foundation.

15
Cuttings For cuttings of One exploratory hole at each cutting. Additional exploratory holes
less than 25 m perpendicular to the cutting (typically
long a minimum of three) to be provided at
For cuttings of Spacing between exploratory holes critical locations and high cuts to define
greater than should be no greater than 100 m the ground and groundwater conditions
25 m long at each cutting in simple ground for stability analysis and design.
conditions. Reduce minimum spacing For existing slopes affected by landslide
required in more difficult ground instability there should be at least one
conditions relative to complexity. exploratory hole upslope of the landslide.
Embankments For One exploratory hole at each Additional exploratory holes

embankments of embankment. perpendicular to the embankment to be
less than 25 m provided at critical locations and high
long embankments (typically a minimum of 3)
For Spacing between exploratory holes to define the ground and groundwater
embankments should be no greater than 100 m at conditions for settlement and stability
of greater than each embankment in simple ground analysis design.
25 m long conditions. Reduce minimum spacing
required in more difficult ground
conditions relative to complexity.
Roads — Spacing between exploratory holes Some of the exploratory holes should be
along the road alignment generally offset from the centerline.
should not exceed 200 m. In complex ground and groundwater
conditions (for example, sabkha),
exploratory holes should closely spaced
to ensure that the vertical and horizontal
boundaries of the distinct soil and rock
units are properly defined. Use may be
made of boreholes carried out for other
project elements such as embankments,
cuttings, and structures.
Culverts — One exploratory hole at each major Additional exploratory holes should be
culvert. provided for long culverts or in areas of
very variable subsurface conditions.
Nondestructive For crossings Two exploratory holes, one at each end Additional exploratory holes should be
crossings less than 25 m of the crossing (close to crossing ends provided for long crossings or in areas of
length at the launch and reception locations very variable subsurface conditions.
and pits).
Nondestructive For crossings Two exploratory holes, one at each end Additional exploratory holes should be
crossings of greater than of the crossing (close to the crossing provided for long crossings or in areas of
(continued) 25 m long ends at the launch and reception very variable subsurface conditions.
locations and pits).
One borehole at crossing center point.
Low rise buildings — One exploratory hole at building Additional exploratory holes to be
(such as, toll location. provided in areas of variable subsurface
plaza or road conditions.
maintenance Additional exploratory holes to be
depot) provided for unusual foundation shape
and loadings.

15
Landslides — Advice on the design of the ground —
investigation should be sought from
a geotechnical practitioner with
knowledge and experience in the
investigation and interpretation of
landslides, their management and
in the design and construction of
remediation measures.
At minimum, three boreholes along
a critical section perpendicular
through the landslide to establish a
ground model including groundwater
conditions for analysis. One borehole
should be upslope of the area of
instability.
Natural cavities — Advice on the design of the ground Consideration should be given to
(dahal) investigation should be sought from performing the geophysical survey using
a geotechnical practitioner with techniques suitable for the rock strata in
knowledge and experience in the Qatar. For example, potential problems
investigation and interpretation of with the interpretation of geophysical
natural cavities, their management, testing due to density inversion (stronger
and in the design and construction of strata overlying weaker rock) should
remediation measures. be considered during planning of the
geophysical testing.
Materials borrow — One exploratory hole every 1,000 m2 Additional exploratory holes should be
areas of borrow area. provided in areas of variable subsurface
conditions.
Pipelines and — Spacing between exploratory Additional exploratory holes should be
Channels holes along the pipeline or channel provided in areas of variable subsurface
alignment generally should not exceed conditions and at the location of thrust
200 m. blocks for pressurized pipelines.
Notes:
m meters
m2 square meters

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Table 4.2 Guidelines for Exploratory Holes Depths

Depth of Exploratory Holes Below the Lowest Point of the
Project Element or Structure Foundation or Earthwork
Foundation Type
Geotechnical Hazard Minimum Depth Requirements, Additional
Dmin Considerations
Bridge (abutments and Spread foundation For L<2 B, take Dmin = greater of 5 m Extend exploratory hole
piers) or 2 B depth in unfavorable
For L>4 B, take Dmin = greater of 6 m ground conditions such
or 3 B as weak or compressible
For L between 2 B and 4 B, strata.
interpolate between the above.
Pile foundations For single piles Dmin = 5 m or 3 Dia Extend exploratory hole
of the pile, whichever is the greater depth in unfavorable
in competent strata (below the ground conditions such
estimated depth of the pile toe) as weak or compressible
For pile groups Dmin must also strata.
be greater than B for the area If tension piles are needed
circumscribing the pile group area in the depth of investigation
competent strata. should be as for pile
foundations.
Tunnel (bored) — Advice on the design of the ground If the exact tunnel
investigation should be sought from location/alignment is
a geotechnical practitioner with known, drilling through the
knowledge and experience in tunnel proposed tunnel location
design and construction. may have to be avoided.
If vertical alignment is known Dmin =
1 Dia to 2 Dia of the tunnel below
tunnel invert.
Retaining walls Gravity and cantilever Dmin = 5 m or 2 B whichever is the Extend exploratory hole
walls (spread footing) greater. depth in situations with
In the case of piled footings, the sloping ground behind
same as bridge pile foundations retaining wall.
applies. Extend exploratory hole
Embedded walls Dmin = 1.5 H for the wall retained depth to provide sufficient
height information to allow
comprehensive stability
assessment of engulfing
slope failures of the
retaining wall.
Extend exploratory hole
depth in unfavorable
ground conditions such
as weak or compressible
strata.
Gantry signs Spread footings Dmin = 5 m or 2 B whichever is the —
greater.
Pile foundations For single piles Dmin = 5 m or 3 Dia of —
the pile whichever is the greater in
competent strata.
For pile groups Dmin must also
be greater than B for the area
circumscribing the pile group area in
competent strata.

15

Foundation Type
Dmin Considerations
Cuttings — Dmin = 2 m or 0.4 H for the cutting Extend exploratory hole
whichever is the greater, below the depth to provide sufficient
base of the cutting. information to allow
comprehensive stability
assessment of cutting
slope.
Embankments — Dmin = 5 m or 1.2 H for the Exploratory holes should
embankment whichever is the extend to a depth where
greater, below embankment the additional stress owing
founding level. to the embankment is less
than 10 percent of the
imposed load at its base.
Exploratory holes should
be extended in unfavorable
strata to competent strata.
Roads (at grade sections) — Dmin = 4 m below the proposed Exploratory holes should
formation level. be extended in unfavorable
Culverts Ground bearing Dmin = 4 m below the invert level or For major culverts Dmin =
1.5 B of the trench whichever is the 5 m or 3 B of the trench
greater whichever is the greater
should apply.
Piled For single piles Dmin = 5 m or 3 Dia of —
the pile, whichever is the greater in
competent strata.
For pile groups, Dmin must also
be greater than B for the area
circumscribing the pile group area in
competent strata.
Nondestructive crossings — Dmin = 4 m below crossing invert —
level or 3 Dia, whichever is the
greater.
Low-rise buildings (such — Dmin = 5 m or three times width of Exploratory holes should
as toll plaza or road the spread footing, whichever is extend to a depth where
maintenance depot) greater, below building founding the additional stress owing
level. to the building is less than
For pile foundations, criteria for 10 percent of the imposed
bridge pile foundations should be load at its base.
adopted. Exploratory holes should
be extended in unfavorable

15

Foundation Type
Dmin Considerations
Landslides — Advice on the design of the ground Geomorphological
investigation should be sought from mapping and assessment
a geotechnical practitioner with of the landslide should
knowledge and experience in the be initially carried out
investigation and interpretation of and used to design the
landslides, their management, and ground investigation and
in the design and construction of should be used to assist in
remediation measures. development of the ground
Dmin has to prove the depth of model.
the landslide together with the
geological sequence of soils and
rocks that make up the landslide
and the affected slope.
Natural cavities (dahal) — Advice on the design of the ground Geophysical survey
investigation should be sought from mapping and assessment
a geotechnical practitioner with of the natural cavities
knowledge and experience in the should be initially carried
investigation and interpretation of out and used to design
natural cavities, their management, the ground investigation
and in the design and construction and be used to assist in
of remediation measures. development of the ground
Dmin has to prove the bedrock cover model.
to potential or known cavities to
between three and five times the
anticipated cavity width. Dmin should
also be based on the analysis of
available geophysical data and
position of potential cavities.
Materials borrow areas — Dmin = base of the deposit or to —
the depth required to provide the
quantity of materials needed.
Notes:
B = breadth
Dia = diameter
H = height (all in meters)
L = length
4.4 Soils and Rocks Sampling and Testing to Obtain Engineering

Parameters for Use in Geotechnical Design
4.4.1 General
The derivation of engineering parameters for soils and rocks for use in geotechnical design
will usually form an important part of a geotechnical investigation. It is essential, therefore,
that in designing a ground investigation, geotechnical practitioners consider the soils and
rock properties that need to be investigated. They also need to consider the engineering
parameters that will be required for design of both permanent earthworks and structures

15
and any temporary measures required for their construction, for example, support to a deep
excavation. Geotechnical practitioners can then design a ground investigation that includes
appropriate in situ testing, soils and rock sampling for subsequent laboratory testing, and, in
special cases, field trials to enable them to derive the parameters required.
The type, quantity, and sophistication of the geotechnical test data required for a project
will depend on the nature of the ground and the importance and sensitivity of the structure
or earthwork. For most projects in Qatar, in situ standard penetration testing (SPT) with bulk
sampling of soils for classification and chemical testing will form the basis of the ground
investigation. In bedrock, cores will normally be collected for laboratory determination of
the rock uniaxial compressive strength. For some major structures such as bridges, the
consequences of a foundation failure or excessive settlement are likely to be severe. In
those cases, more sophisticated in situ and laboratory testing may be appropriate to provide
the data required for specialist modeling of the ground structure interaction during and post
construction and possibly during extreme events, such as an earthquake. Before embarking
on a program of expensive tests, the aims, applicability, and cost benefits of such testing
should be considered.
Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 list of the main soil and rock properties, engineering parameters,
symbols and units that might be required for use in design, as discussed in later sections in
this Part.
4.4.2 Difficulties in Parameter Determination

Only a very small proportion of the ground that will be influenced by the proposed structures
and earthworks is tested in situ or sampled during a ground investigation. In addition, only
a selection of the samples recovered are usually tested in the laboratory. Therefore, testing
must be carried out using reliable and repeatable techniques that will yield parameters
representative of the bulk of the soil or rock in situ.
Parameters can be derived from in situ testing, laboratory testing, and field trials. However,
several factors will influence the measured values, many of which are inherent or unavoidable.
Geotechnical practitioners should understand the magnitude of these influences on the
required parameter and, where necessary, consider these based on their experience and
published knowledge. The factors that affect the measured soil and rock parameters can be
categorized as follows:
• Natural variability and variability due to past land use

• Sampling and testing procedures
• Interpretation
Table 4.3 lists the soil properties parameters symbols and units. Table 4.4 lists the rock
properties parameters symbols and units.

15
Table 4.3 Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units

Symbol Units Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters
Classification Properties
wI % Water Content at Liquid limit (LL) Collectively referred to
wp % Water Content at Plastic limit (PL) as Atterberg limits
Ip % Plasticity index (PI)

γ Mg/m 3
Bulk density/Mass density
γd Mg/m 3
Dry density (maximum γdmax or minimum γdmin)
— — Particle size distribution (PSD)—fine and coarse
ρs Mg/m3 Particle density
— % Organic content (O)
Compaction, Compaction-Related, and California Bearing Ratio Properties
— — Moisture content or dry density relationship (COMP)
— % California bearing ratio (CBR)
Chemical Properties
— — pH, sulfate and chloride, as appropriate
Mg %,mg/L Magnesium (total, water soluble)
Electrochemical Properties
Shear Strength Properties
cu kPa (kN/m2)a Undrained shear strength
cr kPa (kN/m2)a Remolded shear strength
c’ kPa (kN/m ) 2 a
Drained cohesion intercept Peak effective shear
f’ degrees Drained angle of shear resistance strength
cr’ kPa (kN/m ) 2 a

Drained residual cohesion intercept Residual effective
f r’ degrees Drained residual angle of shear resistance shear strength
c’crit kPa (kN/m2)a Critical state cohesion intercept (usually zero) Critical state effective
f’crit degrees Critical state angle of shear resistance shear strength
Consolidation and Elastic Properties

mv m2/MN Coefficient of volume compressibility (one dimensional)
cv m /yr
2
Coefficient of consolidation (one dimensional)
Cc — Compression Index
Cr — Recompression Index
Cα — Secondary Compression Index
σP’ MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Preconsolidation Pressure
Eu MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Young’s modulus of elasticity (undrained)
E’ MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Young’s modulus of elasticity (drained)
E’0.01 MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (small strain)

15
Table 4.3 Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units

Symbol Units Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters
G MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Shear modulus
Gmax MPa (MN/m ) 2 a
Very low strain shear modulus
ν — Poisson’s ratio (νu—undrained, ν’—drained)
ks kN/m 3
Modulus of subgrade reaction
Earth Pressure
Ka — Coefficient of active earth pressure
Kp — Coefficient of passive earth pressure
Permeability
k m/sec Coefficient of permeability, horizontal (kh), vertical (kv) as appropriate
Note:
a
Units in brackets also commonly used.

15
Table 4.4 Rock Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units
Symbol Units Rock Properties or Engineering Parameters

Classification Properties
n % Porosity
γ Mg/m 3
Density
Chemical Properties (Chem) (As Appropriate)
— — pH, sulfate and chloride, as appropriate
Mg %, mg/L Magnesium (total, water soluble)
CaCO3 % Carbonate content (total)
Durability, Hardness, Abrasion, and Swelling
Id2 % Slake durability index
— — Schmit rebound hardness, Shore hardness
— — Cerchar abrasivity index
- % Swelling (strain) index
Electrochemical Properties (Echem)
Strength and Mass Properties
I — Point load index, axial (Ia), diametral (ld), lump (Il)
UCS MPa Uniaxial compressive strength
— MPa Tensile strength
m and s — Rock material constants
RMR — Rock mass rating
RQD, FI — Fracture State Indices of Rock
j — Mass factor j
c’ MPa Discontinuity drained cohesion intercept Discontinuity peak
f’ degrees Discontinuity drained angle of shear effective strength
resistance
cr’ MPa Discontinuity drained residual cohesion Discontinuity residual
intercept effective shear
fr’ degrees Discontinuity drained residual angle of shear strength
resistance
Elastic Properties
E MPa Young’s modulus of elasticity
Es MPa Young’s modulus of elasticity (small strain/initial modulus)
G MPa Shear modulus
Gs MPa Shear modulus (small strain/initial modulus)
ν — Poisson’s ratio

15
4.4.3 Natural Variability and Variability due to Past Land Use

Lateral and vertical variability on a large scale will lead to a scatter of test results. There may
also be small-scale variability such as sabkha that could require particular consideration. Soils
are also typically anisotropic with, particularly, their compressibility and permeability being
different in the vertical and horizontal directions. Therefore, the orientation of soil testing
regarding the proposed structures and earthworks may need to be considered. Regarding
soil laboratory testing for properties such as shear strength and consolidation from nonlinear
stress-strain behavior of soils, it is essential that testing be carried out over the appropriate
working stress range of the proposed construction.
The stress history that a soil has undergone will also affect the way it responds to an imposed
load. In some cases, it may be important to understand and possibly model the stress history
and to model the stress changes that the works will cause to achieve the most accurate
prediction of soil behavior.
Past land use may locally affect the soil’s physical and chemical properties. Effects on soil
in the form of possible contamination, change in chemical properties or physical properties
such as compressibility, permeability and stress history need to be understood by the
geotechnical practitioner.
For roads and bridges planned for construction on reclaimed land, the seabed profile and the
density and consolidation status of the in situ materials will need to be investigated and
considered for the geotechnical design. Possible fill materials and the required compaction
effort for their placement as reclaimed fill should also be investigated.
4.4.4 Sampling and Testing Procedures

In situ testing and sampling techniques cause disturbance to the soil and to a greater or
lesser extent to some rock fabric. This is a combination of physical remolding of the soil
and modification of its state of stress from that existing in situ. The Code of Practice for
Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010) provides a quality classification for soil
samples (Class 1 to Class 5) and provides guidance on the soil properties that can be
reliably determined from each class of sample. Table 4.5 lists the types of samples that are
generally most suitable for taking in Qatar soils and provides guidance on the quality class
of those samples. Further guidance on preferred methods for drilling in different soils types,
achievable standards of sampling and quality class of samples that might be obtained may
be found in Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Sampling Methods and Groundwater
Measurements—Part 1: Technical Principles for Execution (BS EN ISO 22475-1:2006).
For sampling of rock strata, rotary core drilling using double tube wireline core-barrels are
most widely used in Qatar. Triple tube wireline core-barrels are also used where specifically
specified. Core size H (63-millimeter [mm] nominal diameter core) tend to provide poor
recovery. Therefore, it is advisable that larger core sizes P (83 mm nominal diameter core)
and S (102 mm nominal diameter core) are to be used. With careful drilling, a high level of core

15
recovery can usually be achieved. Core recovery of 90 percent minimum in any single core
run should be attained. Where prebored pressuremeter testing of rock strata is undertaken,
then the “pockets” for those tests is normally achieved by coring at Nx size (76 mm nominal
hole diameter, 61 mm nominal core diameter).
To ensure that representative properties and engineering parameters are determined for
soils and rock strata that are inherently variable, a reasonable number of samples should be
subjected to laboratory testing.
Table 4.5 Proposed Sampling Techniques for Qatar Soils
Quality
Soil Type Type of Drilling or Exploratory Hole Sampling Technique
Class
Aeolian Sand Light cable percussion boring SPT sampler Class 4
Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit with casing) SPT sampler Class 4
Trial pit Bulk sample Class 4
Marine Light cable percussion boring SPT sampler (in sands) Class 4
Sediments Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit open hole) SPT sampler (in sands) Class 4
Open-tube thin wall, or OS-T/W Class 1
Sabkha Light cable percussion boring (preferred Piston thin wall, or PS-T/W Class 1
method) Open-tube thin wall Class 1
Open-tube thick wall Class 2
SPT sampler Class 4
Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit or cased) Open-tube thin wall Class 1
SPT sampler Class 4
Residual Soils Light cable percussion boring SPT sampler Class 4
Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit cased hole) SPT sampler Class 4
Note:
SPT = standard penetration test
The precise numbers and types of tests to be undertaken must be based on a comprehensive
understanding of the project and the engineering parameters required for design. This also
requires an appreciation of the different deposits and variation encountered in the ground
investigation exploratory holes. Considerable experience is required to attain the right
balance of cost-effective data.
Table 4.6 provides guidelines on the minimum number of samples to be tested for each soil
stratum in a project element (for example, a bridge or embankment length). Guidelines on
the minimum number of samples to be tested for each rock stratum in a project element
are given in Table 4.7. Further guidance on the minimum numbers of samples to be tested
may be found in Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 2: Ground Investigation and Testing
(BS EN 1997-2:2007).

15
4.4.5 Interpretation
Some of the largest errors in the derivation of engineering parameters can arise in making
the interpretative step from a series of in situ or laboratory test results to the engineering
parameter to be used in design calculations. With the natural variability in soils and rocks
(Clause 4.4.2.1 in this Part) and the overall limited extent of in situ and soils laboratory testing,
there is the inevitable risk that soil and rock strengths and deformation characteristics are
inferior to the test results. In cases where soils laboratory testing is performed on remolded
test specimens where larger particle sizes are removed, those tests will give results that
are inferior to the performance of the in situ materials. Simply taking the average of all the
results is seldom appropriate and a considerable degree of engineering judgment and well-
established experience is required to select the design parameters. Section 10.2 in this Part
discusses the determination of engineering parameters for use in design.

15
Table 4.6 Guidelines on the Minimum Number of Samples to be Tested for

Particular Soils Laboratory Tests
Number of Samples to be Tested in each Soil Stratum per Project

Soil Property or Section
Engineering Parameter Minimum
Additional Considerations
Number
Classification Tests
Moisture content (w) 5 These classification tests should be performed on samples on
Plasticity index (Ip), liquid 5 which shear strength, consolidation, elastic properties, or both
limit (wI) and plastic limit are determined. The classification test data will often prove
(wp) helpful in explaining atypical strength, consolidation, or elastic
properties test results that lie outside the general data set for a
Bulk density (mass 3 particular soils stratum. In situ density tests may be performed
density) (γ) instead of, or in addition to, laboratory bulk density tests.
Particle size distribution 5
(PSD)
Particle density (or 2 None
specific gravity) (ρs)
Compaction, Compaction-Related Tests and California Bearing Ratio
Dry density/moisture 3 The number of tests should be selected considering the
content relationship variation of the particle size distribution and the quantity
of material to be compacted. 4.5 kg rammer tests are mainly
performed with the occasional 2.5 kg rammer test.
California bearing ratio 3 In situ CBR tests may be performed instead of or in addition to
(CBR) laboratory CBR tests. Resilient modulus may be estimated from
CBR and published correlations.
Chemical Tests
Soil sulfate content, 3 None
chloride content and pH
Water sulfate content, 3 None
chloride content, pH
Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength 3 Triaxial compression method (without measurement of pore
pressure)
Effective shear strength 3 Direct shear (small shear box) method, consolidated undrained
triaxial with measurement of pore pressure or consolidated
drained triaxial with measurement of volume change or
combination of the three methods of test. For sands, shear box
tests are commonly performed on remolded specimens.
Residual effective shear 3 Direct shear (small shear box) method or ring shear or
strength combination of the two methods of test.
One dimensional 3 Odometer cell or hydraulic cell test or combination of the two
consolidation test methods.
Permeability
Coefficient of 3 Consideration to be given to both vertical permeability (kv) and
permeability (k) horizontal permeability (kh)
Note:
kg = kilograms

15
Table 4.7 Guidelines on the Minimum Number of Samples to be Tested for

Particular Rock Laboratory Test
Rock Property Number of Samples to be Tested in each Rock Stratum per Project Section
or Engineering Minimum
Parameter Additional Considerations
Number
Moisture content 5 Moisture content and bulk density measurements are often carried
(w) out and reported as part of uniaxial compressive strength testing.
Bulk density (mass 5
density) (γ)
Slake durability 5 —
index
Schmitz rebound 5 —
hardness, Shore
hardness
Cerchar abrasivity 5 —
index
Swelling (strain) 5 —
index
Strength Testing
Uniaxial 5 —
compressive
strength (UCS)
Point load testing 10 —
Chemical Tests
Carbonate content 3 —
Soil sulfate 3 —
content, chloride
content and pH
Water sulfate 3 —
content, chloride
content, pH
4.5 Guidelines for Typically Required Engineering Parameters

Table 4.8 provides a summary of design considerations and engineering parameters typically
required to be assessed by the geotechnical practitioner for road projects.
4.6 In Situ Tests for Determining Soils, Groundwater, and Rock

Properties and Engineering Parameters
Table 4.9 provides a list of the properties and engineering parameters commonly determined
from in situ tests for Qatar road projects. The table also provides guidance on the standards
that should be used for the particular test.

15
4.7 Laboratory Tests for Determining Soil, Groundwater, and

Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters
4.7.1 Soils and Groundwater
Table 4.10 lists the soil properties and engineering parameters commonly determined from
laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the standards that
should be used for the particular laboratory test.
Table 4.11 lists the soil properties and engineering parameters occasionally determined
from laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the standards that
Table 4.12 lists the groundwater properties that are commonly determined from laboratory
tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the standards that should be used
for the particular laboratory test.
Further guidance on the selection of soils laboratory testing can be found in AGS Guide:
The Selection of Geotechnical Soil Laboratory Testing (Association of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Specialists [AGS], 1998).

44
15
PART
Table 4.8 Design Considerations, Engineering Parameters and Testing Requirements for Road Projects
Engineering Usual Source of Data for

Parameter Derivation Occasional Other Testing Undertaken
Structure or Earthwork Design Issue Material Parameters and Other Engineering Parameters
Normally In situ Testing/ Laboratory Derived
Required Data Testing
Structures (All) Chemical attack Soils (All) Chemical — pH, SO4, Cl
on buried concrete properties
and steel corrosion
Bridge (including Spread footings Sizing or bearing Soil (AS) γ, f’, ks SPT N, CPT, — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
abutments and capacity, cavities density tests, testing, geophysical testing.
piers), gantry signs beneath foundation records of loss of Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear

drilling fluid and box tests for f’.
SPT hammer drops Soil (S, MD)—laboratory triaxial tests for cu
(if any) and c’+ f’.
Rock γ, UCS, ks m, s, Fracture indices, UCS (and
RMR rock exposures PL)
preferably (or core
if no exposures
available)
Settlement Soil (AS) E’ — — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
(components, total, Rock E’ (& Es), RMR Fracture indices, UCS with testing.
differential and rock exposures Intact Rock Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’.
rate) (or core if no Modulus Soil(S, MD)—field testing for k and
exposures laboratory odometer tests for mv and cv.
available)
GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE
Pile foundations Carrying capacity Soil (AS) γ, f’, ks SPT N, CPT, — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
(axial and lateral), records of loss of testing, geophysical testing, pile load
downdrag or drilling fluid and testing
negative skin SPT hammer drops Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
friction, cavities (if any) box tests for f’.
beneath the pile Rock UCS RQD, FI, Records of UCS (and Soil (S, MD)—laboratory odometer tests for
toe level loss of drilling PL) mv and cv and triaxial tests for cu
Bridge (including Pile foundations Settlement or Soil (AS) E’ SPT N, CPT — Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’
abutments and (continued) deflection of Rock E (& Es), RMR Fracture indices UCS with
piers), gantry signs laterally loaded rock exposures Intact Rock
(continued) piles (core if exposures Modulus
not available)

Structure or Earthwork Design Issue Material Parameters and Other Engineering Parameters
Tunnels Loading on Soil (AS) γ, f’, E’, ν, Ko SPT N, CPT — Advice on parameters for design should
tunnel lining, risk Rock γ,UCS, E (& Es), Fracture indices UCS with be sought from a geotechnical practitioner
of presence of ν, Ko, RMR rock exposures Intact Rock with knowledge and experience in tunnel
cavities, gypsum (core if exposures Modulus design and construction.
bands along the not available) Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
tunnel alignment. testing, geophysical testing
Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’
Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
box tests for f’.
Soil (S, MD)—laboratory odometer tests for
mv and cv and triaxial tests for cu and c’+ f’.
Retaining walls Gravity wall Bearing capacity Soil (AS) γ, f’, ks SPT N, CPT — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
density tests testing.
Rock γ, UCS, m, s, Fracture indices UCS (and Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
RMR rock exposures PL) box tests for f’ (and f’r where soils are
(core if exposures affected by landslide.
not available)
Retaining walls Gravity wall Sliding resistance Soil (AS) f’ SPT N, CPT — Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’
(continued) (continued) Rock γ, c’ + f’ — — Soil(S, MD)—laboratory odometer tests for
mv and cv and triaxial tests for cu and c’+ f’.
Overturning Soil (AS) γ, f’ SPT N, CPT, — Rock—laboratory rock shear box for c’+ f’.
stability and density
engulfing failures,
settlement, rotation
Cantilever Wall stability, Soil (AS) γ, f’, ks SPT N, CPT, —
or anchored engulfing stability, density
embedded wall deflection
Anchor design Soil (AS) γ, f’ SPT N, CPT, —
density
Soil cuttings Stability Soil (AS) γ, f’ SPT N, CPT, — Soil (AS)—Laboratory small and large shear
density box tests for f’.
Soil γ, cu, c’+ f’ Triaxial Soil (S, MD)—laboratory small and large

(S,MDM) tests (UU, shear box tests for c’+f’ (and c’r+f’r where
CU+PWP, soils are affected by landslide).
15
PART
CD)
45
46
15
PART

Structure or Earthwork Material Parameters and Other Engineering Parameters
Rock cuttings Stability Rock γ, c’ + f’, RMR’ Discontinuity UCS Rock—laboratory rock shear box for c’+ f’.
spacing and
orientation rock
exposures (core if
no exposures)
Embankments Stability Soil (AS) γ, f’ SPT N, CPT, — Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
density box tests for f’.
Soil (S, MD)—laboratory small shear box

Soil (S, γ, cu, c’ + f’ — Triaxial
MD) tests (UU, tests for c’+f’ & (c’r + f’r where soils
CU+PWP, affected by landslip).
CD)
Embankments (continued) Settlement Soil (AS) E’ SPT N, CPT — —
(components, total, Soil (S, mv, cv, k, Cc, Cα Permeability test Oedometer
differential and MD)
rate)
Road pavement Strength, Soil (All) CBR, ks CBR, DCP, SPT N, CBR —
trafficability, and CPT, density
requirement for
subgrade and/or
capping layer
Excavatability Excavatability Rock UCS RMR Discontinuity — —
spacing and
orientation,
rock exposures
preferably (or core
if no exposures
available)
Structures and earthworks: general Groundwater flow — kv & kh Permeability test Permeability Published correlations for permeability
and infiltration test based on particle size distribution data.
test
Notes:
Triaxial tests: UU = unconsolidated undrained (quick undrained), CU+PWP = consolidated undrained with porewater pressure measurement, CD = consolidated drained.
The geotechnical practitioner will be responsible for making a final determination of the parameters required for design.
Strata abbreviations: AS = aeolian sand, S = sabkha, MD = marine deposits, RS = residual soil, R = rock
For parameter abbreviations, refer to Table 4.3 and Table 4.4.
Table 4.9 Soil and Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from In Situ Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for In Situ Measurement Cost/
Soil Property or Engineering Notes Including Comments on Where Commonly
Complexity
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Applied to Rock
Categorya
In situ density BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM D1556-07, — A/B Refer to Section 7.5 in this Part for more details.
Bulk (mass) density (γ) Cl 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 ASTM D4914-08,
Dry density (γd) ASTM D5030-04,
ASTM D6938-10
Standard Penetration Test BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005 ASTM D1586-08a — A Refer to Section 7.2 in this Part for more details on the
resistance (N) test and the interpretation of engineering parameters.
Often undertaken in weathered bedrock
Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength (cu BS 1377-9:1990, Cl 4.4 ASTM D2573-08 — A/B Test in boreholes or from ground level.
or cr) BS EN ISO 22476- ASTM D5778-12
12:2009
Effective stress strength BS EN ISO 22476- ASTM D5778-12 A/B Test from ground level, valid in soils only.
parameters (f’) 12:2009
Elastic Properties
Young’s Modulus of elasticity Plate loading test ASTM D1196/ — B Tests may be undertaken on bedrock.
(E), Pressure Meter Test (PMT) BS 1377-9:1990,Cl 4.1* D1196M-2012,
ASTM D1195/
D1195M-2009
ASTM D4719-07
California Bearing Ratio
California bearing ratio BS 1377-9:1990,Cl 4.3 ASTM D4429-09a — A/B —
BS EN ISO 22476 2: ASTM D6951/
2005+A1:2011 D6951M-09

15
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48
15
PART
Table 4.9 Soil and Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from In Situ Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for In Situ Measurement Cost/

Soil Property or Engineering Notes Including Comments on Where Commonly
Complexity
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Applied to Rock
Categorya
Permeability
Coefficient of Permeability (k) Constant and variable Constant and variable — A/B In boreholes and piezometers. May be undertaken in
head tests head tests ASTM bedrock.
BS 5930:1999+A2:2010, D6391-11
Cl 25.4
Packer test (single Packer test (double — B In boreholes. Test in bedrock.

and double packer) packer)
BS 5930:1999+A2:2010, ASTM D4630-
Cl 25.5 96(2008)
Pumping test ASTM D4050- — C * Test also provides coefficient of transmissivity and
BS 5930:1999+A2:2010, 96(2008) coefficient of storage.
Cl 27*
Infiltration rate — ASTM D3385-09, — A/B BRE Digest 365 (2003) is also a common test method
ASTM D5093-
02(2008)
Corrosivity
Resistivity (rs) BS 1377-9:1990, Cl 5.1 ASTM G57-06(2012) — A —
Redox potential (Eh) BS 1377-9:1990, Cl 5.1 ASTM G200-09(2014) — A —
Notes:
a
Cost/complexity category definitions:

A = Low cost routine test. Normally carried out in large numbers to classify soils and to assess consistency of soil parameters.
B = More expensive, relatively routine test. Normally carried out selectively to determine design parameters.
C = High cost complex test. Normally carried out only when necessary to establish or confirm design parameters.
Table 4.10 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/ Notes Including Comments on Alternative
Soil Property or Engineering
Complexity Indirect Methods of Engineering Parameter
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Assessment
Moisture content (w) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 3 ASTM D2216-10 — A —
Plasticity index (Ip), liquid limit (wI) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl ASTM D4318-10e1 AASHTO A —
and plastic limit (wp) 4,5 T089-13-
UL, AASHTO
T090-00-UL
Bulk (mass) density (γ) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D7263-09 — A In situ tests are preferred in granular soils.
Dry density (γd) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D7263-09 — A —
Particle density (ρs) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 8 ASTM D854-10 AASHTO A
T100-06-UL
Obtained by calculation if w and ρ are known.
Particle size distribution BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 9 ASTM D422- AASHTO A —

63(2007)e1 T088-13-UL
Shear Strength
Effective stress strength parameters Direct shear (shear ASTM D3080/ — B/C —
(f’ and f’crit) box) methods D3080M-11
BS 1377-7:1990, Cl
4,5
Compaction, Compaction-Related Tests, and California Bearing Ratio
Dry density and moisture content BS 1377-4:1990, Cl 3 ASTM D698-12e1, AASHTO A/B —
relationship ASTM D1557-12 T099-10-
UL, AASHTO
T-180-10-
UL
California bearing ratio (CBR) BS 1377-4:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D1883-07e2 — A/B Direct field measurement of CBR is preferred if
the ground conditions are suitable.
Maximum density (ρmax) minimum BS 1377-4:1990, Cl 4 ASTM D4253- — A/B —
density (ρmin) 00(2006), ASTM
D4254-00(2006)e1

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50
15
PART
Table 4.10 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Soil Property or Engineering
Chemical Tests
Sulfate content of soil BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 5 ASTM C1580-09e1 — A BS covers both acid soluble and water-soluble
sulfate. ASTM covers water-soluble sulfate. The
determination of water-soluble sulfate is most
commonly made.
Chloride content of soil BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 7 ASTM C1524- AASHTO A ASTM test is used for testing aggregates.
02a(2010) T291-94-

UL
pH value BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 9 ASTM G51-95(2012) — A —
Carbonate Content BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 6 ASTM D4373- — A ASTM provides result as calcite (CaCO3) equivalent.
02(2007) BS results need to be corrected to be in CaCO3
equivalent.
Magnesium value in soil — ASTM C114-13, — B —
Section 16
Notes:
a
Table 4.11 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Soil Property Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/ Notes including Comments on Alternative
or Engineering Complexity Indirect Methods of Engineering Parameter
Dispersibility tests, BS 1377-5:1990, Cl 6 Pinhole method: — B —
pinhole crumb and ASTM D4647/
dispersion methods D4647M-13, Double
hydrometer: ASTM
D4221-11
Organic content (O) BS 1377-3:1990,Cl 3 ASTM D2974-13 — A —
Collapse potential of BS 1377-5:1990, Cl 4 ASTM D5333-03 — B ASTM working group currently looking at reworking
soils this standard
Corrosivity
Resistivity of soil (rs) BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 10 ASTM G187-12a — B/C Field tests are usually preferred when practicable.
using two-electrode
soil box method
Redox potential of BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 11 — — B/C —
soil (Eh)
Shear Strength
Undrained shear Laboratory vane method BS 1377- ASTM D4648/ — A Often unrepresentative because of small scale and
strength 7:1990, Cl 3 D4648M-13 sample disturbance.
(cu or cr) Cu can also be assessed from classification tests such
as plasticity index (Ip) and published correlations.
Cu can be assessed from SPT N60 values and static
cone penetration tests in many soil types.
Triaxial compression method ASTM D2850- AASHTO A Complementary field strength determinations from
(without measurement of pore 03a(2007) T296-10- in situ tests are often useful.
pressure) BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 8,9 UL
Shear Strength
Effective stress Direct shear (shear box) with multi- ASTM D6528-07 — B/C f’crit can be assessed from specific classification test
strength parameters reversals BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 4,5 Direct shear of measured in the laboratory using modified British
(c’, (f’ and f’crit) cohesive soils Standard test procedures
Consolidated undrained triaxial (with ASTM D4767-11 — C
measurement of pore pressure)

BS 1377-8:1990, Cl 3 to 7

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51
52
15
PART
Table 4.11 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Soil Property Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/
or Engineering Complexity Notes including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Consolidated drained triaxial ASTM D7181-11 — C
(with measurement of volume
change) BS 1377-8:1990, Cl 3,
6, & 8
Residual effective Direct shear (shear box) with ASTM WK3822 — C f’r can be assessed based on classification tests and
stress strength multi-reversals BS 1377-7:1990, published correlations.
parameters (f’r) Cl 4,5 f’r may be assessed from back analysis of failures.

One dimensional Oedometer cell test methods ASTM D2435/ AASHTO B mv can be estimated from SPT N60 values in
consolidation/ BS 1377-5:1990,Cl 3 D2435M-11 T216-07- overconsolidated clays
swelling properties UL mv can be estimated from static cone penetration test
and pre-consolidation Swelling Test Methods BS 1377- ASTM D4546-14 — B cone resistance. It can also be assessed based on
pressure (mv, 5:1990, Cl 4 historical data on the performance of structures.
mv(rebound),cv, cv(rebound) Cv laboratory generally significantly underestimates
and pc’) Hydraulic Cell methods BS 1377- ASTM D4186/ — C in situ performance. A field estimate of cv can be made
6:1990, Cl 3 D4186M-12 taking cv = k/(γwmv) based on the odometer mv value,
permeability (k) such as from a borehole or piezometer

γw (weight density of water = 9.81kN/m3)and a field
permeability test.
Permeability
Coefficient of Constant Head Method BS 1377- ASTM D2434- AASHTO B In situ field tests are usually preferred to laboratory
Permeability (k) 5:1990, Cl 5 68(2006) T215-70- tests.
UL Kv and kh in layered soils can be significantly different

Falling Head Method (Head, ASTM D5084-10 — B requiring measurement in tests with suitable sample
1982) preparation, orientation, and drainage.
K can be assessed from particle size distribution and
published correlations.
Notes:
a
Table 4.12 Groundwater Properties Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/ Notes including Comments on Alternative
Soil Property or Engineering Complexity Indirect Methods of Engineering Parameter
Chemical Tests
Sulfate content of groundwater BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 5 ASTM D516-11 — A —
Chloride content of groundwater BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D512-12 — A —
BRE Report 279 (1995)
pH value BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 9 ASTM G51-95(2012) — A —
Total dissolved solids BS EN 15216:2007 ASTM D5907-13 — A —
Alkalinity BS EN ISO 9963-2:1996, ASTM D1067-11 — B —
BS 6068-2.52:1996 ASTM G162-
99(2010)
Notes:
a

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53
15
4.7.2 Rock
4.7.2.1 Laboratory Testing

Table 4.13 lists the rock properties and engineering parameters commonly determined from
laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the standards that
Table 4.14 lists of the rock properties and engineering parameters occasionally determined
from laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the standards that
4.7.2.2 Quality and Properties of Rock Mass

In assessing the quality and properties of rocks and rock masses, the geotechnical
practitioner has to make a distinction between the behavior of rock material as measured
in the laboratory on core samples and the behavior of the much larger rock masses in the
field that include structural discontinuities such as bedding planes, joints, shear zones, and
solution cavities (dahal). In assessing rock mass behavior, consideration needs to be given to
the following characteristics of the joints:
• Spacing
• Orientation
• Aperture, persistence (continuity)
• Tightness
• Roughness, including the effects of previous movements on the joints
• Joint infilling
These characteristics can be assessed from logging of nearby rock exposures or by

orientation of recovered rock core. Guidance on the recording of rock exposures is given in
Rock Characterization Testing and Monitoring: I.S.R.M. Suggested Methods (International
Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (1981), Rock Engineering Guides to Good Practice: Road
Rock Slope Excavation (Transport Research Laboratory, 2011a) Rock Slope Risk Assessment
(Transport Research Laboratory, 2011b), and Rock Slope Engineering (Hoek and Bray, 1981).
A suitably qualified and experienced geotechnical practitioner will need to determine the
method to be adopted on a project.
Estimates of rock mass properties such as strength and stiffness may be obtained by using the
concept of rock mass classification. Further details can be found in “Rock Mass Classification
in Rock Engineering” (Bieniawski, (1976); Engineering Rock Mass Classification: A Complete
Manual for Engineers and Geologists in Mining, Civil and Petroleum Engineering (Bieniawski,
1989); “Some New Q-value Correlations to assist in Site Characterisation and Tunnel Design”
(Barton, 2002); and “Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion—2002 Edition” (Hoek et al., 2002).

Table 4.13 Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Rock Property or Engineering
Parameter BS ASTM ISRM or Other Categorya Assessment
Water content (w) — ASTM D2216-10 ISRM, 1981 A Normally determined as part of UCS test
Density (ρ) — Part of UCS test ISRM, 1981 A Normally determined as part of UCS test
Chemical Tests
Carbonate content BS 1377-3:1990, ASTM D4373- — — —
Cl 6 02(2007)
Strength
Point load (I) — ASTM D5731-08 Broch and Franklin, A Tests are typically carried out as axial point load (Ia)
1972 or diametrical point load (Id) or lump tests
Uniaxial compressive strength — ASTM D7012-10 ISRM, 1981 A Test includes the determination of moisture content
(UCS) and bulk density.
Elasticity
Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) — ASTM D7012-10 ISRM, 1981 B Test includes the determination of moisture content
and bulk density.
Notes:
a

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PART
Table 4.14 Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/ Notes including Comments on Alternative
Rock Property or Engineering Complexity Indirect Methods of Engineering
Parameter BS ASTM ISRM or Other Categorya Parameter Assessment
Classification tests
Porosity — ASTM D4404- ISRM, 1981 A —
10,
ASTM D4992-07
Strength
Splitting tensile strength (Brazilian) — ASTM D3967-08 ISRM, 1981 A —

Discontinuity peak and residual effective — — ISRM, 1981 B —
shear strength
Slake durability — — ISRM, 1981 B —
Schmidt rebound hardness, Shore Hardness — — ISRM, 1981 B —
CERCHAR abrasivity index — ASTM D7625-10 — B —
Swelling index — — ISRM, 1981 B —
Notes:
a
15
4.8 Monitoring Instrumentation

When developing ground investigation proposals, the geotechnical practitioner should
consider requirements for instrumentation to obtain data on the following:
• Groundwater levels and their fluctuation, seasonally and in response to outside

influences such as tides and groundwater pumping and recharge
• Ground settlement
• Ground movement (with vertical and horizontal components)
• Applied pressures
Table 4.15 provides a list of the instrumentation that is commonly adopted on Qatar road
projects.
Table 4.15 Typical Instrumentation for Qatar Road Projects
Instrumentation
Groundwater levels Standpipe (slotted tube)
a
Standpipe piezometera (ceramic or Casagrande tip)

Vibrating wire or electrical piezometerb
Hydraulic piezometer b
Pneumatic piezometer b
Ground settlement Surface settlement markers monitored by ground survey or levelling
techniquesc
Extensometer
Ground displacement/ Inclinometerd
movement Surface movement markers monitored by ground survey
Slip rod observations of piezometer riser tubes d
Applied pressures Load cells
Notes:
a
Typically used in coarser grained soils.
b
Typically used in fine-grained soils.
c
In cases where very small movements are expected, for accuracy precise levelling equipment and
techniques should be used.
d
Can be used to identify landslide slip surface or slip zone.

15

15
5 Ground Investigation
Procurement
5.1 Overview
The ground investigation company can have a substantial influence on the accuracy and
quality of ground investigation data, which may affect ground interpretation, geotechnical
design, and the cost of the project. It is important that an appropriately experienced ground
investigation company with qualified, trained, and experienced staff and operatives be
engaged to undertake any ground investigation works. The ground investigation company
should operate under an appropriate quality assurance system. The company usually is
engaged through a competitive bidding process. This chapter provides guidance on tender
information to be requested from a ground investigation company to assess its technical
competency as part of the tender process. The chapter also provides guidance on industry
standards for ensuring the quality of ground investigation personnel and laboratory testing.
Advice on the specification of ground investigation and on the preparation of a bill of
quantities for tendering and contract purposes is also given.
5.2 Procurement of a Ground Investigation Company

The procedure for procuring a specialist ground investigation company will depend on the
stage that a project has reached in its development and implementation. The Overseeing
Organization’s procurement procedure should be followed. Assessment of ground
investigation company tenders should include both technical and financial evaluation. The
technical evaluation of a ground investigation company should cover:
• Methodology and approach
• Compliance with local health and safety regulations and local environmental regulations
relevant to the particular aspect of work being carried out
• Quality of personnel, including competency assessment of drillers (refer to Clause 5.2.1

in this Part)
• Certification requirements
• Technology requirements
• Documentation of operations in similar projects
• Capacity to upgrade and support
• Green procurement initiatives
• The ability of the company to mobilize and begin work

15
• Time for program completion and program logic
• Relevant experience in the local market and available resources (plants, office, software,
tools) in Qatar
• Criteria for technical presentation and interviews, if any
Table D.1 and Table D.2 in Appendix D are templates for the technical and health and safety
evaluation of ground investigation companies. Electronic copies of the templates may be
obtained from the Overseeing Organization.
Adherence to quality assurance procedures is of prime importance to the success of any ground
investigation, as a guarantee that specific standards are attained. The ground investigation
company should operate a quality management system, which should preferably comply and
be registered to a recognized industry standard, such as Quality Management Systems—
Requirements (BS EN ISO 9001:2008). The company should operate an environmental
management system, preferably registered to an international standard such as
Environmental Mangement Systems—Requirements (BS EN ISO 14001:2004) and a health
and safety system, preferably registered to an international standard such as Occupational
Health and Safety Management Systems—Requirements (BS OHSAS 18001:2007).
Further information on the quality management of ground investigation may be found

in Part 2: Planning, Procurement and Quality Management (Site Investigation Steering
Group, 1993a). Further information on the quality of ground investigation personnel and
certification requirements are given in the following clauses.
5.2.1 Quality of Ground Investigation Personnel

Geotechnical practitioners employed on ground investigations carried out by a ground
investigation company must be appropriately qualified with expertise and experience in
geotechnics for the role they undertake. Defined requirements for geotechnical personnel
relative to technical education, professional qualifications, and industry experience are given
in Volume 2, Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual. Appropriate training
and continued professional development of such personnel is important for them to be able
to undertake their duties successfully.
Drillers and crew should be appropriately experienced and trained. Studies have shown that
the skill and care of the driller in applying appropriate techniques and procedures in sinking a
borehole can have a significant influence on in situ test results and the quality of soils sample
and rock core recovery (CIRIA, 1995). Therefore, for quality control it is important that drillers
undertaking a ground investigation are competent in the drilling techniques used. That
competency should be a combination of appropriate training and relevant drilling experience.
This should ensure that drillers are aware of drilling best practices to be employed and the
detrimental effect on data quality of poor drilling that is to be avoided.

15
The competency of drillers should be reviewed annually, because such auditing can improve
work quality and safety. The audits should be carried out onsite by suitably experienced
and qualified persons, observing the driller’s work practices and reviewing an individual’s
ability to work according to relevant standards and contract-specific specifications. The
driller’s ability to keep correct and accurate records and to make appropriate use of method
statements and risk assessments should also be assessed. An inspection of the driller’s rig
and all drilling tools should also be made to check that they are of the required standard. In
the absence of a Qatar government or other independent Qatar organization that performs
such audits, international companies, such as ABS Group Inc., commonly perform third party
certified audits, as instigated by the lead geotechnical practitioner or project consultant
engineer. Ground investigation companies might self-audit with appropriate staff as part of
their quality control procedures. If an independent Qatar body is set up, then it is expected
that the ground investigation company will adopt independent accreditation and auditing
of its drillers. Further information on the competency assessment of drillers may be found
at the British Drilling Association’s website www.britishdrillingassociation.co.uk and the
International Association of Drilling Contractors’ website www.iadc.org.
The following information should be sought from a ground investigation company for review
as part of the technical evaluation of the company:
• Names of the geotechnical practitioners to be employed on the contract, together with

details of their academic and professional qualifications and summary of their experience
• Names of the drillers (and drilling assistants) to be employed on the contract, together
with evidence of them having been subject to an annual competency audit (or
accreditation by an independent audit body), and a summary of their experience
• Details of the company training and development policy with training program for its
specialist staff and drilling crews
• Approval to perform work in the State of Qatar
5.2.2 Laboratory Quality

It is important for all ground investigations that there be consistency and quality of laboratory
testing. This ensures accuracy of data and reduces the risk of erroneous information that
could result in interpretation that could be overly conservative thus giving rise to unnecessary
higher project costs or rise to a failure with associated increase in construction or maintenance
costs. It is highly desirable that laboratories undertaking soils and rock testing and analytical
contaminant testing be accredited by an independent, industry-recognized body such that:
• The test work is conducted using valid, recognized, technical methods suitable for the
purpose required and of established performance characteristics, with reproducible
results.
• The work is carried out by properly qualified and trained staff.

15
• The work is carried out on correctly functioning equipment calibrated to provide

traceability to international standards of measurement.
• Data are consistent and of known quality being subject to quality control for accuracy
and precision by techniques that are approved by independent technical assessors.
Details of independent accreditation—for example, Qatar Ministry of Environment (MoE)

Certificates of Conformity (MoE, 2012)—and of the company’s quality assurance procedures
for testing and results reporting should be sought from a ground investigation company for
review as part of the technical evaluation the company.
5.3 Ground Investigation Company Performance

During a ground investigation, the geotechnical practitioner should monitor the performance
of the ground investigation company and provide feedback to the Overseeing Organization
that may be helpful with regard to technical evaluation of the company in future ground
investigation tenders. Aspects that the geotechnical practitioner should typically monitor
include:
• Quality of service
• Timeliness of delivery
• Adherence to specifications
• Quality of resources deployed
• Contract compliance

15
6 Ground Investigation
Specification and Bill of
Quantities
6.1 Specification and Bill of Quantities

Having established the scope of the required ground investigation (see Chapter 4 in this
Part), and to facilitate the procurement of the ground investigation works, the geotechnical
practitioner should prepare specifications and bill of quantities. To provide for clear and
concise presentation of the requirements of the ground investigation, published standards
should be adopted for the specification and bill of quantities. Use of standards will provide
consistency and quality of documentation and minimize the risk of the ground investigation
company not understanding the requirements.
The Qatar Construction Specification (QCS 2014) includes limited specification and bill
of quantities for ground investigation works. Consequently, the more comprehensive UK
Specification for Ground Investigation (Site Investigation Steering Group, 2012) is commonly
used for stand-alone ground investigation contracts in Qatar. While recognizing common
aspects of ground investigation work, the publication also recognizes that each ground
investigation is unique in terms of its aims and requirements. Consequently, the document
makes provision for the geotechnical practitioner to complete a series of schedules that
define investigation specific details including:
• Description of the site, expected ground and groundwater conditions, drawings, and
documents provided
• Number, type, and location of exploratory holes
• Amendments and additions to the published standard specification
Appendix E contains a Microsoft® Excel workbook template bill of quantities using the
specification format. An electronic file of the template is available from the Overseeing
Organization.
Where ground investigation works are performed as part of a construction, the ground
investigation works will be specified and billed as part of construction contract using the
relevant Qatar Construction Standard.

15
6.2 Specification of Ground Investigation of Contaminated Land

The geotechnical practitioner may require that a ground investigation be performed at
a site or part of a site with known or potentially contaminated soils or groundwater. For
such investigations, the geotechnical practitioner must clearly define the objectives and
anticipated hazards to allow the ground investigation company to select the appropriate
plant, equipment, drilling methods, materials, and protective measures. Therefore,
the geotechnical practitioner should include clauses within the ground investigation
specification related to the investigation of contaminated ground or groundwater. There
should also be bill of quantities items to reflect the additional work and measures the ground
investigation company will have to undertake compared to those for a ground investigation
in uncontaminated conditions. Part 4: Guidelines for the Safe Investigation by Drilling of
Landfills and Contaminated Land (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993c) provides advice
for the investigation of known or potentially contaminated sites and includes example
bill of quantities items that could be added to the standard bill of quantities described in
UK guideline Part 4: Guidelines for the Safe Investigation by Drilling of Landfills and
Contaminated Land (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993c) uses a traffic light system to
categories sites based on the risk to human health and controlled waters, as presented in
Table 6.1

15
Table 6.1 Site Categorization in Relation to the Ground Investigation of Landfills

and Contaminated Land
Site
Designation Broad Description
Green Subsoil, hardcore, bricks, stone, concrete, clay, excavated road materials, glass, ceramics,
and abrasives.
Wood, paper, cardboard, plastics, metals, wool, cork, ash, clinker, and cement.
It is possible that bonded asbestos could be contained in otherwise inert areas.
Yellow Waste food, vegetable matter, floor sweepings, household waste, animal carcasses,
sludge, trees, bushes, garden waste, and leather.
Rubber, latex, tires, epoxy resin, electrical fittings, soaps, cosmetics, nontoxic metal and
organic compounds, tar, pitch, bitumen, solidified wastes, fuel ash, and silica dust.
Red All substances that could subject persons and animals to risk of death, injury or
impairment of health.
Wide range of chemicals, toxic metals, and organic compounds; pharmaceutical and
veterinary wastes, phenols, medical products, solvents, beryllium, microorganisms,
asbestos, thiocyanates, clyanides, and dye stuffs.
Hydrocarbons, peroxides, chlorates, flammable and explosive materials, and materials that
are particularly corrosive or carcinogenic.
Notes:
Indiscriminate dumping may have taken place on a particular landfill or contaminated site; therefore, the
categorizations should be treated as a guide only to determining operational procedures.
Landfill sites licensed to accept asbestos waste or other sites where significant deposits of bound or
unbound asbestos occur justifiably have a RED designation, warranting the highest level of caution.
However, many contaminated sites may only have very small quantities of asbestos, often present as
asbestos cement, which (while presenting a hazard) may not warrant the highest level of protection. In
these cases, it may be sufficient simply to add water to the borehole to prevent asbestos fibers becoming
airborne and available for inhalation or to wear disposable paper masks suitable for low levels of asbestos.
The presence of radioactive materials on a site has not been included in the above categorization and
should be considered separately, subject to relevant regulations and codes of practice.
Most dye stuffs are likely to be in the YELLOW category. However, a variety of base materials have been
used for the manufacturing of dyes, so it is possible that some of those, in concentrated form, could be
sufficiently toxic to require a RED designation.
In situations where a preliminary sources study has not been carried out, or the preliminary sources study
has not revealed sufficient information, the site should be given an automatic RED designation.
Source: Part 3: Specification for Ground Investigation (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993b).
Other references that provide information and guidance in relation to the ground investigation
of contaminated land include:
• Investigation of Potentially Contaminated Sites—Code of Practice (BS 10175:2011)
• Guidelines for Combined Geoenvironmental and Geotechnical Investigations (AGS, 2000)
• Description and Sampling of Contaminated Soils—A Field Pocket Guide (USEPA, 2002)
• Standard Guide for Site Characterization for Environmental Purposes with Emphasis on
Soil, Rock, the Vadose Zone and Groundwater (ASTM D5730-04)

15

15
7 In Situ Testing and

Its Interpretation
7.1 Overview
In situ testing usually forms an important part of any ground investigation for Qatar road
projects. This chapter provides guidance on the execution, interpretation, and uses of
standard penetration testing, cone penetration testing, dynamic penetration testing and in
situ density determinations.
7.2 Standard Penetration Testing

The SPT is the most commonly used in situ test in Qatar and the Arabian Peninsula and is
widely used around the world. The test provides an indicator of the density and compressibility
of granular soils, such as the aeolian sand and marine sediments (described in Clause 2.2.3
in this Part). It is a particularly valuable test in these types of soils, as undisturbed samples
cannot be easily obtained for laboratory testing. The SPT can also be used to assess the
consistency of cohesive soils such as sabkha, marine silts and clays, and depression muds, as
well as the consistency of weak rocks.
The SPT is a relatively simple test that gives a numerical parameter that can be used for the
following:
• Profiling soils and weak rocks
• Soil classification
• Determination of engineering parameters for use in design based on empirical design

rules, discussed further in Clause 7.2.4 in this Part
• Direct design; discussed further in Clause 7.2.4 in this Part
The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (published
Standard Penetration Test (SPT): International Reference Procedure that describes the
principles constituting acceptable test procedures from which the results are comparable
ISSMFE, 1988). Only standards that comply with the reference test procedure, such as
Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) and Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration
Test (SPT) and Split Barrel Sampling of Soils (ASTM D1586-08a) should be used in ground
investigations.
The SPT consists of driving a standard 50 mm outside diameter thick-walled sampler into the
soil at the base of a borehole, using repeated blows of a 63.5-kilogram (kg) hammer falling
through 760 mm. The SPT N value is the number of blows required to achieve a penetration
of 300 mm, after an initial seating drive of 150 mm.

15
7.2.1 Influence of Different Practices and Equipment on SPT Results

Apart from the soil conditions during the test, the main influences on SPT results are:
• Driller competence and borehole construction

• The SPT equipment
7.2.1.1 Driller Competence and Borehole Construction

Studies reported in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA, 1995) have shown that the quality of drilling
equipment and drilling technique can produce some of the largest differences in penetration
resistance in granular soils. The skill and care of the driller in applying appropriate techniques
and procedures in the sinking the borehole can have a significant influence on the penetration
resistance of the soil. The correct execution of the SPT itself is also of critical importance.
Therefore, for quality control it is important that drillers performing a ground investigation
are competent in the drilling techniques and testing to be used (see Clause 5.2.1 in this Part).
Best practice drilling should be used to minimize the disturbance of soils to be tested by
SPT. In light cable percussion boreholes most commonly used in ground investigations, these
practices include:
• Where drilling in the presence of a groundwater table a water balance should be

maintained within the borehole casing. This prevents a hydraulic gradient at the base of
the hole that would likely cause upward seepage and piping failure within sand and silt
deposits, resulting in them becoming loose.
• SPTs should be carried out below the borehole casing, not within it.
• Standard 35-mm internal diameter split spoon samplers should be used.
• In very loose aeolian sands or in very soft marine deposits the static weight of the
rods and hammer assembly often will be sufficient to push the test equipment some
distance into the ground below the base of the borehole. That distance should be
recorded in accordance with the test standard; otherwise, the penetration resistance
will be overestimated by an unknown quantity.
In Qatar, drilling typically is performed using an 110-mm casing. Drilling in larger diameter
boreholes is not common practice, but the geotechnical practitioner should be aware that
drilling in boreholes of greater than 150-mm diameter may result in obtaining artificially
lowered SPT N values. Therefore, the geotechnical practitioner should consider this when
interpreting test data and make corrections where necessary.
Further information on the influence of driller competence and borehole construction on SPT
results can be found in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA, 1995).
7.2.1.2 SPT Equipment

The equipment used to perform SPTs can influence measured N values significantly. To
minimize such influences, only equipment complying with such recognized industry standards

15
as Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test

(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) and Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration
Test (SPT) and Split Barrel Sampling of Soils (ASTM D1586-08a) should be used in ground
investigations. The energy the SPT hammer delivers to the rods and the consistency of that
energy level with each drop of the hammer influence SPT results. In Qatar, the automatic trip
hammer is mostly used. It provides the most consistent energy application with each hammer
drop and thus is the preferred type of equipment. Further information on the automatic trip
hammer and other types of SPT hammers commonly used can be found in CIRIA Report 143
(CIRIA, 1995).
Energy Delivered to the Rods
The level of energy application varies depending on the individual hammer used. Energy
losses are induced by the hammer assembly by frictional and other effects, which cause the
hammer velocity at impact to be less than the free-fall velocity. Further losses of energy
arise from the impact of the anvil depending on its mass and other characteristics. Following
studies of energy imparted by hammers, it has been established that a standard rod
energy ratio (Er) of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall hammer energy is appropriate for
normalizing penetration resistances from different equipment and systems. The correction
of SPT N values to a standard rod energy ratio of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall
hammer energy is applied in standards such as Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—
Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) and
Standard Practice for Determining the Normalized Penetration Resistance of Sands for
Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential (ASTM D6066-11). The adjusted N value is denoted by
the symbol N60.
In sands, the blow count N is inversely proportional to the energy ratio (Er) of the hammer
and the correction factor that has to be applied (see Clause 6.2.3 in this Part). To establish
the correction factor, the Er value of the particular test hammer has to be established
from calibration testing. SPT hammers should be calibrated by an appropriate specialist
company every 6 months and after damage, overloading, or repair, as recommended in
Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011). Annex B of BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011
provides a recommended method to measure the actual energy imparted by a SPT hammer
assembly to the rods. The ground investigation company should provide a copy of the current
certificates of calibration for SPT hammers used during a ground investigation and referenced
to the tests undertaken as part of its factual reporting of the ground investigation.

15
Energy Loss Owing to the Length of Rods
With low penetration resistance (N <50) the energy transmitted down the rods in the first
compressive pulse of force will be reduced due to a reflective tensile wave. Studies indicate
that this has an impact on tests in sand but not in cohesive soils. For SPT in sands if the rod
length is less than 10 m then a further correction to that for the energy ratio of the hammer
should be applied as described in Clause 7.2.3 in this Part.
7.2.2 Corrections Applied to SPT Results
7.2.2.1 Energy Delivered to the Rods

As discussed in Section 7.2 in this Part, for design and comparison purposes SPT N values
should be adjusted to a reference energy ratio of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall
hammer energy. This adjustment is made using the following equation:
where
N = SPT blow count
Er = energy ratio of the SPT hammer (%)
N60 = adjusted N value
7.2.2.2 Energy Loss Owing to Length of Rods in Sands

To correct for energy loss encountered with short rod lengths when testing sands,
correction (λ) to the reference energy correction given in Clause 7.2.3.1 in this Part should
be applied to the SPT N results. Table 7.1 lists the rod length correction factors.
Table 7.1 Correction Factors in Sands for Rod Length

Rod Length Below the Anvil (m) Correction Factor, λ
>10 1.0
6 to 10 0.95
4 to 6 0.85
<4 0.75
Source: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test

(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011)

VOLUME 2 PART 15
GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS
GROUND INVESTIGATION OF GEOTECHNICAL
AND ASPECTS DESIGN
OF GEOTECHNICAL GUIDE PART
GUIDE
DESIGN
15
To obtain a value corrected to a reference energy of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall

To obtain a value corrected to a reference energy of 60 percent of the theoretical
hammer, SPT
free-fall N values
hammer, in N
SPT sands areinadjusted
values sands areusing the following
adjusted using theequation:
following equation:
free-fall hammer, SPT N values in sands are adjusted using the following equation:
= ×λ×N ࡱ
ࡺ૟૙ = ࢘ × ɉ × N
૟૙ ૟૙
where
N where
= SPT blow count
N = SPT blow count
λ ʄ = = correction
correctionfactor related
factor to to
related rodrod
length
length
N60 N60= = adjusted
adjustedNNvalue
value
7.2.2.3 Effect
7.2.2.3 Effect of Overburden
of Overburden Pressure
Pressure
SPT N60 values may need further correction to account for the effect of overburden
60
SPT N60 values may need further correction to account for the effect of overburden pressure.
pressure. Several published corrections address effective overburden pressure at the
Several published corrections address effective overburden pressure at the SPT depth. The
SPT depth. The correction factors (CN) presented in Geotechnical Investigation and
correction factors (CN) presented in Geotechnical Investigation and Testing — Field Testing
Testing — Field Testing — Part 3: Standard Penetration Test
— Part 3: Standard Penetration Test (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) also account for
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) also account for the type of consolidation of the
thedeposit.
type of Suggested
consolidation CN of the deposit.
values Suggested
to be applied CN values
to take to be
account ofapplied to takepressure
overburden account
of and
overburden
the typepressure and the type
of consolidation ofofthe
consolidation
deposit areof given
the deposit are7.2.
in Table given
Thein Table 7.2.
adjusted
The adjusted N value
N60 value is denoted
60
is denoted by the symbol
by the symbol (N1)60. (N )
1 60
.
Table 7.27.2 Correction

Table Factors
Correction CN Cforfor
Factors Vertical Effective
Vertical Stress
Effective (σ(ʍ
Stress ’) due to Overburden
v v’) due to
N
of Overburden
the Soils of the Soils
Type ofofConsolidation
Type Consolidation Correction Factor(C(C)N)
Correction Factor N
Normally consolidated
Normally consolidated ૢૡ
ඨ
ો‫’ܞ‬
Overconsolidated
Overconsolidated ૚ૠ૙
ૠ૙ + ો‫’ܞ‬
σv’ is
ʍv’the vertical
is the effective
vertical stress
effective inin
stress kN/m 2
kN/m2
v
Source:
Source: Geotechnical
Geotechnical Investigation
Investigation andand Testing—Field
Testing—Field Testing—Part
Testing—Part 3: Standard
3: Standard Penetration
Penetration Test
Test
(BS EN
(BSISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011)
EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011)
| VOLUME 2
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUALPAGE 71
VOLUME 2 PAGE 7171
15
In sands, therefore, the adjustment to be made to SPT N values to obtain a value corrected
to a reference energy of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall hammer and to take account
of effective overburden pressure is made using the following equation:
( ) = × × ×N
where
N = SPT blow count
λ = correction factor related to rod length
CN = correction factor related to effective overburden pressure
(N1)60 = adjusted N60 value
7.2.2.4 SPT Corrections Spreadsheet Template

Table F1 in Appendix F is a template spreadsheet for the application of corrections to SPT
results.
7.2.3 Engineering Parameters and Direct Design Methods
7.2.3.1 Engineering Parameters

SPT results have been correlated to the engineering parameters used in geotechnical design
and for various soils and weak rocks. Table 7.3 lists engineering parameters commonly
derived from SPT results and published correlations. Details of the various correlations
and discussion on their application can be found in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA, 1995) and in
geotechnical engineering design textbooks such as Foundation Design and Construction
(Tomlinson, 2001).
Table 7.3 Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived from SPT Results

Material type
Cohesive
Granular Soils Soils Weak Rock
Aeolian Sands, Carbonate Required
Parameter Symbol Residual Soils Sabkha Rock Input
Relative density
Dr * — — (N1)60
Effective angle of friction

f’ * — — (N1)60
Undrained shear strength cu — * * N60

Undrained Young’s modulus Eu — * — N60
Drained (effective) Young’s
E’ * * * N60
modulus
Coefficient of volume
mv — * — N60
compressibility
Shear modulus at very small
Gmax * — — (N1)60
strain

15
7.2.3.2 Direct Design Methods

Several direct design methods are used for SPT. The N value in these methods (corrected as
appropriate) is the input parameter, and the analysis gives the value to be calculated. For
example, the settlement of a foundation, without estimate of the engineering parameters
of the soil or rock. Direct design methods include:
• Estimating the settlements of shallow foundations on sands

• Designing piles for soils and weak rock
• Determining liquefaction potential in sands
• Estimating sheet pile drivability in granular soils
Direct design methods and their application are contained in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA,
1995), Load and Resistance Factored Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures
(FHWA, 2001), Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations (FHWA, 2006), and
such geotechnical engineering design textbooks as Foundation Design and Construction
(Tomlinson, 2001).
7.3 Cone Penetration Testing

7.3.1 Introduction
The cone penetration test (CPT) and CPT with porewater pressure measurement (CPTU,
known as the “piezocone test”) are not widely used in Qatar, because there are few superficial
deposits (soils) and, therefore, shallow bedrock. However, CPTs are often conducted within
reclaimed areas and near the coastline, especially where the overburden is of considerable
thickness; for example, in the Mesaieed and Wakra areas. Seismic or electrical sondes (probes)
can be included in the CPT array to provide information on sonic velocity or resistivity that
can be correlated with engineering properties. CPTU generally is the preferred method,
because the data obtained are more versatile for interpretation of the ground conditions at
a site. Piezocone tests, however, require additional drilling to avoid loss of saturation within
the piezofilter.
In the text below, CPT is a generic term covering both CPT and CPTU unless stated otherwise.
CPT can be very cost-effective and can provide continuous data on the strata being tested
with good repeatability of observations. CPT can be used for the following:
• Profiling the soil stratigraphy and identifying the material encountered
• Determining engineering parameters of soils for use in design based on empirical design
rules (discussed further in Clause 7.3.5.1 in this Part)
• Direct design (discussed further in Clause 7.3.5.2 in this Part)

15
In most cases, it is desirable that a CPT investigation be supplemented by exploratory holes,

sampling, and testing in order to accomplish the following:
• Provide correlations and verifications of soil type

• Provide complementary information where interpretation of CPT data are difficult
• Evaluate the effect of future changes in soil loading that cannot be assessed from the
CPT
The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering published the
International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) that describes the
principles constituting acceptable test procedures for the CPT from which the results are
comparable (ISSMFE, 1989). Only equipment and procedures that comply with the reference
test procedure, as described in international standards such as Geotechnical Investigation
and Testing—Field Testing—Part 2: Dynamic Probing (BS EN 1997-2:2007) and Standard
Test Method for Electronic Friction Cone and Piezocone Penetration Testing of Soils (ASTM
D5778-12) should be used for CPT investigations.
The CPT consists of pushing a cone attached to the end of a series of rods into the ground at
a constant rate of penetration. During the test, continuous or intermittent measurements are
made of the resistance to penetration of the cone. Measurements are also made of either the
combined resistance to penetration of the cone and outer surface of a friction sleeve or the
resistance of the surface friction sleeve itself. The standard CPT cone has a 60-degree apex
angle and a diameter of 35.7 mm providing a 10 square centimeters (cm2) cross-sectional
base area and 150 cm2 friction sleeve located above the cone, as shown in Figure 7.1. In
addition, CPT cones of 15 cm2 cross-sectional base are used, especially where additional
sensors are incorporated into the equipment. International Reference Test Procedure for
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) advises that immediately behind the cone
(position u2 in Figure 7.1) is the preferred location for the filter for the measurement of pore
pressure. Some equipment, however, has the filter on the cone (position u1 in Figure 7.1 or
behind the friction sleeve (position u3).
Electrical strain gauge load cells within the cone penetrometer measure the cone
resistance (qc) and the sleeve friction (fs) of the soils being tested as the cone is pushed into
the ground.

15
Source: Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997)
Figure 7.1 Cone Penetrometer Components
7.3.2 Test Methods

Methods for undertaking CPT are set out in such international standards as International
Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989), Geotechnical
Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 2: Dynamic Probing (BS EN 1997-2:2007),
Standard Test Method for Mechanical Cone Prnetrtion Tests of Soil (ASTM D3441-05), and
Standard Test Method for Eletronic Friction Cone and Piezocone Penetration Testing of
Soils (ASTM D5778-12).
7.3.3 Factors that Can Affect CPT Results

The factors that typically affect CPT results, with measures to avoid error or to correct the
data, are as follows:
• Skill and care of the CPT operator: Following the correct test procedure is fundamentally
important in ensuring quality and reliability of CPT results. Only suitably trained and
experienced operators should perform CPT testing.
• Calibration of sensor and load cells: Accurate and up-to-date calibration of sensors
and load cells is needed to recording accurate CPT data, and so good support facilities
for calibration and maintenance of the CPT equipment are important. Calibration records
should always be requested for the cone, friction sleeve, piezometer, and other sensors
such as seismic sonde. Such records should be current at time of commencement of
testing and should be consulted at the end of the investigation to determine if drift in
readings may have occurred over time.
• Porewater pressures: Porewater pressure around a penetrating cone influence the

measured cone resistance and sleeve friction. In clays, a higher rate of penetration
generates higher pore pressures that will result in overestimation of cone resistance and
therefore strength properties. High rates of penetration can give increased resistance

15
in some sands from dilatancy generating high negative porewater pressures. Such rate
effects can be avoided by carrying out the test to the standard rate of penetration.
International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989)
recommends a penetration rate of 20 millimeters per second (mm/sec) ±5 mm/sec.
• De-airing of piezometers: If the piezometer within the CPT array becomes unsaturated,
it will give erroneous pore pressure readings. Piezocones should be immersed in de-aired
water for at least 24 hours before testing. Piezocones should be regularly replaced with
de-aired piezocone elements. CPTUs should be performed only below free groundwater
level.
• Inclination of testing: A test path that deviates significantly off vertical will induce
errors in the depth of the recorded data. To minimize the risk of a test deviating off
vertical, the thrust machine should be set up to obtain a thrust direction as near to
vertical as possible. Deviation of initial thrust direction from vertical should not exceed
2 degrees, and the axis of the test push rods should coincide with the vertical thrust
direction. Inclusion of a slope sensor in the penetrometer will monitor and record the
verticality of the test path. That information can then be used to make any necessary
corrections to give the correct measurement depth.
• Temperature: Changes in temperature can affect readings. In sands, temperature

may increase from friction between the cone penetrometer and the sand particles.
Temperature effects can be checked by taking a reading at zero-load at the beginning
and end of test at the same temperature as that of the ground. The inclusion of a
temperature sensor in the penetrometer will also allow monitoring and recording of the
temperature. The data can then be corrected based on laboratory calibrations.
• Cone penetrometer condition: General wear and tear can cause a cone penetrometer
to fall out of standard, to the extent that the accuracy of test data may be affected. The
cone should be inspected before carrying out a CPT survey to ensure the cone is in good
condition. An appropriate inspection and maintenance schedule for the CPT equipment
should be put in place to ensure that equipment that falls out of standard is identified
and taken out of use.
Information on factors that can affect CPT results and measures to avoid error or to correct
the data are found in Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997).
Table G.1 in Appendix G summarizes the frequency of checks and recalibrations that should
be made for CPT to ensure data quality.
7.3.4 Presentation of Results

The ground investigation company’s reporting of CPT should contain the following:
• Measured parameters: For each CPT the measured parameters listed below should be
plotted on one sheet with a common set of scales used at any one site:
−− Measured cone resistance (qc)
−− Measured sleeve friction (fs)

15
−− Pore water pressure (u), where measured
−− International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE,
1989) gives recommendations for scales to be used, but those may be varied
where appropriate to ensure best presentation of data.
• Derived parameters: Where possible, the following parameters should be derived and
presented:
−− Cone resistance corrected for pore pressure effects (qt)
−− Sleeve friction corrected for pore pressure effects (only valid when pore pressures
have been measured at both ends of the friction sleeve)
−− Friction ratio (Rf), usually in %, where Rf = fs/qc or is preferably Rf = ft/qt or more

typically Rf = fs/qt
−− Pore pressure ratio (Bq), where Bq = Δu/(qt – σvo)
−− With Δu = excess pore pressure (u – u0)
−− u0 = in situ equilibrium pore water pressure
−− σvo = in situ total vertical stress
• On each CPT record:
−− Site name
−− CPT reference number
−− Date of test
−− Serial number of the cone penetrometer
−− Position of the pore pressure filters on the cone penetrometer
−− Groundwater level
−− Test company and CPT operator name
−− Zero readings for sensor before and after test, and the temperature at which test
taken.
• In the factual report:
−− Plan showing the location of each CPT coordinated to an agreed Cartesian system
−− Description of the equipment used and name of the manufacturers
−− Cone geometry and dimensions and any deviation from International Reference
Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) or the standard
being used
−− Calibration factors for all sensors and the load range over which they apply
−− Capacity of each sensor
−− Zero readings for all sensors before and after each test, and the temperature at
which taken or alternatively the change in zero reading expressed in kilopascals
(kPa)

15
−− Type of liquid used in the pore pressure measurement system
−− Observed wear or damage on the cone, friction sleeve or the filter element
−− Any irregularities during testing to the standard being used
−− Area ratio of the cone and the friction sleeve end areas
For dissipation tests, note whether the rods were clamped or unclamped during dissipation.
Table G.2 in Appendix G is a checklist of information required with CPT results to check that
data quality is provided. Appendix I includes a typical CPT field log.
7.3.5 Soils Characteristics, Engineering Parameters, Direct Design Methods and Other
Applications
7.3.5.1 Soils Characteristics and Engineering Design Parameters

CPT is extremely effective for establishing soil type and soils stratigraphy, particularly when
correlated with data from boreholes. CPT results have been correlated to a wide range of
engineering parameters used in geotechnical design and for a wide range of soil types.

15
Table 7.4 lists the engineering parameters commonly derived from CPT results and published
correlations. Details of the correlations and discussion of their application can be found in
Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997). Most correlations
given in this document are based on empirical results and data derived for silica or quartz
sands. In some instances, these correlations can be in error for CPT tests in calcareous sands
(carbonate content greater than 50 to 70 percent) (Lunne et al., 1997).

15
Table 7.4 Soil Characteristics and Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived from
Cone Penetration Testing Results
Material type
Granular Soils Cohesive Soils
Sabkha, Marine
Soil Characteristics and Aeolian Sands Deposits
Parametersa Symbol CPT CPTU CPT CPTU
Soil State
Soil type — B A B A
Soil stratigraphy — A A A A
In situ static pore pressure u — — — A
Unit weight/weight density (bulk
γ — — — C
density/mass density)
Relative density (density index) ID A/B A/B — —
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) — — — B Bb
In situ horizontal stress σh C C B/C B/Cb
Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength cu — — B Bb
Sensitivity — — — C C
Effective angle of friction f’ B B C B
Deformation
Drained (effective) constrained modulus M B B Cc Bc
Coefficient of consolidation cv — — — A/B
Coefficient of permeability k — — — B
Undrained Young’s modulus Eu — — C B
Drained (effective) Young’s modulus E’ B B — —
Shear modulus at very small strain Gmax B B B B
Notes:
a
For details of the correlations and discussion on their application, see Cone Penetration Testing in
Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997). The general applicability of CPT and CPTU data for assessing
soil characteristics and parameters: A high, B moderate, C low, and — not applicable.
b
CPTU provides additional approaches compared to CPT to assess this characteristic/parameter
c
The coefficient of volume compressibility can be assessed from mv = 1/M, but the value tends to be
conservative.
In calcareous sands, correction factors should be applied to account for the crushability of
the shell content and hence higher compressibility of the deposits, which often results in
artificially lower CPT cone resistance values compared to silica or quartz sands of the same
relative density.

15
7.3.5.2 Direct Design Methods

Several direct design methods have been developed for CPT. In these methods, qc is usually
the only input parameter from the CPT test and there are various formulae and correlations
for the value to be calculated. Design methods that use CPT data include:
• Pile load capacity and pile settlement

• Bearing capacity and settlement of shallow foundations
• Liquefaction potential evaluation
Details of the design methods and discussion on their application can be found in Cone
Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997); Cone Penetration Testing
Methods and Interpretation (CIRIA, 1987); Load and Resistance Factored Design (LRFD) for
Highway Bridge Substructures (FHWA, 2001); and Design and Construction of Driven Pile
Foundations (FHWA, 2006).
7.3.5.3 Other Applications

Other applications for which CPT data are commonly used are:
• Estimation of SPT N values for use in SPT-based design approaches

• Ground improvement quality control
Details of these and other less common applications in Qatar can be found in Cone
Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997) and Cone Penetration
Testing Methods and Interpretation (CIRIA, 1987).
7.4 Dynamic Cone Penetration Testing

7.4.1 Introduction
Dynamic cone penetration testing (DCPT) is often used in road and pavement construction,
where there is a need to characterize the field subgrade conditions, which is otherwise
difficult to assess by laboratory testing. Details of DCPT presented in this section are based
on In Situ Foundation Characterization Using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (Burnham
and Johnson, 1993) and Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT) for Subgrade Assessment
(Salgado and Yoon, 2003).
7.4.2 Description of DCPT Equipment and Operation of Equipment

As shown in Figure 7.2, the DCPT equipment consists of upper and lower shafts. The upper
shaft has an 8-kg drop hammer with a 575-mm drop height. It is attached to the lower shaft
through the anvil. The lower shaft contains the anvil and a cone attached at the end of
the shaft. The cone is replaceable and has a 60 degree cone angle. As a reading device, an
additional rod is used as an attachment to the lower shaft with marks at every 5.1 mm.

15
Source: Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT) for Subgrade Assessment (Salgado and Yoon, 2003)
Figure 7.2 Structure of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DCPT requires two operators: one to drop the hammer, the other to record measurements.
The first step is to put the cone tip on the testing surface. The lower shaft containing the
cone moves independently from the reading rod sitting on the testing surface throughout
the test. The initial reading is not usually equal to 0 because of the disturbed loose state
of the ground surface and the weight of the testing equipment. The initial reading is
counted as initial penetration corresponding to below 0. Hammer blows are repeated, and
the penetration depth is measured for each hammer drop. This process is continued until a
desired penetration depth is reached. DCPT results consist of number of blow counts versus
penetration depth. Since the recorded blow counts are cumulative values, results of DCPT in
general are given as incremental values.
7.4.3 DCPT Application

DCPT can be used to characterize the subgrade and base material properties. Its greatest
strength is its ability to provide a continuous record of relative soil strength with depth. The
following applications use DCP testing:
• Soils surveys: DCPT can be carried out as part of a ground investigation to map areas
of weak material and to locate potentially collapsible or moisture sensitive soils. By
carrying out an initial DCPT, flooding the location with water, and running the test
again, a noticeable increase in the penetration index value (PIdc) reflecting a lower shear
strength would indicate the presence of collapsible or moisture sensitive soil.

15
• Construction control: DCPT is useful in testing highway pavement subgrade and

formation soils to verify consistency and compliance with construction specifications.
• Structural evaluation of existing pavements: DCPT may be used to verify the strength
of pavement layers with depth. DCPT results can be compared with Standard Pavement
Balance Curves for classification purposes.
7.4.4 DCPT Data Analysis

DCPT results are expressed in terms of the penetration index (PIdc), defined as the downward
vertical movement of the DCP cone produced by one drop of the sliding hammer (mm/blow).
Stiffer or stronger soils require more blows or drops of the hammer to achieve a given
penetration.
Test results normally are processed on a worksheet. Depth readings are averaged, and
strength of a soil layer between DCP readings is represented by a uniform PIdc at the midpoint
of the layer. The PIdc is calculated by dividing the difference in the present and previous
DCP depth readings by the number of hammer blows between readings, as indicated in the
following equation (Salgado and Yoon, 2003):
∆DP
PI dc =
∆BC
where
PIdc = DCP penetration index in units of length divided by blow count;
ΔDp = penetration depth;
BC = is the blow count corresponding to penetration depth ΔDp
A graph of penetration index (PIdc) versus penetration below the surface should be prepared,
indicating a profile of different strength layers. The results can become unrealistic if the DCP
encounters an obstruction during testing (one or two points with near zero penetration).
Caution should be excercised in assessing results for depths greater than 2m as deeper
penetration depths may be suspectible to erroneous results due to increase in shaft friction.
In such cases, a sleeve or a casing might have to be considered to eliminate shaft friction.
7.4.5 Relationship between Penetration Index and Other Geotechnical Parameters

A series of correlations have been developed between penetration index and SPT N values
and specific geotechnical parameters:
• California bearing ratio (CBR)

• Undrained shear strength (cu)
• Elastic modulus (E)
• Shear strength of granular (cohesionless) materials
• Standard Penetration Resistance (SPT)
• Clegg Hammer and Benkelman Beam

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7.5 In Situ Density Tests

Soil bulk density, or mass density, is an important parameter required for geotechnical
engineering design. As described in Section 4.4 in this Part, routine sampling techniques
cannot provide samples of the type and quality suitable for bulk density determination for
aeolian sand deposits, which predominate in Qatar. However, the bulk density of deposits
can be determined by testing the soils in situ. Table 7.5 lists the tests commonly undertaken
for Qatar road projects to establish soils bulk density in situ.
Table 7.5 Tests Commonly Undertaken for Qatar Road Projects for Determining the
In Situ Density of Soils
Test Method BS ASTM Notes

Sand BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM D1556- Suitable for fine and medium grained soils
replacement Cl 2.1, small pouring 07, sand-cone or aeolian sand.
cylinder method
BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM D4914-08, Suitable for fine-, medium-, and coarse-
Cl 2.2, large pouring sand replacement grained soils or aeolian sand.
cylinder method
Water BS-1377-9:1990, ASTM D5030-04 Used rarely in coarse and very coarse soils
replacement Cl 2.3 wadi deposits.
Core cutter BS-1377-9:1990, — Suitable for cohesive soils free from
Cl 2.4 coarse-grained material. Used rarely, for
example, in cement stabilized fill.
Nuclear BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM D6938-10 Commonly used. The ground investigation
Cl 2.5 company personnel undertaking this
test require a Ministry of Environment
(2012) license in conjunction with a
thermoluminesence dosimetry certificate.
Suitable for fine grained materials like
aeolian sand. Technique much less reliable
in coarse, gravelly soils.
Lightweight — ASTM E2835-11, Relatively new technique. Used for
deflectometer ASTM E2583-07 measuring the bearing capacity or
deflection of subgrade, subsoils, unbound
base layers, granular layers, and backfilling
materials.
7.6 Pressuremeter Tests

7.6.1 Introduction
The following description of pressuremeter testing is based on BS5930:1999+A2:2010.
Pressuremeters are cylindrical device with a flexible membrane, which imposes a uniform
pressure on a borehole wall. Measurement of the applied pressure and the resulting
deformation of the membrane enable in situ stress, stiffness, and strength of the ground to
be established. Pressuremeters categorise as either:
• Preborded pressuremeters
• Self-bored pressuremeters
• Push-in pressuremeters.

15
Pressuremeters are normally between 40 mm and 100 mm in diameter and up to 1 m long,

with the expanding section being between five and six times the diameter of the instrument.
The displacement capacity of the instrument is a function of the instrument design but
normally exceeds 10 percent of the instrument diameter.
Pressuremeters can be used in most ground conditions, but not all pressuremeters can
be used in any one-ground condition. The results from any individual test depend on the
equipment used and the procedures adopted for installation, testing, and interpretation.
This means that results from different tests may not necessarily be compatible. Prebored
pressuremeters, such as the Menard pressuremeter, can be used in most soils and rocks. The
results obtained depend on the quality of the pre-drilling. The Cambridge type self-boring
pressuremeters can be used in most clays and sands provided they do not contain excessive
amounts of gravel size particles. It may be necessary with the self-boring pressuremeter to
use a second rig to clear obstructions encountered during drilling. The weak rock self-boring
pressuremeter can be used in dense sands, hard clays, and weak rocks. This instrument has
to be used with a rotary rig. The cone pressuremeter can be used in those soils into which it
is possible to push a static cone.
There are three main pressure capacities for pressuremeters: 0 MPa to 4 MPa for soils; 0 MPa
to 10 MPa for weak rocks; and 0 MPa to 20 MPa for moderately strong rocks.
7.6.1.1 Prebored Pressuremeters

Prebored pressuremeters are lowered into pockets drilled specifically for the tests. The
Menard pressuremeter is a prebored pressuremeter and consists of three expanding cells
connected to the surface by drill rods and flexible hoses. The central cell is inflated with
water under pressure and readings of the pressure and volume change are taken at the
ground surface. The other cells, normally inflated by gas pressure, ensure a condition of
plane strain around the central cell. The other types of prebored pressuremeters are mainly
single expanding cell systems in which the radial or diametrical displacement is measured
directly with transducers mounted in the instrument. The membrane is inflated with gas or
oil under pressure, which is then measured with a transducer mounted in the instrument.
The probe is typically inserted into a prebored pocket at least 1.5 m long, drilled in such a
manner that disturbance to the borehole walls due to erosion softening are minimized. The
hole diameter should normally be no greater than 110 percent of the probe diameter and the
probe installed in the hole as soon as possible after drilling.
7.6.1.2 Self-bored Pressuremeters

Self-bored pressuremeters are single cell instruments attached to a drilling head so that they
can be drilled into the ground with reduced the disturbance to the borehole walls. The head
contains a drill cutter, which is turned by inner rods that pass through outer rods. The outer
rods connect the instrument to the surface and are used to push the probe into the ground.
Mud or water is pumped down the inner rotating rods and back up the annulus between the

15
inner and outer rods. This removes the parings from the cutter and retains pressure on the
soil. Radial displacement of the membrane is measured directly with transducers mounted
within the instrument. The membrane is inflated with gas or oil under pressure, which is then
measured with a transducer mounted in the instrument.
7.6.1.3 Pushed-in Pressuremeters

The push-in pressuremeter is a single cell pressuremeter most commonly mounted behind an
electric cone penetrometer. The membrane is usually inflated by oil or water under pressure,
which is measured ideally by a transducer mounted in the instrument. Displacement of the
membrane is either measured directly with transducers mounted within the instrument,
recording radial displacement or by volume change measurements.
7.6.2 Test methods

Pressuremeter tests can be either stress-controlled or strain-controlled. In a test, the
pressure is increased in increments and the displacement of the membrane is recorded. In
stress-controlled tests there should be at least 15 increments of pressure during the loading
phase, each increment being held for 1 to 2 minutes. Strain-controlled tests are actually also
under stress control, but a feedback system is used to ensure that the displacement of the
membrane satisfies a preset strain rate.
The Menard test method is a stress-controlled test for establishing parameters that can be
used directly in design formulae developed from observations of full-scale tests. It is common
practice to carry out at least one unload reload cycle within the test from which a value of
stiffness may be obtained and usually two or three unload reload cycles are undertaken.
In Qatar, pressuremeter testing typically comprises the following two phases:
• Phase 1: For the assessment of earth pressure coefficient at rest, a stress-controlled

test with increments of 0.1 MPa or less is performed from the beginning of test until a
pressure of 2 MPa has been reached.
• Phase 2: For the assessment of shear stiffness, at least three unload-reload loops
are included in the loading sequence with increments not greater than 0.5 MPa and
adjusted so that there are at least 15 increases in pressure throughout the loading
stage (excluding any unload-reload cycles). The unload-reload loops may comprise:
−− The first unload-reload loop taken at a pressure of 2 MPa or at a cavity strain of

1 percent in excess of that required for the membrane to make contact with the
borehole and wall, whichever comes sooner.
−− The second loop:
§§ Within Umm Bab Member (formerly named Simsima Limestone) and upper
Rus Formation: A pressure of 6 MPa or cavity strain of 2 percent in excess of
that required for the membrane to make contact with the borehole, whichever
comes sooner.

15
§§ Within Midra Shale Unit and lower Rus Formation: A pressure of 6 MPa or at
a cavity strain of 5 percent in excess of that required for the membranes to
make contact with the borehole wall, whichever comes sooner.
−− The third loop:
§§ Within Umm Bab Member (formerly named Simsima Limestone) and upper
Rus Formation: A pressure of 10 MPa or cavity strain of 3 percent in excess of
that required for the membrane to make contact with the borehole, whichever
comes sooner.
§§ Within Midra Shale Unit and lower Rus Formation: A pressure of 10 MPa or at
a cavity strain of 10 percent in excess of that required for the membranes to
make contact with the borehole wall, whichever comes sooner.
• Final loop: the pressure is increased until rock failure or a maximum pressure of 18 MPa.
When failure becomes imminent, the stress-controlled test should be changed to a
strain-control with an increment period per stage of 3 minutes.
7.6.3 Factors that can affect pressuremeter test results

Ground disturbance can significantly influence pressuremeter testing and give rise to results
unrepresentative of the actual insitu ground conditions. It is essential that preboring and self-
boring are designed to minimize the disturbance to the surrounding ground and that tests
are undertaken at sufficient depth below the base of a borehole. Pushing-in pressuremeter
tests are intended to produce the same amount of disturbance each time. The minimum
spacing between tests should be at least 1 m.
Calibrations also need to be made to take account of variations in key elements of the
pressuremeter test equipment to give consistency of test observations and data for
interpretation of soil or rock performance. The calibrations to be made depending on the
type of pressuremeter being use as follows:
• Line or transducer calibrations; Line calibrations are necessary for volume change
systems such as the Menard pressuremeter. Transducer calibrations are necessary for
all pressuremeters that contain displacement or pressure transducers within the probe.
• Membrane stiffness; Membrane stiffness is the pressure required to inflate the

membrane in air and is normally required for all instruments
• Membrane compression; Membrane compression is the change in thickness of the

membrane under pressure. It is most applicable for tests at high pressures in rocks using
instruments containing displacements transducers.
7.6.4 Data Processing and Results Presentation

It is usual to present pressuremeter test data as a graph (curve) of applied pressure against
cavity strain. The curve can then be interpreted to give parameters that are relevant to the
particular instrument in use and the ground conditions.

15
There are two approaches to the use of pressuremeters in ground investigation. The first
is based on the method developed by Menard in which the pressuremeter is used to obtain
design parameters directly. The second is to analyse pressuremeter tests to give properties
of the ground.
The Menard method is an empirical design method based on pressuremeter tests. It is

essential that the instrument, installation procedure, test procedure and interpretation be
followed if these design rules are to be used.
Theories of cavity expansion are well documented. The interpretation of a test is based on
these theories but the parameters obtained may be empirical. Estimates of in situ stress can
be obtained from self-bored pressuremeter tests and in some cases prebored tests.
Average cavity stiffness can be obtained from unload-reload cycles from all pressuremeter
tests. The average cavity stiffness can be converted to a material stiffness. The values
of stiffness vary with the strain and stress level over which they are carried out. The
reliability of interpretations of deformation modulus therefore require the influence of strain
magnitude on the modulus to be assessed and in soils where drainage occurs during a test
the influence of changes in effective stress on the deformation modulus. Undrained shear
strength can be obtained directly from self-boring pressuremeter tests and estimated from
other pressuremeter tests. Angle of friction of sands can be determined from self-bored
pressuremeter tests and estimated from pushed in pressuremeter tests.
The specialist company undertaking the presuremeter tests normally processes the test
data, often using their own propriety software. Analysis of the data is typically interpreted in
general accordance with Code of Practice for Site Investigations (BS5930:1999+A2:2010)
and “A Model Specification for Radial Displacement Measureing Pressuremeters” (Clarke
and Smith, 1992) and depending on material type and obtaining suitable data published
references to estimates of the following parameters:
• In situ cavity pressure (after Marsland and Randolph, 1977; and modified by Hawkins
et al, 1990)
• Undrained shear strength and limit pressure during loading (after Gibson and Anderson,
1961); and modified by Windle and Wroth, 1977)
• Undrained shear strength during unloading (after Jefferies, 1988)
• Drained shear strength during loading (angle of friction and dilation) (after Hughes et al,
1977)
• Shear modulus from linear fit to unload-reload loops (after Windle and Wroth, 1977)
• Undrained shear modulus – shear strain relationship (non-linear stiffness response)

(after Bolton and Whittle, 1999)
• Consistency of undrained parameters using curve fitting method (after Whittle, 1999)

15
• Earth pressure coefficient at rest (after Clarke, 1997)
• Stiffness from the unload-reload cycles (after Palmer, 1972; Windle and Wroth, 1977;
or Clarke, 1997)
The British Standards Institution is currently developing the Geotechnical Investigation

and Testing—Field Testing—Part 4: Ménard Pressuremeter Test (BS EN ISO 22476-4:2012),
Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 6: Self-Boring Pressuremeter
Test (BS EN ISO 22476-6), and Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—
Part 8: Full Displacement Pressuremeter Test (BS EN ISO 22476-8) for presuremeter testing,
and Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 5: Flexible Dilatometer Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-5:2012) for dilatometer testing. These standards should be used after
they are published.
The reporting of pressuremeter testing should normally include:
• Calibration certificate
• Calibration data:
−− A graph of displacement or pressure (as appropriate) against measured output.
−− The calibration coefficients derived for each calibration with relevant graphs with
the date and time of each calibration stated.
−− Tabulated output for the transducers against time, time of start and finish of test,
and rates of stress and/or strain.
• Test data:
−− A graph of effective pressure against effective strain for Phase 1 (0 MPa to 2 MPa).
−− A graph of total pressure against percentage cavity strain (Phase 2) for the loading,
unload-reload cycles and final unloading stages of the test for each displacement
transducer.
−− A graph of total pressure against rate of change of cavity strain (creep) prior to
unload-reload cycles (if delay period used) (Phase 2).
−− Estimate of stiffness Gi and Gur should be made. The measurement of Gi being

calculated for a change in pressure equal to that used for the first unload-reload
cycle. The change in cavity strain over which Gur is calculated will be test dependent
and is normally stated. The following information is also normally presented for
each estimate of be quoted for each estimate of Gi or Gur:
§§ The cavity pressure at the start of unloading

§§ The cavity strain at the start of unloading
§§ The change in cavity pressure during unloading

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7.7 Packer Testing (Lugeon)

7.7.1 Introduction
The following description of the packer or Lugeon test is based on Code of Practice for Site
Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010). The packer or Lugeon test gives a measure of the
acceptance of water under pressure by in situ rock. The test comprises the measurement of
the volume of water that can escape from an uncased section of borehole in a given time
under a given pressure. Flow is confined between known depths by means of packers, hence
the more general name of the test. The flow is confined between two packers in the double
packer test, or between one packer and the bottom of the borehole in the single packer
test. The test is generally used to assess the amount of grout that rock may accept, to
obtain a measure of the amount of fracturing of rock or to give an approximate value of the
permeability of the rock mass local to the borehole.
The results of the test are usually expressed in terms of Lugeon units. A rock is said to have
a permeability of 1 Lugeon if, under a head above groundwater level of 100 m, a 1 m length
of borehole accepts 1 liter per minute (L/min) of water. Lugeon did not specify the diameter
of the borehole, which is usually assumed to be 76 mm, but the test is not very sensitive to
change in borehole diameter unless the length of borehole under test is small.
7.7.2 Test Methods

Packer permeability tests are normally performed in accordance with Code of Practice for
Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010) and Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—
Geohydraulic Testing—Water Pressure Tests in Rock (BS EN ISO 22282-3:2012). Cores
retrieved from boreholes are usually initially assessed to confirm the suitability of packer
testing. The test setup should normally be capable of providing sustained flow of up to
20 liters per second (L/sec). A combination of pumps and flow meters may be required to
cover the range of flows up to this limit. The connecting length of surface pipe work should
be kept as short as possible to minimize head loss and a surge chamber will normally be used.
7.7.3 Factors that can affect packer test results

Smearing of the rock making up the borehole wall itself or of clay type materials on the face
of the wall can significantly affect test results. It is essential, therefore, that the borehole
wall test section is cleaned prior to test to remove such materials as far as in practicable. The
cleaning of the borehole wall is normally achieved by water jetting or brushing.
It is also important during the test that the rock is not fractured hydraulically, that fractures
are opened or material within the fractures is washed out as this will likely result in artificially
higher permeability of the strata. To avoid the development of these factors the water
pressures within in the test section is normally applied in two equal increments up to the
maximum effective overburden pressure at the test section.

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7.8 Falling/Rising/Constant Head Permeability Tests

7.8.1 Introduction
The permeability of soils or rock strata is strictly its hydraulic conductivity, a measure of the
rate of water flow. Before carrying out any permeability testing it is important to understand
whether the stratum to be tested is confined or unconfined and that may influence the test
method and the analysis of the test data. Permeability testing in boreholes involves the
application of hydraulic pressure in the borehole that is different from that in the ground and
the measurement of the rate of flow due to that difference. The following methods of test
are commonly used and should be selected to reflect the nature of the stratum being tested:
• Falling head (or inflow) test: in which the pressure in the borehole is increased by
introducing water into it
• Rising head (or outflow) test: in which the pressure in the borehole is reduced by
pumping water out of it or by displacing water out of it
• Constant head test: in which a pressure difference is held constant during a test
(constant head test) or it may be allowed to vary (a variable head test). It is preferable
to use this test in high permeability soils.
7.8.2 Test Methods, Data Processing, and Results Presentation

Falling, rising and constant head permeability tests are normally performed, data processed,
and results presented in accordance with Code of Practice for Site Investigations
(BS 5930:1999+A2:2010) and Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Laboratory Testing
of Soil—Part 11: Determination of Permeability by Constant and Falling Head (ISO/TS 17892-
11:2004).
The observations of water levels during the tests may be recorded by automatic data loggers
(divers) and checked by manual dip meter readings or solely by manual readings. However,
manual readings should be avoided in highly permeable soils.
7.9 Infiltration testing

The rate of infiltration of a liquid (typically water) into soils can be assessed by specific
field testing. This test method does not provide a measurement of hydraulic conductivity.
Infiltration the testing may be conducted at the ground surface or at shallow depths (0.5 to
1.0 m typically), taking account of health and safety considerations when working in pits.
The tests may also be performed on bare soil or with vegetation in place depending on the
conditions for which infiltration rates are required. The tests should only be conducted in or
on ground above the general groundwater table or any perched water table.
Infiltration testing is normally undertaken using double-ring infiltrometers in accordance

with either Standard Test Method for Infiltration Rate of Soils in Field Using Double-
Ring Infiltrometer (ASTM D3385-09) or Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of

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Infiltration Rate Using Double-Ring Infiltrometer with Sealed-Inner Ring [ASTM D5093-
02(2008)], depending on the soils to be tested.
The test method described in ASTM D3385-09 is particularly applicable to relatively uniform
fine-grained soils, with an absence of very plastic (fat) clays and gravel-size particles and
with moderate to low resistance to ring penetration. The test method is difficult to use or
the results may be unreliable, or both, in very pervious soils with a hydraulic conductivity
greater than about 1 x 10-4 meters per second (m/sec) or impervious soils with a hydraulic
conductivity of less than about 1 × 10-8 m/sec, or in dry or stiff soils that most likely will
fracture when the rings are installed. For soils with hydraulic conductivity in the range of
1 x 10−7 m/sec to 1 x 10-10 m/sec test method ASTM D5093-02(2008) should be used.
At the end of each infiltration test, a bulk disturbed sample of the soil at the test formation
level should be taken for particle-size distribution analyses including sedimentation
according to Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Laboratory Testing of Soil — Part 4:
Determination of Particle Size Distribution ISO/TS 17892-4:2004 as required.

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15
8 Geophysical Surveys
8.1 Introduction
Geophysics is a very broad category of nondestructive methods of ground investigation.
Geophysical techniques, including electrical, gravity, magnetic, seismic, or thermal are used
to measure the physical, electrical, or chemical properties of the soil, rock and pore fluids. In
general, geophysical surveys are noninvasive and enable correlation between known points
of control. No single typical method can be used in every instance. Selection of a geophysical
method should be based on knowledge of the existing ground conditions and the information
that must be obtained.
Data gathering and data interpretation in geophysical surveys are all-important and require
specialist knowledge and experience. No samples to be handled or stored can be checked at
a later point. Most geophysical methods require processing of data after they are gathered
so that an interpretation can be made. The specification of the geophysical survey is thus
very important, and the selected specialist company must be able to demonstrate the ability
to provide the needed solutions.
Geophysics can provide information over a much broader area than can be obtained by
ground investigation exploratory holes. It can provide mapping of the natural conditions of a
site and establish anomalous conditions that could present increase risk to road structures
or earthworks. For example, geophysics can be used to investigate possible cavities (dahal)
within limestone and gypsum rich strata that could affect construction or performance of
bridge foundations. Geophysics could be used to determine soils stratigraphy if a preliminary
sources study identified a possible buried channel or similar feature that could affect
proposed earthworks or road structure. Geophysics is a useful technique to reduce the risk
of unknown conditions.
This chapter gives an overview of geophysical techniques typically used in Qatar and other
techniques that may be useful. Further detailed information on the geophysical methods
described can be found in the following sources:
• Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM D6429-99(2011)e1]
• Geophysics in Engineering Investigations, CIRIA Report C562 (CIRIA, 2002a)
• Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (Blackhawk

Geosciences, 2003)
• “Setting the Standard for Geophysical Surveys in Site Investigation” (McCann et al.,
1997)
• Engineering Geology Field Manual (Bureau of Reclamation, 2001)
• Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).

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8.2 Planning
The design and planning of geophysical surveys for transportation projects depends on
factors such as these:
• Physical properties of interest

• Techniques that can provide the information at the resolution required
• Geophysical tools that can perform well under the study conditions
• Techniques that can provide complementary data
• Nongeophysical control to interpret the acquired geophysical survey data
Numerous references are available to assist in planning a geophysical survey. Guidance

can be found in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM D6429-
99(2011)e1]; Standard Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole Geophysical Logging
[ASTM D5753-05(2010)]; and Circular E-C130, Geophysical Methods Commonly Employed
for Geotechnical Site Characterization (Transportation Research Board, 2008).
Geophysical surveys can be used as a screening tool to provide a quick understanding of

the ground conditions at a site. They can also be used to provide detail on the specifics of
a site. The first aspect of planning a geophysical survey is to determine why the survey is
to be performed and what questions are to be answered when the survey is complete. For
the various geophysical methods that can be used, each has its own set of advantages and
limitations. Table 8.1 summarizes the common applications of land-based geophysical surveys
in Qatar and the preferred geophysical methods for that application. See also Table H.1 in
Appendix H. For information on the use of geophysics in the marine environment, refer to
Geotechnical and Geophysical Investigations for Offshore and Nearshore Developments
(International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering [ISSMGE], 2005).
For the geophysical methods listed in Table 8.1, the interpretation of data should be
calibrated against the ground conditions established from boreholes or trial pits at the site.
Such calibration preferably is performed at the time of original data processing. If that is not
possible and borehole or trial pit information is obtained at a later date, then the results of
the geophysical survey should be reviewed and updated in light of actual ground conditions
as found in the exploratory holes.
Table 8.1 Summary of Geophysical Survey Techniques and their Application
Geophysical Survey Techniquea

Ground
Seismic MASW/ Penetrating Seismic
Application Refractionb SASWc Resistivity Radar Reflectiond Gravity
Unconsolidated P P — P P —
layer or soil
stratigraphy
Rock Stratigraphy S P — S — —
Depth to bedrock P P P P S

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Geophysical Survey Techniquea

Ground
Seismic MASW/ Penetrating Seismic
Application Refractionb SASWc Resistivity Radar Reflectiond Gravity
Depth to water P — — P — —
table
Fractures and fault S S S S P S
zones
Soils and rock S
P P S — —
properties (density)
Cavities or sink — P P P S P
holes
Saltwater intrusion — — P S — —
Buried objects — — — P — S
Notes:
a
Refer also to Table 1 in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM D6429-
99(2011)e1], and Table 2 in “Setting the Standard for Geophysical Surveys in Site Investigation,” (McCann
et al., 1997).
b
See Standard Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for Subsurface Investigation [ASTM D5777-
00(2011)e1].
c
MASW = multichannel analysis of surface waves; SASW= spectral Analysis of Surface Waves.
d
Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation [ASTM
D7128-05(2010)].
P = primary method of choice
S = secondary method of choice or alternative
8.3 Seismic
Seismic techniques, including seismic refraction, seismic reflection, and multichannel analysis
of surface waves (MASW), measure the travel time of direct and indirect acoustic waves as
they travel from a sound source at ground surface to a series of geophone receptors placed
on in the ground surface at a range of distances from the sound source. Acoustic waves are
generated by a sledgehammer striking a metal plate with a weight-drop source or by a large
vibratory weight-drop source (Blackhawk Geosciences, 2003).
Figure 8.1 shows the theory behind seismic data gathering.
The geotechnical practitioner needs to understand the limitations of geophysical techniques

in the ground conditions in Qatar. Notably, the MASW survey generally is limited to 20 m to
25 m depth below ground, and the use of seismic refraction is limited in depth to the top
of the Midra Shale because of the velocity inversion at this horizon. A typical MASW survey
result is provided in Appendix J.

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Source: Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (Blackhawk Geosciences, 2003)
Figure 8.1 Refraction Methodology
Table 8.2 summarizes the uses and limitations of frequently used seismic methods.
Table 8.2 Summary of Uses and Limitations of Frequently Used Seismic Methods
Method Data Collected and Limitations Additional Comments
Uses
Seismic P wave velocity Layers must be relatively thick Resolution is a function of
Refraction (compressional wave) in order to be detected. Only the source and the geophone
to determine velocity layers of increasing velocity spacing.
differentiation of can be recorded. Weaker
geologic layers. Able to materials at depth will not be
determine differences in recorded (for example, Midra
material properties for Shale). The acoustic (seismic)
thick layers. velocity through water (the
Provides data along water table; 1,400 m/sec) may
continuous lines. mask some weaker weathered
rock layers.
Seismic Records the reflection of — Resolution is a function of the
Reflection waves source and geophone spacing.
Groundtruth or information on
ground conditions are required
to change from travel time to
depth.
Multichannel Measures propagation The acoustic (seismic) velocity Resolution is subject to the
Analysis of surface waves through water (that is, the geophone spacing and the
of Surface from which shear water table; 1,400 m/sec) may acoustic frequency being
Waves wave velocity may be mask some weaker weathered recorded by the geophone. Data
interpreted. Able to rock layers. Penetration is can be collected in noisy areas
obtain data below weak limited by the source of using just the traffic noise as
layers. Able to delineate acoustic waves generated. an acoustic source if depth of
voids or cavities (dahal). data collection is not too deep.

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8.4 Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity surveys measure the resistivity of the earth materials relative to a current
induced into the ground. There are numerous types of resistivity surveys, but all generally
induce a current into one electrode and measure the current received at receptor electrodes.
As the current input is known, the apparent resistivity between the two or more electrodes
can be calculated. There are three commonly used resistivity arrays, the difference being in
the spacing of the receiving electrodes:
• Wenner: Four equally spaced electrodes, with current placed on the outer electrodes
and readings on the inner electrodes.
• Schlumberger: Four electrodes, but the inner (potential) electrodes are less than one-
fifth the distance between the center of the spread and the outer current electrode.
• Resistivity profiling: Electrode spacing is constant, but the induced current is moved
along the line.
A material’s electrical resistivity depends on its porosity and the salinity of the water within
the pore spaces. If the surface material is pavement, very dense material, or bedrock then
the electrode locations need to be predrilled in order to insert the electrode into the ground
surface. In soils, it may be necessary to wet the electrodes with saline water to increase the
amount of electric current directed into the ground. In dry conditions, as with dunes, very
large quantities of water may need to be available.
Electrical resistivity can be performed as point surveys using the Wenner or Schlumberger
arrays. Single point surveys are used primarily in corrosion surveys for steel (such as sheet
pile walls) or to determine ground characteristics for earthing design of electrical substations.
Gridded surveys along transects using profiling methods are usually performed for trying to
find cavities or other anomalies.
Electrical resistivity surveys can be used to map sand and gravel deposits, determine
parameters for cathodic protection, and map variations in groundwater salinity. They do not
provide information on rock properties. Electrical resistivity surveys can be used to locate
voids or cavities (dahal), especially where the cavities are above the water table. In areas
where cavities are below the water table, a lack of contrast between the electrical resistivity
of the host rock and groundwater can make the results more difficult to interpret.
8.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a quick method of evaluating shallow near-surface
geology, including the location of buried objects such as pipes, boulders, and near surface
cavities (dahal). GPR can be used for near surface underground utility detection, since it
can pick up polyvinyl chloride cable ducts and similar pipelines that may not be active and
therefore, would not be visible to other pipeline detection methods. GPR is limited in its
usefulness because conductive materials such as saline water or the water table limits the

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depth of penetration. The method uses many different antennae configurations so it is very
important to provide the specialist geophysics survey company with a clear directive on the
purpose of the survey and the suspected ground conditions or the buried structure that is
being sought. GPR data do not require excessive processing, and therefore the specialist
field engineer can usually review the survey findings as work progresses to assess if the
investigation needs are being met.
GPR surveys can be used in evaluating road pavement (including concrete) and bridge decks,
but in conjunction with other nondestruction testing or coring methods, or both, to obtain
the necessary data for calibration of GPR data (Blackhawk Geosciences, 2003).
Use of this system in Qatar is limited, as the depth to groundwater in much of the developed
areas of Qatar, such as Doha, is within 2 to 3 m of ground surface. It could be useful in areas
where the groundwater table is deeper or is lowered by dewatering.
8.6 Microgravity
Microgravity or gravity measurement techniques measure the local variations in the
gravitational pull of the earth that features such as underground cavities (dahal), buried
channels, or underground structures can create. Measurements are made using a gravity
meter at intervals along traverses crossing an expected or known area of interest. The
variations in measured relative gravity can be used to identify the likely position of the
underground feature. The method can provide very accurate sizing and depth of void or
anomaly. To achieve accuracy, the microgravity survey data must be correlated with other
ground investigation data and information. The microgravity method is labor-intensive and
requires that the initial point of measurement (base station) be reoccupied frequently to
monitor drift in the recording of the instrument. Extremely accurate elevation data are also
required (±3 mm). The distance between readings taken along a traverse should be based
on the expected size of the void or anomaly to be detected, with close spacing for small size
voids and larger spacing for large voids. The gravitational anomaly that occurs with a void
decreases with depth. If the void is in the bedrock, the top of the bedrock surface below the
overburden soils must be taken into account. That information usually requires the use of
a second technique such as seismic refraction or MASW. Microgravity surveys can be made
inside buildings and structures and in urban areas, as shown in Standard Guide for Selecting
Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM D6429-99(2011)e1].
8.7 Borehole Geophysics

Several borehole geophysics techniques can be used to identify strata stratigraphy, to
establish particular geotechnical properties, and to characterize groundwater. Tables H.2
and H.3 in Appendix H list methods of borehole geophysical survey and their applications.
Several of the techniques require the use of a shielded radioactive source. Thus, some of
the listed methods that are available in the U.S. or the UK may not be available for use in
Qatar owing to permitting issues. Local geophysical survey companies should be consulted
to confirm the types of borehole geophysical survey that can be provided.

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8.8 Procurement of Geophysical Survey Work

Geophysical surveys and their interpretation is specialist work, and accurate definition of
scope is extremely important. It is also important that an experienced specialist geophysical
survey company undertake the survey work and its interpretation. It can be advantageous
to seek the advice of the specialist geophysical survey company in determining the final
scope of a geophysical survey. To facilitate this, geotechnical practitioners (in addition to
providing initial information about the type of survey required), should provide the specialist
geophysical survey company with the following:
• Details of the known or anticipated ground conditions, including groundwater level and
groundwater salinity (if available).
• Information on what is desired of the geophysical survey. For example, the location of
cavities, the determination of ground parameters, the location of saltwater interface or
locations of underground utilities.
• Proposed depth of investigation from the ground surface.
• Presentation of results. How will the data be used? Requirements for the data to be
coordinated to local grid and elevation. Requirements for the data to be presented in
electronic format (for example, computer-aided drafting) and hard copy.
• Expected result presentation, in terms of interpreted profiles and slices, identification

of anomalies, and scale of the drawings. The level of detail required to be detected from
the reported data (for example, 0.5-m or 10-m anomalies).
The geophysical survey company can then advise on any changes in the scope of the
geophysical survey or techniques that might be employed to maximize the benefit from the
proposed survey work.
The procurement process should also include the following minimum requirements of the
report to be provided (Anderson et al., 2008).
• Executive summary
• Purpose and scope of study
• Dates and location of survey (including base plan)
• Personnel and organization involved
• Summary of data collection procedures used at the site
• Summary of data processing methodology
• Quality and reliability of the acquired data
• Interpretation of the data including summary of the procedure used and verification
processes (ground truthing or modeling, or both)
• Conclusions and recommendations

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In some instances, a phased program of geophysical survey work, using different techniques,
may be most appropriate and provide the best value. For example, for the investigation
of possible underground cavities, it might be appropriate first to undertake a wide area
resistivity or MASW survey of a site. Anomalies that are found would be verified using either
boreholes or diagraphy drilling to confirm the presence or otherwise of any cavities. The size
of the cavities might then be confirmed using cross-hole borehole geophysical surveys or
with a micro gravity survey.
Geophysical surveys can be included in the ground investigation standard specification and
bill of quantities described in Section 5.3 in this Part. In some instances, it may be appropriate
to include multiple geophysical survey methods in the documentation to establish any
significant price difference between techniques, for example, resistivity or MASW, as the
price may vary between sites depending on surface conditions and project requirement.
The geophysical survey contract should include a “field release clause” that permits contract
termination if preliminary results do not justify continuation of the survey (Anderson et al.,
2008). The clause might be invoked if the ground conditions differ from what was expected
or if the geophysical method does not achieve the data objectives including depth of
penetration.
The geophysical survey company should be required to include in any tender return evidence
that the company has used the geophysical survey method proposed successfully at similar
locations with similar ground conditions. The tender should include a method statement
indicating the proposed working method including at least the following items:
• Proposed spacing of geophones or electrodes
• Daily quality assurance checks
• Methods to be used in analyzing the data
• Equipment that will be used including external source, data storage and data backup
during the survey
• Staff, including curriculum vitae of team leaders for data collection and data interpretation
• Methods to be used for interpretation of the data, including details of the data processing
programs that will be used
• Schedule of works based on a notice to proceed date.
The geotechnical practitioner should supervise the field geophysical survey work to confirm
the quality of work and to enable changes in the scope of the geophysical survey in the light
of survey findings.

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15
9 Ground Investigation Reporting
9.1 Description of Soils and Rocks, Borehole and Trial Pit

Records
The description of soils and rocks and the preparation of borehole and trial pit records should
be undertaken to an appropriate standard, such as Code of Practice for Site Investigations
(BS 5930:1999+A2:2010). Example borehole records are provided in Appendix I.
9.2 Laboratory Test Reporting

Generally, the information required to be reported for soils and rock laboratory tests is given
in the relevant standard to which the test is being undertaken. Laboratory testing and test
reporting should be undertaken in accordance with industry-recognized quality assurance
and quality control procedures.
9.3 Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical Data

To facilitate the electronic transfer of geotechnical data without the need for re-input of
information, which can lead to transcribing errors, the Association of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Specialists developed its Data Interchange Format (commonly referred to
as AGS format) (AGS, 2011). The AGS format provides a set of rules for the electronic transfer
of geotechnical data, including exploratory hole records and both in situ and laboratory
testing results.
AGS format data files can be readily imported into geotechnical database programs such as
Holebase and gINT. In addition, several available utility programs allow the user to check AGS
data files for errors and convert the data to Excel spreadsheets, including free downloads.
Example utility programs include these:
• KeyAGS software at www.keynetix.com (Keynetix Ltd, 2014)

• gINT software at www.gintsoftware.com (Bentley Systems, 2014)
When specifying the ground investigation, the geotechnical practitioner should include the
requirement that the ground investigation company supplies the investigation records in
AGS format in addition to hard copy reports.
More information on the AGS format can be found in Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Data (AGS, 2011) and on the AGS website www.ags.org.uk (AGS, 2014).
Geophysical survey data shall also be required in both electronic raw data and hard copy and
electronic report formats.

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10 Geotechnical Design
10.1 Interpretative Ground Model

The derivation of the ground model is important in the geotechnical practitioners’ evaluation
of ground and groundwater conditions at a site, and in assessing the effects of those
conditions on the proposed earthworks and structures. Geotechnical practitioners should
develop a detailed ground model of the relative location and thicknesses of the types of strata
known or expected to be present, of their properties, and of groundwater conditions based
on their evaluation of the geological, hydrogeological, and geotechnical data. In preparing
the ground model, geotechnical practitioners should use the available factual information,
such as the exploratory hole records from ground investigations undertaken as part of
current or previous projects, and published records, such as geological maps. The published
geology and hydrogeology information will assist in classifying the materials encountered
and indicate their likely extent both over the site and at depth. These provide useful records
against which the strata encountered in the exploratory holes can be correlated.
Presentation of a detailed ground model solely in descriptive text can be difficult for a
reader to grasp, except for the simplest of models. Generally, it is preferable to use a series
of ground model sections, both along the road alignment and typically perpendicular to it.
When preparing sections, the degree of uncertainty in interpolating between positions and
projecting or extrapolating data should be highlighted. Typically, sections should be prepared
to natural scale; that is, the same scale in both directions. For long linear sites in particular,
the subsurface profile should be presented at a scale appropriate to the depth and frequency
of the exploratory holes and the overall length of the section. Exaggerated vertical:horizontal
scales of 1V:10H and 1V:20H can be useful. Appendix J contains an example section. In very
special circumstances, it may be appropriate to prepare a three-dimensional ground model.
Contour plans of groundwater levels and boundaries, such as rockhead, strata thicknesses,
and isometric views can also greatly assist geotechnical practitioners in interpreting the
ground conditions at a site. The plans can highlight such features as buried channels and
any sharp changes in thickness or dip of strata that could have a significant impact on the
proposed earthworks or structures. Plans and illustrations are also useful in presenting the
ground model.
10.2 Selection of Geotechnical Design Parameters

Design by calculation is the most commonly used method of geotechnical design. The
calculation may consist of an analytical analysis, use of semi-empirical rules or numerical
modeling (such as finite element or finite difference methods) for which key geotechnical
parameters will be required. Selection of geotechnical design parameters requires a

15
knowledgeable and experienced geotechnical practitioner. When assessing geotechnical

parameters from test results, the geotechnical practitioner should account for possible
differences between the properties obtained from the tests and those governing the
behavior of the ground mass or the geotechnical earthwork (or both) or structure. Eurocode 7:
Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General Rules (BS EN 1997-1:2004) states that differences
may be due to such factors such the following:
• Many geotechnical parameters that are not true constants but depend on stress level
and the mode of deformation
• Soil and rock structure (for example, fissuring, laminations or large particles), which can
influence test results differently to mass behavior
• Time effects
• Percolating water, which can have a softening effect on soils or rock strength
• Dynamic loading, which can have a softening effect on soils and rock strength
• Brittleness of the soil and rock tested
• The method of installation of the geotechnical structure
• The influence of workmanship on artificially placed or improved ground
• The effects of construction on ground properties
The geotechnical practitioner should also take into account the following:
• Published and well-recognized information relevant to testing in the ground conditions
• Extent of field and laboratory investigation
• Type and number of samples, and the scatter of the results
• The extent of the ground zone governing the behavior of the geotechnical structure
• Geological and other published and background information, such as data from previous
projects
• The value of geotechnical parameter as compared with published data and local and
general experience
• Variability of the ground, and variation of geotechnical parameters relevant to the design
• The results of large-scale field trials and measurements from neighboring constructions
• Significant possible deterioration in ground material properties during the lifetime of

the structure
Statistical approaches to the derivation of parameters are described in documents including

Designers’ Guide to EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—General Rules (Frank et al.,
2004). However, statistical approaches do require a sufficiently large number of test results

15
for the method to be valid. When statistical methods are used, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical
Design—Part 1: General Rules (BS EN 1997-1:2004) recommends that there be no greater
than 5 percent probability that the determined characteristic value (defined below) of a
parameter will be worse than that value. Most often, however, insufficient data are available
for a purely statistical approach. Parameter selection is therefore often very dependent on
the knowledge and experience of the geotechnical practitioner and usually is broadly based
around published guidelines. Mostly lower value conservative parameters are adopted for
use in design, for example, the effective shear strength of a soil in assessing slope stability.
For particular designs and design circumstances, however, other parameter values may be
needed. For example, mid-range (mean or median) values are often adopted for bulk density
and deformation properties and upper value conservative parameters may be used to assess
pile drivability.
Design of Retaining Walls Embedded in Stiff Clay (CIRIA, 1984) uses the following
terminology with regard to geotechnical design parameters:
• Moderately conservative parameters, which are a conservative best estimate
• Worst credible parameters, which are the worst that the geotechnical practitioner
realistically believes might occur
BS EN 1997-1:2004 uses the following terminology:
• Characteristic value soil parameters, defined as being a cautious estimate of the

value affecting the occurrence of the limit state. This is essentially the same as the
aforementioned moderately conservative parameters.
Examples of moderately conservative and worst credible values and parameters are shown
in Figure 10.1.

15
Figure 10.1 Examples of Moderately Conservative and Worst Credible Values and
Parameters
10.3 Geotechnical Design

Geotechnical design should be undertaken where possible to published International
Standards. In some cases, a design procedure may not be covered by or fully prescribed by a
standard. In such cases, geotechnical practitioners (based on their specialist knowledge and
experience) may adopt other industry recognized and proven published design procedures
and guidelines.
Traditionally, geotechnical design of highway substructures has been carried out using the
allowable stress design (ASD) approach, also known as the working stress design approach.
In that design approach all uncertainty in the variation of applied loads and the ultimate
geotechnical capacity of the soil or rock to support foundations are allowed for by use of a
single (or lumped) factor of safety, used to reduce the potential for failure of the foundation.
The traditional approach to the design of superstructures has been the load-factored design
approach. The application of ASD approach for the substructure design and load-factored

15
design for the superstructure design has resulted in uncertain and incompatible safety
margins in the design of the structural elements (FHWA, 2001).
In recent years, the demand for more economical geotechnical design and attempts to
improve structural safety and reliability have resulted in the re-examination of the entire
design process. This has resulted in a global shift towards adopting a uniform approach for
the design of both substructure and superstructure elements namely, the limit state design
(LSD) approach (NCHRP, 2010).
Limit state is a condition beyond which the structure, or any of its component, fails to
fulfill the purpose for which it was designed. LSD most often refers to two types of limit
states: the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS). The ULS state
deals with the ultimate collapse condition or with structural failure under normal expected
loads or extreme events such as impact or earthquake loading. Examples of ULS failure are
bearing capacity failure or excessive deformation resulting in loss of overall stability. SLS
deals with the functionality and service requirements of a structure to ensure adequate
performance under expected normal loads, such as settlement or deflection with or without
cracking but to an extent, which makes the structure no more functional or serviceable for
its intended use. The most widely used LSD codes for geotechnical design are the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) methodology and Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General
Rules (BS EN 1997-1:2004).
AASHTO LRFD methodology design specifications incorporate analysis and design

methodologies with load and resistance factors based on the known variability of applied
loads and material properties. The load and resistance factors have been calibrated from
actual statistical data to ensure a uniform level of safety. For geotechnical design, AASHTO
LRFD methodology defines the strength limit state, service limit state, and the extreme limit
state.
BS EN 1997-1:2004 also uses the LSD approach with the use of slightly different terminology
compared to the AASHTO LRFD methodology. It defines ULS and SLS design conditions and
provides guidance related to the selection of partial factors (load and resistance factors). The
code provides guidance on the selection of characteristic soil parameters through statistical
means and the use of partial factors to derive design values from the characteristic values.
However, it also provides flexibility to directly select design parameters by experienced
geotechnical practitioners having clear understanding of the basic design principles and
possible failure mechanisms and modes of geotechnical failure of the structure.
Table 10.1 lists of typical road structures and earthworks and their related geotechnical
design issues together with the International Standards and other references commonly
used for geotechnical design in Qatar road projects using the ASD approach. As is the case
with the rest of the world, Qatar is fast adopting the LSD approach in geotechnical design.
Table 10.2 lists the relevant LSD Standards.

Table 10.1 International Standards and References Commonly Used for Geotechnical Design in Qatar Road Projects
The latest standard editions/versions shall be used.
Commonly Used Standards (Working Stress Design with Overall Factors

Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue of Safety) and References
Structures (All) Chemical attack on buried concrete and steel Sulphate and Acid Attack on Concrete in the Ground: Recommended Procedures
for Soil Analysis (BRE, 1995)
Bridge (including Spread footings Sizing or bearing capacity BS 8004:2015+A1:2020 Code of Practice for Foundations Foundation Design
abutments and Settlement (components, total, differential and and Construction (Tomlinson, 2001)
piers), gantry signs rate) Foundation Analysis and Design (Bowles, 1996)
Stability (including failure of foundations on Geoguide 1. Guide to Retaining Wall Design (Geotechnical Engineering Office,
slopes) 1982)
Ashghal Interim Advice Note No.009
Pile foundations Carrying capacity (axial and lateral), downdrag, BS 8004:2015+A1:2020 Code of Practice for FoundationsMethods described in
or negative skin friction Pile Design and Construction Practice (Tomlinson, 1994)
Settlement or deflection of laterally loaded piles Ashghal Interim Advice Note No.009
Retaining walls Gravity wall Wall stability BS 8002:1994

Bearing capacity BS 8004:2015+A1:2020 Code of Practice for Foundations
Sliding resistance BS 8008: 1996+A1:2008
Settlement (total, differential, and rate) Methods described in Foundation Design and Construction (Tomlinson, 2001)
Stability (including slope failures) Ashghal Interim Advice Note No.009
Mechanically Wall stability (internal and external) BS 8006-1:2010

Stabilised Earth MSE wall panel design BS EN 14475:2006
(MSE) wall Stability BD 70/03
Bearing Capacity Ashghal Interim Advice Note No. 024/14
Siding Resisitance Ashghal Interim Advice Note No.009
Settlement
Cantilever Wall stability BS 8002:1994
or anchored Anchorage design BS 8081:1989 for anchorage design
embedded wall CIRIA Report C760(2017), `Guidance on embedded retaining wall design`
Methods described in Pile Design and Construction Practice (Tomlinson, 1994)
Ashghal Interim Advice Note No.009

15
PART
109
110
15
PART
Commonly Used Standards (Working Stress Design with Overall Factors

Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue of Safety) and References
Soil cuttings — Stability BS 6031:2009
Rock cutting — Stability BS 6031:2009
Rock Slope Engineering (Hoek and Bray, 1981)
Rock Engineering Guides to Good Practice: Road Rock Slope Excavation (TRL,
2011a)
Embankments — Stability (including internal and surface erosion) BS 6031:2009
Settlement (components, total, differential and BS 8008: 1996+A1:2008
rate)
Road pavement — Strength, trafficability, and requirement for IAN 73/06 Revision 1 (Department for Transport, 2009)

capping
Excavatability — Excavatability and Stability “A Revision of the Graphical Method for Assessing the Excavatability of Rock.”
(Pettifer and Fookes, 1994)
Dewatering Groundwater control CIRIA Report 113 (CIRIA, 1986)
CIRIA Report C515 (CIRIA, 2000)
Table 10.2 International Standards—Limit State Geotechnical Design

Limit State Geotechnical Design Standards
Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue (with use of partial factors of safety)
Bridge Spread Sizing or bearing capacity BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 6, Annex D, Annex F, Annex G for foundations on rock and
(including footings Settlement (components, total, differential Annex H
abutments and rate) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11
and piers), Stability (engulfing failure of foundations on AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification,
gantry signs slopes) Sections 10 and 11 (AASHTO, 2012)
FHWA HI-98-032 (FHWA, 2001)

Pile Carrying capacity (axial and lateral), BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 7
foundations downdrag, or negative skin friction AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification,
Settlement or deflection of laterally loaded Sections 10 and 11 (AASHTO, 2012
piles FHWA HI-98-032 (FHWA, 2001)
Retaining Gravity wall Wall stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 9, Annex C, Annex H
walls Bearing capacity BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11 for slope stability aspects
Sliding resistance AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification,
Settlement (components, total, differential, Section 11 (AASHTO, 2012
and rate) NCHRP Report 611 (NCHRP, 2008)
Stability (engulfing failures)
Limit State Geotechnical Design Standards
Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue (with use of partial factors of safety)
Cantilever Wall stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 9 and Annex C
or anchored Anchorage design BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 8 for anchorage design
embedded Stability (engulfing failures) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11 for slope stability aspects
wall AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification,
Section 11 (AASHTO, 2012
NCHRP Report 611 (NCHRP, 2008)
Soil cuttings — Stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11 and BS 6031:2009
Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 (AASHTO, 2011
AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification,
Sections 3 and 11 (AASHTO, 2012
FHWA-NHI-11-032 (FHWA, 2011)
FHWA/NHI 08-098 (FHWA, 2008)
Rock cutting — Stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11
Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 (AASHTO, 2011
FHWA-NHI-11-032 (FHWA, 2011)
FHWA/NHI 08-098 (FHWA, 2008)
Embankments - Stability (including internal and surface BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11
erosion) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 12, Annex F
Settlement (components, total, differential BS 6031:2009
and rate) Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 (AASHTO, 2011,
FHWA-NHI-11-032 (FHWA, 2011)
FHWA/NHI 08-098 (FHWA, 2008)

15
PART
111
15
10.4 Seismic Loading

Qatar lies within the stable craton that constitutes most of the Arabian Plate, which has seen
no known significant seismic events in the past 2,000 years (Aldama-Bustos, Bommer, et al.,
2009). Although the Arabian Plate itself is a stable land mass, its northeast border is an
active plate boundary with relative convergence occurring between the Arabian and Eurasian
plates. As a result, continental collision is taking place along the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt
in southern Iran (about 200 km from Qatar). Further east (north of the Gulf of Oman), the
oceanic part of the Arabian plate subducts beneath the Eurasian plate along the Makran
subduction zone (Berberian, 1995). Refer to Figure A.2 in Appendix A (Ministry of Petroleum
and Mineral Resources, 1998). The transition from the continental to the oceanic collision is
accommodated largely by the Zendan-Minab fault, a north-northwest trending zone of strike-
slip and thrust faults (Regard et al., 2004 and Regard et al., 2005). The African and Arabian
plates diverge across the Gulf of Aden in the southeast; in the southwest, the interface
between the two plates is defined by the spreading boundary of the Red Sea (Ministry of
Petroleum and Mineral Resources, 1998; Vita-Finzi, 2001).
Among the above-mentioned plate boundaries, the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt zone
most likely contributes to seismic hazard for Qatar, for return periods normally considered
in engineering design of normal structures. The Zagros region has been responsible for
generating numerous large earthquakes of magnitude around M7.0, with a maximum
credible earthquake magnitude of M7.3 (M denoting moment magnitude). Most historical
seismic activity in the Zagros collision zone is constrained to inland Iran, but some activity
has been recorded in the Arabian Gulf, with a maximum observed magnitude of about M6.0;
see Figure A.3 in Appendix A (Aldama-Bustos, Al Aryani, et al., 2010). Local seismicity in
Qatar is characterized by the very low seismic activity associated with the stable craton of
the Arabian Plate, with an annual occurrence rate of about 0.004 per 106 km2 for events of
magnitude M6.0 and greater (Johnson et al., 1994).
Seismic activity in the stable craton, although low, could be expected to contribute to the
seismic hazard of Qatar for medium and long return periods (that is, ≥500 years), mainly for
peak ground acceleration (PGA) and spectral accelerations (SA) at short response period (that
is, ≤0.4 seconds). Seismic hazard for spectral accelerations at medium and long response
periods is likely to be controlled by seismic activity in the Zagros for return periods of
engineering interest.
At the time this Manual was published, there is no published country-specific seismic hazard
assessment available for Qatar, and few seismic hazard studies have been carried out for the
region or neighboring countries provide hazard estimates for Qatar. Table 10.3 summarizes
PGA values reported by different studies for Qatar at various return periods. Most studies
estimate PGA levels for the 475-year return period in the range of 0.04 g to 0.10 g, with only
the GSHAP hazard map presenting much higher values. GSHAP maps, however, are known to
overestimate hazard levels for Qatar and other neighboring regions, as discussed in Aldama-
Bustos, Bommer, et al. (2009) and Aldama-Bustos, Al Aryani, et al. (2010). Table 10.3

15
contains best estimate hazard values for PGA at return periods of 475 years, 1,000 years,
and 2,475 years based on consideration of published studies for Qatar and for neighboring
regions. These best estimate values can be used for the preliminary design. For the detailed
design, site-specific seismic hazard analyses should be considered, depending on the project
specific risk assessment.

15
Table 10.3 Summary of Seismic Hazard Studies Results for Qatar at Various Return
Periods
Studies Peak Ground Acceleration (in units of g)
Author Year 475 years 1,000 years 2,475 years
ICBO 1997 No seismic action required — —
Grunthal et al. 1999 0.24 — —
Al-Haddad et al. 1994 <0.05 — —
Abdalla and Al-Hamoud 2004 0.10 — —
British Geological Society 2006 0.05 — —
Malkawi et al. 2007 0.09 0.16 0.22
Pascucci et al. 2008 0.04 — 0.06
Best estimate 0.05 0.06 0.10
Hazard maps developed by the British Geological Society (2006) and Malkawi et al. (2007)
suggest that seismic hazard in Qatar is higher at the northeast tip of the peninsula and
decreases toward the south and southeast. However, the variation in hazard level across the
country is not large enough to justify use of different values in different locations for the
purpose of preliminary design. The values in Table 10.5 are average values for the country,
when a range of values is provided by the cited reference.
Depending on the design standard specified by the Overseeing Organization or project

owner, other ground-motion parameters or return periods, or both, may be more appropriate.
Basic requirements and suggested design ground-motion parameters are discussed below.
The AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification
(AASHTO, 2012) is a commonly used standard for the design of transport infrastructure.
According to this specification, the seismic hazard at a site shall be defined using the PGA
and the short- and long-period spectral acceleration coefficients, Ss and S1 respectively, with
a 7 percent probability of exceedence in 75 years (1,000-year return period). These shall
be based either on approved state ground motion maps or on a site-specific probabilistic
seismic hazard analysis generating a uniform hazard spectrum for the required probability
of exceedence. The PGA, Ss, and S1 values corresponding to the 1,000-year return period
shall be multiplied by site factors for the appropriate site class to define design spectral
accelerations and design response spectrum. Approved state seismic hazard maps for the
1,000-year return period are not currently available for Qatar. A site-specific probabilistic
seismic hazard analysis would be required if seismic design were to be carried out in
accordance with the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design
Specification (AASHTO, 2012). Table 10.4 presents PGA, Ss, and S1 values that may be used
for preliminary seismic design in accordance with the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification (AASHTO, 2012) if site-specific values are not

15
available. The values in Table 10.4 were derived based on the AASHTO specification spectral
shape for site class B (rock site) and the best-estimate PGA for a 1,000-year return period
presented in Table 10.4
Table 10.4 Suggested Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in
Preliminary Seismic Design
PGA (in units of g) Ss (in units of g) S1 (in units of g)
0.06 0.15 0.06
Note: Suggestions are in accordance with the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge
Design Specification (AASHTO, 2012).
According to the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design
Specification (AASHTO, 2012), each bridge shall be assigned to one of the four seismic zones
set out in the code. The seismic zone classification will depend on the value of the design
long-period spectral acceleration SD1, obtained from the product of the long-period spectral
acceleration coefficient S1 (for rock site conditions) and the appropriate site factor for long-
period motion Fv.
Local authorities or project owners may require the International Building Code (IBC) for
seismic design, although it is not specifically derived for transportation infrastructure. The
IBC is updated every 3 years, and the latest edition is 2012 IBC (International Code Council,
2012).
Similar to the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification
(AASHTO, 2012), the 2012 IBC requires ground-motion parameters to be defined in terms
of spectral acceleration at 0.2 sec and 1.0 sec, denoted Ss and S1, respectively. These
parameters should be obtained from regional or national seismic hazard maps or from site-
specific hazard assessments for a return period of 2,500 years (2 percent probability of
exceedence in 50 years). Ss and S1 shall be multiplied by a site factor appropriate for the
relevant site class and a factor of two-thirds to obtain design spectral response acceleration
parameters SDS and SD1.
Seismic hazard maps for Ss and S1 are not available for Qatar, and so a site-specific seismic
hazard assessment is required. Table 10.5 presents suggested Ss and S1 values to be used in
preliminary seismic design (International Code Council, 2012).
Table 10.5 Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in Preliminary Seismic
Design
Ss (in units of g) S1 (in units of g)
0.25 0.07
Source: 2012 International Building Code (International Code Council, 2012).
Where the size of the project merits, it is good practice to conduct a site-specific seismic
hazard assessment to evaluate the appropriate ground motions to be used in the design of

15
transport infrastructure and buildings. Such assessments may lead to significant savings in
construction costs in cases where the site-specific PGA is lower than the values given in the
state ground motion maps or those in Table 10.4 and Table 10.5
In both the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification
(AASHTO, 2012) and 2012 IBC (International Code Council, 2012), design earthquake
spectral response acceleration shall account for site class effects. All sites, then, must be
classified in the appropriate site class by stiffness. This can be determined by average shear
wave velocity, standard penetration resistance, or undrained shear strength in the upper
30 m of the soil deposit, per the relevant sections of the two codes. Special attention must
be given to sites that are vulnerable to liquefaction or collapse under earthquake loading,
that contain very high plasticity clays, or that are composed of very thick soft clays. In those
cases, the site shall be classified “Class F,” and a site-specific site response analysis shall be
performed to derive the appropriate site factors.
In addition to structural failure and failure of foundation soils under excessive bearing
pressures associated with seismic loading, loose, saturated granular soils may be subject
to liquefaction, and loose dry soils to settlements associated with the phenomenon of
seismic densification. Both liquefaction and seismic densification can result in significant
ground settlements causing distress to and possibly even failure of highway structures and
earthworks.
The potential for liquefaction and soil strength loss should be evaluated for site-specific
peak ground accelerations, magnitudes, and source characteristics consistent with design
earthquake ground motion. According to IBC, PGA for a liquefaction assessment should be
determined based on a site-specific study, taking into account soil amplification effects.
Without such information, PGA shall be assumed equal to SDS/2.5.
Soil liquefaction potential typically is assessed according to the procedures outlined in

“Liquefaction of Resistance of Soils: Summary Report from the 1996 NCEER/NSF Workshops
on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils” (Youd and Idriss, 2001) and Soil Liquefaction
during Earthquakes (Idriss and Boulanger, 2008), following three main steps:
1. Calculate cyclic stress ratio induced in the soil by the earthquake.
2. Calculate the cyclic resistance ratio of the soil based on in situ data, typically SPT, CPT
or shear wave velocity data.
3. Calculate the ratio of the values from 1 and 2 above giving the factor of safety against
liquefaction.
According to Youd and Idriss (2001), different empirical methods are available for calculating
the cyclic resistance ratio based on the information available. Correction factors must be
applied to the calculated values to take into account such factors as earthquake magnitude,
the fines content of the soils, and the overburden pressure.

15
Settlements in saturated or dry sands due to seismic densification or liquefaction can be

evaluated using guidance available in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996).
CPT data are preferred for assessing potential for liquefaction and seismic densification of
loose granular strata during an earthquake event, because of their greater precision and
repeatability when compared to SPT data.
10.5 Ground Improvement

The need to provide value engineered solutions for structures, including their foundations
and earthworks, that embraces the principles of sustainable construction has led to the use
of a range of ground improvement and strengthened earthworks techniques on highway
projects. Design of these solutions mainly aim at using materials available on site, reducing
the generation of construction waste, reducing the import of construction materials, and
minimizing the land-take requirements.
A brief description of commonly used ground improvement techniques includes the following:
• Grouting: to fill voids, cavities or fractures in weathered/fractured rock.
• Dynamic compaction: Dynamic compaction is the process of systematically tamping

the ground surface with a heavy weight dropped from height. It is generally used to
compact loose, granular soils or fills.
• Vibro-compaction: Vibro-compaction (or vibro-flotation) is a technique for increasing the

density of granular soils by the insertion to depth of a heavy vibrating poker, known as
a depth vibrator, vibroflot, or flot, which is inserted into the ground in conjunction with
water flushing.
• Vibro-replacement (stone columns): The formation of columns usually of compacted

stone in the ground using a heavy vibrating poker to displace the in situ ground and to
compact the imported material is referred to as vibro stone columns or vibro-replacement.
• Pre-compression: Pre-compression is the deliberate act of compressing the ground under

an applied pressure before placing or completing the structural load. Pre-compression
may take the two forms:
−− Pre-loading requires placement and removal of earth, water, or some other dead
load, before construction, similar in weight to the structural load (or final load).
−− Surcharging is where the stress intensity from the pre-loading is greater than the
intensity from the final loading.
• Mix-in-place soil: This technique involves creation of columns of soil-cement or lime

stabilized soil in the ground by the introduction of cement or lime paste through the
hollow stem of an auger. The mixing occurs as the auger blades rotate.
Reinforced soil is the combination of compacted earth fill with tensile reinforcement elements
to create an earth structure whose properties and performance depend on the interaction

15
between the soil and the reinforcement (CIRIA, 2002). Commonly used reinforcement
techniques include:
• Reinforced earth using geosynthetics (geogrids/geotextiles) or metal strap elements

with hard or soft wrap around facings to construct steepened slopes or walls.
• Soil nailing: Soil nailing is the insertion of steel or glass fiber rods into the face of an
excavation or an existing slope to reinforce it.
• Controlled Modulus Columns (CMCs) are rigid inclusions comprising grout or cemented
aggregate elements used to improve the soils characteristics of weak ground and to
reduce imposed settlements caused by structures. CMCs are installed using a specially
designed auger that displaces the insitu soils laterally, with virtually no vibration or
spoil, and reduced risk of contamination. These are generally installed to increase the
elastic modulus of soft saturated silts or clays.
Further details on the design of ground improvement works on highway projects can be
found in A Quarter Century of Geotechnical Research (FHWA, 1999) and A Guide to Ground
Treatment, CIRIA Report 573 (CIRIA, 2002b).
10.6 Underground Structures and Roadway Tunnels

The design of any underground structure (or a roadway tunnel) shall consider the interaction
between adjacent structures under detailed consideration of the ground behavior. The
designer shall satisfy that either sufficient separation is provided in order to avoid any
impact onto the adjacent structures or take measures to ensure that the structural and
serviceability integrity of both the structures is maintained. In case of existing structures,
the designer shall obtain a no-objection certificate from the owner of the structure and shall
satisfy any requirements imposed by him.
The vertical and horizontal clearances required to define the geometry of a roadway tunnel
are part of the geometric and highway design. The vertical clearances of roadway tunnels
have been discussed in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Volume 1, Part 5,
Roadway Design Critera, of this Manual. Discussion on additional design considerations
associated with roadway tunnels is beyond the scope of this Manual. Guidance on trenchless
installation of services below roads is provided in Section 11 of this document.

15

15

15
11 Trenchless Installation of
Services below Roads
11.1 Introduction
Where ducts, pipework, and small service tunnels of utility service providers and other third
parties need to cross the width of a major road, trenchless methods have certain advantages
over open trench excavation. They include minimizing disruption to the operation of the
network and reducing the need to manage traffic. This chapter contains guidance on the
use and limitations of trenchless methods and systems and on managing the risk associated
with the trenchless installations. The guidance covers installation of new pipe and conduit
with internal diameters up to 2.0 m. On-line replacement of pipe is omitted.
Table K.1 in Appendix K lists terms pertaining to trenchless installation and their associated
definitions.
11.2 Trenchless Technology Methods

Table 11.1 summarizes trenchless technology methods. Appendix K1 contains further
information on those methods. Trenchless methods are continuously improving and
developing, so websites, such as the United Kingdom Society for Trenchless Technology
(www.ukstt.org.uk), where further guidance and information are freely available, should be
consulted.

15
Table 11.1 Trenchless Technology Methods

Trenchless
Technology Method Description
Pipe jacking and Pipe jacking is a method by which pipes or sleeves are installed by being
microtunneling pushed through the ground behind a small, steerable, remotely controlled,
tunnel boring or “microtunnel” machine.
Guided drilling and Guided drilling and directional drilling are techniques in which a steerable
directional drilling boring head is pushed through the ground while being rotated. When the pilot
bore is completed, it is enlarged to the required diameter by pulling a reamer
back towards the drilling machine. When the hole has been opened to the
required size the product pipe, duct or cable is pulled into place.
Auger boring Auger boring is a horizontal rotary earth boring process in which a cutter head
connected to continuous flight augers is jacked through the ground, usually
inside a steel casing.
Impact moling and rod Impact moling is a technique in which a percussive tool, usually driven by
pushing compressed air, is driven through the soil, advancing with a hammer action.
The soil in front of the mole is displaced. The mole is connected to the launch
pit by a pneumatic hose.
Rod pushing is a similar technique, but advancement is by pushing a head on
rigid rod from the launch pit with soil being displaced by the driving head.
Pipe ramming Pipe ramming is a technique in which a steel casing, usually open-ended, with
a cutter end is driven through the soil by a hammer located in the launch pit.
The casing may be in a single section or welded from shorter sections during
installation. Soil is removed from inside the casing after driving. The installed
casing may itself become part of a product pipe or, more commonly, a product
pipe, cable, or duct is installed inside it.
Source: HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and Trunk
Roads” (UK Department for Transport, 2008).
11.3 Managing Risk Associated with Trenchless Methods

The risk associated with trenchless installation of services beneath roads must be identified,
assessed, and appropriately managed. The main risk factors, as listed in HA 120/08,
“Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and Trunk Roads”
(UK Department for Transport, 2008) include the following, listed in increasing level of risk:
• Inadequate temporary works
• Equipment breakdown
• Unforeseen ground conditions (geotechnical risk associated with inadequate ground

investigation)
• Inadequate skill of operators
• Inadequate ground investigation (geotechnical risk)
• Incorrect choice of technique (method-specific risk)
The consequences of not managing risk adequately tend to be soil movement (settlement
or heave), resulting in damage to utilities (highway and third party) or highway pavement, or
both, and structures and potential compromise of road user safety.

15
Each trenchless technology method poses its own particular risks.

15
Table 11.2 lists the main risks associated with each method.
The risk of settlement or heave can be mitigated by knowledge of the ground and groundwater
conditions at a site and by using the appropriate trenchless installation method, good quality
equipment, and experienced personnel.
As described in HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath

Motorways and Trunk Roads” (UK Department for Transport, 2008) the risk and amount of
settlement or heave depends upon the depth and size of the duct, pipework, or diameter
tunnel to be installed. Settlement should be calculated taking into account ground conditions,
depth to axis of the sleeve or tunnel from the road surface, and the size of the sleeve or
tunnel. Heave can be calculated similarly, but generally, it is only temporary and usually
the result of excessive face pressure caused by high jacking forces. Operatives must be
experienced and competent in the use of the equipment, and familiar with the expected
ground conditions.
Assuming there is an adequate level of ground investigation and skilled operatives,
Table 11.3 provides guidance on the risk rating for each trenchless technology method for
the four main risk items.

15
Table 11.2 Trenchless Technology Method Main Risks
Trenchless
Technology Method Main Risks
Pipe jacking and 1. Soil movement; settlement and to a lesser extent heave.
microtunnelinga 2. Soil settlement or collapse resulting in a depression in the pavement and
safety concerns for road-users.
3. Incorrect system operation during installation. This may cause direct damage
to the road pavement and affects its traffic-carrying capacity; this can be a
short or long-term risk.
Guided drilling and 1. Settlement or heave. The risk increases with larger diameters (>300 mm) and
directional drilling is low for small-diameter bores.
2. Soil movements resulting from installation problems.
3. “Frac-outs” (blow outs of drilling mud) resulting in drilling mud disrupting the
pavement and being a safety issue for road-users.
Auger boring 1. Inappropriate use in poorly graded granular soils or unstable ground
conditions. This leads to the creation of voids or direct settlement.
2. Allowing the auger to rotate or remove soil with no forward movement. This
will draw soil into the auger and cause voids/settlement above the bore.
3. Short- and long-term settlement.
4. Damaging existing utilities.
5. Unexpected exit from the ground at the road surface is possible. This is
because auger boring is unsteered; however, the risk is low. The risk can be
negated using guided auger boring.
Impact moling and rod 1. Surface heave due to soil displacement or insufficient cover.
pushing 2. Unexpected exit from the ground at the road surface due to the mole being
unsteered.
Notes:
a
For information on reducing risk in tunneling, see The Joint Code of Practice for Risk Management of
Tunnel Works in the UK (British Tunnelling Society and the Association of British Insurers, 2003). While
aimed at larger tunnels many of the principles advocated in the document are applicable to microtunneling
works.
Table 11.3 Summary of Levels of Risk for Trenchless Technology Installations below
Roads
Risk Rating for Risk Itema
Trenchless Technology Soil Damage to Road User
Method Settlement Soil Heave Existing Utilities Safety
Pipe-jacking Low Low Negligible Negligible
Microtunneling Low Low Negligible Negligible
Guided drilling Negligible Negligible Low Negligible
Directional drilling Low Moderate Low Negligible
Auger boring Medium Negligible Medium Low
Impact moling or rod pushing Negligible High Medium Medium
Pipe ramming Negligible Medium Medium Low
Working shafts Low N/A Medium Medium
Notes:
a
On the basis that there is an adequate level of ground investigation and skilled operatives.

15
To fully assess and appropriately manage the risks associated with existing services
(including abandoned and disused services) and underground infrastructure, their presence,
form, and location should be established at an early stage and taken into account in design.
Where appropriate, the precise position of services and underground infrastructure should
be established by field investigations.
Services and facilities that may be present include:
• Wastewater (foul) sewers

• Surface water or storm drain
• Combined sewers
• Water mains
• Gas mains
• Irrigation pipes
• District heating pipes
• Industrial pipelines
• Oil transmission pipelines
• Electricity cables
• Telephone cables
• Cable television (TV) cables
• Street lighting cables
• Traffic light cables
• Highway information system cables
• Wildlife tunnels
• Service tunnels
During construction, an observational method to management of the risks should be

undertaken. This should include monitoring of the installation process and of the ground
to verify the magnitude and rate of any settlement or heave as part of a risk management
strategy that should include emergency procedures if significant problems are encountered.
11.4 Geotechnical Certification

Trenchless installation of services undertaken either as part of a highway project or as a
standalone project is subject to Geotechnical Certification, described in Volume 2, Part 16,
Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual. The reporting of the geotechnical design
of a trenchless installation need only consist of sections relevant to the works. Table K.2 in
Appendix K2 provides a format for a Geotechnical Design Report for a standalone project
for trenchless installation of services beneath a road. Where the trenchless installation
forms part of a highway project, then the relevant report sections in Table K.2 should be
incorporated into the standard Geotechnical Design Report format. See Volume 2, Part 16,
Geotechnical Risk Management, of this Manual.

15

15
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15

15
Appendix A
Qatar Geological Map,
Litho-Stratigraphy, Tectonic
Setting, and Earthquake Maps

15

15
Figure A.1 Geology Map of Qatar
Legend
ENV.Geology
Formation
Calcareous sandstone
Hofuf Formation
Upper Dam Formation
Aeolian sand
Beach Deposits
Coarse-grained alluvium
Fine-grained alluvium
Lower Dam Formation
Lower Dammam Formation
Rus Formation
Sabkha
Upper Dammam Formation
‫وزارة اﻟﺑﻠدﯾﺔ واﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ‬

Ministry of Municipality and Environment
INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING DEPT.
µ
QATAR GEOLOGICAL MAP
Qatar National Grid (QNG 95) Date:

Scale:
Transverse Mercator 10/10/2019
1:225,000
Units: Metres

15
Table A.1 Litho-stratigraphy of Qatar
Approximate
Period Epoch Formation Member Thickness (m) Lithology or Notes
Quaternary Holocene — — — Mobile sands and bioclastic
beach sands
Pleistocene — — — Fixed dune sands, sabkha

deposits, and cemented
beach rocks (“caprock”)
Tertiary Pliocene Hofuf Unit 1 — —

or Late
Miocene
Lower and Dam — 0 to 30 Fossiliferous marls, clays, and

Middle thin limestone. Occasional
Miocene green and red clay bands.
Middle Upper Abarug Limestone Eroded —

Eocene Dammam
Umm Bab Limestone Up to 30 Buff to pale brown chalky
limestone with siltstone
inclusions
Lower Dukhan Alveolina 0 to 1 —

Dammam Limestone
Midra Shale 0 to 10 Yellow brown laminated

shale, fossiliferous with
limonite and phosphate
nodules
Fahahil Velates 0 to 1 Not commonly identified

Limestone
Early Rus Unit 1 Al Khor 0 to 1 Buff to grey brown massive

Eocene Limestone pitted vesicular dolomitic
limestone
Unit 2 Undifferentiated Up to 20 Cyclic deposition of weak

Carbonate carbonate marls, siltstones,
Facies and thin limestone
Undifferentiated Up to 60 Thick deposits of anhydrite

Sulfate Facies and gypsum with marl and
thin limestone
Source: Geologic Description of the Qatar Peninsula (Arabian Gulf) (Cavelier, 1970)

15
Source: Tectonic Map of Saudi Arabia and Adjacent Areas (Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, 1998)
Figure A.2 Tectonic Setting of the Arabian Plate

15
Source: “An Earthquake Catalogue for Seismic Hazard Analysis in the United Arab Emirates” (Aldama-Bustos,
Al Aryani, et al., 2010)
Figure A.3 Earthquake Catalogue for the Arabian Gulf Region

15
Appendix B
Qatar Soils and Rock Strata
Typical Geotechnical Hazards
and Risks

15

15
Table B.1 Qatar Typical Geotechnical Hazards and Risks

Strata or Feature Typical Risk or Undesirable Consequence
Soils and Rock Strata
Aeolian Sand Very loose and loose deposits are prone to erosion, mobility, and settlement.
Possible metastable structure leading to collapse settlements.
Very loose and loose deposits can be expected to have a lower effective shear strength
compared to deposits of greater relative density. Therefore, there is a greater risk of
instability of slopes and of lower bearing capacity for foundations in very loose and loose
deposits compared to denser deposits.
Normally uniformly graded deposits that are difficult to compact to engineering standards
when not confined.
Depending on the origin, possible high salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical
environment for buried concrete and steel.
Sabkha Significant local variability (both horizontally and vertically) within the deposits with
resultant variation in material properties and differential in engineering performance.
Some deposits can have high fines content and be highly compressible, giving rise to large
settlements and large differential ground displacements. This can adversely affect the
construction and performance of infrastructure.
Loss of strength and possible dissolution when saturated (for example, rainfall, flash floods,
storm tides inundation, or absorption of water in humid weather conditions) resulting in
ground instability under loading conditions and adverse impact on infrastructure.
High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried concrete
and steel.
Presence of gypsum and anhydrite minerals that can undergo alternate dehydration and
rehydration due to changes in the environment. These changes may be due to natural
causes such as seasonal variation, or may be due to manmade causes such as irrigation
systems. The resultant shrinkage and swelling within the deposits that can adversely affect
the engineering performance of foundations and road pavements.
Marine Sediments Parts of the coastal fringe in Qatar contain significant thicknesses of marine sediments
generally overlain by fill (made ground). These vary in composition but are typically silts,
clayey silts, sands, and gravels. The silt layers are very compressible, and therefore, are
unsuitable as founding layers and may cause problems during construction.
Residual Soils Variable grading of the deposits. This gives rise to variability in the characteristics of the
deposits and their engineering performance.
Because it is generally a weathered bedrock material, it may have high salt content, which
gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried concrete and steel.
Weathered Umm Bab High attapulgite clay content in the matrix material may be indicative of swelling possibility
Limestone (formerly after water is reintroduced into the formation.
known as Simsima High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried concrete
Limestone) and steel.
Umm Bab Limestone High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried concrete
(formerly known as and steel.
Simsima Limestone) (all
strata)
Gypsum Gypsum dissolution natural cavities (dahal), the presence of which can affect engineering
design and construction. The collapse of cavities can affect engineering construction and the
performance of completed engineering works.
Massive (limited discontinuities) strong units of gypsum can be difficult to excavate. This can
give rise to claims or construction delays, or both.

15
Table B.1 Qatar Typical Geotechnical Hazards and Risks

Strata or Feature Typical Risk or Undesirable Consequence
Sandstone, siltstone, and Depending on the origin, possible high salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical
mudstone environment for buried concrete and steel.
In extreme cases with high gypsum content, strata are susceptible to collapse because of
the dissolution of the gypsum.
Slopes excavated in the strata can be prone to deterioration and failure.
Calcarenite Typically is of low strength.
Depending on the origin, highly porous strata can give rise to groundwater flow bringing
in high salt concentrations that give rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried
concrete and steel.
Limestone Stronger, massive strata can be difficult to excavate. This can give rise to claims or
construction delays, or both.
Other Factors
Groundwater High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried concrete
and steel.
Lowering of groundwater for an excavation may cause adverse settlement, for example,
from changes in effective stress in compressible deposits by ground loss unrestricted flow
of water into excavations resulting in piping erosion loss of fines from the ground into poorly
designed wells.
Seismic activity Liquefaction of some soils and associated ground settlement and lateral spreading with
adverse impact on infrastructure.
Increased loading on structures that may exceed load carrying capacities in terms of
serviceability and ultimate limit states adversely affecting structure performance and may
give rise to failure and collapse.
Flash floods Flash floods are common. They occur in desert areas and in developed areas with hard
surfaces, such as roads. Flash floods can result in severe erosion and damage to the natural
and manmade environment.
Sand accumulation Construction of barriers to wind flow (for example, road embankments) in areas of
windblown sand results in deposition and accumulation of sand. This can cause ongoing
maintenance and operational difficulties.
Boreholes Ground investigation techniques commonly used in the region are relatively poorly
developed, commonly resulting in poor quality boreholes and nonrepresentative borehole
records. In particular, rotary coring is common with SPTs between drill strings and the SPTs
are used as the key source of parameters. Core recovery rates are commonly poor, and normal
drilling techniques are not able to recover the weak silty layers that are found within some
of the weak rock units. This can be significant when considering settlement of foundations.
Notes:
The term “high salt content” is used in this table. Sulfates tend to dominate with concentrations of over 50 percent being
reported (Fookes et al., 1985). This affects the durability of concrete and steel and it is essential that the aggressive
conditions are understood and designed for CIRIA Report C577 (CIRIA, 2002c).
For further information on hazards in the region, refer to “Middle East—Inherent Ground Problems.” (Fookes, 1978).

15
Appendix C
Preliminary Sources Study

15

15
Table C.1 General Information Required for a Preliminary Sources Study

Ref
No. Topic Information Required
1 General topographical 1. Location of site on published maps and charts
land survey 2. Aerial photographs, all dated where appropriate (available from Qatar Centre for GIS)
3. Site boundaries, outlines of structures and building lines (available from Qatar Centre
for GIS)
4. Ground contours and natural drainage features (available from Qatar Centre for GIS)
5. Obstructions to sight lines and aircraft movement, for example, transmission lines
6. Indication of obstructions below ground (utility information available from Qatar
Centre for GIS)
7. Record of differences and omissions in relation to published maps
8. Position of survey stations and benchmarks (with reduced levels)
9. Climate and meteorological information (available from Central Aviation Authority,
Meteorological Division)
2 Permitted use and 1. Planning and statutory restrictions applying to the particular areas under the Ministry
restrictions of Environment (2012)
2. Overseeing Organization regulations on planning restrictions (available from the
Ministry of Municipality and Environment [MME])
3. Tunnels rights
4. Ancient monuments and burial grounds (available from the Qatar Museum Authority
and Qatar Centre for GIS)
5. Previous potentially contaminative uses of site and adjacent areas
6. Any restrictions imposed by environmental and ecological considerations, e.g., natural
reserves and protected sites administered by the Qatar Ministry of Environment
(2012) or Qatar Museum Authority
7. Oil and gas fields, Royal Palaces, and military bases
3 Approaches and 1. Road
access (including 2. By water
temporary access)
3. By air
4 Ground conditions 1. Geological maps
2. Geological memoirs or reports
3. Wadi flooding, erosion, and subsidence history
4. Data held by central and local authorities
5. Construction and investigation records of adjacent sites
6. Seismicity
5 Sources of materials 1. Natural materials
for construction 2. Imported materials
6 Drainage and sewage 1. Names of sewage, land drainage, and other authorities’ bylaws
2. Location and levels of existing systems (including fields, drains, and ditches), showing
sizes of pipes, and whether foul, stormwater, or combined
3. Existing flow quantities and capacity for additional flow
4. Liability to surcharging
5. Charges for drainage facilities
6. Disposal of solid waste
7. Flood risk in wadi areas

15
Table C.1 General Information Required for a Preliminary Sources Study

Ref
No. Topic Information Required
7 Services (water, 1. Names of authorities concerned and their requirements and bylaws
electricity, gas, and 2. Location, sizes, and depths of services, including drawings
telecommunications)
3. Gas and water mains and their pressure characteristics
4. Electricity voltage, phases, and frequency
5. Water analysis
6. Availability of water for drilling
7. Storage requirements
8. Water source for firefighting
8 Air conditioning 1. District cooling
9 Information related 1. History of the site, including details of occupiers and users and any incidents or
to made ground accidents relating to dispersal of contaminants
(fill) and potential 2. Processes used, including their locations
contamination
3. Nature and volume of raw materials, products, and waste residues
4. Soil or waste, or both, disposal activities and methods of soil or waste, or both,
handling
5. Layout of the site above and below ground at each stage of development, including
roadways, storage areas, hard-cover areas, and the presence of any existing
structures and services
6. Presence of any waste disposal tips, abandoned pits, and quarries
7. Presence of nearby sources of contamination from which contaminants could migrate
by air or groundwater, or both, onto site
Source: Code of Practice for Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010)

15
Table C.2 Sources of Information for a Preliminary Sources Study

Ref
No. Topic Source of Information
1 Geography 1. Geographic maps for Qatar can be obtained from Qatar Centre for GIS, which include
topographic plans (1-m contours), aerial photo images to 1948 of the entire country,
and yearly photos for Doha and other cities.
2. Google Maps and Google Earth images 2004 to present (these are subject to
licensing).
2 Geology, 1. Geological maps: Geological maps are available electronically from Qatar Centre for
hydrogeology, and GIS.
soils 2. Soils Atlas (Ministry of Municipality Affairs and Agriculture et al., 2005).
3. Borehole core and specimens: There are many collections of ground investigation data
for Qatar but these are not centrally archived but are held by Ministry of Municipality
and Urban Planning, Asghal, and Qatar Petroleum. The Ministry of Energy has recently
established a project setting up a new near-surface geologic database. This is not
expected to be completed for at least 2 years.
4. Hydrogeological maps (Schlumberger Water Services, 2009): Additionally, Ashghal
contracted Schlumberger to install and monitor a series of monitoring wells
throughout Qatar from Al Khor to Messaieed for groundwater level and groundwater
quality of the surficial and shallow aquifers. Contact Ashghal Drainage Affairs for
project CP761.
5. A series of published literature on the geology, soil, and hydrogeology of Qatar are
available online.
3 Meteorological 1. Meteorological information for Qatar is available from the Civil Aviation Authority,
information Metrological Division.
5 Hydrological 1. Water resource data are available from the Ministry of Environment (2012),
information Department of Agricultural and Water Resources.
6 Aerial photographs 1. Aerial photographs of Qatar are available in hard and electronic from Qatar Centre for
GIS.
7 Services 1. Ooredo, Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Karama), and Qatar Cool.

15
Table C.3 Notes on Site Reconnaissance

Ref
No. Topic Action
1 Preparatory work 1. Whenever possible, have the following available: site plan, maps or charts, and
geological maps and aerial photographs.
2. Ensure that permission to gain access has been obtained from both owner and
occupier and is not a restricted area.
3. Obtain entry passes as needed for restricted areas.
4. Ensure safety precautions, equipment, and personal protective equipment required,
particularly with regard to dune and sabkha areas.
5. When undertaking site reconnaissance on potentially contaminated land, ensure
that all likely hazards have been identified, that appropriate safety procedures are
followed, and that necessary safety equipment is used.
2 General information 1. Traverse whole area, preferably on foot but by vehicle for larger sites.
2. Set out proposed location of work on plans, where appropriate.
3. Observe and record differences and omissions on plans and maps; for example,
boundaries, buildings, roads, and transmission lines.
4. Inspect and record details of existing structures.
5. Observe and record obstructions; for example, transmission lines, ancient monuments
or structures of archaeological importance, trees subject to preservation orders, gas
and water pipes, electricity cables, and sewers.
6. Check site access arrangements; also consider the probable effects of construction
traffic and heavy construction loads on existing roads, bridges, and services.
7. Check and note water levels, tidal and other fluctuations due to dewatering at or near
to site.
8. Observe and record adjacent property and the likelihood of its being affected by
proposed works, and any activities that may have led to contamination of the site
under investigation.
9. Observe and record quarry workings, old workings, old structures, and any other
features that may be relevant.
10. Observe and record any obvious immediate hazards to public health and safety
(including to trespassers) or the environment.
11. Observe and record any areas of discolored soil, polluted water, distressed vegetation,
or significant odors.
3 Ground information 1. Study and record surface features, on site and nearby, preferably in conjunction with
geological maps and aerial photographs, and note the following:
· Morphology and note if site is dune, sabkha, or made ground
· Type and variability of surface conditions
· In areas of sabkha, note areas of ponding after rain and salt accumulation
· Comparison of surface lands and topography with previous map records to check
for presence of fill, wind erosion, or cuttings
· Steps in surface, which may indicate geological faults or shatter zones. In cavity
areas evidence of subsidence should be looked for compression and tensile damage
in brickwork, buildings and roads; structures out of intended alignment including
verticality
· Crater-like holes in carbonate rocks, which usually indicate swallow holes filled
with soft material.
2. Assess and record details of ground conditions in quarries, cuttings, and rock outcrops
onsite and nearby.
3. Assess and record, where relevant, groundwater level or levels (often different from
watercourse) positions of irrigation wells and occurrence of artesian flow.
4. Study embankments, buildings, and other structures in the vicinity having a settlement
history.

15
Table C.3 Notes on Site Reconnaissance

Ref
No. Topic Action
4 Site inspection for 1. Inspect and record location and conditions of access to working sites.
ground investigation 2. Observe and record obstructions, such as power cables, gas mains, oil pipelines,
telephone cables, boundary fences, and trenches.
3. Locate and record areas for depot, offices, sample storage, and field laboratories.
4. Ascertain and record ownership of working sites, where appropriate.
5. Consider liability to pay compensation for damage caused.
6. Locate a suitable water supply where applicable and record location and estimated
flow.
7. Record particulars of lodgings and local labor, as appropriate.
8. Obtain list of permissions and notices required from land authorities.

15

15
Appendix D
Example Template
Evaluation Sheets for Ground
Investigation Companies

15

Table D.1 Example Template Technical Evaluation Sheet for Ground Investigation Companies
Depending on the Evaluation
System used the Headings
below will Vary
Notes for Preparing a List of Technical

Technical Information for Evaluation to be Submitted by
Points
= Points *
Weighting
Weighting
Aspect to Be the Ground Investigation Company as Part of its

Total points
Point System
Evaluated Tender Information Sought from Ground Investigation Company
Methodology 1. The ground investigation company’s methodology Description of the ground investigation company’s proposed
and approach and approach to the proposed ground investigation methodology and approach to the ground investigation. (two A4
to ground can have a substantial influence its successful page sides maximum)
investigation execution and timely completion. Details of these Preliminary method statements for key activities describing the
should be sought as part of a tender package. ground investigation company’s proposed methods, including
temporary works and safety provision. (Each preliminary method
statement should be limited to two A4 page sides maximum.)
Project organization chart detailing lines of responsibility and
communication within the team and with other parties (see
quality of personnel aspect for information to be supplied with
regard to competencies, relevant experience, and qualifications
of key staff). (Two A4 page sides maximum.)
Compliance to 1. The ground investigation company should operate Details and copies of relevant accreditation certificates of the
environment, under an environmental management system, ground investigation company’s environmental management
health, preferably register to BS EN ISO 14001:2004 or policy and any training program for its staff, technicians, and
and safety similar drilling crews. (one A4 page side maximum and certificates)
requirements 2. Appropriate environmental management is Details of the ground investigation company’s environmental
important to negate environmental damage protection measures with regard to the proposed ground
and for providing overall success of the ground investigation works. (one A4 page side maximum)
investigation. Details of the ground investigation
company’s environmental management proposals
with regard to the ground investigation should be
sought.

15
PART
171
172
15
PART
below will Vary

Total
Point
Points
System
Points *
points =
Weighting
Weighting

3. It is essential that the ground investigation Complete the health and safety questionnaire (Table D.2).
company appropriately manages the health and Copy of the company’s health and safety policy and its health
safety aspects of the ground investigation for the and safety training program for its staff, laboratory technicians

protection of its staff, operatives, and other parties and drilling crews.
involved in the ground investigation, the public, Evidence of competence to carry out the ground investigation to
and existing infrastructure. Evidence of the health the requirements of health and safety legislation and the named
and safety competence of the ground investigation resources allocated to control and manage the health and safety
company should be sought. risks.
A preliminary assessment of the main health and safety risks
associated with the proposed ground investigation. (two A4
page sides maximum)
Quality of 1. The ground investigation company should employ Names of the specialists to be employed on the ground
personnel on the ground investigation appropriately qualified investigation together with details of their academic and
staff with appropriate expertise and experience professional qualifications and a summary of their experience.
in work to be undertaken and for the role for Full curriculum vitae to be provided for senior roles such as site
which they are named (refer to Volume 2, Part 16, agent and laboratory manager.
Geotechnical Risk Management, Section 2.3
Definition of Geotechnical Practitioners, of this
Manual)
2. Drills and crew appropriately experienced and Names of the drillers (and drilling assistants) to be employed on
trained. Competence assessed and accredited by the contract together with details of their accreditation, if any,
an independent industry body (refer to Clause 5.2.1 and a summary of their experience.
Quality of Ground Investigation Personnel, in this
Part)
3. Company staff, technician and operatives training Details of the company training and development policy and its
and development policy and program (refer to training program for its specialist staff, laboratory technicians,
Clause 5.2.1, Quality of Ground Investigation and drilling crews. (one A4 page side maximum)
Personnel, in this Part)
below will Vary

Total
Point
Points
System
Points *
points =
Weighting
Weighting

Certification 1. The ground investigation company should operate Details and copies of relevant certificates for the company’s
requirements under a quality assurance system, preferably quality assurance system. (one A4 page side maximum and
register to BS EN ISO 9000:2005 or similar) (refer copies of certificates)
to Clause 5.2.1, Quality of Ground Investigation An example quality plan for similar previous ground
Personnel, in this Part). investigation work.
2. Laboratories undertaking soils and rock testing Details and copies of relevant certificates of any independent
and analytical contaminant testing should be accreditation held for laboratory testing and results reporting.
accredited by an independent industry recognized (one A4 page side maximum and copies of certificates)
body e.g., United Kingdom Accreditation Service
(UKAS) (2014), American Association for Laboratory
Accreditation (A2LA) (2011), the AASHTO Materials
Reference Laboratory (AMRL) and International
Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) (refer to
Clause 5.2.2, Laboratory Quality, in this Part).
Technology 1. Where innovative or new technology is required Statement of knowledge and experience of the particular
requirements for a ground investigation the ground investigation technology required to be used. (one A4 page side maximum)
company’s knowledge and experience of that
technology should be established.
Documentation 1. Experience of similar ground investigation works to Details of ground investigations of a similar nature, which have
of operations in those proposed past similar ground investigation been carried out by the ground investigation company within
similar projects can have a substantial influence on its successful the last five years with evidence of satisfactory completion.
execution and timely completion. Details of these Details should include how lessons learnt from previous ground
should be sought as part of a tender package. investigations would be used to improve performance on the
proposed ground investigation. The statement should include up
to five previous investigations. (three A4 pages sides maximum)

15
PART
173
174
15
PART
below will Vary

Points
= Points *
Weighting
Weighting

Total points
Point System
Capacity to 1. Possible requirements for the ground investigation Description with evidence of the ground investigation

upgrade and company to upgrade its services and provide company’s capacity to upgrade and support as set out in the
support additional support to the overall delivery of the tender documentation. (one A4 page maximum)
ground investigation should be set out in the tender
documentation. This might be to undertake ground
investigation works outside those included in the
bill of quantities or provision of other specialist
staff additional drilling crews, equipment, and other
plant and laboratory testing and facilities.
The ability of 1. A prompt start is usually important to ensuring Confirmation and details of the ground investigation company’s
the company that a ground investigation is completed in a timely available resources and its ability to mobilize and begin work.
to mobilize and manner within the specified ground investigation (one-half A4 page maximum)
begin work contract program and the overall project program.
Details of the ground investigation company’s
ability to mobilize and begin work should be sought.
Time for 1. An appropriate program for the execution of A preliminary-resourced program that shows the periods
program the proposed ground investigation works with required and the sequence in which the ground investigation
completion and associated program logic in terms of order of company proposes to undertake the various parts of the ground
program logic execution of those works is important for the investigation and the dates of the principal operations. The
timely execution and completion of the ground details submitted must include an easily understood bar chart
investigation and its successful completion. A program.
preliminary resourced program covering the main
elements of the ground investigation should be
sought.
below will Vary

Point
Points
System
= Points *
Weighting
Weighting
Total points

Relevant 1. Relevant experience in the local market and having Details of the ground investigation company’s experience of
experience in appropriate local resources can benefit the timely working in Qatar and of its local Qatar resources, including
the local market execution and successful completion of a ground numbers of:
and available investigation. Details of the ground investigation • Geotechnical practitioners (office and field based) compared
resources company’s experience of the local market and their with the categories in Volume 2, Part 16, Managing
(plants, office, local Qatar resources should be sought. Geotechnical Risk, Appendix A, Table A1, of this Manual
software, tools) • Office administration support staff
in Qatar (and
• Drillers and drilling crew related to the type of drilling rig
neighboring
they operate and whether they are accredited
states where
appropriate) • Laboratory staff and technicians
• Numbers and types of drilling rigs and other plant
• Numbers and types of laboratory testing machines (for
example, shear box and triaxial test apparatus or odometers)
together with copies of their calibrations certificates
• Confirmation of whether the ground investigation company
can supply AGS data together with a copy of a typical AGS
data file from its database
Copies of the ground investigation company’s typical borehole,
trial pit, and field and laboratory test reporting records.
Details should include how lessons learned from previous
ground investigations in Qatar would be used to improve
performance on this ground investigation. (Two A4 page sides
maximum.)

15
PART
175
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Table D.2 Example Template Health and Safety Questionnaire for Ground Investigation
Companies
Included Response
(If information is part of a separate document or
continued on a separate sheet provided, please give
Question Yes No NA the title and page or clause number)
General Information
1. Company name and Registered
Ad d re s s Name………………………………………………………………………...
Address………………………………………………………….……………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Tel………………………………………………………………………………
Fax………………………………………………………………………………
Email……………………………………………………………………………
Internet………………………………………………………………………
Contact Name………………………………………………..……………
2. Give the name and position in the
Company of the person who has Name……………………………...……………………………………………
overall responsibility for ensuring
adequate resources are made Position………………………….……………………………………………
available for health and safety.
3. Submit an organization chart for Health and Safety Chart…………………………….………………………………………
health and safety.
4. Give the name, qualifications,
and experience of the person Name……………………………...……………………………………………
nominated to provide specific
Health and Safety advice in the Position………………………….……………………………………………
execution of the contract.
Curriculum vitae Included
5. Summarize the main details of your
safety management system.
6. Do you audit health and safety?
If not go to Q.6
7. Give details of recommendations

from any audits that have been
undertaken.
8. How do you learn from your past
health and safety experience?
9. Summarize injuries, diseases, and
dangerous occurrences during the
last 3 years. Provide the information
in the form of an incidence rate
per 100,000 employees. Identify
fatalities separately.

15
Table D.2 Example Template Health and Safety Questionnaire for Ground Investigation
Companies
Included Response
(If information is part of a separate document or
continued on a separate sheet provided, please give
Question Yes No NA the title and page or clause number)
10. Summarize your arrangements
for selecting and controlling
subcontractors with respect to
health and safety.
Project-specific Information
1. Information on similar projects and
experience.
2. Ground investigation risk
management experience on a
project of similar size, procurement
st yle.
3. A developed health and safety
plan from at least one ground
investigation.
4. Names and experience (health and
safety) of project team.
5. How competence and resource
checks will be done for any sub-
contractors.
6. Confirmation that the competent
personnel are available for the
project program.

15

15
Appendix E
Template Bill of Quantities for
Ground Investigation

15

15
Template Bill of Quantities for Ground Investigation

UK Specification for Ground Investigation (Site Investigation Steering Group, 2012) includes a specification,
a model bill of quantities, and schedules that enable the geotechnical practitioner to define investigation-
specific details together with associated notes for guidance. The model bill of quantities provides a
comprehensive list of items correlated to the specification items. It is intended that the numbering of the
model bill of quantities items remain unaltered with items that are not required for a particular project
ground investigation marked either “not used” or not presented in the project specific bill of quantities.
Typically, the project-specific additional items should be included at the end of each bill. The template
bill of quantities for Qatar road projects included in this appendix follow those principles so the published
standard specification may be used with minimal changes for project-specific requirements.

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Appendix F
SPT Corrections Spreadsheet
Template

15

15
Table F1 SPT Corrections Spreadsheet Template

15

15
Appendix G
Cone Penetration Testing

15

15
Table G 1 Summary of Typical Checks and Recalibrations to be made for CPT
Frequency
At Start of Test At Start of At End of At Three-Month
Check or Recalibration Program a Sounding Sounding Intervals
Verticality of thrust machine ‒ * ‒ ‒
Straightness of push rods * * ‒ ‒
Precision of measurements * ‒ ‒ *
Zero load error (taking
‒ * * ‒
baselines)
Wear
Dimension of cone or friction
* * ‒ ‒
sleeve
Roughness * * * ‒
Filters ‒ ‒ ‒ *
Seals
Presence of soil particles * * ‒ ‒
Quality * * * ‒
Calibration
Load cells and pressure
* ‒ ‒ *
transducers
Unequal end area ‒ ‒ ‒ *
Temperature ‒ ‒ ‒ *
Note:
a
Also regularly during a long testing program

15
Table G 2 Checklist for Information Required for CPT to Check Data Quality
Question Answer Notes
Manufacturer, capacity, type. International
1 Type of cone penetrometer Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration
Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) standard.
Adhering to international standard (i.e., Compare with requirements in International
2 10 cm², 60 degrees, sleeve area = 150 cm² Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration
etc.) Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989).
x-sect area =
If answer to 2 is no, what cone is being If A = 15 cm², α = 60 degrees
3 cone angle =
used? and Asl = 202 cm²; then okay.
sleeve area =
Location of filter(s) for measuring pore
4
pressure and type of fluid
5 Area ratio (a) of cone tip Normally in range a = 0.59 to 0.85.
6 End areas of friction sleeve Best if they are equal.
Compare with formulas given in Cone Penetration
7 Is qc corrected for pore pressure effects? Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al.,
1997).
Compare with formulas given in Cone Penetration
8 Is ƒs corrected for pore pressure effects? Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al.,
1997).
Assumed? Based on measurement of bulk density
9 What is basis for σ’vo?
(ρ) on samples?
Compare with requirements given in specifications
When were sensors (qc, u, ƒs) last
10 or Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical
calibrated?
Practice (Lunne et al., 1997).
Zero readings before and after each test
11 Important to check if results appear “abnormal.”
reported?
Where were readings zeroed? (for example,
12 Important for overwater testing
sea bottom or bottom of borehole)
13 Depth of any predrilling Explains any missing data.
What is frequency of readings? The commercial rate is one set every second
14 (that is, every 2 centimeters). Decided by project
requirements.
For dissipation testing;
How well was the initial part of the dissipation
15 (a) Were the rods clamped or unclamped?
curve defined—faster sampling rate to start with?
(b) Frequency of readings

15
Appendix H
Borehole Geophysical
Techniques

15

15
Table H.1 Tools and Methods for Subsurface Investigations
Method Principle and Application Limitations

Surface seismic Determine bedrock depths and characteristic May be unreliable unless velocities increase
refraction wave velocities as measured by geophones with depth and bedrock surface is regular. Data
spaced at intervals. are indirect and represent averages. Limited to
depths of about 30 m.
High-resolution Determine depths, geometry, and faulting in Reflected impulses are weak and easily
reflection deep rock strata. Good for depths of a few obscured by the direct surface and shallow
thousand meters. Useful for mapping offsets refraction impulses. Does not provide
in bedrock. Useful for locating groundwater. compression velocities. Computation of depths
to stratum changes requires velocity data
obtained by other means.
Vibration Travel time of transverse or shear waves Velocity of wave travel and natural period of
generated by a mechanical vibrator is recorded vibration gives some indication of soil types.
by seismic detectors. Useful for determining Data are indirect. Usefulness is limited to
dynamic modulus of subgrade reaction for relatively shallow foundations.
design of foundations of vibrating structures.
Uphole, downhole, Obtain velocities for particular strata; dynamic Unreliable for irregular strata or soft soils with
and cross-hole properties and rock-mass quality. Energy large gravel content. Cross-hole measurements
surveys (seismic source in borehole or at surface; geophones best suited for in-place modulus determination.
direct methods) on surface or in borehole.
Electrical resistivity Locate fresh and saltwater boundaries; clean Difficult to interpret and subject to wide
surveys granular and clay strata; rock depth; and variations. Difficult to interpret strata below
depth to groundwater. Based on difference in water table. Does not provide engineering
electrical resistivity of strata. properties. Used up to depths of about 30 m.
Electromagnetic Measures low frequency magnetic fields Fixed coil spacings limited to shallow depth.
conductivity surveys induced into the earth. Used for mineral Background noise from natural and constructed
exploration; locating near surface pipes; sources (manufactured) affects values
cables, and drums and contaminated plumes. obtained.
Magnetic Mineral prospecting and locating large Difficult to interpret quantitatively, but
measurements igneous masses. Highly sensitive proton indicates the outline of faults, bedrock, buried
magnetometer measures Earth’s magnetic utilities, or metallic objects in landfills.
field at closely spaced intervals along a
traverse.
Gravity Detect major subsurface structures, faults, Not suitable for shallow depth determination
measurements domes, intrusions, and cavities. Based on but useful in regional studies. Some application
differences in density of subsurface materials. in locating caverns in limestone.
Ground-penetrating Locate pipe or other buried objects, bedrock, Does not provide depths or engineering
radar boulders, near-surface cavities, extent of properties. Shallow penetration. Silts, clays,
piping caused by sinkhole, and leakage in salts, saline water, the water table, or
dams. Useful for high-resolution mapping of other conductive materials severely restrict
near-surface geology. penetration of radar pulses.
Source: Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).

15
Table H.2 Geophysical Methods and Techniques for Logging Boreholes
Method Principle and Application Limitations

Electrical logging Several different methods available. Provides Provides qualitative information. Best used with
continuous record of resistivity from which test-boring information. Limited to uncased hole.
material types can be deduced when correlated
with test-boring data.
Neutron radiation Provides continuous measure of natural moisture Data from neutron probe is limited to in-place
logging content. Can be used with density probe to moisture content values. Often differs from
locate failure zones or water bearing zones in oven-dried moisture content and requires
slopes. correction.
Gamma-gamma Provides continuous measure of in-place density Data limited to density measurements. Wet
logging of materials. density usually more accurate than dry density.
Scintillometer Provides measure of gamma rays. Used to locate Quantitative assessments of shale or clay
(Gamma ray shale and clay beds and in mineral prospecting. formations.
logging)
Acoustic borehole Sonic energy generated and propagated in Must be used in fluid-filled borehole unless
imaging fluid such as air to water. Provides continuous casing is being inspected. Tool must be centered
360-degree image of borehole wall showing in the borehole. Logging speed is relatively low
fractures and other discontinuities. Can be used between 20 and 75 mm/sec. Imaging less clear
to determine dip. than house-obtained with borehole cameras.
Acoustic velocity Can determine lithologic contracts, Borehole must be fluid-filled and diameter
logging geologic structure, cavities, and attitude of accurately known. Penetration beyond borehole
discontinuities. Elastic properties of rock can be wall of about a meter or so. Geologic materials
calculated. Compression (P-water) is generated must have P-water velocities higher than
and measured. Used almost exclusively in rock. velocity of the borehole fluid.
Crosshole seismic Seismic source in one borehole; receivers Borehole spacing is critical and should be >3 m
tests at same depth in other boreholes. Material and <15 m. Precise borehole spacing must be
properties can be determined from generated accurately known for data to be useful.
and measured compression and shear waves.
Low-velocity zones can be detected under high-
velocity zones.
Borehole cameras Borehole TV or film type cameras available. Requires open hole. Images are affected by
TV viewed in real time. Can examine cavities, water clarity. Aperture on film camera must be
discontinuities, joints, faults, water well screen, preset to match reflectivity of borehole wall
concrete-rock contacts, grouting effectiveness, materials.
and many other situations.
Borehole caliper Used to continuously measure and record Diameter ranges from about 50 mm to 900 mm.
logging borehole diameter. Identify zones of borehole Must calibrate caliper against known minimum
enlargement. Can evaluate borehole for and maximum diameter before logging. Special
positioning packers for other tests. One- to six- purpose acoustic caliper designed for large or
arm probe designs. cavernous holes (dia) 1.8 m to 30 m.
Temperature Continuous measure of borehole fluid Probe must be calibrated against a fluid of
logging temperature after fluid has stabilized. Can known temperature. Open boreholes take longer
determine temperature gradient with depth. to stabilize than cased holes. Logging speed
15 to 20 mm/sec.
Source: Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).

Table H.3 Borehole Logs and their Applications and Limitations
Log Type (“1” indicates the log Type Means is Suitable for the Application Listed)
Fluid
Fluid
Micro
Sonic
Caliper
gamma
Natural
Gamma
Gamma
Gamma
Spectral
Neutron
Potential
Electrical
Diameter
Spontane
Television
Formation
Resistivity
Televiewer
Flow meter
Introduction
temperature
Conductivity
Application Limitations
Lined hole — — 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — — —
Open hole 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Air-filled — — 1 — — — — 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 — —
Water- or mud-filled 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Diameter — — — — — — — — 1 — — — —— — — —
Casing — — — 1 — — — 1 1 — — — 1 — 1 —
Fractures or joints 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 — — 1 —
Cement bend — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Bed boundaries 1 1 1 1 — — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bed thickness 1 1 1 — — — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bed type — — 1 — — — — — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Porosity — — — — — — — — — 1 1 1 — 1 1 —
Density — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — —
Permeable zones 1 1 — — 1 1 1 — 1 — 1 1 — — — —
Borehole fluid quality — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — —
Formation fluid quality — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 1
Fluid movement — — — — 1 1 1 — — — — — — — — —
Direction of dip — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — —
Shale or sand indication — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — 1


15
PART
223
15

15
Appendix I
Example Exploratory
Hole Record

15

15

15

15

15

15
Appendix J
Example Geological Profiles

15

15

15

15
Appendix K
Trenchless Installations

15

15
Table K.1 Trenchless Installations Terms and Definitions

Term Definition
Auger boring Method for forming a bore, usually from a drive pit, by means of a rotating cutting head. Spoil
is removed back to the drive pit by helically wound auger flights rotating in a steel casing. The
equipment may have limited steering capability. See also “Guided auger boring” in this table.
Back reamer Cutting head attached to the leading end of a drill string to enlarge the pilot bore during a
pullback operation to enable the product pipe to be installed.
Bore Void that is created to receive a pipe, conduit, or cable.
Cased bore Bore in which a pipe, usually a steel sleeve, is inserted simultaneously with the boring
operation. Usually associated with auger boring or pipe jacking.
Casing Pipe to support a bore. Usually not a product pipe.
Cutting or cutter head Tool or system of tools on a common support that excavates at the face of a bore. Usually
applies to mechanical methods of excavation.
Directional drilling Steerable method for the installation of pipes, conduits, and cables in a shallow arc using a
surface-launched drilling rig. In particular, the term applies to large-scale crossings where a
fluid-filled pilot bore is drilled without rotating the drill string, and then enlarged by a wash-
over pipe and back reamer to the size required for the product pipe. The required deviation
during pilot boring is provided by the positioning of a bent sub.
Drill bit or head Tool that cuts the ground at the head of a drill string, usually by mechanical means.
Drilling fluid or mud Mixture of water and usually bentonite or polymer continuously pumped to the cutting head
or drill bit to facilitate the removal of cuttings, stabilize the bore, cool the head, and lubricate
the passage of the product pipe. In suitable ground conditions, water alone may be used.
Drill string or stem The total length of drill rods, pipe, bit, or swivel joint in a bore.
Drive, entry shaft, or pit Excavation from which trenchless technology equipment is launched for the installation or
renovation of a pipeline, conduit, or cable. It may incorporate a thrust wall to spread reaction
loads to the ground.
Earth pressure balance Type of microtunneling machine in which mechanical pressure is applied to the material at the
(EPB) machine face and controlled to provide the correct counter-balance to earth pressure to prevent heave
or subsidence. The term is usually employed where the pressure originates from the main
jacking station in the drive shaft or to systems in which the primary counter-balance to the
earth pressures is supplied by pressurized drilling fluid or slurry.
Face stability Stability of the excavated face of a tunnel or pipe jack.
Grouting Method of filling voids, usually with cementitious grout.
Guided auger boring Method of auger boring in which the guidance mechanism actuator is sited in the drive shaft.
The term may also be applied to those auger-boring systems with rudimentary articulation of
the casing near the cutting head activated by rods from the drive shaft.
Guided boring See definition for “Guided drilling” in this table.
Guided drilling Method for the installing pipes, conduits, and cables using a surface-launched drilling rig.
A pilot bore is drilled using a rotating drill string and is then enlarged by a back reamer to
the size required for the product pipe. The necessary deviation during the pilot boring is
provided by a slanted face to the drill head, an asymmetric drill head, eccentric fluid jets, or a
combination of these, usually in conjunction with a locator.
Guide rail Device used to support or guide, first the shield, and then the pipe within the drive shaft
during a pipe jacking operation.
Heaving Process in which the ground may be displaced causing a lifting of the ground surface.
Horizontal directional See definition for “Directional drilling” in this table.
drilling

15
Table K.1 Trenchless Installations Terms and Definitions

Term Definition
Impact Moling Method of creating a bore using a pneumatic or hydraulic hammer within a casing, generally
of torpedo shape. The term is usually associated with nonsteered or limited steering devices
without rigid attachment to the launch pit, relying upon the resistance of the ground for
forward movement. During the operation, the soil is displaced, not removed. An unsupported
bore may be formed in suitable ground, or a pipe drawn in, or pushed in, behind the impact
moling tool. Cables may also be drawn in.
Impact ramming See “Pipe ramming” in this table.
Jacking force Force applied to pipes in a pipe jacking operation.
Jacking pipes Pipes designed for use in a pipe jacking operation.
Jacking shield Fabricated steel cylinder from within which excavation is carried out, either manually or by
mechanical means. Incorporated within the shield are facilities for controlling line and level.
Launch pit As for drive pit but more usually associated with launching an impact moling or similar tool.
Locator An electronic instrument used to determine the position and strength of electromagnetic
signals emitted from a transmitter sonde in the pilot head of a boring system, in an impact
moling tool, or from underground services that have been energized. Sometimes referred to as
a “walkover system.”
Microtunneling Method of steerable remote control pipe jacking to install pipes of internal diameter less
than that permissible for human entry. In North America, the term is used to describe remote
control continuous pipe jacking in all diameters.
Pilot bore First, usually steerable, pass of any boring operation that later requires backreaming or other
enlargement. Most commonly applied to guided drilling, directional drilling, and two-pass
microtunneling systems.
Pipe jacking Method for directly installing pipes behind a shield machine by hydraulic or other jacking from
a drive shaft such that the pipes form a continuous string in the ground.
Pipe ramming Nonsteerable method of forming a bore by driving a steel casing, usually openended, with
a percussive hammer from a drive pit. The soil may be removed by augering, jetting, or
compressed air. In appropriate ground conditions, a closed casing may be used.
Product pipe Permanent pipeline for operational use.
Pull-back That part of a guided drilling or directional drilling operation in which the drill string is pulled
back through the bore to the entry pit or surface rig, usually installing the product pipe at the
same time.
Reception, exit shaft, Excavation into which trenchless technology equipment is driven and may be recovered
or pit during the installation or renovation of a product pipe, conduit, or cable.
Rod pushing Method of forming a pilot bore by driving a closed pipe head with rigid attachment from a
launch pit into the soil that is displaced. Limited steering and monitoring capability may be
provided, usually in conjunction with a locator.
Subsidence Process in which the ground may be displaced causing a settlement at the surface.
Target shaft or pit See definition for “Reception, exit shaft, or pit” in this table.
Thrust pit See definition for “Drive, entry shaft, or pit” in this table.
Trenchless technology Methods for utility and other line installation, rehabilitation, replacement, renovation, repair,
inspection, location, and leak detection, with minimum excavation from the ground surface.
Uncased bore Self-supporting bore without a lining or inserted pipe, whether temporary or permanent.
Walkover system See “Locator” in this table.
Source: HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and Trunk Roads” (UK

15
Appendix K1: Information on Trenchless

Installation Methods
This appendix is based on information in HD 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services
beneath Motorways and Trunk Roads” (UK Department for Transport, 2008).
Pipe Jacking and Microtunneling

Pipe jacking is a method by which pipes or sleeves are installed by being pushed through the ground
behind a small, steerable, remotely controlled, tunnel boring, or microtunnel machine. The technique is
called microtunneling, and pipes and sleeves can be installed to very strict tolerances in line and level.
This makes them suitable for gravity mains and minimizes risk from lack of alignment control where close
tolerances are needed and expected, such as under major roads.
Microtunneling machines generally start at 600 mm internal diameter, although sizes down to 300 mm
internal diameter can be obtained. The maximum size of what is generally regarded as a microtunneling
machine is 1,500 mm internal diameter. Above this size, tunneling machines are regarded as tunnel boring
machines (TBMs).
Concrete jacking pipes may be supplied in sizes up to 2.55 m internal diameter. While concrete jacking
pipes can be supplied in smaller sizes, clay, steel, fiber-reinforced, and polymer pipes are more often used
in those applications.
Minimum diameters are also controlled by safety considerations. Code of Practice for Safety in Tunnelling
in the Construction Industry, Section 7.14.1 (BS 6164:2011), states that for small tunnels, the internal size
for human entry should not be less than 1.2 m high by 0.9 m wide. This limits the size of circular human-
entry tunnels to 1.2 m internal diameter. It is recognized that the excavating space at the front of the
tunnel may be slightly larger than the internal diameter of the finished tunnel, but it is generally accepted
that the minimum size refers to the whole tunnel consistent with access and egress in emergencies.
The use of hand-excavation open pipe-jacking shields should be avoided to manage the risk to operators
of hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) and the more common vibration white finger syndrome (VWF).
Commonly used hand controlled equipment used in excavating tunnels have high vibration levels and
can be used only for a matter of a few minutes before the operator reaches the maximum daily vibration
level of exposure. Consequently, hand excavation using vibrating tools should be reduced, managed, or
preferably eliminated as a working practice.
Most microtunnels are straight, but specialist surveying equipment and short length pipes can be provided
to allow curved tunnels to be excavated and lined.
There are two types of microtunneling machine: the open-faced auger and the closed-face slurry machine.
The open-faced or “Decon” machine uses a front cutting disc that is driven by a continuous flight auger

15
string from the shaft bottom. As the cutting disc rotates, the auger removes cut material along the tunnel to
the shaft bottom for disposal. The ground conditions have to be such that the material can be transported
effectively by the screw at a steady rate. Water-logged ground, unless pretreated, can inundate the face
and flood the screw, with consequential ground loss causing major surface settlements. Due to the length
of the driving auger, the maximum length of this type of microtunnel is about 100 m, but it can be much
less in very stiff clay with cobbles where the torque on the auger can become excessive.
The closed-face slurry machine has a sealed bulkhead in the head of the machine through which slurry
is pumped at sufficient pressure to stabilize loose ground and to balance any water pressure. The cutter
head is situated in front of the bulkhead and is driven by hydraulic motors in the head. As the ground is
cut, the spoil mixes with the slurry and an extraction pump removes the spoil and slurry mixture from
behind the bulkhead. It is pumped down the tunnel to the shaft and then to the surface for separation.
Once separated, the spoil can be disposed of to tip, and the slurry is returned to the system for reuse. This
slurry-type system can be used to operate in most ground conditions, even rock. The length of the tunnel
drives for this type of system depends on ground conditions and the size of the tunnel.
Drive length also depends on the use of intermediate jacking stations. In small tunnels (<900 mm
diameter), where stations typically cannot be installed for logistical reasons except very close to the head
of the tunnel, drive lengths characteristically extend to over 120 m, possibly up to 150 m.
Larger slurry microtunnels up to 1,500 mm diameter can be equipped with intermediate jacking stations
along the tunnel at regular intervals, which can be used to extend the overall length to more than 250 m.
There is a limit to how many “interjacks” can be used from a logical perspective. Three is normally accepted
as the maximum number.
Face access is another consideration in determining the overall possible drive length. Face access is
feasible in microtunnels above 1,500 mm diameter to facilitate maintenance when back-loading cutters
may be changed. On smaller microtunnels, worn teeth on the cutter heads cannot be replaced during
production and therefore need to be durable enough for the full length of the drive. If ground conditions
are particularly bad, access to the face may be assisted by use of compressed air in the tunnel to reduce
water flows in the face once the bulkhead is opened.
Access shaft diameters depend upon the diameter of the tunnel to be driven, the length of the pipes to
be used, and the ground conditions.
Shafts can be as small as 2.5 m diameter when using a small-diameter microtunneling machine, half-
length pipes, and where ground conditions are good. Forward headings in front of the machine can be
excavated to allow for more space for the machine, pipes, and jacking wall construction.
In poor ground, shafts may need to be larger, so 5 m diameter shafts are common. This size allows for a
stronger, thicker jacking wall and a sealing bulkhead at the face of the tunneling machine to prevent loss
of ground when the microtunnel leaves the shaft. Ground loss may be prevented using ground treatment
at the back of the shaft to help resist the jacking loads and at the exit point of the shield from the shaft.

15
Excavation methods for shafts also require preplanning, particularly with regard to the requirements for
the health, safety, and welfare of construction workers. In small diameter shafts, the use of a grab from
ground level to excavate the ground will be required to minimize the need for hand excavation. Shafts
larger than 4.5 m in diameter may be excavated by grab or are large enough to accommodate a mini-
digger, skips, and operators.
Guided Drilling and Directional Drilling

Guided drilling and directional drilling are techniques by which a steerable boring head is pushed through
the ground while being rotated. When the pilot bore is completed, it is enlarged to the required diameter
by pulling a reamer back toward the drilling machine. When the hole has been opened to the required size,
the product pipe, duct, or cable is pulled into place. Normal practice is for the bore to be supported by a
drilling fluid during the works. The fluid also assists in cutting the soil and in removing cuttings from the
bore.
The product pipe or duct pulled into place is normally plastic. Polyethylene is the most widely used pipe
material, with either polyethylene or polyvinyl chloride being used for ducts. There are several different
types and pressure ratings of each material available; selection depends on location and use of the
finished pipeline. Joints in the pipes must be capable of resisting the tension placed on them during
installation. This is why many horizontal directional drilling installers prefer automatic butt fusion welded
polyethylene.
Guided drilling can be used for crossings with diameters up to 600 mm and lengths up to 200 m. Horizontal
directional drilling can be used for crossings up to 1,200 mm in diameter and up to 1,800 m in length, given
good ground conditions. Both methods are ideal for pressure pipe or cable installation where a reasonable
degree of accuracy is required. Both methods can be used to install pipes and cables on a curved path.
Guided drilling can be used where an irregular installation path is required. Both methods can be used
successfully in a wide range of soils including clays, silts, sands, mudstones, and soft rocks. Difficulties
may be encountered in loose gravel and cobbles, where creating a stable bore may not be possible.
Auger Boring
Auger boring is a horizontal rotary earth boring process in which a cutter head connected to continuous
flight augers is jacked through the ground, usually inside a steel casing. Although it is possible to auger
without a casing for small diameters or short bores in cohesive materials, this would not be recommended
under a road. In suitable ground conditions and properly executed, auger boring can be a quick and
economic technique.
The most common application for auger boring is for pressure pipelines that are placed inside the casing.
The linings can be metallic, polyethylene, or polyvinyl chloride. The advancement of these systems has
resulted in guided auger boring. This allows pipes to be installed accurately to line and level and is widely
used for installation of gravity sewers where a clay product pipe can be directly installed. Crossings up to
80 m in length and diameters up to 1,200 mm can be executed using auger boring.

15
Entry and exit pits are required. The entry (working) pit may be very long, because it needs to accommodate
the auger sections, the casing, and the drive unit. Newer systems designed for accuracy now use small
pits where diameters of 2 m are common. This allows operation in restricted working areas.
The technique can be split into two types of systems. One system is essentially unsteered so only a
straight drive can be undertaken. The capability to correct deviations is limited, and accuracy depends on
accurate alignment of the machine before starting to bore. Typical alignment accuracy is 1 percent of the
driven length. The other type is the guided system, which is accurately steered through the ground on a
straight drive.
Auger boring may be used in a wide range of soils. Even water-bearing ground can be drilled by using
water augers that restrict the ingress of materials.
Noncohesive soils can still be problematic, as excess material can be pulled into the bore, causing surface
settlement. Soft or hard strata that intersect the alignment at shallow angles can also cause the auger to
deviate offline.
Impact Moling and Rod-Pushing

Impact moling is a technique in which a percussive tool, usually driven by compressed air, is driven through
the soil, advancing with a hammer action. The soil in front of the mole is displaced. The mole is connected
to the launch pit by a pneumatic hose. Moles may be fitted with radio sondes (probes) so their position
can be tracked from the surface. Rod pushing is a similar technique but advancement is by pushing a head
on rigid rods from the launch pit with soil being displaced by the driving head.
The power of the impact moling unit may be used to pull the product pipe, cable, or duct into place as the
impact mole advances. With the rod pusher the product pipe, cable, or duct is installed by pullback from
the target pit.
Impact moling generally is used for straight crossings although steerable equipment is available. Rod
pushing has a limited steering capability but most often is used for straight drives. Both methods require
launch and target pits.
Crossings up to 25 m can be executed with these methods, possibly a little longer with rod pushing
in good soil conditions. Diameters range from 45 mm to 200 mm. Because of soil compaction and risk
of surface movement (heave), typical minimum cover requirements are 1 m for every 100 mm of mole
diameter.
Within their limitations, these methods can be quick and cost-effective for short crossings to install small
pipes, cables, and ducts. Both methods can be used in soils that can be compressed or displaced. Obstacles
such as boulders and cobbles can cause deviation of the bore that cannot be corrected.
Pipe Ramming
Pipe ramming is a technique in which a steel casing, usually open-ended, with a cutter end is driven
through the soil by a hammer located in the launch pit. The casing may be in a single section or welded

15
from shorter sections during installation. Soil is removed from inside the casing after driving. The installed
casing may itself become part of a product pipe or, more commonly, a product pipe, cable, or duct is
installed inside it.
Crossings up to 70 m can be achieved and pipes with diameters up to 2,000 mm have been installed in
suitable ground conditions.
Pipe ramming is unsteerable, so the method is used for straight crossings only. Launch and reception
pits are required. Directional accuracy depends on the accurate alignment of the guide rails on which the
casing and hammer are positioned in the launch pit.
The technique may be used in a wide range of soils above or below the groundwater table. The rammed
casing is stiff and not easily deviated by cobbles or boulders. However, massive obstructions cannot be
penetrated. In very soft soils, pipe ramming is less susceptible to deviation than impact moling.

15

15
Appendix K2: Format of Geotechnical

Design Report for Trenchless Installation of
Services
Table K.2 provides a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in
the geotechnical design report for trenchless installation of services. Additional headings to those listed
below may be inserted where appropriate with the agreement of the overseeing organization. Unused
headings should not be deleted but should be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The report should include details of the interpretation of design data and justification for the design,
including layout drawings of the works. The report should include proposals for geotechnical supervision
and construction monitoring. Items that require checking during construction or maintenance after
construction should be clearly identified.
Table K.2 Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section No. Heading Notes on Topics to be Described Under Section Heading
— TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of the authorship, and the version
number of the report. The version number and date of the report
should be clearly placed on every page of the report. The contents of all
volumes should be listed in the front of each volume with the contents
of the particular volume highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers
should be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Title Provide details.
1.2 Description of project Provide specific description, including an outline description of the
proposed works.
1.3 Scope and objectives of the Provide specific description.
report
1.4 Project previous reports Provide specific description.
2 OPEN EXCAVATIONS
2.1 Ground and groundwater Description of the proposed open excavations and the ground and
conditions groundwater conditions expected. This should include reference to a
geology section.
2.2 Excavation stability Description of the analyses of short-term and long-term stability of the
excavation and proposed support methodology.
2.3 Groundwater control Provide specific description, including, where required, details of
pumping or well pointing, assessment of its effect on surrounding
ground stability, any effects on nearby structures and infrastructure,
and any mitigation measures required.
2.4 Spoil handling and disposal Provide specific description.
3 TRENCHLESS METHODS
3.1 Ground and groundwater Description of the proposed alignment and the ground and groundwater
conditions conditions expected. This should include reference to a geology section.

15
Table K.2 Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section No. Heading Notes on Topics to be Described Under Section Heading
3.2 Trenchless technique Description of the proposed installation technique, including
methodology in relation to the anticipated ground and groundwater
conditions and any restrictions for installation.
3.3 Ground movement Description of the assessment of potential ground movements including
predicted and critical settlement or heave, analyses methods, and
results. Detail any restrictions that apply for installation.
3.4 Groundwater control Provide specific description, including, where required, details of
pumping or well pointing, assessment of its effect on surrounding
ground stability, any effects on nearby structures and infrastructure,
and any mitigation measures required.
3.5 Pipe loadings Provide specific description.
3.6 Clearances Clearances adopted to third party services and underground
infrastructure.
3.6 Spoil handling and disposal Provide specific description.
4 INSTRUMENTATION AND
MONITORING
4.1 Full details of purpose, Provide specific description.
installation requirements,
restrictions, and frequency of
readings
4.2 Use of observational Critical readings and restrictions on work.
methods and controls
5 CITED REFERENCES AND Provide details.
OTHER REFERENCES
— APPENDIXES Appendixes as required with information supporting the report text.
— DRAWINGS Copies of site plan, geotechnical sections, and design drawings.

Volume 2
Part 16
Geotechnical Risk
Management
GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT PART
16
Disclaimer
of any kind.

PART GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT
16

16
Contents Page
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Purpose and Scope...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Application of Geotechnical Certification Procedure..................................................................... 1
2 The Geotechnical Practitioner.......................................................................................3

2.1.Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. General Role of Geotechnical Practitioners....................................................................................... 3
2.3. Geotechnical Practitioners Grades........................................................................................................ 5
3 Management of Geotechnical Risk...............................................................................7

3.1.Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2. Definitions and Abbreviations................................................................................................................ 8
3.2.1. Organizations, Roles, and Responsibilities....................................................................8
3.2.2. Key Terms....................................................................................................................................8
3.3. Geotechnical Categories............................................................................................................................ 9
3.4. Geotechnical Certification Key Stages.............................................................................................. 11
3.5. Geotechnical Certificate......................................................................................................................... 15
4 Key Stage 1: Initial Project Review............................................................................ 16

4.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 16
4.2. Initial Project Review............................................................................................................................... 16
5 Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment.................................................................... 18

5.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 18
5.2. Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Sources Study............................................................. 18
5.3. Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2B: Ground Investigation Proposals................................................... 19
5.4. Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2C: Ground Investigation........................................................................ 19
5.5. Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical Interpretative Report............................................ 20
6 Key Stage 3: Geotechnical Design............................................................................. 22

6.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 22
6.2. Geotechnical Design................................................................................................................................ 22
7 Key Stage 4: Geotechnical Observations and Feedback......................................... 24

7.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 24
7.2. Geotechnical Observations and Feedback...................................................................................... 24
8 Geotechnical Risk Register and Risk Assessment.................................................. 26

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8.1.Overview....................................................................................................................................................... 26
8.2. Geotechnical Risk Register.................................................................................................................... 26
8.2.1.Introduction.............................................................................................................................26
8.2.2. Example Project.....................................................................................................................27
8.3. Risk Assessment....................................................................................................................................... 28
8.4. Further Information and Geotechnical Risk Register Template............................................. 30
References............................................................................................................................... 32

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Tables
Table 2.1. Geotechnical Practitioner Grades................................................................................................................5

Table 3.1. Summary of Geotechnical Certification Process.................................................................................13
Table 8.1. Likelihood Criteria...........................................................................................................................................28
Table 8.2. Consequence Criteria.....................................................................................................................................29
Table 8.3. Risk-Rating Matrix..........................................................................................................................................29
Table 8.4. Indicative Risk-Rating Implications..........................................................................................................29
Table E.1. Preliminary Sources Study Report Contents List and Topics to be Described........................53
Table G.1. Ground Investigation Factual Report Contents List and Topics to be Described..................63
Table H.1. Geotechnical Interpretative Report Contents List and Topics to be Described......................69
Table I.1. Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described....................................75
Figures
Figure 3.1. Assessment of the Geotechnical Category of a Project..................................................................11
Figure 3.2. Geotechnical Certification Flow Chart....................................................................................................14
Figure 8.1. Example Assessment of an Identified Hazard.....................................................................................28
Appendixes
Appendix A . Geotechnical Practitioner Grades and their Definition, and Routes to Becoming a
Geotechnical Advisor.....................................................................................................................................35
Appendix B . Geotechnical Works Checklist.....................................................................................................................39
Appendix C . Geotechnical Certificate...............................................................................................................................43
Appendix D . Statement of Intent........................................................................................................................................47
Appendix E . Preliminary Sources Study Report............................................................................................................51
Appendix F . Ground Investigation Proposals Report..................................................................................................57
Appendix G . Ground Investigation Factual Report and Geophysical Survey Report....................................61
Appendix H .Geotechnical Interpretative Report.........................................................................................................67
Appendix I . Geotechnical Design Report.......................................................................................................................73
Appendix J . Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report.............................................................................79
Appendix K . Geotechnical Risk Register Template......................................................................................................85

16

16
AGS Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists (United Kingdom)
DGA designer’s Geotechnical Advisor
GA Geotechnical Advisor
H horizontal
UK United Kingdom
V vertical

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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose and Scope

This Part sets out the role of geotechnical specialists in managing the quality of geotechnical
investigations, ground interpretation, and also geotechnical design and geotechnical
construction. It also sets out the procedure of Geotechnical Certification, which provides
a clear and consistent framework for the management of geotechnical risk in a project
throughout its lifetime. This Part also presents the format and timing of the reports and
documents to be prepared and submitted to the Overseeing Organization under Geotechnical
Certification. The documents to be submitted may include reports covering the preliminary
sources study, the planning of ground investigation works, the interpretation of geotechnical
investigations, geotechnical design, and geotechnical construction.
1.2 Application of Geotechnical Certification Procedure

The Geotechnical Certification procedure set out herein is mandatory for all projects carried
out for the State of Qatar Public Works Authority–Infrastructure Affairs. Other authorities
may adopt the procedure as required.
Where a third-party development is proposed immediately adjacent to, under, or over

a road for which the Public Works Authority is responsible, then Public Works Authority–
Infrastructure Affairs acceptance of the project aspects impacting the road will be required.
In such cases, the third-party developer shall follow the Geotechnical Certification procedure
to achieve appropriate quality management of the geotechnical risks that could affect the
road.

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2 The Geotechnical Practitioner
2.1 Overview
The appointment of experienced and appropriately qualified geotechnical practitioners to a
project is essential for identification of the ground hazards that could have a major impact on
a project and thereby its cost. This chapter describes the role of geotechnical practitioners
in a project and defines categories for geotechnical personnel relative to their technical
education, professional qualifications, and industry experience.
2.2 General Role of Geotechnical Practitioners

Unlike manufactured construction materials, the properties of soils and rock are the results
of the natural processes that have formed them, and natural or manmade events following
their formation. The replacement of inferior materials is often uneconomical. The designer
of a road project and the contractor undertaking construction are faced with the challenge of
construction on the existing ground and using materials available on or near the project site.
Design and construction of structures and earthworks for road projects require a thorough
understanding of the properties of the locally available soils and rocks that will constitute
the founding stratum and other components of the works. That understanding should be
provided by practitioners in geotechnical engineering or engineering geology as appropriate.
In the subsequent text in this Manual, the general term “geotechnical practitioner” is used to
cover all geotechnical engineering or engineering geology personnel.
Geotechnical practitioners employed on projects must be appropriately qualified with

expertise and experience in geotechnical work for the role they undertake. Defined
requirements for geotechnical practitioners relative to technical education, professional
qualifications, and industry experience are presented in Section 2.3 of this Part.
The role of the geotechnical practitioner in design and construction varies, depending on
the scope of a project. It usually includes the acquisition and interpretation of soil and
rock data for design and construction of the various project elements. Proper execution of
this role requires a thorough understanding of the principles and practices of geotechnical
engineering, subsurface investigation principles and techniques, design procedures,
construction methods, and planned operation of the completed construction, supplemented
with a detailed working knowledge of geology and hydrogeology.
Involving the geotechnical practitioner from the earliest planning stages of a project is
important. Through possible prior knowledge and research of available information, the
geotechnical practitioner can provide important advice to a project team about ground
and groundwater conditions. This can provide advantages for reducing cost and improving
constructability.

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With regard to the project location, alignment, and anticipated structures and earthworks
geometry, the geotechnical practitioner can identify the ground-related hazards and
associated risk to the project and establish requirements for managing and mitigating the
potential adverse effects.
Within the Geotechnical Certification framework described in this document, the geotechnical
practitioner will typically undertake the following work, which should comply with local
health and safety regulations and local environmental regulations where relevant to the
particular aspect of work being carried out:
• Conduct a preliminary sources study covering the compilation of existing data, make a
field reconnaissance, and assess that information to establish the geotechnical hazards
and risks associated with a project. At this stage the geotechnical practitioner should
consider measures to mitigate risk.
• Design and oversee subsurface investigations and associated soils and rock laboratory
testing of samples recovered. As part of the ground investigation works, the geotechnical
practitioner should visually examine the soils and rock in situ and the samples and cores
obtained in the field, so that a good understanding of the materials can be developed.
The geotechnical practitioner should supervise the progress and findings of the ground
investigation to see that both the field and laboratory work are adequate and to
establish the need, if any, for revision. Particular attention should be paid to unusual
or unexpected ground or groundwater conditions encountered to obtain the right level
of information on the conditions found and to allow for the full assessment of hazards.
• Interpret the ground investigation’s results and other available geotechnical data
to provide ground and groundwater models and soils and rock parameters for use in
design. The geotechnical practitioner will be responsible for compiling and evaluating
the data obtained, for defining the subsurface stratification (the ground model) and
groundwater conditions, and for developing appropriate soil and rock design parameters.
The geotechnical practitioner normally presents the results of that work in geotechnical
reports.
• Analyze and design foundations and other geotechnical elements of a road project such
as earthworks and ground improvement measures.
• Oversee construction, monitoring of geotechnical works and verification of geotechnical

designs based on actual conditions found on-site.
• Provide feedback on the conditions encountered during construction and in particular
any significant differences between the actual conditions found and those expected
that required design changes. The geotechnical practitioner should highlight any area
of the specification or standards used that should be reviewed in light of problems
encountered during construction.

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2.3 Geotechnical Practitioners Grades

Geotechnical practitioners employed on projects should be appropriately qualified with
appropriate expertise and experience in geotechnical work for the role they undertake.
Table 2.1 presents geotechnical practitioner grades relative to technical education,
professional qualifications, and industry experience, based on those of the UK Site
Investigation Steering Group (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993), which are to be
adopted on projects.
Table 2.1 Geotechnical Practitioner Grades
Geotechnical Advisor
Practice
Experience
Increasing levels of:

Geotechnical Specialist
Geotechnical Professional (alternative titles often used Professional

are Geotechnical Engineer or Engineering Geologist) Qualifications
Graduate or Assistant Geotechnical Engineer or Academic

Engineering Geologist Qualifications
Geotechnician
Source: Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation Ground is a Hazard (Site
Investigation Steering Group, 1993)
Table A.1 in Appendix A provides a full definition of each category of geotechnical practitioner.
Figure A.1 in Appendix A presents the routes of development of geotechnical practitioners
and to becoming a Geotechnical Advisor.

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3 Management of Geotechnical
Risk
3.1 Overview
Ground-related problems can adversely affect projects with regard to completion times,
profitability and cost-benefit, health and safety, and quality and fitness for purpose, and
they can lead to environmental damage and result in a significant increase in project costs
(Tyrrell et al., 1983; Institution of Civil Engineers [ICE], 1991; Site Investigation Steering
Group, 1993). Thorough identification of geotechnical hazards on projects and appropriate
management of risks related to those hazards help to minimize such adverse impact. The
process of Geotechnical Certification has been developed by the Scottish Development
Department (1989) and the UK Highways Agency (UK Department for Transport, 2008).
The process of Geotechnical Certification set out in this Part is based on Design Manual for
Roads and Bridges (UK Department for Transport, 2008), and identifies the ground-related
hazards and their associated risks and appropriate management of those risks throughout
the lifetime of a project to mitigate potential adverse effects.
Geotechnical Certification accomplishes the following:
• Sees that an appropriate and targeted geotechnical investigation is undertaken
• Enables optimized design
• Reduces risk of program delays as a result of unforeseen ground conditions
• Reduces the risk to contractors of unforeseen ground conditions and hence can be
expected to provide for lower cost tenders
• Provides a formalized and managed approach to geotechnical investigation and design

with acceptance at key stages along the way
As part of the Geotechnical Certification process, a project is initially categorized based on

consideration of project complexity, proposed geotechnical works, presence of geohazards,
and the severity of the geotechnical risk. The geotechnical risks are then proactively
managed through a process with four key stages.
Geotechnical Certification applies to projects for new roads, improvement projects, and also
to third-party developments affecting the road network, such as Metro railway development,
drainage projects, or new services passing under a road.

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3.2 Definitions and Abbreviations

3.2.1 Organizations, Roles, and Responsibilities
The organizations and their roles under Geotechnical Certification are summarized below
together with the responsibilities associated with the named roles:
• Overseeing Organization: The authority requiring the implementation of the

geotechnical risk management procedure set out in this Manual.
• Designer: The organization employed to carry out the design work for a project.
• Geotechnical Advisor (GA): The geotechnical practitioner with the experience and
qualifications as set out in Appendix A. GAs on projects may include:
−− The Overseeing Organization’s GA, the lead professional—an internal staff member
or perhaps an external consultant—overseeing the geotechnical aspects of a
project.
−− The designer’s Geotechnical Advisor (DGA), the lead professional overseeing and
ultimately responsible for the planning, interpretation, and design of geotechnical
aspects of a project. The person who also oversees and assumes ultimate
responsibility for the verification of the construction of the geotechnical aspects of
a project. Depending on how a project develops and the procurement route adopted
for construction, the person undertaking the DGA role may change through the life
of a project. At various times the DGA may be from a consultant working under a
direct appointment to the Overseeing Organization or working on behalf of the
contractor appointed to build a project by the Overseeing Organization.
3.2.2 Key Terms

The following terms are used to describe the procedure for managing geotechnical risk:
• Geotechnical engineering: The application of sciences of soils and rock mechanics and
engineering geology in projects, which typically involve the construction of roads and
related structures (bridges, tunnels, etc.).
• Geotechnical hazard: Unfavorable ground or groundwater conditions or both that may

pose a risk to construction and to the design life of a structure.
• Geotechnical risk: The risk to the project in construction or its operation created by the
geotechnical hazard.
• Geotechnical asset: A principal element of the road network, such as cuttings,

embankments, structure foundations, and road pavement foundation.
• Geotechnical works: Include without limitation:
−− The scoping, executing, managing, or reporting (factual and interpretative) of

ground investigation works

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−− The design, construction, and maintenance of cuttings (in soil and rock),
embankments, strengthened earthworks (reinforced soil and soil nailing) and
associated drainage, ground anchorages, earth retaining structures, structural
foundations (including strip, spread, raft, and piled foundations), excavations, dams
and levees, tunnels, underground structures, and service ducts
−− The design and implementation of grouting and ground improvement measures

such as preloading or surcharging with or without sand/band drains, vibro-
replacement, vibro-concrete columns, dynamic compaction, soil mixing, or lime or
cement stabilization
−− The design, construction, and maintenance of cofferdams and caissons
−− The assessment of road pavement and rail subbase and excavation or assessment
or both, below subbase level
−− Seepage analyses and design of groundwater control measures
−− Geohazards (including soil and rock slope stability, landslides and surface instability
resulting from undermining as a result of natural and anthropogenic activity),
investigation, assessment, management, and design of mitigation or remediation
measures
−− Geoenvironmental investigation and assessment of ground and groundwater at a

site, risks posed, and design of mitigation or remediation measures, or both
−− Use of trenchless technology
−− Seismic hazard assessment
• Geotechnical review certification
3.3 Geotechnical Categories

At commencement, the project shall be assigned to one of four geotechnical categories. The
assigned category then dictates the action to be taken by the DGA. The most severe aspect
of a project determines the project geotechnical category. The geotechnical category of the
project shall be agreed on between the Overseeing Organization GA and the DGA at project
commencement. For all projects, the DGA shall complete the Geotechnical Works Checklist
(included in Appendix B) and issue it to the Overseeing Organization GA for agreement of
the project geotechnical category.
The geotechnical category of the project shall be reviewed throughout the project life. If
the scope of a project changes or is considered to have changed based on information that
becomes available, the geotechnical category should be reassessed. The DGA then shall
submit an updated Geotechnical Works Checklist to the Overseeing Organization GA for
agreement.

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The geotechnical categories of projects are defined as follows, based on guidance given in
British Standard BS EN 1997-1 (BS EN 1997-1:2004):
• Geotechnical Category 0: Projects that do not have any geotechnical works. For projects
assigned this category, no further action is required regarding Geotechnical Certification
unless the scope of the project changes. An example would be a highway resurfacing
project that only replaces the wearing course layer.
• Geotechnical Category 1: Projects that include only small and relatively simple
structures or earthworks for which it is possible to satisfy the fundamental requirements
based on experience and qualitative assessment. There should be negligible risk in terms
of overall instability, ground movements, and in terms of the ground conditions, which
should be known from comparable local experience to be sufficiently straightforward.
There should be no excavation below the water table unless comparable local experience
indicates that a proposed excavation below the water table will be straightforward.
An example would be the design and construction of a low-height embankment with
1 vertical to 4 horizontal (1V:4H) side slopes above the groundwater table.
• Geotechnical Category 2: Projects that include conventional types of geotechnical

structures, earthworks, or other geotechnical works, with no exceptional geotechnical
risk, unusual or difficult ground conditions, or loading conditions. For Geotechnical
Category 2 projects, ground investigation fieldwork and laboratory testing should be
by routine methods and design work should normally include quantitative geotechnical
data and analysis. Most of the geotechnical work associated with roads can be expected
to fall into this category.
• Geotechnical Category 3: Projects that involve structures, earthworks, or other

geotechnical works that fall outside the limits of Geotechnical Categories 1 and 2. These
include very large, unusual, or complex earthworks, structures, or other geotechnical
works; involve unusual or exceptionally difficult ground conditions; or have abnormal
geotechnical risks. Examples of Geotechnical Category 3 projects are the development
of a major road over weak ground (for example, sabkha) or the development of a road or
interchange over ground that may contain cavities.
Figure 3.1 is a flow chart for the assessment of the geotechnical category of a project.

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Figure 3.1 Assessment of the Geotechnical Category of a Project
3.4 Geotechnical Certification Key Stages

The Geotechnical Certification procedure comprises four key stages summarized here and in
Table 3.1 and described in detail in Chapters 4 through 7 in this Part:
• Key Stage 1: Initial Project Review. This includes initial determination of the project
geotechnical category, preparation of an initial Geotechnical Risk Register, and the scope

16
of the studies required to manage those risks. The results of this work are presented in
a Geotechnical Works Checklist and in a Statement of Intent for projects of Geotechnical
Category 1, 2, or 3.
• Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment. This stage has up to four sub-stages depending
on the project, its risks, and its geotechnical classification:
−− Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Sources Study. This includes a review of available

geotechnical information relevant to the project area and a site reconnaissance to
update and further develop the project Geotechnical Risk Register. The results of
this work are presented in a Preliminary Sources Study Report.
−− Sub-stage 2B: Ground Investigation Proposals. This is the design of the ground
investigation required to establish the ground and groundwater conditions
and provide information that will facilitate the management of the identified
geotechnical risks. The results of this work are presented in a Ground Investigation
Proposals Report.
−− Sub-stage 2C: Ground Investigation. This includes the execution of the ground
investigation and its supervision. The results of the ground investigation are
presented in a Ground Investigation Factual Report or a Geophysical Survey Report
or both, as appropriate to the investigations undertaken.
−− Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical Interpretation. This involves interpretation of available

historic and published data, combined with the ground investigation results in
the context of the proposed development to establish engineering proposals
for appropriately managing the geotechnical risks. The results of this work are
presented in a Geotechnical Interpretative Report.
• Key Stage 3: Geotechnical Design. This stage is the design of the geotechnical works,
including drawings and specification as necessary, with a summary presentation of the
design approach and demonstration of how the geotechnical risks have been addressed.
The results of this work are presented in a Geotechnical Design Report.
• Key Stage 4: Geotechnical Observations and Feedback. This stage includes the
monitoring of the construction of geotechnical works and associated design verification
together with recommendations for any geotechnical post-construction design
verification monitoring. The results of this work are summarized in a Geotechnical
Observations and Feedback Report.

Table 3.1 Summary of Geotechnical Certification Process
Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment
Key Stage 4:
Key Stage 3:
Key Stage 1: Sub-stage 2B: Sub-stage 2C: Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical
Key Stages Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Geotechnical
Initial Project Review Ground Ground Geotechnical Observations and
Sources Study Design
Investigation Investigation Interpretation Feedback
Proposals
Purpose To assess the project To review available To define To establish To interpret the Design of the To present
Geotechnical Category. information about the site the scope of the ground and available historic and geotechnical works the results of
Initial identification of to establish an initial ground the ground groundwater published data together with summary monitoring and
the likely geotechnical models and soils/rock investigation conditions with the ground presentation of the site observations
risks and the scope of engineering properties to required to and provide investigation results design approach made to verify
the studies required to inform preliminary design. manage the information that in the context of the and demonstration geotechnical design
manage those risks. To establish the project geotechnical will facilitate the proposed development. of how the during construction
geotechnical risks and risk. management of Establish engineering geotechnical risks to the client for its
mitigation measures the geotechnical proposals to have been managed. records and for use
needed including ground risk. appropriately manage on future projects.
investigation, if required. the geotechnical risk.
Input Project complexity. Available site information Knowledge Ground Historical and published Ground Investigation All previous
(All Site ground and such as published geological from the investigation data from Preliminary Factual Report geotechnical
available groundwater complexity. records, previous exploratory Initial Project works. Sources Study. Geotechnical reports.
information hole and other historical Review and Supervision Ground Investigation Interpretative Construction
should be records, photographs and the Preliminary of ground Factual Report. Report. records, monitoring
considered, imagery. Sources Study. investigation Scope of the proposed Geotechnical and geotechnical
selected Site reconnaissance. works. project. design details observation records.
key sources and construction
are listed) requirements.
Geotechnical Risk
Register.
Output • Geotechnical Works • Preliminary Sources • Ground • Ground • Geotechnical • Design drawings • Geotechnical
Checklist giving Study Report including Investigation Investigation Interpretative Report and specification Observations
project Geotechnical updated Geotechnical Proposals Factual including updated of geotechnical and Feedback
Category Risk Register (separate Report & Report or Geotechnical Risk works. Report
• Statement of Intent report not required for • Geotechnical Geophysical Register • Geotechnical • Geotechnical
with Geotechnical Risk Geotechnical Category 1 Certificate Survey • Geotechnical Design Report Certificate
Register (Geotechnical projects) Report, or Certificate. • Geotechnical
Category 1, 2 and 3 • Geotechnical Certificate both Certificate.
projects)
• Geotechnical
GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT
Certificate

Note:
Iteration of Geotechnical Certification, particularly across Key Stage 2 may occur until all phases of ground investigation and associated interpretation have been completed and all
16
PART
options have been assessed before going to detail design.
13
16
Iteration may occur, particularly in Key Stage 2, until all phases of ground investigation (refer
to Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of
this Manual) and associated interpretation have been completed and all options have been
assessed before starting the detailed design.
Figure 3.2 is a flow chart for the Geotechnical Certification procedure.
Figure 3.2 Geotechnical Certification Flow Chart
All geotechnical reports produced under the aegis of Geotechnical Certification are intended
to be open documents and available to all parties throughout the design, tender, and
construction phases of the project.
One hard copy and one electronic copy in Adobe Acrobat “pdf” format of the final versions of
all reports produced for a project will be provided to the Overseeing Organization.
Factual ground investigation data shall be submitted in Association of Geotechnical and

Geoenvironmental Specialists (AGS)-approved electronic data transfer format (AGS, 2005;
AGS, 2011), unless otherwise agreed by the Overseeing Organization.

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3.5 Geotechnical Certificate

A Geotechnical Certificate signed by the DGA shall accompany each document or report
submitted to the Overseeing Organization. A model Geotechnical Certificate is provided
in Appendix C. On receipt of a Geotechnical Certificate and its accompanying submission,
the Overseeing Organization or its representative will respond within the period provided
for in the relevant contract documentation or within any such other time limit agreed
(generally 28 days). The responsibility for the geotechnical design rests with the designer.
Responsibility for geotechnical construction rests with the parties executing and supervising
those works as set out in the relevant contracts. Acceptance by the Overseeing Organization
of the geotechnical submissions made in the course of the Geotechnical Certification process
shall not relieve the submitting parties of their responsibility.
The submissions made to the Overseeing Organization will be reviewed and the Geotechnical
Certificate countersigned by the Overseeing Organization GA and returned to the designer
marked with one of the following:
• Accepted: The submission accompanying the certificate is accepted.
• Accepted with comments: The submission accompanying the certificate is generally

acceptable but requires minor amendments that can be addressed in subsequent
revisions of the documents.
• Not acceptable (returned with comments): The submission accompanying the

certificate is unacceptable and should be revised and resubmitted.

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4 Key Stage 1: Initial Project

Review
4.1 Overview
This chapter sets out the requirements for the initial project review under the Geotechnical
Certification process.
4.2 Initial Project Review

This stage is intended to enable early dialogue to be established between the DGA and the
Overseeing Organization GA.
The initial review of the project by the DGA shall include the completion of a Geotechnical
Works Checklist (Appendix B) as part of the process to establish the geotechnical category of
the project. The most severe aspect of a project determines the category. The Geotechnical
Works Checklist shall be issued to the Overseeing Organization GA for agreement of the
project geotechnical category.
Where a project is assessed to be Geotechnical Category 1, 2, or 3, the known or suspected

geotechnical risks identified from the initial project review shall be presented in a
Geotechnical Risk Register, further details of which are provided in Chapter 8. Those details
together with the proposed scope, purpose, estimated program cost, and estimated cost of
work to complete the geotechnical assessment of the project under Key Stage 2 shall be
presented in a Statement of Intent. The format of the Statement of Intent is provided in
Appendix D. The Statement of Intent is intended to be a brief document; for many projects,
it could be a letter.
A Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C) shall accompany the submission of the Statement of

Intent to the Overseeing Organization GA for their agreement before the DGA proceeds to
Key Stage 2.
The Statement of Intent may form part of any commissioning report that the designer
is required to produce on appointment. However, the Statement of Intent must still be
submitted to the Overseeing Organization GA as part of the certification process.

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5 Key Stage 2: Geotechnical

Assessment
5.1 Overview
This chapter sets out requirements for the geotechnical assessment of a project under the
Geotechnical Certification process.
5.2 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Sources Study

A Preliminary Sources Study shall be completed as a matter of priority after project inception
and shall include a site reconnaissance covering project options. This study is important
because it provides information to the Overseeing Organization to use when assessing the
health and safety hazards and environmental aspects presented by a project, especially as
part of any initial route determination.
For Geotechnical Category 1 projects, the findings of the Preliminary Sources Study shall
normally form part of the Geotechnical Interpretative Report produced under Sub-stage 2D.
For all Geotechnical Category 2 and 3 projects, the findings of the study shall be presented
in a Preliminary Sources Study Report unless the Overseeing Organization agrees that
the details can be included in the Geotechnical Interpretative Report produced under Sub-
stage 2D.
The Preliminary Sources Study Report shall set out the geological, geotechnical,
geomorphological, hydrological, and geoenvironmental or contamination aspects of the
project site, as well as the historical development of the area and its potential impact on
the proposed project. The area under study should not be limited to the specific project
site boundary but should also include review of any ongoing or planned activities in the
surrounding plots which might affect the proposed project or vice versa. Based on this
information, the geotechnical category of the project shall be reviewed and confirmed or
amended as appropriate. Any amendment to the geotechnical category shall be agreed to
by the Overseeing Organization GA. The Preliminary Sources Study Report shall include a
preliminary engineering assessment of the project in relation to ground and groundwater
conditions of the area and other likely hazards to construction. The Preliminary Sources
Study Report shall also include a Geotechnical Risk Register (presented in Chapter 8). The
Geotechnical Risk Register should be an update of the register prepared for the Statement
of Intent. It should identify the risks and consequences to the project of the identified or
anticipated conditions, and should propose action to manage those risks.
The format for the Preliminary Sources Study Report is provided in Appendix E. A Geotechnical
Certificate shall accompany the submission of the Preliminary Sources Study Report to

16
the Overseeing Organization GA for their agreement. Further guidance on undertaking a

Preliminary Sources Study is presented in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigations and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design, of this Manual.
5.3 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2B: Ground Investigation Proposals

When the initial project review and Preliminary Sources Study indicate that ground
investigation is required to provide information on the ground and groundwater conditions at
the site to appropriately manage identified geotechnical risks, the scope and methodology
of that investigation shall be developed by the DGA. The ground investigation proposals
shall cover both geotechnical and geoenvironmental aspects and may include geophysical
survey as required, and shall be presented in a Ground Investigation Proposals Report. The
report shall set out the objectives and emphasize any special problems to be investigated. It
should also identify project-specific aspects regarding health, safety, and the environment
that need to be considered. Details of the field and laboratory work shall be included in the
report, together with anticipated program costs.
The format for the Ground Investigations Proposals Report is provided in Appendix F.
A Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C) shall accompany the submission of the Ground
Investigations Proposals Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for agreement before
the DGA proceeds with the ground investigation.
If further phases of ground investigation are required and undertaken at a later date, an
additional Ground Investigation Proposals Report shall be prepared and submitted.
Information regarding the specification for ground investigation and an example bill of
quantities are provided in Chapter 6 of Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects
of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual.
5.4 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2C: Ground Investigation

The ground investigation fieldwork and laboratory testing shall be overseen by the DGA,
with day-to-day supervision led by a Geotechnical Specialist or Geotechnical Professional or
both, as appropriate to the project. The qualifications and experience required for those roles
are defined in Appendix A. The DGA’s site team shall undertake sample check logging for
verification of the ground investigation company’s exploratory hole records and also inspect
their fieldwork, sample or core storage, and laboratories. A report on the findings shall be
issued to the Overseeing Organization. The reports may take the form of a letter and be used
by the Overseeing Organization in its prequalification assessment of ground investigation
companies for future projects.
On completion of the ground investigation, the ground investigation company shall

present the exploratory hole records, the results of in situ and laboratory tests, and any
monitoring observations in a Ground Investigation Factual Report. The format for the Ground
Investigation Factual Report is provided in Appendix G. The report shall be reviewed by

16
the DGA’s team against its check logging and inspection records, together with applicable
specifications and standards, to confirm whether the required standards have been achieved.
Where a geophysical survey is undertaken, the findings of that work shall be reported in a
Geophysical Survey Report. The format for the Geophysical Survey Report is provided in
Appendix G. The report shall be reviewed by the DGA’s team against other investigations for
the site to assess the validity of interpretation made.
5.5 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical

Interpretative Report
The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall set out the designer’s evaluation of the
geological, geotechnical, geomorphological, hydrological, and geoenvironmental or
contamination conditions at the site, along with any historical development, and will assess
the anticipated impacts on the proposed project. Based on this information, the geotechnical
category of the project shall be reviewed and confirmed or amended as appropriate. Any
amendment to the category shall be agreed to by the Overseeing Organization GA.
The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall include an assessment of the engineering

properties of the soils and rock encountered during the ground investigation. It shall also
present the interpretation of site-wide geotechnical parameters and coefficients for use in
design. Where appropriate, location-specific geotechnical parameters and coefficients for
design of particular structures or earthworks or both might also be derived and presented.
The report will state the assumptions made in the interpretation of the test results and any
known limitations of the results. The report shall also include an engineering assessment
of the project in relation to ground and groundwater conditions of the area and other likely
hazards to construction. The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall include a Geotechnical
Risk Register, updated from that prepared previously as part of the Preliminary Sources
Study Report, or the Statement of Intent when a Preliminary Sources Study Report was not
prepared.
The Geotechnical Risk Register shall identify the risks and consequences to the project of
the identified conditions and shall propose action to manage those risks.
The format for the Geotechnical Interpretative Report is provided in Appendix H. A

Geotechnical Certificate shall accompany and be appended to the Geotechnical Interpretative
Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for their agreement before the DGA proceeds
to Key Stage 3. The calculation sheets shall be carefully prepared to show the evaluation
methods used and shall be appended to the Geotechnical Interpretative Report.

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Design
6.1 Overview
This chapter sets out the requirements for reporting geotechnical design under the
Geotechnical Certification process.
6.2 Geotechnical Design

At the detailed design stage, the designer shall complete a Geotechnical Design Report that
presents in detail the design of the project’s geotechnical elements, making reference to the
ground model and engineering parameters derived in the Geotechnical Interpretative Report
and deriving and justifying location-specific parameters where required. The report shall set
out requirements for geotechnical inspection and monitoring works during and following
construction to assess ground/structure and ground/earthworks performance, and thereby
verify the geotechnical design or identify the need for remedial measures. This might include
further ground investigation work and the installation and monitoring of soils and rock
instrumentation. The report shall demonstrate how the risks identified in the Geotechnical
Risk Register have been managed.
The format for the Geotechnical Design Report is provided in Appendix I. In some
circumstances, and subject to the agreement of the Overseeing Organization GA, the
contents of the report might be incorporated with those of the Geotechnical Interpretative
Report, into a single combined Geotechnical Interpretative and Geotechnical Design Report.
A Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C) shall accompany the submission of the Geotechnical

Design Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for agreement before construction
proceeds. If project amendments are made during design development and construction that
affect the geotechnical design, the Geotechnical Design Report shall be updated by way of a
revision to reflect those changes. Any such revision shall be submitted under cover of a new
Geotechnical Certificate to the Overseeing Organization GA.
The Geotechnical Design Report may be submitted in whole or in part, to suit the design
and construction program as agreed with the Overseeing Organization GA. Sections of
the Geotechnical Design Report shall be submitted 28 days before the programmed start
date of the work covered by the submission. This time limit may be amended by contract
documentation or with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization. No work covered
by the Geotechnical Design Report should be commenced by the contractor before the
Overseeing Organization GA accepts of the Geotechnical Design Report.

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If a need arises for additional ground investigations during the course of a main works contract,
such as for contractor design elements of geotechnical works such as piles, reinforced earth,
soil nails, and ground improvement, or if the design is amended from that contained in the
certified Geotechnical Design Report, then the additional or amended work shall be subject
to Geotechnical Certification.
A Ground Investigations Proposals Report (Appendix F) covering the proposed work,

together with a Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C), shall be submitted by the DGA to the
Overseeing Organization GA before additional ground investigation is performed. Following
the completion of the investigation and any design work, the Geotechnical Design Report shall
be updated to include the additional work and any amendment to the design, and submitted
under cover of a Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C) to the Overseeing Organization GA.
In the Geotechnical Design Report, typed calculation sheets where necessary showing the
evaluation methods used, should be appended.

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Observations and Feedback
7.1 Overview
This chapter sets out the requirements under the Geotechnical Certification process for
capturing information related to actual ground and groundwater conditions encountered
during construction and verification of geotechnical designs. The chapter also presents
the requirements for reporting on information collected so that lessons may be learned for
future projects.
7.2 Geotechnical Observations and Feedback

Throughout the construction of geotechnical works and any geotechnical post-construction
design verification monitoring and assessment, the DGA’s site supervision staff shall keep
records that shall be compiled and summarized in a Geotechnical Observations and Feedback
Report. The Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report should be ongoing throughout
construction and shall be submitted to the Overseeing Organization GA within 6 months of
project completion, along with a Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C).
During the course of the construction, the DGA’s site supervision team should verify the
actual ground and groundwater conditions encountered against the interpreted ground
model used in geotechnical design. The conditions encountered should be recorded.
Significant differences between the actual conditions found and those expected that
require design changes shall be reported without delay to the Overseeing Organization GA.
Any such geotechnical problems and their solutions shall be recorded in the Geotechnical
The DGA’s site supervision staff shall review the materials used in the geotechnical works
for compliance with the design and specification. The compiled, summarized records shall be
presented in the Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report.
The Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report shall emphasize parts of the specification
or standards used that require review given problems encountered on-site. It shall also
address requirements for ongoing monitoring or abnormal maintenance requirements.
The format for the Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report is provided in Appendix J.

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8 Geotechnical Risk Register and

Risk Assessment
8.1 Overview
A Geotechnical Risk Register is a tool for documenting perceived geotechnical risks and their
potential impact to a project. It also provides a means of recording the action that needs to be
taken to appropriately manage those risks and determine who is responsible for that action.
A Geotechnical Risk Register can be a straightforward document and a powerful means of
communicating risk and sharing information among the various organizations involved in
a project or within the same organization. The principles for preparing a Geotechnical Risk
Register and carrying out a geotechnical risk assessment are presented in this chapter.
8.2 Geotechnical Risk Register

8.2.1 Introduction
The preparation of a Geotechnical Risk Register consists of the following basic steps:
• Consider the geotechnical hazards known to exist or that may exist at the site.
• Identify the types of construction that the project will likely involve.
• Establish the nature of the risks that could be associated with the combination of the
ground conditions and the possible forms of construction.
• Scale or categorize the likelihood and consequence of the hazard to establish the
risk rating; for example, in terms of increase in cost or construction time. This is often
referred to as the risk analysis and is described in Clause 8.2.2 in this Part.
• On the basis of the risk rating, identify how and when (project stage) each risk can best
be managed and by whom.
The Geotechnical Risk Register should be reviewed at regular intervals with new risks added
and a record made of action taken.
Information on the soils and rocks in Qatar and some of the typical undesirable consequences
that they can cause can be found in Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of
Geotechnical Design Guide, of this Manual.
The strategy for responding to geotechnical risks should occur in the following order:
1. Avoid the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge with spread foundations on loose
sands, move the road alignment so that the bridge is founded on dense sand deposits.

16
2. If unavoidable, transfer the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge with spread
foundations on loose sands, adopt pile foundations founding on bedrock.
3. If nontransferable, mitigate the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge with spread
foundations on loose sands, undertake ground treatment to improve the density of the
in situ soils.
4. If unable to mitigate, accept and manage the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge
abutment with pile foundations and an approach embankment on loose sands, accept
any ongoing differential settlement between the embankment and the bridge abutment
and undertake more frequent resurfacing works to make up levels.
Following this strategy, the geotechnical practitioner should establish the mitigation action
required against each of the identified hazards and enter the details in the Geotechnical Risk
Register.
8.2.2 Example Project

Following is a list of potential geotechnical hazards that might be identified for a road project
in Qatar:
• Loose sands
• High salt content soils
• Dissolution features
Whether the hazards translate into a risk will depend on such factors as these:
• Locations of earthworks or structures

• Type and depth of foundations
• Sensitivity of the earthwork or structure to settlement and differential movement
• Type of concrete used for foundations
A spread foundation for a bridge abutment might be considered risky if the founding soil is
loose sand, because the imposed bridge loading could cause unacceptably large settlement
of the sand. Figure 8.1 shows how the consequence—in this case, structural damage to the
bridge—depends on a number of factors including the project component, environment, and
nature of the undesirable event. Attention to some or all of the factors linking the hazard to
the consequence can reduce the risk. For example, by taking the bridge loads to underlying
bedrock using pile foundations, the loading and resulting settlement of the loose sand is
avoided.

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Figure 8.1 Example Assessment of an Identified Hazard
8.3 Risk Assessment

The risk assessment can take the form of a quantitative assessment if appropriate data
are available, but adoption of a qualitative approach is more common. Examples of risk
scoring and risk matrix approaches to qualitative risk assessment are given in Managing
Geotechnical Risk (Institution of Civil Engineers, 2001) and Landslide Risk Assessment (Lee
and Jones, 2004).
Under the qualitative risk assessment, the identified project risks are classified according
to their severity by assigning a risk rating based on the risk’s likelihood of occurring and its
potential impact (otherwise referred to as consequence) on the project.
Table 8.1 defines the level of likelihood (from A to E). Table 8.2 presents the criteria used to
assign the level of consequence (from 1 to 5).
Table 8.1 Likelihood Criteria
Level of Risk
Likelihood Guidance
A Rare: less than 5% probability, or occurrence requires exceptional circumstances.
B Unlikely: 5% to 20% probability, or may occur but is not expected to.
C Possible: 20% to 70% probability, or may occur but a distinct probability it may not.
D Likely: greater than 70% probability or balance of probability it will occur.
E Almost certain: 99% probability.

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Table 8.2 Consequence Criteria
Level of Risk
Consequence Guidance
Negligible impact on project construction with no delays to the program and no
1
effect on the performance of the completed earthworks or structures.
Low adverse impact on project construction with minimal delays to the program and
2 minimal associated increased costs, and no significant effect on the performance of
the completed earthworks or structures.
Medium adverse impact on project construction with some delays to the program
3 and some associated increased costs, or possibly some performance of the
completed earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits, or both.
High adverse impact on project construction with substantial delays to the program
4 and substantial associated increased costs, or performance of the completed
earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits, or both.
Major adverse impact on project construction with extensive delays to the program
5 and high associated increased costs, or failure of the permanent earthworks or
structures, or both.
The risk rating is generated as a function of the likelihood and the consequence according
to the risk-rating matrix in Table 8.3. Table 8.4 presents indicative risk-rating implications.
Table 8.3 Risk-Rating Matrix
Consequence
Likelihood 1 2 3 4 5
A I I II III III
B I II II III IV
C II II III IV IV
D II III III IV IV
E III III IV IV IV
Table 8.4 Indicative Risk-Rating Implications
Risk Rating Indicative Risk Rating Implications
I Negligible Risk is usually accepted.
Consider need for investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard to

II Low facilitate geotechnical design. It may be that the risk is accepted subject to its
monitoring and management.
Detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard required to

III Medium develop geotechnical works proposals and geotechnical design to reduce risk to
acceptable levels.
Extensive detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard

IV High essential to develop geotechnical works proposals and geotechnical design to
reduce risk to acceptable levels.

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If the geotechnical practitioner identifies significant geotechnical risks that would normally
result in a risk rating of III (Medium) or IV (High), the information on those risks should be
passed to the Overseeing Organization’s project owner so that appropriate provision for the
risks may be made in the overarching project risk register.
8.4 Further Information and Geotechnical Risk Register

Template
Further information on geotechnical risk registers and risk analysis can be found in Managing
Geotechnical Risk (Institution of Civil Engineers, 2001). A geotechnical risk register template
that lists the most common geotechnical hazards in Qatar is provided in Appendix K. An
electronic copy of the template is available from the Overseeing Organization
Volume 2, Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this
Manual provides information on the main soils and bedrock strata units encountered in Qatar
and the typical geotechnical hazards and risks they present.

16

16
References

and Geoenvironmental Data. 3.1 edition. Kent, England. 2005.

and Geoenvironmental Data. AGS4 Addendum 3. Kent, England. October 2011.


Standard Penetration Test. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2005.
Department for Transport. “Managing Geotechnical Risk.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 4
Section 1, Part 2. HD 22/08. UK Highways Agency: London, England. 2008.
Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). Inadequate Site Investigation. Thomas Telford: London, England. 1991.
Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). Managing Geotechnical Risk—Improving Productivity in UK Building and
Construction. Thomas Telford Ltd.: London, England. 2001.
Lee, E. M. and D. K. C. Jones. Landslide Risk Assessment. Thomas TelfordLtd.: London, England. 2004.
Scottish Development Department. Geotechnical Certification Procedures: Trunk Road Ground

Investigations. Technical Memorandum SH4/89. Road Directorate: Edinburgh, Scotland 1989.
Site Investigation Steering Group. Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation
Ground is a Hazard. Thomas Telford Ltd.: London, England. 1993.
Tyrrell, A. P., L. M. Lake, and A. W. Parsons. An Investigation of the Extra Costs Arising on Highway
Contracts. Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) Supplementary Report 814. Transport
Research Laboratory: Berkshire, England. 1983.

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16

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Appendix A
Geotechnical Practitioner
Grades and their Definition,
and Routes to Becoming a
Geotechnical Advisor

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Table A.1 Geotechnical Practitioner Grades and Their Definitions
Title Definition
Geotechnical Advisor A Geotechnical Advisor will generally be a geotechnical engineer or an engineering
geologist and have at least 5 years of practice as a Geotechnical Specialist. This individual,
who may be a named person in an organization, advises the client or professional technical
advisor of the geotechnical requirements of the project and oversees the procurement and
interpretation of the necessary information and its validation during construction.
Geotechnical Specialist A Geotechnical Specialist will generally be a geotechnical engineer or an engineering

geologist. A Geotechnical Specialist should preferably have a masters/doctorate level degree
with ground engineering core subjects, a professional qualification (by examination) and at
least 3 years practice in ground engineering post-professional qualification.
A graduate with general experience requires five years of post-professional qualification
practice in ground engineering to compensate for a lack of formal education and training in
ground engineering.
Nongraduate routes require greater years practice in ground engineering as shown in
Figure A.1to compensate for a lack of formal education and training in ground engineering.
Geotechnical Professional A Geotechnical Professional will generally be a geotechnical engineer or an engineering

(Geotechnical Engineer/ geologist, recognizing the different but complementary roles they can impart through
Engineering Geologist) their knowledge and the skills. A Geotechnical Professional should preferably have a
masters or doctorate level degree with ground engineering core subjects and a professional
qualification (by examination). Nongraduate and nonprofessional qualification routes require
greater years practice in ground engineering as shown in Figure A.1 to compensate for a
lack of formal education and training in ground engineering.
Graduate/Assistant A graduate/assistant geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist will have a relevant

Geotechnical Engineer or degree in civil engineering, engineering geology or geology as appropriate.
Engineering Geologist
Geotechnician An individual with specific training and experience in the use of specialist equipment and
procedures for sampling, testing and monitoring.
Source: based on Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation Ground is a Hazard (Site
Investigation Steering Group, 1993)

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PART
Geotechnical Advisor a Academic Qualification
At Least 5 years practice as a Professional Qualification

Practice Experience
a
At least 3 years post-professional qualificationb At least 5 years of

At least 5 years of post-professional
post-Professional practice in ground engineering
qualification b practice in
Qualification b practice in ground engineering
ground engineering Geotechnical Professional a

Obtain Professional Obtain Professional Obtain Professional Obtain Professional
Qualification b Qualification b Qualificationb Qualification b
GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT
At least 3 years At least 3 years post- At least 1 year

post-graduate practice graduate practice in ground post-graduate practice in At least 5 years At least 15 years At least 25 years
engineering c ground engineering c post-graduate practice in practice in ground practice in ground
ground engineering c engineering engineering
Masters level degree (typically 1 year course)

Masters level degree (typically 4year
or Doctorate level degree in geothechnical
course) in engineering or geology d
engineering or engineering geology d
Honors level degree in engineering School

or geology e
Notes
a. Operation at the stated level subject to evidence of competence to operate at that level.
b. Professional Qualification (by assessment of academic qualification(s), practice experience and competency) with International recognition conferring titles such as Chartered Civil
Engineer, Chartered Geologist or Professional Engineer.
c. Prior to attaining a Professional Qualification prefix terms such as Graduate or Assistant, Ground Engineer, Geotechnical Engineer or Engineering Geologist may be appropriate.
d. MSc/MEng/MRes courses with core subjects including geology, hydrogeology, rock mechanics, soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
e. Courses including BSc/ BEng Civil Engineering, BSc Geology, BSc Engineering Geology.
Source: based on Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation Ground is a Hazard (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993)
Figure A.1 Routes to Becoming a Geotechnical Advisor

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Appendix B
Geotechnical Works
Checklist

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Geotechnical Works Check List
Consultant's logo to be placed here Contractor's logo to be placed here
Project:
Date: Prepared by: Geotechnical Advisor
Tick the box adjacent to the item if the element is expected to be included in works
Bridges and tunnels
New bridge and foundations Modification to existing bridge and
New tunnel foundations Modification to existing tunnel
Retaining walls
Gravity retaining walls Cantilever retaining walls Reinforced earth retaining walls
Embedded/sheet pile retaining walls Gabion basket or crib walls/structures Other retaining walls
Gantries, signs, lighting, cameras
Advance directional signs Informational matrix signs
Road lighting CCTV/traffic cameras
Earthworks and slopes
Embankment construction Existing embankment modification Cutting construction (in soils)
Existing cutting (in soils) modification Rock cutting Rock slope modification or reinforcement
Rock fall protection measures Existing landslide
Carriageway Works
Excavation above sub-base level Excavation below sub-base level
Strengthened Earthworks
Soil nailed slopes Other reinforced soil slopes
Load transfer platforms Ground anchorages
Safety fencing and environmental barriers
Safety fencing (any type) Earth bunds Noise fences
Culverts, ducting, trenching and non-destructive road crossings
Culverts Ducting
Use of trenching techniques Use of non-destructive crossing techniques
Buried tanks and storage
Pollution control devices (e.g petrol interceptors) Fuel tanks
Temporary Works
Groundwater control or dewatering Temporary bridges Scaffold structures support or access
Haul roads and piling platforms Propping systems Excavations (>0.5m deep)
Other design or construction activity
Other design or construction activity. Give details below.
Geotechnical Advisor's comments and recommendations:
Geotechnical category assigned 0 1 2 3
Is Geotechnical Certification required? Yes No

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Appendix C
Geotechnical Certificate

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Geotechnical Certificate
Project
Contract No. Date
Consultant
Contractor Geotechnical Advisor
GEOTECHNICAL CERTIFICATE
Certificate sequence number:
(* Delete as appropriate)
1 Introduction
We certify that the Geotechnical Reports*, Geotechnical Design Data*, Geotechnical Drawings* or Geotechnical Documents*
for the Geotechnical Activities listed in section 2 below have been prepared by us with reasonable professional skill, care and
diligence, and that in our opinion:
i constitute an adequate and economic geotechnical design for the project
ii solutions to all the reasonably foreseeable geotechnical risks have been incorporated
iii the work intended is accurately represented and conforms to the Employer's*/Client's* requirements
iv with the exception of any item listed below or appended overleaf, the documentation has been prepared in accordance
with the relevant standards from the Qatar Highway Design Manual
where the certificate is accompanying revision to design data already certified the following statement shall also be included:
v* *The design elements covered by this certificate are not detrimental to the design elements previously certified and not
amended by this certificate
2 List of Geotechnical Reports, Geotechnical Design Data, Geotechnical Drawing or Geotechnical Documents
3 Departures from Standards

List of any departures from relevant standards, if none write ‘none’
4* Incorporation of Geotechnical Data into construction details

*where the certificate is accompanying final design data the following statement shall also be included:
*The Geotechnical Reports, Geotechnical Design Data Drawings or Geotechnical Documents listed in Section 2 above
have been accurately translated onto the construction drawings or other design documents bearing the unique numbers
listed below/appended overleaf.
PAGE 1 OF 2

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Geotechnical Certificate
Project
Contract No. Date
Consultant
Contractor Geotechnical Advisor
GEOTECHNICAL CERTIFICATE
Certificate sequence number:
Signed: *Signed:
Designer (Designer’s Geotechnical Advisor) *Contractor (Agent or Contracts Director)
Name: *Name:
Date: *Date:
On behalf of: *On behalf of:
This Certificate is:
Accepted: The submission accompanying the Certificate is accepted
Accepted with comments: The submission accompanying the Certificate is generally acceptable but requires minor
amendments that can be addressed in subsequent revisions of the document
Not acceptable (returned with comments): The submission accompanying the Certificate is unacceptable and should be
revised and resubmitted.
Signed:
Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor
Name:
Date:
PAGE 2 OF 2

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Appendix D
Statement of Intent

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Format of Statement of Intent
Table D.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Statement of Intent. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate with
the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA). Unused headings shall not be
deleted but shall be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The Statement of Intent shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft copy of the
report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table D.1 Statement of Intent Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section No. Heading Topics to be Described under Section Heading

TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of the authorship, and the version
number of the report. The version number and date of the report
should be clearly placed on every page of the report. The contents of all
volumes should be listed in the front of each volume with the contents
of the particular volume highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers
should be included within or attached to the report.
1 PROJECT Project title and details of project, key plan.
2 OBJECTIVES Objectives of the project and the proposed geotechnical studies.
3 EXISTING INFORMATION Summary of existing information that has been identified to date.
4 GEOTECHNICAL RISK Preliminary summary of the geotechnical risks envisaged based on an

understanding of the project objectives and the available information.
An initial Geotechnical Risk Register.
5 PROPOSED STUDIES AND Outline of the proposed studies and investigations that are to be
INVESTIGATIONS undertaken to appropriately manage the geotechnical risks and achieve
Geotechnical Certification.
6 SPECIALIST CONSULTATION Details of any consultations required with reasons.
7 PROGRAM An initial estimate of program of work involved in undertaking the

anticipated studies and reports to the end of Key Stage 2—Geotechnical
Assessment, which could include:
Preliminary sources study and Preliminary Sources Study Report
where appropriate
Ground Investigations Proposals Report
Ground investigation works and associated factual reporting
Geotechnical Interpretative Report.
Each stage may well influence the work required in later stages and
therefore the program will need to be kept under review and advised to
the Overseeing Organization regularly in separate documentation.

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Appendix E
Preliminary Sources Study
Report

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Format of Preliminary Sources Study Report
Table E.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the Preliminary
Sources Study Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate with
The Preliminary Sources Study Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft
copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All drawings shall be in
.DXF files.
Table E.1 Preliminary Sources Study Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
No. Heading Notes on Topics to be Described under Section Heading
TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number of
CONTENTS the report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed
on every page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the
front of each volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No
company-specific disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Project title and details of project, key plan.
2 INTRODUCTION
2.1 Project title Provide details.
2.2 Description of project Provide specific description.
2.3 Scope and objectives of Provide specific description.

the report
2.4 Location and extent of This should be supported by a project location plan.
the study area
3 SOURCES OF Under separate headings as appropriate, summarize the enquiries made and the
INFORMATION sources used for gathering geotechnical, historical and other general information
relevant to the project area. Nil or negative responses should also be reported.
The details of all enquiries are to be described in later sections of the report.
4 INVESTIGATIONS AND
STUDIES
4.1 Previous ground Summaries the scope of previous ground investigations and studies in or
investigations and immediately adjoining the project area. Previous exploratory hole locations should
geotechnical studies be shown on a general plan of the site.
4.2 on Titles as appropriate Under separate headings as appropriate, describe any field activities
undertaken for the preliminary sources study such as a site reconnaissance,
geomorphological/geological mapping, preliminary ground investigations or
geophysical surveys, hydrological studies, topographical or photographic surveys.
5 SITE CONDITIONS General note: Under the section headings below, describe and assess the
particular topic based on the available information. The available data should be
summarized and presented on a series of plans and sections as appropriate in
support of the report text for ease of reference and understanding.

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Section
5.1 Site description This section should normally be supported by a general plan showing site
features and site photographs of important points of interest.
5.2 Geology Known or anticipated solid geology (bedrock), geological structure and soils,
including made ground. The soils and rocks at the site should be classified into
appropriate groups for discussion of their properties in Section 6.
5.3 Hydrology and Provide specific description.

hydrogeology
5.4 Historical development Chronological description of past historical use and development at the site as
and manmade features identified from historical editions of maps, aerial photographs, as-built records and
other pertinent sources of information. The section should include the details of
services at the site.
5.5 Geoenvironmental and Provide specific description.

possible contamination
issues
5.6 Other environmental Provide specific description.

considerations
6 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
6.1 on Titles as appropriate Under separate headings for the identified soils and rock groups known or
expected at the site describe their composition and provide a preliminary
assessment of the engineering properties appropriate for use in preliminary
design work together with a summary tables of the values.
7 PRELIMINARY General note: Under separate headings as appropriate, make a preliminary

ENGINEERING assessment of the anticipated impact of the known or expected ground and
ASSESSMENT groundwater conditions, materials properties and historical development and
services on the design and construction of all project options. This should include
consideration of structures and earthworks locations, earthworks acceptability
criteria, groundwater, likely difficulties and problems, areas/features to be
avoided. Section headings will typically include those listed below.
7.1 Soils and rock For each soil and rock group as defined in Section 5.2 of the report.
7.2 Cuttings Side slopes (short- and long-term), potential acceptability of materials for reuse,
merits of special drainage or ground treatment, swelling problems.
7.3 Embankments Side slopes, characteristics and restrictions on use of particular soils, plant use
options, drainage requirements, founding stratum treatment.
7.4 Subgrade Likely California bearing ratio values for cutting areas and for potential fill
materials in embankments, capping layers and availability of material, drainage
requirements.
7.5 Structure foundations Alternative types of foundation likely to be applicable, estimates of bearing
pressures and settlements, groundwater, problem areas/strata, potential
construction difficulties.
7.6 Soil chemistry/ Known or expected soil and groundwater chemistry with regard to aggressive
contaminated land ground and concrete durability. Possibility of harmful elements present in soil or
groundwater and implications of these on health and safety. Scope for the reuse
of marginal/recycled material within the works.

16
Section
7.5 Existing geotechnical For example slope failures, slopes with marginal factors of safety, solution
problems features, underground voids, very soft/highly compressible soils.
7.6 Historical development Effects of manmade obstacles/site history.
7.7 Utility services Impact of existing or planned utility services.
8 GEOTECHNICAL RISK
8.1 Geotechnical category of Review of the geotechnical category of the project based on the study findings.
project
8.2 Seismic category of Provide specific description.

project
8.3 Geotechnical risk register An updated Geotechnical Risk Register, in which the risks of the identified
hazards are assessed, the consequences of those risks to the project determined,
and details of how the risks are to be managed given. This should take account of
all geotechnical, geo-environmental, historical, and other factors discovered which
are likely to influence the project, such as routes, alignment, health and safety
or buildability. A statement of the preferred routes/options (on geotechnical
grounds) should be given if appropriate.
9 CITED REFERENCES Provide details.

AND OTHER
REFERENCES
— PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs both ground and air obtained for the study should be reproduced
and referenced to the site plan.
— DRAWINGS Drawings typically including:

Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible use of
satellite imagery where appropriate.
Project Plan, usually 1:10,000 scale or possible use of satellite imagery where
appropriate. Include where appropriate with study limits and project options.
This information may be included on the General Plan instead.
General Plan, scale and number of drawings to suit the project. Showing the site
features and existing exploratory holes locations.
Site History Plan, scale and number of drawings to suit the project. Showing the
historical development and manmade features.
Other Plans, such as geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology, identified hazards
including contaminated ground where appropriate.
Sections, where appropriate showing the existing or proposed project features if
known, geology (soils and rock strata), and groundwater.

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16
Appendix F
Proposals Report

16

16
Format of Ground Investigations Proposals Report
Table F.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Ground Investigations Proposal Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where
appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA). Unused
headings shall not be deleted but recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
Table F.1 Ground Investigations Proposals Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number of the
CONTENTS report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed on every
page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the front of each
volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No company-specific
disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 OBJECTIVES AND For example: To provide information to confirm and amplify the geotechnical and
FORMAT OF ANY geomorphological findings of the Preliminary Sources Study, as reported separately,
INVESTIGATION and to obtain detailed knowledge of the soils and rocks encountered and their likely
behavior and acceptability. To ascertain groundwater conditions and locations of
underground voids, if any. Also, define the limits of work envisaged.
2 SPECIAL For example: Location of structures. Subsoil conditions below areas of high
PROBLEMS TO BE embankment. Underground voids, aquifers and likely water-bearing strata affecting
INVESTIGATED the works. Rock stability problems. Effects on adjacent properties. Any manmade
features to be encountered. Contaminated ground.
3 PROPOSED Fieldwork: Details of exploratory work proposed for specific areas with reasons for
INVESTIGATION choice of investigatory method, covering the type of exploratory holes/investigative
method, soil and rock sampling and in situ testing. Summarized in tables.
Laboratory work: Details of proposals with reasons for choice of test and relevance to
design. Summarized in tables. Requirement for the ground investigation factual data
to be supplied in digital form to Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Specialists (AGS) Format.
4 SITE AND WORKING For example: Traffic management, difficult access, utility companies’ plant and
RESTRICTIONS equipment. Ground Investigation Company to obtain “No Objection Certificates.”
5 SPECIALIST Details and reasons if proposed.
CONSULTATION
6 PROGRAM, COST, Anticipated start dates, contract periods, restrictions on program, cost estimates for
AND CONTRACT ground investigation. Arrangements for contract work and supervision of contract.
ARRANGEMENTS
7 REPORTING Requirements for reporting of the ground investigation.
AND OTHER
REFERENCES
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate.
Ground Investigation Proposals Plan, scale, and number of drawings to suit the
project. Showing the proposed locations of the various types of exploratory holes
proposed and any geophysical survey arrays. For clarity, it is preferable to avoid use
of generic borehole numbers; for example, BH1, and to use project-specific unique
exploratory hole reference numbers; for example, a borehole for a road project
between Doha and Lusail widening the highway might be DLW-BH1.

16

16
Appendix G
Factual Report and
Geophysical Survey Report

16

16
Format of Ground Investigation Factual Report
Table G.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the Ground
Investigations Factual Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate
with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA). Unused headings shall not
be deleted but shall be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The Ground Investigation Factual Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft
copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. The Ground Investigation
factual details shall be provided in AGS format data files (refer to Volume 2 Part 15, Geotechnical
Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, Section 9.3 Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical
Data), of this Manual, and gINT files, duly verified. All drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table G.1 Ground Investigation Factual Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number of
CONTENTS the report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed
on every page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the
front of each volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No
company-specific disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION This should state briefly the nature of the project for which the ground
investigation was undertaken, the company undertaking it, the client, this is
the Overseeing Organization, the name of any consultant who commissioned or
directed the work on behalf of the Overseeing Organization.
2 OBJECT AND SCOPE The purpose of the investigation should be explained briefly and the brief for the
OF THE GROUND work referred to, preferably including it as an appendix. The section should make
INVESTIGATION clear whether the report contains only the factual data or is combined, or should
be read in conjunction, with other geotechnical reports such as those dealing
with specialist testing or geophysics. The arrangements for quality assurance of
data and auditing should be explained. The responsibility for the interpretative
assignment of litho-stratigraphical names in exploratory hole records and the like
should be defined.
3 REPORT STRUCTURE This section should explain the structure of the report, where the descriptive
sections and factual data are to be found and should draw attention to any
general notes that accompany the report.
4 THE SITE This section should describe the location of the project relative to larger features
such as centers of population. The national grid reference at the center or
extremities of the project should be given to the nearest 100 m and a Project
Location Plan (typically of scale 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate) included. The project should be described, noting its
size, shape and location relative to any roads and access. The site topography,
locations of any buildings or other features (actual presence of or any evidence
of) which may affect the project should also be described.
5 FIELDWORK Under separate headings as appropriate, this section should describe the
PROCEDURE procedures followed in undertaking the ground investigation including
commissioning, and the Codes of Practice and any other procedural guidelines
under which the work was undertaken. It should be followed by a description
of each type of exploratory hole undertaken and include reference numbers,
locations (as grid references) and elevations. The range of depths to which

16
Table G.1 Ground Investigation Factual Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
each hole was taken and the dates over which the work was done should also
be included. Any supplementary references which define procedures for each
investigation technique and references appropriate to interpretation should be
given. Notes on constraints on access and the limitations these imposed on the
technique used should be given together with any limitations on penetration
which each technique may have experienced. Details of any nonintrusive ground
investigation using geophysical techniques should also be either reported or
presented in a separate report (see Table G.2). The locations of the exploratory
holes and details of the geophysical testing arrays should be presented on site
plans.
The sampling strategy should be stated, the types of samples taken stated and
their transportation and storage described.
Groundwater conditions encountered during the ground investigation should
also be presented. A description of any instrumentation installed and its purpose
should also be given. The results of any monitoring of instrumentation should
also be described and the location of the records within the report identified.
6 IN SITU TESTING Under separate headings as appropriate this section should describe the in situ
tests undertaken with reference to the relevant standards or published methods
used. Calibration certificates for standard penetration test equipment should also
be provided (for further information, refer to British Standard BS EN ISO 22476-
3 (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011). Reference should also be made to the
locations within the report where the test results are presented, for example on
the borehole record where relevant and in summary tables in an appendix.
7 LABORATORY Under separate headings as appropriate, this section should state who devised
TESTING the schedule of laboratory tests on the samples taken and to what standard the
testing was undertaken. The accreditation status of each test performed by the
laboratory should be stated, where this is required.
The type of test, the numbers undertaken and the relevant test reference
number should be given. The test results should be presented in an appendix or
appendixes to the report with presentation of all the details and graphs required
by the standard to which the tests were carried out. The test results should be
tabulated, either based on material type or the test type as appropriate.
Where chemical or microbiological testing to determine the presence and scale
of any contaminants has been undertaken this should be reported. The test
procedure used for each contaminant determination should be stated together
with the method detection limit and the accuracy of the test. The test results
should be reported in an appropriate tabular form and presented in an appendix
to the report.
AND OTHER
REFERENCES
Ground Investigation Layout Plan, scale and number of drawings to suit the
project. Showing the locations of the various types of exploratory holes and any
geophysical survey arrays.

16
Format of Geophysical Survey Report

Table G.2 is a contents list and summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Geophysical Survey Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate
be deleted but shall be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The Geophysical Survey Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft copy
of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. The raw data shall be provided
in soft copy to the client. All drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table G.2 Geophysical Survey Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number of the
CONTENTS report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed on every
page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the front of each
volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No Company specific
disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION This should state briefly the nature of the project for which the geophysical survey
was undertaken, the company undertaking it, the client, this is the Overseeing
Organization, the name of any consultant who commissioned or directed the work
on behalf of the Overseeing Organization.
2 OBJECT AND SCOPE The purpose of the geophysical survey should be explained briefly and the brief for
OF THE GEOPHYSICAL the work referred to, preferably including it as an appendix. The arrangements for
SURVEY quality assurance of data and auditing should be explained. The responsibility for
the interpretative assignment of litho-stratigraphical names in records and the like
should be defined.
3 REPORT STRUCTURE This section should explain the structure of the report, where the descriptive
sections and factual data are to be found and should draw attention to any general
notes that accompany the report.
4 THE SITE This section should describe the location of the project relative to larger features
such as centers of population. The national grid reference at the center or
extremities of the project should be given to the nearest 100 m and a Project
Location Plan (typically of scale 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate) included. The project should also be described, noting
its size, shape and location relative to any roads and access. The site topography,
locations of any buildings or other features (actual presence of or any evidence of)
which may affect the project should also be described.
5 FIELDWORK Under separate headings as appropriate, this section should describe the procedures
PROCEDURE AND followed in undertaking the geophysical surveys, the methods used and limitations
RESULTS affecting the results obtained, on-site instrument calibrations or checks of
equipment performance, description of the measurement stations, line spacings, or
arrays used, interpretation of the findings, and the likely causes of any anomalies
identified in the data.
AND OTHER
REFERENCES
Geophysical survey investigation Layout Plan, locations of test points and testing
arrays, scale and number of drawings to suit the project. Mapping and profiling
surveys results and associated interpretation overlain on survey plan.
— APPENDIXES Copy of site log book.
Calibration certificates and serial numbers of the instruments used.

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16
Appendix H
Geotechnical Interpretative
Report

16

16
Format of Geotechnical Interpretative Report
TableH.1 is a contents list and summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the Geotechnical
Interpretative Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate with
The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft
copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All drawings shall be in
.DXF files.
Table H.1 Geotechnical Interpretative Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number
of the report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly
placed on every page of the report. The contents of all volumes should
be listed in the front of each volume with the contents of the particular
volume highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers should be included
within or attached to the report.
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Provide specific description.
2 INTRODUCTION
report
2.4 Site description Description of the location of the site and of the features present
supported by a project location plan and project plans.
2.5 Site history Chronological description of past historical use and development at the site
as identified from historical editions of maps, aerial photographs, as-built
records and other pertinent sources of information, supported by plans
summarizing site history.
2.6 Previous ground investigations Summary of the scope of these.
and geotechnical studies
2.7 Other relevant information May include natural cavities, landslides, erosion and deposition, seismic.
3 FIELD AND LABORATORY This section summarizes the investigations carried out specifically for the
STUDIES project.
3.1 Walkover inspection survey Provide specific description.
3.2 Topographical surveys Provide specific description.
3.3 Geomorphological/geological If carried out provide specific description.
mapping
3.4 Ground Investigations Description of fieldwork; exploratory holes, soils and rock sampling, in situ
testing including any geophysical surveys. Description of laboratory soils
and rock testing including any contaminant chemical testing.
3.5 Instrumentation monitoring Description of observations of instrumentation installed at the site.
3.6 Drainage studies If carried out provide specific description.
3.7 Pile tests If carried out provide specific description.

16
Section
3.8 Other fieldwork Provide specific description.
4 SITE CONDITIONS This section describes the designer’s summary interpretation of the
results of the investigations carried out in Section 3 of the report. The
Site Conditions section should be appropriately sectioned and should
provide the summary interpretation on the topography geology, hydrology,
hydrogeology, geomorphology, manmade features and historical
development of the project. This should be supported by plans and
sections. If appropriate, a general ground model to be used for design
should be presented for the site.
4.1 Geology Description of the solid geology (bedrock), geological structure and soils
including made ground based on published information and the results of
historic and the current ground investigation. The soils and rocks at the
site should be classified into appropriate groups for discussion of their
properties in Section 5 of the report.
4.2 Hydrology and hydrogeology Including description of any groundwater monitoring observations.
4.3 Historical development and Provide specific description.
manmade features
4.4 Geoenvironmental and Provide specific description.
contamination issues
4.5 Other environmental Provide specific description.
considerations
5 GROUND CONDITIONS AND
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
5.1 on Titles as appropriate The designer’s evaluation of the ground conditions and the site global
material properties with a full justification for the parameters for use in
geotechnical design. Under separate headings for the identified soils and
rock groups at the site describe their properties and provide an assessment
of values of the engineering properties with summary tables of the values.
This section should also cover groundwater and soils chemistry in relation
to aggressive ground and concrete durability and where appropriate
the assessment of soils contamination. This section should normally be
supported by tables and graphs summarizing the results of the in situ and
laboratory tests and their interpretation, presented in an appendix.
6 ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT For some projects, an initial engineering assessment will have been
made as part of a Preliminary Sources Study Report. In those cases, that
engineering assessment should be developed in the light of the further
geotechnical studies and ground investigation undertaken. Under separate
headings as appropriate, this section presents the assessment of the
impact of the ground and groundwater conditions, materials properties and
historical development and services on the design and construction of the
project. This should include consideration of structures and earthworks
locations, earthworks acceptability criteria, groundwater, likely difficulties
and problems, areas or features to be avoided. Section headings will
typically include those listed below.
6.1 Soils and rock For each soil and rock group as defined in Section 4 of the report.
6.2 Cuttings Side slopes (short- and long-term stability), acceptability of materials for
reuse, merits of special drainage or ground treatment, swelling problems.

16
Section
6.3 Embankments Side slopes (short- and long-term stability), characteristics and restrictions
on use of particular soils, plant use options, drainage requirements,
foundation treatment.
6.4 Subgrade California Bearing Ratio values for cutting areas and for fill materials
in embankments, capping layers and availability of material, drainage
requirements.
6.5 Structure foundations Foundation needs, estimates of bearing pressures and settlements,
groundwater, problem areas or strata, potential construction difficulties.
6.6 Soil chemistry/contaminated Assessment of soil and groundwater chemistry with regard to aggressive
land ground and concrete durability. Assessment of harmful elements present in
soil or groundwater and implications of these on health and safety. Scope
for the reuse of marginal or recycled material within the works.
6.7 Existing geotechnical problems For example, slope failures, slopes with marginal factors of safety, solution
features, underground voids, very soft or highly compressible soils.
6.8 Historical development Effects of manmade obstacles and site history.
6.9 Utility services Impact of existing or planned utility services.
7 GEOTECHNICAL RISK
7.1 Geotechnical category of Review of the geotechnical category of the project based on the
project investigation findings.
7.2 Seismic category of project Review of the seismic zone appropriate to the project and associated
seismic loadings to be used in design together with ground risks associated
with a seismic event.
7.3 Geotechnical risk register Updated Geotechnical Risk Register in which the risks of identified hazards
are assessed, the consequences of these risks to the project determined,
and details of how the risks are to be managed given. This should take
account all geotechnical, geoenvironmental, historical, and other factors
discovered that are likely to influence the project design, health and safety
or buildability.
OTHER REFERENCES
— PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs both ground and air obtained for the study should be
reproduced and referenced to the site plan.
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible use
of satellite imagery where appropriate.
Project Plan, usually 1:10,000 scale or possible use of satellite imagery
where appropriate. Include where appropriate with study limits and
project options. This information may be included on the General Plan
instead.
General Plan, scale, and number of drawings to suit the project, showing
the site features and exploratory holes locations.
Site History Plan, scale, and number of drawings to suit the project,
showing the historical development and manmade features.
Other Plans, such as geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology, identified
hazards, including contaminated ground where appropriate.
Sections, where appropriate, showing existing or proposed project
features if known, geology (soils and rock strata) and groundwater.

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16
Appendix I
Geotechnical Design Report

16

16
Format of Geotechnical Design Report
Table I.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Geotechnical Design Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate
be deleted but be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The report should include full details of the interpretation of design data, justification for the design, and
layout drawings of the works. The report is subdivided into sections on cuttings, embankments, structures
and strengthened earthworks, and should be further subdivided for each unique earthwork or structure.
Drainage design relevant to earthworks and subgrade design should be included. For larger projects, the
designer is encouraged to submit this report in parts to suit the design and construction program for the
works. Discussion of potential contamination and proposed remediation requirements should be included.
The report should include proposals for geotechnical supervision and monitoring of construction. Items
that require checking during or maintenance following construction should be clearly identified.
The Geotechnical Design Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft copy
of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All drawings shall be in .DXF
files. All layers of drawings to be provided.
Table I.1 Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
— TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number
CONTENTS of the report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly
placed on every page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be
listed in the front of each volume with the contents of the particular volume
highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers should be included within or
attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION
report
1.4 Project previous reports Provide specific description.
2 EARTHWORKS
2.1 Cutting stability Full details of the methods of analysis, soil parameters, drainage, slope
angles, California bearing ratio and other considerations. Summary of design
including location, side slopes, maximum and typical depths, relevant ground
investigation, assumed soil strata and groundwater conditions, earthworks,
drainage requirements and pavement design. This may be either tabulated or
submitted as a series of summary forms.

16
Section
2.2 Embankment stability Full details of the methods of analysis, soil parameters, drainage, slope
angles, California bearing ratio and other considerations. Summary of design
including location, side slopes, maximum and typical depths, relevant ground
investigation, assumed soil strata and groundwater conditions, predicted
settlements, earthworks, drainage requirements, and pavement design. This
may be either tabulated or submitted as a series of summary forms.
2.3 Reuse of materials Discussion of potential for reuse of excavated material and appropriate
earthworks acceptability criteria.
3 STRENGTHENED Under separate headings as appropriate, for each strengthened earthwork
EARTHWORKS provide full details of the method of analysis and soil parameters assumed
in design. Summary of design including allowable bearing pressures,
settlement, differential settlement, and protection against chemical attack
to be provided. This information may be either tabulated or submitted as a
series of summary forms.
4 ROAD STRUCTURES Under separate headings as appropriate, for each road structure type
provide full details of the method of analysis and soil parameters assumed in
design of foundations and retaining elements. Summary of design including
allowable bearing pressures, pile capacity, earth pressures, differential
settlement, and protection against chemical attack to be provided for each
structure. This information may be either tabulated or submitted as a series
of summary forms.
5 DRAINAGE Under separate headings as appropriate, details of how the drainage design
will address the groundwater conditions and how groundwater risks are to
be managed.
6 SUBGRADE AND CAPPING Details of method of assessment, soil parameters, groundwater assumptions.
7 ASSESSMENT OF
AGGRESSIVE GROUND
AND POTENTIAL
CONTAMINATION
7.1 Aggressive ground Summary of the extent of testing for the assessment of aggressive ground,
conclusions of the assessment, concrete design requirements.
7.2 Potential contamination Summary of the extent of the contamination testing that has been
undertaken. Description of the liaison that has been undertaken with the
statutory authorities and the scope of risk assessments carried out to
comply with regulatory authorities requirements. This section is to include
a summary of the current status with regards to regulatory approval and
should record the acceptance of these risk assessments by the statutory
body. Summary of the findings and conclusions of the risk assessments
including the site remediation requirements that have been agreed with
regulatory authorities should be included. This section should include any
restrictions placed on the chemical content of materials to be used in the
works; that is, what is acceptable to leave on the site and what must be
removed. Details of contaminated materials to be removed from site.
8 SEISMIC ASSESSMENT Provide specific description.
9 GROUND TREATMENT Provide specific description.
INCLUDING TREATMENT
OF ANY UNDERGROUND
VOIDS
10 SPECIFICATION Provide details.
APPENDIXES

16
Section
11 INSTRUMENTATION AND
MONITORING
11.1 Full details of purpose, Provide specific description.
installation requirements,
restrictions and frequency
of readings
11.2 Use of observational Predicted and critical readings and restrictions on work.
methods and controls.
11.3 Pile testing requirements If required provide specific description.
11.4 Other testing requirements If required provide specific description.
OTHER REFERENCES
— DRAWINGS Copies of geotechnical design drawings.

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16
Appendix J
Geotechnical Observations
and Feedback Report

16

16
Format of Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report
Table J.1 is a contents list and summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the Geotechnical
Observations and Feedback Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where
appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA). Unused
headings shall not be deleted but recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The Ground Observations and Feedback Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client.
The soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. The in situ
investigation, monitoring, and laboratory factual details shall be provided in AGS format data files (refer to
Volume 2 Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, Section 9.3 Electronic
Transfer of Geotechnical Data, of this Manual) AGS and gINT files, duly verified. All drawings shall be in
.DXF files.
Table J.1 Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report Contents List and Topics to be
Described
Section Notes on Topics to be Described under Section
No. Heading Heading
— TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of authorship, and the
version number of the report. The version number and date
of the report should be clearly placed on every page of the
report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the
front of each volume with the contents of the particular
volume highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers should
be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.3 Scope and objectives of the report Provide specific description.
1.4 Limits of the area covered by the report Provide specific description.
1.5 Bibliography of project-specific geotechnical Provide specific description.

reports
1.6 Other relevant information Provide specific description.
2 EARTHWORKS
2.1 General description of the earthworks Provide specific description.
2.2 Problems not envisage in the original design Provide specific description.
and solutions.
2.3 Weather conditions Provide specific description.
2.4 Application of acceptability criteria Provide specific description.
2.5 Haul conditions and types of plant used Provide specific description.
2.6 Comparison of predicted and actual quantities Provide specific description.
of acceptable and unacceptable material
2.7 Topsoil and planting Provide specific description.

16
Described
No. Heading Heading
2.8 Details of any validation Reports prepared to demonstrate compliance with the
site remediation strategy and the requirements of the
regulatory bodies.
3 CUTTINGS
3.1 Cuttings For each cutting, location of materials excavated and their
subsequent destination in the works, with dates.*
3.2 Plant used and details of problems Provide specific description.
encountered
3.3 Instability problems and unusual ground Provide specific description.
conditions
3.4 Groundwater conditions and problems and Provide specific description.
drainage measures to overcome them.
3.5 Contaminated and hazardous material Provide specific description.
encountered on site and the location of
disposal, both on-site and off-site
4 EMBANKMENTS
4.1 Embankment For each embankment, source and location of all material
placed (with dates).*
4.2 Plant used and details of problems Provide specific description.
encountered
4.3 Instability problems and unusual ground Provide specific description.
conditions
4.4 Foundation treatment, including drainage Provide specific description.
measures and treatment of soft areas
4.5 Settlement of foundation and fill material Provide specific description.
5 SUBGRADE/CAPPING/PAVEMENT
5.1 Method of subgrade preparation, details of Provide specific description.
capping materials used and details of any
problems encountered
5.2 Method of placing each pavement layer and Provide specific description.
details of any problems
6 DRAINAGE
6.1 Details of temporary drainage and its Provide specific description.
effectiveness
6.2 Methods of installing permanent drainage and Provide specific description.
details of any problems encountered
7 IMPORTED MATERIALS
7.1 Types of imported materials and their use Provide specific description.
7.2 Source of imported materials and their With dates.*
location in the Works
8 STRENGTHENED EARTHWORKS
8.1 Description of Strengthened Earthworks Provide specific description.
types and locations
8.2 Fill materials used Provide specific description.
8.3 Record of soils and groundwater conditions Provide specific description.
encountered and drainage measures required

16
Described
No. Heading Heading
8.4 Inspection and maintenance requirements Provide specific description.
8.5 Details of any in situ testing Provide specific description.
8.6 Details of any problems encountered Provide specific description.
9 STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS
9.1 Record of soil and groundwater conditions Provide specific description.
encountered
9.2 Temporary works required and their Provide specific description.
effectiveness
9.3 Details of any problems encountered Provide specific description.
9.4 Pile logs summary, pile test results and other Provide specific description.
relevant information
9.5 Settlement records with dates of each major Provide specific description.
stage including backfill of abutments and
approach fills
9.6 Details of as built foundations Provide specific description.
10 TESTING
10.1 Summary of site laboratory testing Provide specific description.
10.2 ‘Named’ test type Separate section on each type of test with summary of
all results together with comments on them and their
effectiveness.
If a material report is prepared by the testing organization,
it should be used as the basis for this section with the
actual report attached as an appendix to the Geotechnical
11 INSTRUMENTATION
11.1 Location and details of instruments Provide specific description.
11.2 Purpose, performance and usefulness Provide specific description.
11.3 Readings (with dates) and predicted values Provide specific description.
11.4 Details and effects of resulting action Provide specific description.
11.5 Comment on need to continue monitoring Provide specific description.
12 SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED
AND DESIGN CHANGES
12.1 Summary of problems and details of design Provide specific description.
changes to overcome them.
12.2 Comments on how problems might be avoided Provide specific description.
in the future, including suggested revisions
required to standards
13 RESIDUAL HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS Details of any residual health and safety risks on the
project that would need to be considered if future work
is carried out by the maintaining authority; for example,
residual contamination, potential ground gas. Make
reference to any project Health and Safety File that might
be maintained.
Notes:
Items marked with an asterisk (*) (and possibly others) may be conveniently presented on longitudinal profiles and
accompanying plans compiled as construction proceeds. Alternatively, electronic presentation of data may be appropriate.
Photographs should be included in the report to illustrate particular points.

16

16
Appendix K
Geotechnical Risk Register
Template

16
Geotechnical Risk Register Template
PROJECT TITLE GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER

Risk Register Reference: Revision: Date: Prepared by: Che
Level of Risk Level of Risk

Guidance Guidance Consequence
Likelihood Consequence
Risk Rating Matrix
Rare: less than 5% probability, or occurrence requires Negligible impact on scheme construction with no delays to the programme and no affect on the performance of the
A
exceptional circumstances
1
completed earthworks or structures
1 2 3
Unlikely: 5% to 20% probability or may occur but not Low adverse impact on scheme construction with minimal delays to the programme and minimal associated increased
B 2 A I I II
expected to costs, and no significant affect on the performance of the completed earthworks or structures
Possible: 20% to 70% probability, or may occur but Medium adverse impact on scheme construction with some delays to the programme and some associated increased
C 3
costs and/or possibly some performance of the completed earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits
B I II II
there is a distinct probability it may not
Likelihood
Likely: greater than 70% probability or balance of High adverse impact on scheme construction with substantial delays to the programme and substantial associated
D
probability is that it will occur
4
increased costs and/or performance of the completed earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits
C II II III
Major adverse impact on scheme construction with extensive delays to the programme and high associated increased
E Almost certain: 99% probability. 5
costs, and/or failure of the permanent earthworks or structures
D II III III
E III III IV
Risk identification Qualitative risk assessment

Consequence
Level of level of
Risk
likelihood of Geotechnical
Status Ris
Geotechnical Hazard on
Construction process or completed infrastructure (select stra
Risk No. Geotechnical hazard Location within scheme Risk/undesirable consequence Risk Owner Hazard being construction or Risk rating
potentially affected from drop from
present completed
down
(select from drop infrastructure
menu)
down menu) (select from drop
down menu)
Group 1: Aeolian sand
Aeolian sand deposits - very loose and loose Deposits prone to erosion, mobility and settlement
Open C 3
Aeolian sand deposits - very loose and loose Relatively low effective shear strength with risk of instability of slopes
and lower bearing capacity for foundations Open B 3
Aeolian sand deposits Deposits prone to liquifaction

Open A 4
Aeolian sand deposits Deposits difficult to compact to engineering standards when not
confined Open E 1
Aeolian sand deposits (depending on origin) High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel Open D 4
Group 2: Sabkha
Sabkha Significant local variation horizontally & vertically giving rise to

variation of material properties and engineering performance - - -
Sabkha - with high fines content High compressibility giving rise to large settlements and possibly
large differential ground movements Open - -
Sabkha Possible loss of strength and dissolution when saturated resulting

ground instability under loading Open - -
Sabkha High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment

for buried concrete and steel Open - -
Sabkha - presence of gypsum and anhydrite Volume change of the deposits can adversely affect the engineering
minerals performance of foundations and road pavements. Open - -
Group 3: Marine sediments
Pseudo-oolitic and conglomeratic limestone Posible presence of voids

(calcarenite) deposits Open D 3
Beach gravels (marine terraces) Deposits difficult to compact to engineering standards when not Ac
confined Open A 2
Marine calcareous silts and sand Low strength with susceptibility for bearing capacity failure
Open D 2
Group 4: Continental sediments
Depression muds and silts Low strength with susceptibility for bearing capacity failure
- - -
Depression muds and silts High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel - - -
Group 5: Residual soils
Residual soils (Upper Umm Bab unit) attapulgite Volume change of the deposits can adversely affect the engineering
clay pockets performance of foundations and road pavements. - - -
- - -
Group 6: Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor

Limestone)
Al Khor Limestone, upper strata at unconformity Potential for natural cavities which can impact on construction and
performance of completed works - - -
Al Khor Limestone Dolomitic deposits with high strength difficult to excavate

- - -
Al Khor Limestone High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel - - -
Al Khor Limestone Cut slopes with clay interbeds in wet conditions can be prone build
up of porewater pressures initiating failure - - -
Group 7: Rus Formation Unit 2

(Undifferentiated)
Anhydrite/gypsum layers Potential for natural cavities which can impact on construction and
performance of completed works - C 1
Anhydrite/gypsum layers Massive units can be difficult to excavate

- C 1
Rus Formation Unit 2 High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel - C 1
Gypsum, shales/marls Cut slopes prone to erosion and assocaited instability

- C 1
Group 8: Midra Shale
Midra Shale Significant anistrophy influencing engineering properties with

potential adverse impact on performance of structures - - -
Midra Shale Deposits exposed in cut slopes susceptible to disintegration affecting

slope performance and maintenance requirements - - -

16
GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER Sheet 1 of

Date: Prepared by: Checked by:
uidance Consequence Risk Rating Indicative Risk Rating Implications

Risk Rating Matrix
s to the programme and no affect on the performance of the

1 2 3 4 5 I Negilgible Risk is usually accepted.
al delays to the programme and minimal associated increased Consider need for investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard to facilitate geotechnical
A I I II III III II Low
completed earthworks or structures design. It may be that the risk is accepted subject to its monitoring and management.
me delays to the programme and some associated increased

d earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits
B I II II III IV
Detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard required to develop geotechnical
III Medium
works proposals and geotechnical design to reduce risk to acceptable levels.
Likelihood
antial delays to the programme and substantial associated

rthworks or structures outside serviceability limits
C II II III IV IV
nsive delays to the programme and high associated increased

ctures
D II III III IV IV
Extensive detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard essential to develop
IV High
geotechnical works proposals and geotechnical design to reduce risk to acceptable levels.
E III III IV IV IV
Qualitative risk assessment Risk treatment

Consequence
Level of level of
Risk
likelihood of Geotechnical
Status Risk treatment
Geotechnical Hazard on
Construction process or completed infrastructure (select strategy (select
Risk Owner Hazard being construction or Risk rating Risk mitigation measures Notes, risk mitigation review milestone/date
potentially affected from drop from drop down
present completed
down menu)
(select from drop infrastructure
menu)
down menu) (select from drop
down menu)
Open C 3 Mitigate
Open B 3 Transfer
Open A 4 Mitigate
Open E 1 Mitigate
Open D 4 Mitigate
- - - -
Open - - -
Open - - -
Open - - -
Open - - -
Open D 3 Mitigate
Accept (and
Open A 2
Manage)
Open D 2 Mitigate
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- C 1 Mitigate
- C 1 Mitigate
- C 1 Mitigate
- C 1 Mitigate
- - - -
- - - -

16
PROJECT TITLE GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER

Risk Register Reference: Revision: Date: Prepared by: Che
Group 9: Dukhan Alveolina Limestone
Limestone High strength, which may mean strata is difficult to excavate

- - -
- - -
- - -
Group 10: Umm Bab Limestone
Limestone Variable quality and strength over small distances which could have
adverse impact on the performance of structures - D 4
Limestone with high percentage of secondary Wetting/saturation resulting in significant reductions rock mass
attapulgite (>50%) strength affecting performance of structures. - B 2
Limestone Potential for natural cavities which can impact on construction and
performance of completed works - E 5
Group 11: Other
Groundwater High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment

for buried concrete and steel - C 3
Groundwater General groundwater rise which can impact on construction and

performance of completed works - D 4
Groundwater Lowering of groundwater for an excavation may cause adverse

settlement - - -
Seismic activity May cause liquefaction of some soils and associated ground
settlement and lateral spreading with impact on infrastructure - - -
Seismic activity Increased loading on structures may exceed load carrying capacities
in terms of serviceability and ultimate limit states adversely affecting
- A 3
structure performance and may give rise to failure and collapse.

16
TER GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER Sheet 1 of

Date: Prepared by: Checked by:
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- D 4 Mitigate
- B 2 Mitigate
- E 5 Mitigate
- C 3 -
- D 4 Mitigate
- - - -
- - - -
- A 3 Mitigate

16

Manual
Manual Contents
Volume 1
Part 2: Planning
Volume 2
Part 10: Drainage
Part 11: Utilities
Part 14: Earthworks
Volume 3

Glossary
Glossary
Access Control
Active Frontage
Alignment
All-red period

Approach

Approved Departure
Aquifer

Ashghal
Attenuation Tank
Auxiliary Lane
Axle
two axles.
Axle load
Back Slope
Barchan dune
Barrier
Base Course
Batter

Bedrock
Berm
BES
Bicycle (cycle)
ride.
Bicycle parking
facilities.
Binder course
Blackspot
Blackspot analysis

Borehole
Borrow
Braking distance
Breakaway
Building height
Building line
section.
Bus lane

Bus shelter
stop
Bypass


Capacity
CAPEX

Capillary rise
Capping layer
Carrier drain

Catchment area (A)

Centerline


Clear Zone
Collector
arterial network.
Collector channel
Community Severance
people.
Compaction
Compound curve



Contractor

Corridor
Crash
Crash investigation
Crashworthy
Cross slope
Cross section
Crossfall

Crossroad
Crown
Culvert
Curb
Curb extension
Cycle
Cycle path
Dahal

Delay
flow travel time.


Design build
contract.
Design criteria
Design hour volume

Design life
Design organization
Design phase
Design speed
Design team
implementation.
Design team leader

Design vehicle
Design volume

Design-bid-build
Detector
Diagraphy drilling
Directional ramp
Discharge rate
Divided roadway
Divisional island
Drainage
Drainage basin
surface water.
Drainage systems
Driveway

Dropped curb
Earth pressure
earthen fill rests.
Earthwork(s)
Earthworks balance
Easement
Edgeline
Effluent




Exploratory holes
Expressway
Facies
given environment.
Filter drain
Filter membrane
Flare
Flexible pavement
Flora
Footbridge
Ford

Fore slope
slope.
Foundation
bridge.
Full barrier fence

Gantry
Gateway
Geometric design

Geosynthetic
and geocomposites.
Geotechnical hazard

Geotechnical risk

Geotextile

Ghost Island
Grade separation
Gradient


Ground model

Groundwater
Groundwater table
and spatially.
Gully
Gutter
Hard strip
Health and safety

Hierarchy
Highway
Highway capacity

Horizontal curve
Hydraulic radius
Hydrology
Hyetograph
Impact severity
Impermeable surface
Infiltration
InfoWorks CS
Inland

Inside lane

Intensity
Interchange
Intergreen period

Safety Audits.

Intersection
Intersection angle
Intersection leg
Intersection point


centers.

Island
Junction approach

of this Manual.
k-value
Land use
Landmark
of design.
Landscape
Lane

Lane capacity
Lane line
Layout
Left lane
Left-turn lane
Legibility
Leq


Limit state
Liquefaction


Local traffic
Loop
Luminaire
Mainline
or interchange.
Manhole
Mast arm
Median

Minor street
street.
Minor system

Moisture content
Motorcycle
supporting wheel.
Mounting height
Mowasalat
Mushtarak

Nose

Off-line bus stop

Offtracking


Outside lane
traffic.
Overpass

Park-and-ride

Participation
Passenger


Pavement structure
Peak flow
after a storm.
Peak period
Peak traffic flow

Pedestrian


Pedestrian zone
Penstock

Permeability
subsurface water.
Phase
signaling cycle.
Piezocone test
Pile
Pile load capacity

Platoon

Policy
decisions.
Porewater pressure
Positive drainage

Primary signal face

Prime Coat

Public art
Public realm
Public road
R-value
Rainfall intensity
the same rate.

Ramp
Ramp metering
rate.
Refuge (island)
cross the roadway.
Relaxation
Resistance factor
Resurfacing
Return period
Reverse curve


Right-of-way

Rigid pavement
Risk management
Road
Road earthworks
Road markings
Road project








audit report.


audit team member.


Road structures
Roadbase
Roadway
Roadway width
Roundabout
Runoff (surface)
abstractions.

Rural areas
Rutting
in the wheel path.

decision making.

Sabkha
Safe system
Sag Vertical Curve

Saline
with salt.
Scour

Seepage
Segregated paths
Segregation
Seismic hazard
Seismic loading

Semitrailer
by attached axles.
Sense of place
Service flow rate

Service limit state

Service road
Setback
Shared-use path
Shoulder
Sidewalk
Sight distance
Sight line

Sign

Signal face
Signal head
Signaling cycle
Sikka
Slab
Slip ramp
Slope
of traffic.
Slope ratio
horizontal values.
Soakaway
drain.

Speed limit
Split phase
Spoil
Stabilization
Stakeholder
project.
Stakeholder mapping
Standard axle




Stopping time
Storage length
Storm hydrograph
Stormwater
Street
Street Clutter
Street furniture
Streetscape



Subgrade
constructed.
Subway
Superelevation

• Maximum size – one sieve size larger than the nominal maximum size.
• Nominal maximum size – one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent
by weight.
Surface course
Surface runoff
Surface treatment
Surface water
Surveillance

Sustainability

environment.
Swale
Swept path
T-intersection
Tack coat
Tactile paving
Taper



Throughput
or outfall
Traffic bollard
Traffic capacity
Traffic control
Traffic density
lane.
Traffic flow
Traffic island
Traffic sign

Traffic signal
Traffic volume
Trailer
Transition
can be avoided.
Transverse
Traveled way

Trial pit
Trial trench pit

Truck

Truck apron
Trunk sewer
Tunnel
Turning traffic
Underpass
Upstream
Urban area
Urban design
Urban form
and landscape.

Utility corridor
U-turn

Vadose zone

a detector.
Vernacular
Vertical alignment
Vertical curve
Visibility envelope
Vista
Vortex grit remover

Wadi
Walkway
Wayfinding

Wearing course

Work zone

Y-intersection
Yield line
roundabout.
Zebra crossing
Zoning

PART INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
17

Volume 3
Part 17
Intelligent
Transportation Systems
INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS PART
17
Disclaimer
of any kind.

17

17
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations...................................................................................................v
1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Definition of Intelligent Transport Systems..................................................................................... 1
2 Traffic Detection and Monitoring Systems................................................................. 3

2.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Corridor Detection Systems.................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Point Detection Systems.......................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.1. Inductive Loops........................................................................................................................ 4
2.3.2. Microwave Radar Detection Systems.............................................................................. 4
2.3.3. Magnetometer Detection Systems................................................................................... 4
2.3.4. Video Image Vehicle Detection Systems....................................................................... 4
2.4 Select Vehicle Detection.......................................................................................................................... 5
2.5 Design Considerations............................................................................................................................... 5
2.5.1. Predesign Planning................................................................................................................. 5
2.5.2. System Requirements........................................................................................................... 5
2.5.3. Detector Technology Selection.......................................................................................... 5
2.5.4. Deployment Guidelines......................................................................................................... 5
2.5.5.Enclosure.................................................................................................................................... 6
2.5.6. Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning................................................ 6
2.5.7.Communications....................................................................................................................... 6
2.5.8.Environmental........................................................................................................................... 7
3 Closed-Circuit Television Cameras............................................................................... 9

3.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Design Considerations............................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1. Predesign Planning................................................................................................................. 9
3.2.2. CCTV Type.................................................................................................................................. 9
3.2.3. Camera Mount........................................................................................................................ 10
3.2.4.Enclosure................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.5. For further details regarding the design criteria for a suitable ITS
enclosure location, refer to ITS Deployment Guidelines V2.2,
June 2015. Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning...................... 10
3.2.6.Communications.................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.7.Environmental........................................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Location Guidelines................................................................................................................................. 11

17
4 Road Weather Information Systems..........................................................................13

4.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................ 13
4.2 Types of Sensors...................................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Design Considerations............................................................................................................................ 13
4.3.1. Predesign Planning.............................................................................................................. 14
4.3.2. Location and Placement Guidelines.............................................................................. 14
4.3.3. Sensor Type and Sensor Mount...................................................................................... 14
4.3.4.Enclosure................................................................................................................................. 14
4.3.5. Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning............................................. 14
4.3.6.Communications.................................................................................................................... 15
4.3.7.Environmental........................................................................................................................ 15
5 Over-Height and Over-Weight Vehicle Detection Systems....................................17

5.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................ 17
5.2 Over-Height Detection Systems........................................................................................................ 17
5.3 Over-Weight Detection Systems........................................................................................................ 17
5.4.2. Enforcement Purpose......................................................................................................... 18
5.4.3. Enforcement System Location........................................................................................ 18
5.4.4. Enforcement System Signals........................................................................................... 19
5.4.5. Enforcement System Sensors......................................................................................... 19
5.4.7.Communications.................................................................................................................... 19
5.4.8.Environmental........................................................................................................................ 19
6 Dynamic Message Signs..............................................................................................21

6.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................ 21
6.3 Types of Signs........................................................................................................................................... 22
6.4.1. Longitudinal Placement..................................................................................................... 23
6.4.2. Lateral and Vertical Placement....................................................................................... 24
7 Lane Control Signs........................................................................................................25

7.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................ 25
7.2 Types of Signs........................................................................................................................................... 25
7.3.1. Spacing between Signs...................................................................................................... 26
7.3.2. Vertical Placement............................................................................................................... 27

17

7.4.2. Longitudinal Placement..................................................................................................... 27
7.4.3. Vertical Placement............................................................................................................... 27
7.4.4. Sign Matrix Type................................................................................................................... 27
7.4.5.Structure.................................................................................................................................. 27
7.4.6.Enclosure................................................................................................................................. 27
7.4.8.Communications.................................................................................................................... 28
7.4.9.Environmental........................................................................................................................ 28
8 Ramp Metering System...............................................................................................29

8.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................ 29
8.2 Study Requirements................................................................................................................................ 30
8.2.1. Data Collection...................................................................................................................... 30
8.2.2. Data Analysis......................................................................................................................... 30
8.2.3. Design of System................................................................................................................. 30
8.3.2. Ramp Meter Study................................................................................................................ 31
8.3.3. Lane Configuration.............................................................................................................. 31
8.3.4. Ramp Meter Location.......................................................................................................... 31
8.3.5. Vehicle Detectors................................................................................................................. 31
8.3.6. Enclosure Placement........................................................................................................... 32
8.3.8.Communications.................................................................................................................... 32
8.3.9.Environmental........................................................................................................................ 32
9 Toll and Payment Collection.......................................................................................33

9.1 Background Information........................................................................................................................ 33
9.2 Types of Collection.................................................................................................................................. 34
9.2.1. Smart Cards............................................................................................................................. 34
9.2.2.Transponders......................................................................................................................... 34
9.2.3. Cellular Telephones............................................................................................................. 34
9.3 Other Considerations.............................................................................................................................. 34
10 Enforcement Systems..................................................................................................35
10.1 System Purpose........................................................................................................................................ 35
10.2 License Plate Reader.............................................................................................................................. 35
10.3 Speed Enforcement................................................................................................................................. 35
10.3.1. Point Speed Cameras.......................................................................................................... 36
10.3.2. Average Speed Cameras.................................................................................................... 36

17
10.4 Other Types of Enforcement............................................................................................................... 36

10.4.1. Bus Lane Enforcement....................................................................................................... 36
10.4.2. Red Light Enforcement...................................................................................................... 36
10.4.3. Other Enforcement.............................................................................................................. 37
10.5 Mobile Enforcement................................................................................................................................ 38
11 Telecommunications Networks..................................................................................39
11.1 Background................................................................................................................................................. 39
12 Intelligent Transportation Systems in Tunnels.......................................................41

12.1 Vehicle Detection Systems in Tunnels............................................................................................ 41
12.2 CCTV Cameras in Tunnels..................................................................................................................... 42
References...............................................................................................................................43
Bibliography............................................................................................................................43
Figures
Figure 6.1. Example of a Dynamic Message Sign.....................................................................................................21

Figure 6.2. Example of a Pictogram Dynamic Message Sign...............................................................................22
Figure 7.1. Example of a Lane Control Sign................................................................................................................26
Figure 9.1. Example of a Toll Plaza................................................................................................................................33
Figure 10.1. Example of an Enforcement Camera......................................................................................................36
Figure 10.2. Example of a Red Light Enforcement Camera....................................................................................37
Figure 12.1. Example of an Intelligent Transportation System in a Tunnel....................................................41

17
AQM air quality monitoring
CCTV closed-circuit television
cm centimeter(s)
DMS dynamic message sign
EPS electronic payment system
ESS environmental sensing station
ITS intelligent transportation system
LCS lane control sign
LiDAR light detection and ranging
LPR License Plate Reader
m meter(s)
RWIS road weather information system
TMC traffic management center
UPS uninterruptable power supply
WIM weigh-in-motion

17

17
1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Part is to outline which intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are
available for use in Qatar and to enable designers to determine whether ITS should be
incorporated into their scheme.
The details provided in this Part are based on the current Qatar Public Works Authority
(Ashghal) Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013). Detailed guidance
on ITS and its deployment is provided in that document.
1.2 Definition of Intelligent Transport Systems

ITS is a generic term for the integrated application of communications, control, and
information processing technologies to the transportation system (World Road Association-
PIARC, 2005).
ITS covers all modes of transport and considers the dynamic interaction of elements of the
transportation system – the vehicle, the infrastructure, and the driver or user.
The overall function of an ITS is to improve decision-making by transport network controllers,

often in real time, thereby improving the operation of the entire transport system. The
definition covers a broad array of techniques and approaches that may be implemented
through stand-alone technological applications or as enhancements to other transportation
strategies.

17

17
2 Traffic Detection and

Monitoring Systems
2.1 System Purpose

A prerequisite for many ITS is the collection of timely, accurate, and reliable information
about traffic flow and road conditions. Traffic data fall into three classes, corridor traffic data
(for example average travel time), point traffic stream data (for example average speed), and
selected vehicle data (for example, vehicle type).
Traffic detection and monitoring systems are standalone detectors that detect the presence
of vehicles or their characteristics, or both.
2.2 Corridor Detection Systems

Corridor detection systems are useful for collecting data along links. In Qatar, minor and major
arterials and expressways will use detection systems. The systems will include point vehicle
detectors that collect presence, speed, and occupancy data at each detection location for
each lane of travel.
In addition, floating vehicle (probe vehicle) data will also be collected for a representative
sample of vehicles on all corridors to provide for link travel time and origin-destination data.
Together, the information from the point detectors and the probe vehicle detectors will
provide a comprehensive set of data including real time and historical data, such as speeds,
volumes, vehicle presence, occupancy, gaps, and incident occurrence. These data can then
be used to complete a variety of functions:
• Real-time traffic and incident management

• Traveler information
• Historical analysis
• Travel time information
• Origin-destination information
• Road capacity analysis
• Performance measures
• Planning and design purposes

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2.3 Point Detection Systems

Point detection systems may be used for specific locations, such as at traffic signals as part
of the traffic signal system and urban traffic control system, or at entrance and exit ramps
along the expressway network.
Various point detection technologies are available, as described in the following paragraphs.
2.3.1 Inductive Loops

Inductive loops can be placed in a roadbed to detect vehicles as they pass through the loop’s
magnetic field. The simplest detectors count the number of vehicles that pass over the loop
during a unit of time, whereas more-sophisticated sensors estimate the speed, length, and
the distance between vehicles. Loops can be placed in a single lane or across multiple lanes,
and they work with very slow or stopped vehicles, as well as vehicles moving at high speed.
2.3.2 Microwave Radar Detection Systems

Radar detectors consist of a sensor mounted on the side of a road or on a gantry, angled
down toward the travel lanes of the road. These sensors use a beam of microwave energy to
collect vehicle data, including speed, volume, and sometimes occupancy, depending on the
manufacturer and detector type.
Detailed guidance about sensor positioning is given in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation
Systems Deployment Manual (2013). However, microwave sensors can experience
interference and disruption when obstructions such as barriers or high retaining walls are
within the detection area.
2.3.3 Magnetometer Detection Systems

The magnetometer sensor is a type of magnetic field sensor that is used for traffic
management and vehicle detection. The sensor is designed to detect the passage of a
vehicle by measuring the changes of the Earth’s magnetic field and converting them into
electronic signals. A portion of the vehicle must pass over the sensor for the vehicle to be
detected.
A magnetometer can detect two vehicles that are separated by a distance of 30 centimeters
(cm). The sensor is placed in the middle of the traffic lane in a core drilled in the road surface.
The detection data are transmitted in real time over lower-power radio technology to an
access point or a repeater unit, where they are processed, stored, forwarded to an ITS
enclosure, and then sent to the traffic management center (TMC).
2.3.4 Video Image Vehicle Detection Systems

A video image vehicle detection system consists of a video camera mounted above or along
the road and angled toward the travel lanes. The system is configured using software to
collect data from predetermined zones within the travel lanes. This video image is then run
through software processing to detect vehicle presence, speed, and volumes.

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Multiple detection zones can be defined within the field of view of the video camera, thereby
providing multiple lane coverage by a single camera. Multiple cameras can be connected
to one processor unit providing wide area coverage and, coupled with computer software,
can reduce the problems caused by shadows, occlusion, and direct sunlight shining on the
cameras.
2.4 Select Vehicle Detection

The detector technologies approved for use in Qatar for point vehicle detection are inductive
loops, microwave radar, video image, and magnetometer. Probe detection systems may be
utilized to determine average travel time over a roadway segment. Probe detection systems
function by uniquely identifying individual vehicles and transmitting its detection points
for a specific trip to a central system for further processing. The central system is then
responsible for aggregating and averaging the data to provide useful information regarding
journey times for that particular roadway segment. It is important to logically position probe
detection systems so that these trips can be created by the central system. Bluetooth
matching systems and LPR systems are examples of systems that can be used for probe
detection systems..
A summary of detection options can be found in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation

Systems Deployment Manual (2013), which provides the designer with details of structure
type, data that can be provided, accuracy, accessibility, and system cost considerations.
2.5 Design Considerations

Detailed design considerations for traffic detection and monitoring systems are given
in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013), and are
summarized in the following paragraphs.
2.5.1 Predesign Planning

The designer should consider whether the detector deployment is consistent with the needs
outlined in a concept of operations document and whether deployment is consistent with
the ITS architecture.
2.5.2 System Requirements

The detector deployment must satisfy the precision, spacing, and accessibility considerations
established in the system needs.
2.5.3 Detector Technology Selection

The detector technology chosen must satisfy the accuracy, accessibility, and cost
requirements established in the system needs.
2.5.4 Deployment Guidelines

Implementation of the detector deployment must minimize the use of new structures and
collocate devices where possible. In addition, detector coverage must satisfy the system
needs.

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Detectors of the same type should be consistently placed at regular intervals along a stretch
of roadway where those detectors serve the same function (that is, metrics collection or
incident management detection). The detector must be installed to provide a detector in
each lane for every 500 meters (m) on the expressway network and on each entry and exit
ramp in order to serve a metrics collection function that supports active traffic management.
A detector must be installed at every approach to traffic signal intersections and at every
entry or exit to major traffic-generating venues and public parking facilities to facilitate
network management and incident management. If the designer is able to reduce the
number of detectors but still provide the functionality required, it may be that a detector in
every lane on the approach to traffic signal intersections is not required.
2.5.5 Enclosure
The designer must consider whether an enclosure is required at the detector location and
whether personnel can safely access the enclosure.
The enclosure must be located within the manufacturer’s recommended distance to the
detector and mounted on an existing structure, where possible.
The location and orientation of the enclosure must provide adequate protection and a
maintainer’s pad must be provided at the enclosure’s main door.
For further details regarding the design criteria for a suitable ITS enclosure location, refer to
ITS Deployment Guidelines V2.2, June 2015.
2.5.6 Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning

The power requirements for the detector and all system components must be established
and an appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance from the detector site
and confirmed with the utility company.
Step-up and step-down transformer calculations also must be performed and the metering
options identified.
The uninterruptable power supply (UPS) and power back-up options must be determined and
accounted for.
2.5.7 Communications
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the detector and whether
an appropriate communication source has been located and confirmed within a reasonable
distance from the site.
If there are multiple communication options, the designer must consider the advantages and
disadvantages of each option. In addition, if the proposed service will be using the public
communications infrastructure, installation of the service must be coordinated with the

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2.5.8 Environmental
All necessary environmental, community, and cultural impact studies, processes, and concerns
must be addressed before system installation.

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3 Closed-Circuit Television
Cameras
3.1 System Purpose

Although the traffic detectors discussed in Chapter 2 in this Part can monitor many attributes
of traffic flow, directly or indirectly, live video images can help the TMC operator monitor
complicated traffic situations and make appropriate decisions. Therefore, TMC operators use
visual images from closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras to complement traffic detectors.
The primary function of a CCTV camera is to provide surveillance of the transportation

system and enhance situational awareness. CCTV enables operations personnel to perform
valuable monitoring, detection, verification, and response activities.
Typical CCTV camera uses include the following:
• Detecting and verifying incidents along roads and within tunnels

• Monitoring traffic conditions
• Monitoring incident response and clearance
• Verifying message displays on dynamic message signs (DMSs)
• Assisting emergency responders
• Monitoring environmental conditions, such as, visibility distance and wet pavements

Detailed design considerations are given in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation Systems
Deployment Manual (2013), but are summarized in the following paragraphs.

The designer should consider whether CCTV deployment is consistent with the needs
outlined in a concept of operations document and whether deployment is consistent with
the ITS architecture.
3.2.2 CCTV Type

The designer must consider the camera type, for example, pan, tilt and zoom, or fixed and
see that it is appropriate for the desired location.

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3.2.3 Camera Mount

The designer must make certain that the Overseeing Organization’s standards have been
followed and consider whether a camera lowering system is required.
3.2.4 Enclosure
The designer must consider whether an enclosure is required at the camera location and
whether maintenance personnel can safely access the enclosure.
The enclosure must be located within the manufacturer’s recommended distance from the
camera and the enclosure must be mounted on the camera post or an existing structure,
where possible.
The location and orientation of the enclosure must provide adequate protection. A
maintainer’s pad must be provided at the enclosure’s main door.
3.2.5 For further details regarding the design criteria for a suitable ITS enclosure
location, refer to ITS Deployment Guidelines V2.2, June 2015.Power Requirements,
Availability, and Conditioning
The power requirements for the camera and all system components must be established and
an appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance from the camera site and
confirmed with the utility company.
Step-up and step-down transformer calculations also must be performed and the metering
options identified.
The UPS and power back-up options must be determined and accounted for.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the camera and if an
appropriate communication source has been located and confirmed within a reasonable
distance from the site.
3.2.7 Environmental
All necessary environmental, community, and cultural impact studies, processes, and concerns

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3.3 Location Guidelines

The selection of CCTV camera locations is based on the operational and maintenance
requirements. The desired coverage will often dictate the general camera location. Local
topography will also play a major role. The functional requirement for the placement of CCTV
cameras is to facilitate 100 percent coverage of the roadway. Placement intervals of CCTV
cameras with appropriate lenses on an expressway would be in the range of 750 to 800 m,
with some overlap of viewable areas. The designer should locate CCTV cameras based on
field of view calculations to confirm 100 percent coverage.
Additionally, the system must be installed with consideration of available utilities and the
cost or constraints associated with connection to those utilities.
The site needs to be chosen so that the camera structure is protected, and will continue to
perform as needed without undue maintenance to the structure and surrounding site.
The site must be safe for maintenance personnel, minimize costs, and be in accordance with
the latest version of the Qatar construction standards. For example, there must be sufficient
shoulder on which to park a bucket truck without needing a full lane closure and significant
traffic maintenance.
The chosen site must not obstruct pedestrian or cycle movements.
The Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (Ashghal, 2013) gives more
information regarding camera site selection and placement considerations, and covers
visibility, utility availability, safety, device protection, and operational and maintenance
considerations.

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4 Road Weather Information

Systems
4.1 System Purpose

The effects of weather are well known. Poor visibility and wind are the causes of many
road traffic crashes. Therefore, meteorological monitoring systems are designed to evaluate
current and future conditions.
Road weather information systems (RWIS) monitoring stations are usually placed in fixed
sites. RWIS monitor conditions, such as, air, road surface, and structure temperature, as
well as precipitation levels, wind, visibility, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. Information
can be sent to TMCs to enable operators to inform drivers of adverse conditions using
communication methods such as DMSs and radio announcements. In addition, the operators
can take any necessary measures on the network, such as, rerouting or road closures.
The information obtained from the RWIS can also aid operators in scheduling maintenance
programs.
4.2 Types of Sensors

The system component that collects weather data is called the environmental sensing
station (ESS). An ESS consists of a combination of sensors that gather and transmit pavement,
temperature, wind speed, visibility, and humidity data. These sensors are controlled by a
field controller called a remote processing unit, which sends data to the TMC.
Air quality monitoring (AQM) sites are typically small structures that measure and record the
concentrations of various air pollutants. The AQM site measures the concentrations of air
pollutants in a specific area and if pollution levels exceed a certain threshold, the AQM sends
a message to the TMC.


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The designer should consider whether the sensor deployment is consistent with the
needs outlined in a concept of operations document and whether the deployment is
consistent with the ITS architecture.
4.3.2 Location and Placement Guidelines

The designer must determine whether the RWIS location or AQM location, or both, have been
designed to consider atmospheric pressure.
Any site for an RWIS must be chosen with consideration of the available utilities and the
costs and constraints associated with connection to those utilities.
The site must be chosen so that the RWIS or AQM site structure is protected, and will continue
to perform as needed without undue maintenance to the structure and the surrounding site.
The site must be safe for maintenance personnel and must minimize costs and be in
accordance with the latest version of the Qatar construction standards. For example, there
must be sufficient shoulder on which to park a bucket truck without needing a full lane
closure and significant traffic maintenance.
4.3.3 Sensor Type and Sensor Mount

The designer must consider whether the sensors are appropriate for the desired location
and whether the Overseeing Organization’s standards have been followed in the design of
the mounting and structure. The mounting height must be in accordance with the Ashghal
Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013).
4.3.4 Enclosure
The designer needs to consider whether an enclosure is required for any new site and
whether maintenance personnel can safely access the enclosure.
The designer must consider whether the enclosure can be mounted on the RWIS post or on an
existing structure, with adequate protection in both location and orientation. Consideration
must be given to the provision of a concrete maintenance pad at the enclosure’s main door.

The power requirements for the RWIS or AQM site components must be established and an
appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance from the site and confirmed
with the utility company.
Step-up and step-down transformer requirement calculations also must be performed, and
metering options must be identified.

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The designer must consider the communications for the RWIS or AQM site. In addition, the
designer must consider an appropriate communication infrastructure has been located and
confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
4.3.7 Environmental
All necessary environmental, community, cultural impact studies, processes, and concerns

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5 Over-Height and Over-Weight

Vehicle Detection Systems
5.1 System Purpose

The purpose of over-height and over-weight detection systems is to prevent commercial
vehicles from exceeding the legal height and weight limits set on roads in Qatar.
If vehicles exceed the weight and height limits set for Qatar roads, damage can occur to the
infrastructure and the vehicle may become unsafe. The over-height and over-weight sensor
systems should alert the TMC when an over-weight or over-height vehicle has passed a
sensor and should help reduce incidents such as bridge crashes.
5.2 Over-Height Detection Systems

Over-height detectors shall be deployed on roads with substandard structure (heights as
defined in ITS Standards) to identify over-height vehicles and warn drivers of an upcoming
obstacle. They can be used for different structures - bridges, over-road walkways, tunnels,
overpasses, and parking structures. Over-height detectors should be installed on the network
prior to an exit ramp to enable the over-height vehicle to leave the route before it reaches
any at-risk structure. The system should activate a visual alarm or audible alarm, or both;
warning signs; flashing lights; or traffic signals to prevent vehicle crashes with the structure.
The system should also send an alert to the TMC when activated.
5.3 Over-Weight Detection Systems

Weigh-in-motion (WIM) devices are devices capable of continuous unbiased weighing of
vehicles that are in motion at speeds up to and including typical road speeds. WIM devices
are designed to capture and record axle weights and gross vehicle weights as vehicles drive
over a measurement site.
Unlike static scales, WIM systems are capable of measuring vehicles traveling at a reduced
or normal traffic speed and do not require the vehicle to come to a stop. This makes the
weighing process more efficient, and, in the case of commercial vehicles, allows for trucks
under the weight limit to bypass static scales or inspection.

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WIM systems are generally divided into three categories:
• Permanent: Sensors and the data acquisition systems collect data at the same location.
• Semi-permanent: Sensors are built into the pavement while the data collection system
is moved from site to site.
• Portable: Sensors and equipment are moved from site to site.
According to the type of sensor, the WIM systems use features such as bending plates, bar
sensors, capacitive mats, or existing bridges.
Using WIM, authorities have up-to-date and online measurements of axle and vehicle
weights, as well as the loads being borne by the infrastructure.
Applications of WIM systems can include real time uses, such as, load checking, freight
management, and detection of forbidden vehicles. Such systems should be installed on all
key Qatar road network routes and access routes to and from all major generators of truck
traffic. (Ashghal, 2013)
The legal weight limit to be measured should be decided by the Overseeing Organization.
Details of deployment are provided in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems

Deployment Manual (2013).


The designer should consider whether the deployment is consistent with the needs outlined
in a concept of operations document and whether the deployment is consistent with the ITS
architecture.
5.4.2 Enforcement Purpose

The designer must make sure that a comprehensive over-height or over-weight detection
system study has been undertaken and that the results of the study support continuing with
project deployment.
5.4.3 Enforcement System Location

The designer must verify that the proposed sensor location allows enough space to warn
drivers and allow them time to re-route if necessary. The over-weight detection system
should be installed at a location that provides coverage for all key Qatar road network routes
and access routes to and from major generators of truck traffic.

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5.4.4 Enforcement System Signals

The designer must verify that all warning signs are placed at critical points to allow drivers to
stop or exit the road and that all signs are designed and placed in accordance with the latest
version of the Qatar Traffic Control Manual.
5.4.5 Enforcement System Sensors

The designer must confirm that the system design includes all of the necessary detectors
and that the complexity and configuration of the system allow for additional detection areas
to enable rerouting if required.

All power requirements for the detector and all system components must be considered.
The designer must confirm that an appropriate power source has been located within a
reasonable distance from over-height and over-weight detection sites and confirmed with
the utility company.
Step-up and step-down transformer calculations also must be performed, and the metering
options identified.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the detectors. In addition,
the designer must determine if an appropriate communication source has been located and
confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
5.4.8 Environmental

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6 Dynamic Message Signs
6.1 System Purpose

Because traffic is a dynamic process, permanent road signs often cannot reflect the real
traffic conditions. Dynamic message signs (DMSs) are traffic control devices that deliver real-
time road information to motorists. DMSs can range from simple one- or two-line manually
changed message signs to sophisticated, fully electronic models that can include graphical
displays (see Figure 6.1).
The advantage of DMSs is that they are under direct control of road operators. TMC operators
can decide to use DMSs after receiving information from a variety of sources, including fixed
sensors or CCTV cameras. The TMC can then transmit the information received through one-
to-one communication links, a local network, or radio communication.
Figure 6.1 Example of a Dynamic Message Sign

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By using pictograms, color, and text messages, DMSs can get the message across in a fast,
highly legible manner (see Figure 6.2). The signs can be seen by drivers traveling past a
fixed point and do not require any onboard equipment. However, only limited information can
be displayed on the signs.
Figure 6.2 Example of a Pictogram Dynamic Message Sign
6.3 Types of Signs

The types of information that can be displayed on DMS include:
• Incident management information, such as, crash detection, route diversion, congestion
detection lane closures, and road works
• Supplementary directional signage that provides additional route information other than
what is listed on permanent road signs

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• Information on events, for example, major sporting events, trade shows, and festivals
• Services, for example, location of and time estimate to reach services
• Value-added services where onboard navigation systems interface with the DMS
• Travel time estimates showing the approximate time to reach a destination

Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013) states that DMSs
should be deployed at all key strategic decision-making points. Any point on the roadway
network where it is possible for a motorist to make an active route choice to avoid either
congestion or an incident is classed as a key strategic decision-making point. These locations
are of strategic importance for managing the road network, in terms of their position, and
a key tactical decision point on the network in terms of their ability to allow an alternative
route to be taken.
DMSs should also be deployed on variable-speed-limit gantries and entries to expressways.

The site characteristics near the planned DMS must be investigated, as these characteristics
relate to the amount of information that can be displayed. Relevant characteristics include:
• Operating speed of the road
• Presence and characteristics of any vertical curves affecting sight distance
• Presence of horizontal curves and obstructions such as trees or bridge abutments that
constrain the sight distance to the DMS
• Location of the DMS relative to the position of the sun (for daytime conditions)
• Presence of, number of, and information on static signs in the vicinity
• Location of the DMS in advance of decision points and potential alternate routes
6.4.1 Longitudinal Placement

The main consideration related to longitudinal placement of DMS is the provision of maximum
visibility of the DMS to allow the driver ample time to read, process, and react to the message.
The approach to a sign can be divided into three zones:
• Detection zones
• Reading and decision zones
• Out-of-vision zone
6.4.1.1 Detection Zone

At expressway speeds between 80 and 120 kilometers per hour (kph), the DMS should be
visible to the approaching driver from 300 to 600 m away. The visibility distance should be
increased if the DMS are placed at an offset from the traveling lane.

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6.4.1.2 Reading and Decision Zones

Generally, the message panels on expressway-deployed DMSs contain room for three lines
of 21 characters each. This assumes a static message. When the DMS displays a lengthy
message that requires scrolling or toggling between two or more screens, the time required
for reading increases dramatically, since the beginning of the message may not coincide with
the driver entering the reading zone.
For deployments on roads with operating speeds less than 80 kph, the reading and decision
zone should be a minimum of 250 m.
For deployments on roads with operating speeds greater than 80 kph, the reading and
decision zone should be a minimum of 300 m.
Individual characters of 30 cm in height can be seen from approximately 200 m away under
normal atmospheric conditions.
Individual characters of 45 cm in height can be seen from approximately 335 m away under
normal atmospheric conditions.
Drivers need approximately 1 second per word to read and comprehend a message. Traveling
at 100 kph, this translates into roughly time enough to read and comprehend a 10-word
message. The character height, cone of vision, and lateral placement must all be considered
when determining the placement of the sign to meet the sight distance required.
6.4.1.3 Out-of-Vision Zone

Once drivers get too close to the sign, they will not be able to read the message. The out-of-
vision distance is determined by the viewing angle, the structure the sign is placed on, and
the lateral placement of the sign.
6.4.2 Lateral and Vertical Placement

Details of lateral and vertical placements are provided in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation
Systems Deployment Manual (2013).

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7 Lane Control Signs
7.1 System Purpose

The primary function of lane control signs (LCSs) is to maximize road capacity and safety.
Information is transmitted through specific dynamic road traffic signs with relatively small
dimensions. Applications for LCS include lane open, close, or change; variable traffic and
speed restrictions; travel times; congestion warnings; temporary shoulder use; and hazard
lane signalization.
A green downward arrow is used to indicate a lane that is open to traffic facing the signal.
A red X indicates that a lane is closed to traffic, and a flashing yellow circle, arrow, or X
indicates to traffic facing the signal to clear the lane immediately. Other LCSs can show full-
color graphics or text, depending on the intended use.
To maximize the effectiveness of LCSs and to reduce potential threats to driver safety, the
sign type, placement, and the supporting structure must all be carefully considered when
designing and deploying any new sign.
7.2 Types of Signs

LCSs are special overhead signs on a street or expressway that indicate whether travel in a
lane is prohibited or allowed. Each sign is controlled independently to indicate the status of
each travel lane.
Graphic displays placed over individual travel lanes displaying colored pictograms (red X,
green arrow, or yellow arrow to the left or right [see Figure 7.1]) indicate lane usage as
follows:
• Steady green indication: Drivers may travel in the lane under a green signal.
• Steady or flashing yellow: Drivers are warned that a lane control change is being made.
• Steady red indication: Drivers shall not enter or travel in any lane where a red signal is
shown.

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Figure 7.1 Example of a Lane Control Sign

The dimensions and weight of most LCSs allow easy installation and configuration for various
road infrastructures, including tunnels, bridges, and expressway and road interchanges. All
messages need to be visible under any lighting conditions. In the case of lane closures, the
signs must clearly indicate which lanes are open or closed to avoid driver confusion.
All LCSs shall be coordinated so that all indications along the controlled section of road
are operated uniformly and consistently. For reversible LCSs, the indications must not be
simultaneously displayed over the same lane to both directions of travel. All LCSs will be
located in a straight line across the road, approximately at right angles to the road alignment.
The site must be safe for maintenance personnel and must minimize costs and be in
accordance with the latest version of the Qatar National Construction Standards (Ministry of
Environment [MoE], 2011). For example, there must be sufficient shoulder on which to park
a bucket truck without needing a full lane closure and significant traffic maintenance.
7.3.1 Spacing between Signs

Sign placement should allow drivers to decide which lane they need to drive in and should
provide maximum visibility of the message. At expressway speeds, the LCS should be visible
to the approaching driver from 300 to 600 m away. The color of LCS indications must be
clearly visible for 600 m at all times under normal atmospheric conditions, unless otherwise
physically obstructed.

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LCS will be placed at a maximum spacing of 500 m apart on all major arterials and expressways.
7.3.2 Vertical Placement

The sign placement should not be lower than the required vertical clearance of the structure
to which it is attached.


architecture.
7.4.2 Longitudinal Placement

The designer must make sure that the LCS is visible and unobscured, and that the spacing
between LCSs is appropriate and allows drivers enough time to change lanes.
7.4.3 Vertical Placement

The approaching segment of road must be relatively flat (between 0 and 4 percent vertical
grade).
7.4.4 Sign Matrix Type

The sign matrix type must be chosen to be consistent with the visibility and message
requirements of the road on which it is deployed.
7.4.5 Structure
The designer must consider visibility, road speed, traffic volume, right-of-way, and
maintenance cost issues when selecting the type of sign structure.
Sufficient vertical clearance must be provided for the sign and the structure.
7.4.6 Enclosure
The designer must consider whether maintenance personnel can safely access the enclosure
and whether the enclosure is located within a reasonable distance of the LCS.
The sign face must be visible from the enclosure’s location, and the orientation and location
must provide adequate protection for the enclosure.

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All power requirements for the LCS and all system components must be established, and an
appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance of the LCS and confirmed
with the utility company.
options identified.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the LCS. In addition, the
designer must determine whether an appropriate communication source has been located
and confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
7.4.9 Environmental

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8 Ramp Metering System
8.1 System Purpose

Ramp metering or control is used to regulate the flow of traffic along a slip road or ramp onto
an expressway to minimize the congesting effect of traffic joining the mainline road. It is
also covered in Volume 1, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this
Manual.
Ramp meters are traffic signals that control traffic at entrances to expressways and are
installed to address three primary operational objectives:
• Control the number of vehicles allowed to enter the expressway
• Reduce expressway demand
• Disperse platoons of vehicles released from an upstream traffic signal
The purpose of the first and second objectives is to maintain the total traffic entering
an expressway section below the operational or bottleneck capacity of that section. A
secondary purpose of ramp metering is to introduce controlled delay to drivers wishing to
enter the expressway and, as a result, reduce the incentive to use the expressway for short
trips during peak periods.
Easily accessible alternate routes must be available to achieve the desired result of the
secondary purpose. In addition, measures should be implemented to prevent any traffic
diversion to neighborhood or local streets.
The purpose of the third objective is to provide safe and efficient merge operations at the
expressway entrance. Ramp metering has been shown to prevent expressway disruptions
that can cause unsafe queuing conditions by significantly decreasing expressway capacity.
Preventing expressway flow disruptions may reduce the chance of rear-end crashes.
Most urban expressways are multi-lane facilities that carry heavy traffic during peak periods.
However, traffic demand at a single on-ramp is usually a small component of the total
expressway demand. Therefore, metering a single ramp and even a few ramps may not be
sufficient to achieve the first objective.
When properly installed, ramp metering can potentially provide the following benefits:
• Increased expressway productivity
• Increased speeds
• Safer operation on an expressway and its entrances
• Decreased fuel consumption and vehicular emissions

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8.2 Study Requirements

Ramp metering can improve the safety and efficiency of traffic flow at or around expressway
bottlenecks under certain conditions. A thorough engineering study should be conducted to
determine the applicability of this traffic management strategy.
Detailed guidance is given in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment

Manual (2013); however, a brief overview of the study requirements is given in the following
paragraphs.
8.2.1 Data Collection

Detailed data should be collected for the entire expressway section of interest, which may
include one or more bottlenecks and adjacent road facilities.
Site visits should be undertaken to assess where and how the following data can be collected:
• Crash data for 3 years, if possible
• Traffic data, such as, traffic volumes, speeds, and observations about formation,
dissipation, and impacts of queues on expressway lanes, entrance ramps, and exit ramps
• Road geometry, including number of lanes, ramp length, and other geometric features
8.2.2 Data Analysis

The following analyses must be undertaken as part of the study:
• Analyze crash data to identify the locations, numbers, and severity of crashes in the
section
• Assess traffic volume and demand levels to assess whether ramp metering would be
viable
• Analyze the adequacy of ramp geometrics to support efficient ramp metering operation
8.2.3 Design of System

The design of the ramp metering system must consider individual components, including
loop detectors, appropriate signing and markings, traffic signal controllers, and traffic signals.
More detail about ramp metering systems is provided in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation
Systems Deployment Manual (2013).

17
8.2.3.1 Types of Ramp Metering

When the merge area of the expressway is not a bottleneck, an uncontrolled single-lane
expressway entrance ramp may have a throughput capacity of 1,800 to 2,200 vehicles per
hour. The same ramp will have a lower capacity when metered. The maximum theoretical
metering capacity depends on the type of strategy used. The three metering strategies are
as follows:
• Single lane, one car per green indication

• Single lane, multiple cars per green indication
• Dual-lane metering


architecture.
8.3.2 Ramp Meter Study

The designer must perform a comprehensive ramp meter study and the results of the study
support continuing with the project deployment.
8.3.3 Lane Configuration

The designed number of lanes and vehicles per green indication must support the projected
ramp volume.
8.3.4 Ramp Meter Location

The designer must consider placement of the stop line such that enough storage space is
available on the ramp to accommodate the queues it will generate.
If the ramp meter consists of more than one lane, the designer must provide sufficient
distance for the lanes to merge before the merge with the mainline road and develop ramp
geometry that allows sufficient sight distance to the ramp meter signals.
8.3.5 Vehicle Detectors

The designer must consider all necessary detection areas — for example, demand, ramp
queue, and mainline.
The complexity and configuration of the system may require additional detection area in the
passage, exit ramp, and entrance ramp, which the designer must consider.

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8.3.6 Enclosure Placement

The designer must consider whether an enclosure is required for any metering components.
If an enclosure is provided, the designer must determine whether maintenance personnel
can safely access the enclosure.
Any enclosure must be located within the manufacturer’s recommended distance from the
detectors and positioned so that maintenance personnel can access the enclosure while
viewing the ramp meter signal heads.
The enclosure should be mounted on an existing structure, where possible, and the location
and orientation must provide adequate protection for the enclosure. A concrete maintainer’s
pad also must be provided at the enclosure’s main door.

All power requirements for the detectors and the system must be considered.
The designer must confirm that an appropriate power source has been located within a
reasonable distance and confirmed with the utility company.
options identified.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the detectors. In addition,
the designer must determine whether an appropriate communication source has been
located and confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
8.3.9 Environmental

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9 Toll and Payment Collection
9.1 Background Information

In the past, infrastructure operators have recognized the inefficiency of paying fees
at toll plazas and have developed electronic payment methods to speed up the process.
Many modern toll areas have lanes dedicated to those vehicles that have prepaid or billed
electronic payment options (see Figure 9.1). The latest version of the Qatar Traffic Control
Manual contains details regarding appropriate signs and road markings for such lanes.
The principal objectives of electronic payment systems (EPS) are to lower costs, increase
revenues for the relevant transportation agency, and enhance customer satisfaction with
transport services. Additionally, EPS typically require less land acquisition and reduce
congestion and, therefore, delays.
Figure 9.1 Example of a Toll Plaza

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9.2 Types of Collection

The most common hardware options for an EPS for the end users are smart cards, transponders,
and cellular telephones.
9.2.1 Smart Cards

Smart cards are ideal for paying transactions that are usually made in cash, for example,
transit fares, and car park fees. Value is stored on a card that is the same size and shape as
a credit card and has an integrated circuit chip embedded in it.
There are two different types of smart card. The “contact” smart card requires physical
contact with the card reader to process a transaction, and the “contactless” card requires the
card to be within a certain distance of the reader to process a transaction.
9.2.2 Transponders
A transponder operates one of the three components of an EPS, the transponder, the reader,
and the computer system for data processing and storage. The transponder is secured to
the vehicle. The transponder relies on radio frequency identification technology to operate.
Active transponders contain batteries to power their internal circuitry. Passive transponders
get their power from the radio frequency pulse they receive from the reader.
9.2.3 Cellular Telephones

Cellular telephones have the potential to be EPS components because cellular telephones
contain an integrated circuit chip that contains the user’s information.
9.3 Other Considerations

An effective communications system must be in place for EPS to be successful. The internal
functions need to be performed with a host computer or a network of computers to maintain
the EPS databases; process and authorize various facets of the system; and facilitate other
functions, such as customer service.
User acceptance is important for successful implementation of EPSs. Where electronic toll
collection has been introduced, it has resulted in shorter queues through toll plazas.

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10 Enforcement Systems
10.1 System Purpose

In the past, to verify that drivers were actually obeying speed or weight limit laws and paying
tolls, infrastructure operators had little choice but to stop vehicles and request payment
or verify the appropriate data. This has resulted in large tolling areas and weigh stations
that, by their nature, slow traffic down. The EPS, discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part, have
helped improve traffic flow, but even these systems require some form of fixed or mobile
enforcement.
Radar and infrared technology offer solutions to enforcement issues. Some types of
enforcement are discussed in the following paragraphs.
10.2 License Plate Reader

License Plate Reader (LPR) systems can be used for multiple purposes, including identifying
untaxed and uninsured vehicles and stolen cars. LPR uses optical character recognition on
images to read vehicle registration plates.
Authorities use LPR systems as a method of electronic toll collection and for cataloging
vehicle movements.
10.3 Speed Enforcement

Speeding is a major contributing factor to crashes and increases both the risk of a crash
occurring and the severity of that crash. The introduction of ITS to reduce speeds can
contribute to a reduction in crashes.
Speed enforcement cameras are used to monitor compliance with speed limits using Doppler
radar, light detection and ranging (LiDAR), or LPR technologies (see Figure 10.1). In addition,
other speed enforcement systems are used that are not camera-based.
The following paragraphs provide detail on possible solutions.

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Figure 10.1 Example of an Enforcement Camera
10.3.1 Point Speed Cameras

Point speed cameras measure the speed of a vehicle at a short point in the road, such as a
location with a high number of crashes. The camera uses radar detection. Drivers exceeding
the speed limit are fined.
10.3.2 Average Speed Cameras

Average speed cameras are installed over a stretch of road and are linked to LPR software
that calculates the speed over that length of road. Enforcement is similar as for point cameras.
Average speed cameras do not require film because they use digital technology.
10.4 Other Types of Enforcement

10.4.1 Bus Lane Enforcement
In some countries, bus-lane-only use is enforced. Some bus-lane enforcement cameras use a
sensor in the road, which triggers an LPR camera that compares the vehicle registration plate
with a list of approved vehicles and records images of other vehicles. Other systems use a
camera mounted on the bus.
10.4.2 Red Light Enforcement

A red light enforcement camera is a traffic camera that takes an image of a vehicle traveling
through an intersection when the light is red (see Figure 10.2). The system continuously
monitors the traffic signal and the camera is triggered by any vehicle entering the intersection
above a preset minimum speed and following a specified time after the signal has turned red.

17
Figure 10.2 Example of a Red Light Enforcement Camera
10.4.3 Other Enforcement

Cameras can be used in the following enforcement applications:
• Congestion charge cameras are cameras inside a chargeable area that detects vehicles
that have not paid the appropriate fee.
• High-occupancy vehicle lane cameras identify vehicles violating occupancy requirements.
• Parking cameras are used to issue fines to owners of illegally parked vehicles or
vehicles that were not moved from a street by a posted time.

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10.5 Mobile Enforcement

Mobile speed cameras may be hand-held, tripod-mounted, or vehicle-mounted. In vehicle-
mounted systems, detection equipment and cameras can be mounted to the vehicle itself, or
tripod-mounted inside the vehicle and deployed out of a window or door.
If the camera is fixed to the vehicle, the enforcement vehicle does not necessarily have to be
stationary. The vehicle can be moved either with or against the flow of traffic. In the latter
case, depending on the direction of travel, the target vehicle’s relative speed is either added
to or subtracted from the enforcement vehicle’s own speed to obtain its actual speed. The
speedometer of the camera vehicle needs to be calibrated accurately.

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11 Telecommunications Networks
11.1 Background
The communications protocol for Qatar’s road ITS devices should be based on those provided
in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013).

The communication design considerations are provided in detail in the Ashghal Intelligent
Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013); however, the principal considerations
are as follows:
• The required communications characteristics must be identified, including bandwidth.
• Telecommunication options must be investigated at or near the planned deployment

sites.
• The Overseeing Organization must be coordinated with so that its requirements are met.
• If public infrastructure is being used, the telecommunications service providers must be

contacted to find out if the required communications service is available at the proposed
deployment locations.
• The related costs, benefits, and security aspects of various communications options
must be compared. A suitable communications means must be selected based on the
options available at the deployment sites.
• The chosen overall design of the communication means must be incorporated into, or
take into consideration with, the wider area network.
• For security reasons, communications routed through the Internet are acceptable only
on a case-by-case basis. Any connection using public bandwidth must be accepted by

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17
12 Intelligent Transportation
Systems in Tunnels
12.1 Vehicle Detection Systems in Tunnels

Managing traffic in tunnels presents a number of unique challenges. An incident inside a
highway tunnel can have serious repercussions and will affect traffic flow in a large area
surrounding the tunnel. Automatic incident detection systems can enhance traffic safety in
tunnels, particularly longer ones. Figure 12.1 shows an example of an ITS deployment in a
tunnel.
Source: Photo courtesy of Amey UK plc.
Figure 12.1 Example of an Intelligent Transportation System in a Tunnel
A tunnel ITS can use various subsystems, including traffic signals, CCTV cameras, fire alarms,
and emergency telephone broadcasting, all of which are monitored and controlled by central
monitoring systems.
Properly deployed, ITSs in tunnels can help minimize crashes, make traffic flow more smoothly,
help maintain a comfortable environment inside the tunnel, reduce electricity consumption,

17
and enable efficient crash management. Such a system relies on real-time data, as well as
historical information and statistics that enable appropriate analyses.
Other ITSs and services that can be useful in tunnels are emergency call systems that let
drivers notify the authorities immediately about incidents that are not obvious on cameras.
Traffic signals and control systems can guide the traffic flow. Environment detection systems
and ventilation systems can detect environmental conditions and eliminate vehicle exhaust,
providing warnings when the carbon dioxide levels are too high.
12.2 CCTV Cameras in Tunnels

CCTV coverage should be provided on the approaches to and inside a tunnel.

17
References
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual, Version 1.0. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. January 2013.
Bluetooth SIG, Inc. “Fast Facts.” http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/Fast-Facts.aspx. Accessed 2014.
CTV Calgary. “Wireless Waves Used to Track travel Times.” http://calgary.ctvnews.ca/wireless-waves-

used-to-track-travel-times-1.1054731. Bell Media. November 26, 2012.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards 2010 (QCS 2010). State of Qatar:
Doha, Qatar. 2011.
Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. State of Qatar: Doha,
Qatar. 2020.
World Road Association-PIARC. ITS Manual, Second edition. Ed. Dr. John C. Miles and Dr. Kan Chen. PIARC
Technical Committee on Network Operations: Paris, France. 2005.
Bibliography
ERTICO, “Intelligent Transport Systems and Services for Europe.” http://www.ertico.com/ertico-its-europe/.

Accessed June 2014.

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Volume 3
Part 18
Street Lighting
STREET LIGHTING PART
18
Disclaimer
of any kind.
maintenance will be used by MOTC to update the manuals. Users are encouraged to provide feedback
through the MOTC website within a year of publishing the manuals, which will be reviewed, assessed, and
possibly included in the next version.

PART STREET LIGHTING
18

18
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations...................................................................................................v
1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 General............................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Hierarchy of Standards.............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Sustainability................................................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Reference Standards and Documents................................................................................................. 3
2 Environmental................................................................................................................. 5
3 Software Requirements................................................................................................ 7
3.1 General............................................................................................................................................................ 7
3.2 Lighting Photometric Performance Software.................................................................................. 7
3.3 Lighting Cabling Network Software..................................................................................................... 8
4 Classifications and Design Factors.............................................................................. 9

4.1 Road Classification..................................................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Road Surface Classification..................................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Maintenance Factor................................................................................................................................. 10
4.4 Luminaire Inclination.............................................................................................................................. 10
5 Lighting Design.............................................................................................................11
5.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 11
5.2 Lighting Level for Various Road Classifications........................................................................... 11
5.3 Roundabouts and Intersections......................................................................................................... 12
5.3.1.Roundabouts.......................................................................................................................... 12
5.3.2.Intersections.......................................................................................................................... 12
5.3.3.Underbridges.......................................................................................................................... 13
5.3.4.Underpasses........................................................................................................................... 13
5.3.5. Pedestrian Crossings........................................................................................................... 13
5.3.6.Tunnels..................................................................................................................................... 14
5.3.7. Bike Paths and Pedestrian Walkways.......................................................................... 14
5.4 Special Lighting Requirements........................................................................................................... 15
5.4.1. Lighting near Overhead Lines......................................................................................... 15
5.4.2. Lighting of Bends in Road................................................................................................. 16
5.4.3. Column Setback..................................................................................................................... 17
6 Typical Road Lighting Furniture Configurations......................................................19

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7 Standard Lighting Equipment.....................................................................................21

7.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 21
7.2 Luminaires/Lamps.................................................................................................................................... 21
7.2.1.Luminaires............................................................................................................................... 21
7.2.2. High Pressure Sodium........................................................................................................ 21
7.2.3.LED............................................................................................................................................. 22
7.3 Conventional, Non-High Mast Columns........................................................................................... 22
7.4 High Masts.................................................................................................................................................. 22
7.5 Cables............................................................................................................................................................ 23
7.6 Earthing........................................................................................................................................................ 23
7.7 Feeder Pillars............................................................................................................................................. 24
7.8 Ducts............................................................................................................................................................. 24
8 Sign Gantry Lighting....................................................................................................27
9 Typical Lighting Layouts.............................................................................................29

9.1 Design Drawings Symbols.................................................................................................................... 29
9.2 Typical Roundabout Layout................................................................................................................. 30
9.3 Typical Intersection Layout.................................................................................................................. 31
References ............................................................................................................................33

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Tables
Table 3.1. Allowable Voltage Drops............................................................................................................................... 8

Table 4.1. Road Lighting Classifications...................................................................................................................... 9
Table 4.2. Road Surface Classifications....................................................................................................................... 9
Table 4.3. Maintenance Factors for Lighting Types..............................................................................................10
Table 5.1. Lighting Levels for Road Classification Types....................................................................................11
Table 5.2. Roundabout Lighting Design Criteria.....................................................................................................12
Table 5.3. Intersection Performance Requirements for Road Classifications.............................................13
Table 5.4. Minimum Performance Requirements for Underbridge Lighting................................................13
Table 5.5. Minimum Illumination Level for Pedestrian Crossings.....................................................................14
Table 5.6. Recommended Illumination Levels for Cycle/ Bike Paths and Pedestrian Walkways.........15
Table 5.7. Minimum Clearance from Front of Roadside Curb to Lighting Column Face...........................17
Table 6.1. Typical Column, Luminaire, Lamp, and Tilt for Various Road Types...........................................19
Table 8.1. Required Illumination Level for Traffic Signboards...........................................................................27
Table 9.1. Drawing Symbols on Design Layout Drawings...................................................................................29
Figures
Figure 5.1. Positioning of Lighting Columns near Pedestrian Crossings........................................................14

Figure 5.2. Spacing Reduction at Bends and Curves..............................................................................................16
Figure 9.1. Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Roundabout............................................................................30
Figure 9.2. Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at T-intersection........................................................................31
Figure 9.3. Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Staggered Intersection......................................................31
Figure 9.4. Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Signalized Intersection......................................................32

18

18
BS EN British Standard that is the implementation of the European Norm
candelas/m2 candelas per square meter
CIE Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
cm centimeter(s)
Cu copper
Eav maintained average illuminance
HPS high-pressure sodium
IP Ingress Protection
Kahramaa Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation
km kilometer(s)
Lave maintained average luminance
LED light emitting diode
lux SI unit of illuminance equal to one lumen per square meter
m meter(s)
m² square meter(s)
mm millimeter(s)
mm2 square millimeter(s)
MoE Ministry of Environment
NFPA National Fire Protection Association (United States)
PVC polyvinyl chloride

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SI International System of Units
SL1 plot accesses/driveways
SL2 road crossings
SL4 road crossings at feeder pillar locations
SR surround ratio
SWA galvanized steel wire armor
TI threshold increment
UL longitudinal uniformity ratio
Uo overall uniformity ratio
W watt(s)
XLPE cross-linked polyethylene

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1 Introduction
1.1 General
This lighting design part of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) has been prepared as
the primary exterior lighting (excluding landscape) design standard for the State of Qatar.
All roads within Qatar shall be lit, unless specifically instructed by the Head of Street Lighting
within the Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance Department.
The goal of lighting design is to provide a solution that achieves the basic lighting parameters.
There is a fundamental requirement that all design solutions be constructible, maintainable,
and sustainable.
All proposed street lighting and final designs shall be reviewed for compliance with the
QHDM. Design approval shall be obtained from the Ashghal Design Department, Head of
Street Lighting within Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance Department, prior to
ordering materials or equipment or the commencement of on-site works.
Accordingly, this section is intended to provide designers with a clear understanding of the
requirements of the design process, including the identification of the stakeholders whose
specific requirements and inputs are to be considered throughout the life cycle of each
project.
This part provides guidance on good design practice, but designers must ensure that all
materials proposed are in accordance with the latest version of the Qatar Construction
Specification 2014 (QCS 2014) ( Ashghal).
The State of Qatar Public Works Authority (Ashghal) shall have the sole authority to instruct
if any contradiction or clash arises between standards or codes of practice.
1.2 Hierarchy of Standards

It is recognized that specific design standards can be developed for specific projects. However,
for roads that are to be maintained by Ashghal, the hierarchy of standards identified below
must be adhered to.
Accordingly, any design to be undertaken adopting the Qatar Highway Design Manual as the
primary design basis should adopt the following hierarchy of standards:
1. Qatar Highway Design Manual

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2. Corresponding British and European standards
3. Commission Internationale de lÉclairage (CIE) standards
Should there be any discrepancy with any project design standards or design manuals, the
QHDM shall take precedence over the primary standard that overarches all other standards,
unless prior written approval from Ashghal is received for the project exception.
1.3 Sustainability
The key sustainability principles for highway design in Qatar are summarized in Volume 1,
Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, and Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this
Manual. Early consideration of potential impacts and how the design can ensure these
impacts are avoided or minimized is a key principle to be followed. Sustainable design should
minimize the need for design rework and achieve optimal economic feasibility considering
costs over the whole asset life, including future costs that may be incurred from changes to
traffic volumes, urbanization, user types, and environmental conditions. The design should,
from the earliest stages, consider opportunities to design out negative environmental and
social impacts and how enhancements can be incorporated. Specifically relating to the design
of street lighting, designers should consider the following issues (refer to Volume 3, Part 21,
Environmental, of this Manual):
• Social and economic: Effective lighting benefits the community by reducing nighttime
personal injury accidents, street crime, and fear. Moreover, research suggests effective
lighting facilitates social inclusion and economic development by supporting a 24-hour
leisure economy.
• Safety: Lighting design should incorporate roads, underbridges, underpasses, tunnels,

pedestrian walkways, community gathering spaces, and cycle routes.
• Operational energy consumption: The maintenance and upgrading of lighting systems

with efficient light sources, fixtures, and controls can provide several benefits, such as
enhanced aesthetics, reduced lighting energy use, and improved visual environment.
Equipment should be specified to maximize energy efficiency in use, and designers
should incorporate opportunities to co-locate micro-renewable energy generation with
equipment requiring an energy demand.
• Resource efficiency through sustainable procurement: Design should promote the

procurement of equipment that minimizes the quantity of raw, specifically scarce,
materials required. The design should be optimized to minimize waste during construction,
maintenance, and decommission of lighting options. Operational temperature resistance
of equipment should be considered at an early stage.
• Reduction of environmentally hazardous waste by-product: Designer shall consider

the material composition of lighting equipment and avoid or eliminate the use of products
that include hazardous materials.

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• Visual impact and landscape design: Lighting design should minimize the visual impact
of the road and seek to enhance the visual amenity value of the area where possible.
• Light pollution and disturbance: Lighting schemes should minimize unnecessary light
pollution and intrusion of local community sensitive receptors. Schemes should also
review the ecological and biodiversity impacts surrounding the roadway corridor.
• Cultural heritage: Roadway design should optimize the protection, preservation, and
enhancement of sites of archaeological or cultural value through lighting solutions to
avoid or minimize visual intrusion.
• Promoting sustainable transport: Designers should consider lighting requirements of

all road users making suitable provisions for public transport users in terms of provision
of lighting to access and cross the road network. Where roadways are unsuitable for
nonmotorized users, the design should consider incorporating lit segregated pathways
for cycle users.
1.4 Reference Standards and Documents

This lighting design part has been prepared based on the standards listed below. These
national and international standards are appropriate and directly relevant for providing the
highest level of lighting design practice for the Qatar highways network:
• British Standard BS 5489-1: Code of Practice for the Design of Road Lighting—Part 1:
Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity Areas (BS 5489-1)
• British Standard BS 7671: Requirements for Electrical Installations (BS 7671)
• British Standard BS EN 12899-1: Fixed, Vertical Road Traffic Signs—Part 1: Fixed Signs
(BS EN 12899-1)
• British Standard BS EN 13201-2: Road Lighting—Part 2: Performance Requirements

(BS EN 13201-2)
• CIE Standard 88: Guide for the Lighting of Road Tunnels and Underpasses (CIE 88: latest
edition)
• CIE Standard 115: Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic (CIE 115:2010)
• CIE Standard 121: The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires (CIE 121-1996)
• CIE Standard 129: Guide for Lighting Exterior Work Areas (CIE 129-1998)
• CIE Standard 136: Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas (CIE 136-1995)
• CIE Standard 140: Road Lighting Calculations (CIE 140-2000)
• CIE Standard 189: Calculation of Tunnel Lighting Quality Criteria (CIE 189:2010)
• Electrical and Photometric Measurements of Solid-State Lighting Products (Illuminating

Engineering Society, 2008)

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• Qatar Construction Specification (Ashghal, 2014)
• Well-lit Highways: Code of Practice for Highway Lighting Management (UK Lighting
Board, 2004)
• ASHGHAL Street Lighting Luminaire Specification – LED
• QCS: Section 06: Roadworks, Part 15: Road Lighting
It is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that the most current edition of each
standard is used or referenced.

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2 Environmental
Ashghal places great emphasis on the environmental aspect of any design. This is especially
true of lighting designs, where technological advances are constantly being made in terms
of efficiency and the reduction of the carbon footprint.
The lighting designer must refer to the steps that have been taken in terms of addressing
the issue of environmental sustainability. All lighting design reports must include, at each
design stage, a section relating to environmental considerations, specifically with reference
to Volume 3, Part 21, Environmental, of this Manual.
The areas that designers must demonstrate that they have considered must include, but not
be limited to, the following:
• Efficient light sources

• Minimizing light pollution
• Energy efficiency in terms of choice and location of equipment
• Environmental impact ease of maintenance
• Choosing light sources that do not contain hazardous materials
• Achieving sustainable design criteria

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3 Software Requirements
3.1 General
Any calculations relating to lighting design downstream of the feeder pillar must be carried
out using an independent software package. This includes the lighting performance
calculations and all supporting electrical calculations relating to the cabling network.
For low-voltage power supplies, the designer must liaise with the approving body within
Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Kahramaa) to ensure that their specific
requirements are met. Specific reference is made to the Kahramaa Workshop for Consultants—
Roads Design & Procedures. However, it is the designer’s responsibility to strictly adhere to
the latest Kahramaa requirements and standards.
3.2 Lighting Photometric Performance Software

Verification calculations of lighting performance must be done using a software package from
an independent, non luminaire manufacturer. It is recommended that one of the following
packages be used:
• Lighting Reality
• AGI
• Litestar
Designers are permitted to use other independent software packages. However, they
must obtain written acceptance from Ashghal for any alternative software prior to the
commencement of design works. Ashghal reserves the right to ask the designer for a practical
demonstration, prior to approving any alternative.
No manufacturer-related software will be approved by Ashghal.
The designer shall, upon request by Ashghal, provide a copy of the “read only” software for
the lighting software selected.
All lighting design calculations must clearly identify the road lighting classification being
designed to (see Table 4.1), together with the corresponding design values applicable to
the road lighting type (see Table 5.1). Performance calculations must adhere to the design
values for the applicable road classification.
Performance calculations shall provide results that can be achieved by at least three separate
luminaire manufacturers.
Refer to Chapter 5 in this Part for the lighting performance requirements for the various
lighting parameters.

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3.3 Lighting Cabling Network Software

All lighting cable sizing and earthing calculations must be carried out using a software
package from an independent, non-cable manufacturer. It is recommended that one of the
following be used:
• Amtech
• Hevacomp
• ETAP
Designers are permitted to use other independent software packages. However, they
must obtain written acceptance from Ashghal for any alternative software prior to the
commencement of design works. Ashghal reserves the right to ask the designer for a practical
demonstration, prior to approving any alternative.
The designer shall, upon request by Ashghal, provide a copy of the “read only” software for
the electrical cable design software selected.
No manufacturer-related software will be approved by Ashghal.
Voltage drop calculations shall be strictly limited to 5 percent from substation to the last
column within each lighting circuit, as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Allowable Voltage Drops
Element of Circuit Considered Maximum Voltage Drop
Substation to Feeder Pillar 2.5%
Feeder Pillar to End of Circuit 2.5%
The breakdown of the permissible volt drops should be the targeted maximum for each
element of the circuit.
There is a degree of tolerance allowed. However, neither of the two elements shall individually
exceed 3 percent, and the maximum of the sum of the two circuit elements shall not exceed
5 percent.
No voltage drop from substation to end of street lighting circuit shall exceed 5 percent,
in accordance with Kahramaa requirements. Any deviation from this requirement must be
supported by written agreement and approval from Kahramaa. Compliance with voltage
drop requirement does not negate the requirement for cables to be fully compliant with the
requirements of the QCS 2014 (Ashghal).

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4 Classifications and Design

Factors
4.1 Road Classification

The road classification is determined by the road/highway designers, based on factors such
as the design speed, traffic flow, location, and capacity. For the purposes of lighting design,
the road classifications are as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Road Lighting Classifications
Highway Class per Volume 1,

Road Part 2, Sections 3.3 and 3.4,
Classification Description of this Manual
Freeways
A Motorways and expressways
Expressways
B Ring roads and major urban arterial roads Major Arterials
Boulevards
Distributor roads (urban), minor urban arterials,
C Minor Arterials
major urban collectors, and commercial streets
Major Collectors
Collector Distributors
Distributor roads (rural), service roads, and minor
D Minor Collectors
urban collector roads
Service Roads
E Local urban access and residential roads Local Roads
F Nonvehicular Not applicable
4.2 Road Surface Classification

In addition to the type of road, the reflectivity of the road shall be taken into account in the
lighting design. Table 4.2 defines the various road surface classifications.
Table 4.2 Road Surface Classifications
Surface
Class Q₀ Description Reflectance Mode
Concrete road surface or asphalt road surface with a minimum
R1 0.1 Mostly diffuse
of 12% of aggregates composed of artificial brightener.
Asphalt road surface with an aggregate composed of a

Mixed (diffuse and
R2 0.07 minimum 60% gravel with a size greater than 1 cm and with
specular)
10 to 15% artificial brightener in asphalt mix.
Asphalt road surface with dark aggregates or with a rough

R3 0.07 Slightly specular
texture after some months of use (typical highways).
R4 0.08 Asphalt road surface with very smooth texture. Mostly specular

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It is the designers’ responsibility to liaise with their own highway design teams, and Ashghal
as required, to ensure that the correct road surface classification is adopted for each element
of the lighting design works.
4.3 Maintenance Factor

The maintenance factor is a key element of any lighting design. It is primarily based on
following factors:
• IP rating of the luminaire

• Depreciation of the light output over a given period of time
• Pollution category
• Cleaning and lamp replacement intervals
Irrespective of road type, the maintenance regime and IP rating of the equipment will be the
same. The only change to this would be for the lighting within structures where luminaires
are more prone to dust ingress. Table 4.3 lists the maintenance factors to adopt. The
maintenance factors denoted below shall be adopted unless advised otherwise by Ashghal
Roads Operation & Maintenance Department.
Table 4.3 Maintenance Factors for Lighting Types
Luminaire Location Maintenance Factor
Conventional column lighting 0.70
Underbridge/underpass & tunnel lighting 0.70
High-mast lighting 0.80
4.4 Luminaire Inclination

Luminaire inclination, or tilt, should be no greater than 5 degrees. Lighting designs requiring
limited use of a bracket resulting in luminaire inclinations greater than 5 degrees may be
accepted, subject to written approval from the Head of Street Lighting within Asset Affairs,
Roads Operation & Maintenance Department.

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5 Lighting Design
5.1 General
This section deals specifically with the lighting levels to be adopted for the lighting of roads,
under bridges, underpasses, tunnels, pedestrian walkways/ underpasses (subway), cycle
path/ bike path and road parking.
There are also design levels to be adopted for conflict areas where an increased lighting level
is required for the safety of motorists and to enhance the contrast between pedestrians and
the background.
Conflict areas are defined in BS 5489 as “typically junctions, intersections, roundabouts

and pedestrian crossings, where significant streams of motorized traffic intersect with each
other, or, with other road users such as pedestrians and cyclists” (BS 5489-1).
5.2 Lighting Level for Various Road Classifications

Table 5.1 identifies the minimum performance requirements for the various road
classifications (see Table 4.1).
Table 5.1 Lighting Levels for Road Classification Types
Maintained Maximum
Average Overall Longitudinal Threshold
Road Luminance, Lave Uniformity Uniformity Increment, TI Surround
Classification (candelas/m²) Ratio, Uo Ratio, Ul (%) Ratio, SR
A 2 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
B 1.5 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
C 1.5 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
D 1 0.4 0.5 15 0.5
E 0.75 0.4 0.5 15 0.5
F Measured in Illuminance. Refer to Section 5.3.7, in this part.

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5.3 Roundabouts and Intersections

5.3.1 Roundabouts
The lighting provided at a roundabout should enable the driver to see clearly any traffic
to the left, at the preceding entry or entries, and traffic already on the gyratory system of
the roundabout. The lighting should also enable the driver to have adequate forward vision
when on the roundabout to see traffic entering from the right and to decide whether it is
safe to proceed.
Roundabouts fall within three categories:
• Motorway or freeway intersection with distributor roads
• Distributor roads with local and residential roads
• Internal local and residential roads
Table 5.2 lists the minimum performance requirements for the various road classifications
(see Table 4.1).
Table 5.2 Roundabout Lighting Design Criteria
Maintained Average Illuminance, Eav Overall Uniformity Ratio,

Road Classification (lux) Uo
A 50 0.4
B 30 0.4
C 30 0.4
D 20 0.4
E 15 0.4
F Not applicable Not applicable
Lighting levels for conflict areas are directly linked to the lighting of the approach road. Where
the approach roads to the conflict area (see Section 5.1, in this part) differ in classification,
the highest road classification level is applicable.
For typical roundabout layouts, refer to Section 9.2, in this part.
5.3.2 Intersections
The lighting at intersections should reveal the positions of curbs and road markings, the
direction of roads, the presence of pedestrians or obstructions, and the movement of vehicles
near the intersection. The lighting at the intersection shall be related to the need of drivers
approaching to see vehicles approaching from other directions.
Depending on the importance of the intersection with respect to traffic flow, lighting
arrangements shall be worked out considering the lighting levels of the roads leading to and
from it. Table 5.3 presents intersection performance requirements.

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Table 5.3 Intersection Performance Requirements for Road Classifications
Maintained Average Illuminance, Eav

Road Classification (lux) Overall Uniformity Ratio, Uo
A 50 0.4
B 30 0.4
C 30 0.4
D 20 0.4
E 15 0.4
For typical intersection layout, refer to Section 9.3 in this part.
5.3.3 Underbridges
An underbridge, in lighting terms, is road covered by a bridge structure that has to be lit at
night to maintain a seamless transition between the entry and exit from the bridge structure.
To achieve desired driving conditions, nighttime lighting must be equal or greater than that
on the approach road. Table 5.4 lists minimum performance requirements for underbridge
lighting.
Table 5.4 Minimum Performance Requirements for Underbridge Lighting
Maintained Average Illuminance (lux) Overall Uniformity Ratio, Uo
50 0.4
5.3.4 Underpasses
Lighting requirements shall be assessed depending on the length of the structure.
If light penetration into the underpass is sufficient (according to CIE 88:latest edition,
Section 4) and the length is less than or equal to 75 m, then only uniform night time lighting
is warranted to complement the surrounding roads/area. Refer to Section 5.2 in this part.
Should there not be sufficient light, or the length of the structure is greater than 75 m, then
specific tunnel lighting shall be provided. Refer to Section 5.3.6 in this part.
5.3.5 Pedestrian Crossings

Lighting is important to include at all pedestrian crossing locations for the comfort and
safety of the road users. Lighting should be present at all marked crossing locations. Lighting
provides early warning to drivers to expect pedestrians crossing. Source: Informational
Report on Lighting Design for Midblock Crosswalks (FHWA, 2008)
Figure 5.1 shows the correct column placement near pedestrian crossings.

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Source: Informational Report on Lighting Design for Midblock Crosswalks (FHWA, 2008)
Figure 5.1 Positioning of Lighting Columns near Pedestrian Crossings
Table 5.5 identifies the minimum performance requirements for pedestrian crossings within
the various road classifications.
Table 5.5 Minimum Illumination Level for Pedestrian Crossings
Maintained Average Illuminance, Eav Overall Uniformity Ratio,

Road Classification (lux) Uo
A 50 0.4
B 30 0.4
C 30 0.4
D 20 0.4
E 15 0.4
5.3.6 Tunnels
Tunnel lighting does not fall under the remit of the Qatar Highway Design Manual.
Designers shall consult the latest edition of CIE Standard 88 (CIE 88: latest edition) for
guidance on the lighting of tunnels.
Designers shall ensure that any tunnel design complies with the requirements of Qatar
Civil Defence and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), with particular reference to
emergency lighting and illuminated signage requirements. Tunnel lighting shall be provided
with linear lighting control and monitoring system.
5.3.7 Bike Paths and Pedestrian Walkways

The purpose of lighting for pedestrian walkways and cycle paths is to enable pedestrians and
cyclists to orient themselves, to detect vehicular and other hazards, and to discourage crime
against people and property. Table 5.6 identifies the minimum performance requirements
for area classifications.

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Table 5.6 Recommended Illumination Levels for Cycle/ Bike Paths and Pedestrian
Walkways
Area Classification Maintained Average Illuminance (lux) Minimum Illuminance (lux)

Urban/Residential Area 10 2
Rural Area 5 1
Bike paths within the Right of Way situated in rural environments shall be lit in the following
areas:
• Bike paths located in population centers or villages that contain more than 500 residents
as per MME policy plan
• Bike paths within 2 km distance of the population centers
• The entire extent of cycle paths connecting two population centers that are within 8 km
distance of each other
• The approaches, up to 100 m, either side of rest areas
The 2 km and 8 km distances discussed above are to be measured from the point where the
posted speed of the roadway entering the village is reduced.
No additional lighting provisions are to be provided for remaining sections of the rural cycle
paths, with the exception of providing cross ducting of the carriageway for future lighting
installations. An additional two-way duct (150 mm diameter) is to be installed under the
carriageway at all electrical pillar locations to provide future service to cycle paths located
on the opposite side.
5.4 Special Lighting Requirements

This section relates to the lighting requirements and principles to adopt for specific elements
of road lighting design not covered by Sections 5.1 and 5.2 in this part. These relate to the
following:
• Lighting near overhead lines

• Lighting of bends in road
5.4.1 Lighting near Overhead Lines

Restrictions referred to in this section include the vertical and horizontal right-of-way area
on either side of overhead lines.
The designer shall identify whether there is a requirement for lighting near overhead lines.
When required, the designer shall, wherever possible, maintain the lighting levels of the
main line that the overhead lines are crossing. Any noncompliance must be agreed in writing
by Ashghal. It is the responsibility of the designer to show that all means of maintaining
lighting levels has been undertaken.

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The lighting designer must immediately inform Ashghal when lighting designs are to include
lighting within the Kahramaa overhead lines right-of-way areas.
As a guide, the nominal height of road lighting columns shall not exceed 5.5 m. The luminaire
type shall be a cut-off type. However, it is the responsibility of the designer to discuss and
negotiate with Kahramaa to finalize the allowable height and location of columns.
Kahramaa reference document ENA-M1, Section 1.1 clearly sets out the right-of-way area
parameters for each overhead line voltage level (Kahramaa, 2007). It is the responsibility
of the lighting designer to confirm (with Kahramaa) that the transmission voltage and
corresponding right-of-way area have been correctly identified.
5.4.2 Lighting of Bends in Road

The lighting of bends is a key part of any design. The designer shall ensure that lighting
levels are not reduced. This shall be achieved by reducing the spacing between lighting
columns to ensure the design lighting levels, as a minimum, are maintained. All columns shall
be oriented perpendicular to the curbline at each location.
This shall include all design criteria requirements (LAVE, Ul, Uo, and TI) shall be achieved.
The reduction in spacing is applicable to verge-mountings and to columns in the center

median.
Figure 5.2 identifies typical and anticipated reduction in column spacing relative to the
optimum spacing (S). This diagram is provided for guidance only and does not absolve the
designer from meeting all lighting design criteria.
Figure 5.2 Spacing Reduction at Bends and Curves

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5.4.3 Column Setback

Many accidents involve a motor vehicle leaving the roadway. If the vehicle collides with a
lighting column, the severity of injury to the occupants is likely to be increased.
The number of such collisions is likely to decrease with increased clearance of the lighting
columns from the edge of the front edge of the curb.
Wherever possible, the designer shall locate the column at the rear of the footpath. The
criteria below should be regarded as the absolute minimum requirements should it not be
possible to site the columns at the rear of the footpath. The minimum desirable clearances
according to the design speed of the road given in Table 5.7 shall be achieved wherever
possible. Any deviation from the minimum distances identified must be made through prior
written agreement with Ashghal. In addition, these requirements shall be read in conjunction
with Volume 3, Part 23 Design Operation of Road Safety, of this Manual, which refers to
clear zones and safety barriers.
Table 5.7 Minimum Clearance from Front of Roadside Curb to Lighting Column Face
Design Speed (kph) Horizontal Clearance (m)

50 0.8
80 1.0
100 1.5
120 1.5

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6 Typical Road Lighting

Furniture Configurations
This section provides guidance to the lighting designer as to the typical furniture
configurations acceptable to Ashghal.
Table 6.1 lists typical column, luminaire, lamp, and tilt for various road types. It should not be
regarded as definitive. Any lighting arrangement that differs from those listed in Table 6.1
should be discussed with Ashghal before adopting any lighting design.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) should be adopted wherever they can be used, subject to the
availability of an approved luminaire to achieve the required lighting levels.
Table 6.1 Typical Column, Luminaire, Lamp, and Tilt for Various Road Types
Street Luminaire
Lighting Lamp Type Tilt Lighting
Column Height and Rating Minimum Lamp Lumens (degrees) Classifications
70 W HPS 6,500
5 m or 6 m 0 or 5 E&F
LED Equivalent of 70 W HPS
100 W HPS 10,000
8m 150 W HPS 17,200 0 or 5 D&E
LED Equivalent of 100 W/150 W HPS
150 W HPS 17,200
10 m 250 W HPS 33,000 0 or 5 C, D, E
LED Equivalent 150 W/250 W HPS
250 W HPS 33,000
12 m or 14 m 400 W HPS 56,500 0 or 5 B&C
LED Equivalent 250 W/400 W HPS
400 W HPS 56,500

16 m 0 or 5 A
600 W HPS 90,000
Notes:
HPS = high-pressure sodium
m = meters
W = watts

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7 Standard Lighting Equipment
7.1 General
This section deals with the choice of equipment when undertaking lighting designs. Full
details of material requirements.
Lighting designs should consider the future maintenance of the installation, particularly
concerning proposed equipment.
The designer should take into consideration the fact that Ashghal is required to stock
replacement equipment for all types of equipment that falls within its Operation and
Maintenance purview. Wherever possible, the designer shall, standardize materials and
equipment from the Ashghal Approved Materials list. Approval must be sought from the
Head of Street Lighting within Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance Department,
for all proposed materials, apparatus, and equipment.
Note that compliance with the standardization of equipment does not necessarily imply
full compliance with Ashghal requirements. For full compliance, the equipment should be
in accordance with the latest edition of Qatar National Construction Standards (MoE, 2011)
and approved by the Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance Traffic Section.
7.2 Luminaires/Lamps
7.2.1 Luminaires
Proposed equipment, including choice of luminaire used for lighting performance calculations,
must be acceptable to and approved by Ashghal.
7.2.2 High Pressure Sodium

With the exception of LED lighting, as identified in Section 7.2.3 in this part, designers shall
adopt high-pressure sodium (HPS) as the light source for road lighting designs to be adopted
by the Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance Department. Alternates shall be accepted
only by prior written approval by Ashghal.

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7.2.3 LED
The use of LEDs in road lighting is becoming more prevalent and shall become the preferred
light source for all road classifications as the technology advances.
LED Luminaires shall be as per ASHGHAL Street Lighting Luminaire Specification – LED and
shall be from the ASHGHAL LED prequalification list.
The designer shall consult with Ashghal prior to adopting non-LED solutions for any other
lighting application.
The photometric file used for street lighting calculation shall be designed for Qatar
environmental conditions.
Lighting Control Systems / Lighting Management Systems (LMS), using both analogue (1-
10V) and Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) protocols including WiMAC or similar
Ashghal-approved driver system shall be provided. The driver system shall also be capable
of being configured for single, and multi-stage, stand-alone dimming configurations when
not connected to a CMS.
7.3 Conventional, Non-High Mast Columns

Conventional, non-high-mast lighting columns shall be adopted wherever possible. Columns
must be capable of carrying the required luminaire weight and windage of 160 kilometers
per hour (kph).
7.4 High Masts

The use of high-mast lighting shall be limited to the following:
• Grade-separated interchanges.
• Road Classification A, B, and C intersections where lighting levels cannot be achieved by

conventional lighting.
• Classification A & B main lines where lighting levels cannot be achieved by conventional
lighting.
All high masts shall be either 25 m or 30 m in height. The designer must demonstrate that
conventional lighting solutions are not viable prior to adopting a high-mast solution.
The designer must consider High Mast installations such that rail tracks remains outside high
mast falling distance for safety reasons.

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7.5 Cables
Road lighting cable selection shall be derived from electrical calculations with the following
principles in mind:
• Enable safe operation of the circuit allowing disconnection of the electrical supply, thus
eliminating damage to components or injury to persons if an electrical fault is present.
• Enable the electrical equipment to function and operate correctly.
• Ensure compliance with regulations governing electrical cabling systems.
All cables shall be XLPE/SWA/PVC/Cu, meaning:
• All cables insulation shall be cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE).

• Galvanized steel wire armor (SWA) shall be utilized as earthing.
• Sheathing shall be polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
• Conductors shall be insulated copper (Cu).
In addition to all underground street lighting cables shall be - 600/1000V, 4 Core / Cu /XLPE
/ SWA / PVC of sizes 10,16, 25 or 35 sq.mm
Power cable armor can be used as path for ground fault current if armor is capable to carry
the actual ground fault current. If not capable then earth separate cable shall be provided.
Designer is required provide the supporting design calculation. Earthing cable specification
shall be Cu/PVC. Copper conductor and PVC insulation. Insulation color shall be green and
yellow.
Note: Separate earthing cable that is, as a minimum, 50 percent of the size of the lighting
cable conductor.
7.6 Earthing
Full earthing requirements are identified within the relevant section of the QCS 2014
(Ashghal). Guidelines for the earthing of installations are as follows:
• Earthpit/earthrod at the end of each lighting circuit
• Earthpit/earthrod within 2 m of each road lighting feeder pillar
• Separate individual earthpit/earthrod at each high mast
• Separate earthing cable for each lighting cable that is, as a minimum, 50 percent of the
size of the lighting cable conductor or 5 core cable to be used in design
• The resistance of the earth electrodes shall not be more than 10 ohms when measured
The designer must perform calculations to confirm that the lighting circuit is adequately
earthed.
Designer must consider all the inputs like soil resistivity and summer water table as per
project site geotechnical report only.

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7.7 Feeder Pillars

Feeder pillars shall be located, wherever possible, at the rear limits of the right–of-way in
order to minimize the potential for impact by vehicles.
At a minimum, all feeder pillars must be located at the rear of footways and paths, and must
be installed above the expected water table. For the safety of maintenance personnel and to
avoid single or multiple lane closure on divided highways, feeder pillars shall not be installed
in the medians.
All feeder pillars shall comply with the Kahramaa requirement for metering, whether within
the road lighting feeder pillar or in a separate housing pillar.
It is the designer’s responsibility to liaise with Kahramaa Customer Services Department to

ensure that the latest Kahramaa metering requirements are met.
Refer to the relevant section within the latest Qatar National Construction Standards (MoE,
2011), for full construction details, referencing, and labeling of feeder pillars.
7.8 Ducts
Road lighting cables shall be routed through ducts at the following locations:
• Plot accesses/driveways (SL1)

• Cable passing under ramp, under decorated/granite tiles, under narrow central verge and
areas inaccessible for easy excavation (SL1)
• Under landscape areas and garden areas(SL1)
• Street Lighting cables installed in corridors not belonging to street lights and crossing
other utilities (SL1)
• Road crossings with one circuit (SL2)
• Road crossings at feeder pillar locations (SL4)
• Additional ducts on main line to ensure there is no distance greater than 500 m between
ducts
• Street lighting power cable under parking area shall be provided with UPVC Sleeve
provision.
The SL references above indicate that the ducts are for the purposes of street (road) lighting
with the following numeral identifying the number of ducts.
Ducts shall be made of PVC, 150-mm internal diameter. Where ducts cross roads, driveways,
or access points, they must be encased in concrete. Ducts crossing roads must be routed into
an inspection chamber at both ends.
For construction requirements, refer to the relevant section of QCS 2014 (Ashghal).

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18

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8 Sign Gantry Lighting

All sign gantries shall be illuminated, irrespective of road classification, unless otherwise
advised by Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance Traffic Section.
The power supply for gantry sign lighting shall be taken from the nearest road lighting feeder
pillar via a dedicated outgoing circuit.
It is acceptable for multiple gantry signs to be serviced from a single feeder pillar circuit.
However, there shall be no road lighting connected to sign gantry lighting circuits or sign
gantry connected to road lighting circuits.
No power supply shall be taken directly from road lighting column cut out.
The illumination levels required are dependent on the lighting levels adopted for the
particular road where the gantry is located. Table 8.1 identifies the requirements for gantry
sign lighting.
Table 8.1 Required Illumination Level for Traffic Signboards
Maintained Average Uniformity

Location Illuminance (lux) Ratio (Uo)
Area with low or medium background luminance 100 ≤ E < 400 ≥0.33
Area with high background luminance 400 ≤ E < 1,500

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18
9 Typical Lighting Layouts
9.1 Design Drawings Symbols

The symbols in Table 9.1 shall be adopted for lighting design layout drawings that are to be
issued to Ashghal for approval. Any deviation from the symbols identified in Table 9.1 must
first be agreed to by Ashghal.
Table 9.1 Drawing Symbols on Design Layout Drawings
Symbol Description Symbol Description

30-m high mast 8x600W SON/T 16-m column 3x600W SON/T
luminaire equally distributed luminaire




luminaire back to back arrangement luminaire




luminaire single sided arrangement luminaire

luminaire single sided arrangement luminaire

25-m high mast 6x600W SON/T 10 m column 1x250W SON/T




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Symbol Description Symbol Description

25-m high mast 6x600W SON/T

luminaire back to back arrangement Feeder pillar
25-m high mast 8x400W SON/T Earth pit/earth rod

luminaire back to back arrangement

luminaire back to back arrangement

luminaire single sided arrangement

luminaire single sided arrangement
Note: For LED luminaires the same symbols shall be used after replacing circles with squares
9.2 Typical Roundabout Layout

Figure 9.1 provides guidance for the siting of columns near roundabouts. It is the
responsibility of the designer to ensure that the column layout complies with the relevant
lighting requirements.
Figure 9.1 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Roundabout

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9.3 Typical Intersection Layout

Figure 9.2 through Figure 9.4 provide guidance for the siting of columns near intersections.
It is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that the column layout complies with the
relevant lighting requirements.
Figure 9.2 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at T-intersection
Figure 9.3 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Staggered Intersection

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Figure 9.4 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Signalized Intersection

18
References
BS 5489-1. Code of Practice for the Design of Road Lighting—Part 1: Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity
Areas. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2003.
BS 7671. Requirements for Electrical Installations. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2013.
BS EN 12899-1. Fixed, Vertical Road Traffic Signs—Part 1: Fixed Signs. British Standards Institution:
BS EN 13201-2. Road Lighting—Part 2: Performance Requirements. British Standards Institution: London,

England. 2003.
CIE 88: latest edition. Guide for the Lighting of Road Tunnels and Underpasses. Commission Internationale
de l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria. latest edition.
CIE 115:2010. Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(CIE): Vienna, Austria. 2010.
CIE 121-1996. The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires. Commission Internationale de

l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria. 1996.
CIE 129-1998. Guide for Lighting Exterior Work Areas. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE):
Vienna, Austria. 1998.
CIE 136-1995. Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE):
Vienna, Austria. 1995.
CIE 140-2000. Road Lighting Calculations. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria.
2000.
CIE 189:2010. Calculation of Tunnel Lighting Quality Criteria. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(CIE): Vienna, Austria. 2010.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Informational Report on Lighting Design for Midblock Crosswalks.
Publication No. FHWA-HRT-08-053. U.S. Department of Transportation; Turner-Fairbank Highway
Research Center: McLean, Virginia, United States. April 2008.
Illuminating Engineering Society (IES). Electrical and Photometric Measurements of Solid-State Lighting
Products. IES LM-79-08. New York, New York, United States. 2008.
Kahramaa. Regulations for Clearances and Works in the Vicinity of Extra-High Voltage Installations. EN-
M1. Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation: Doha, Qatar. 2007.
Ashghal. Qatar Construction Specification. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2014.

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UK Lighting Board. Well-lit Highways: Code of Practice for Highway Lighting Management. Road Liaison
Group: London, England. 2004. Last updated 13 August 2013.

Volume 3
Part 19
Pedestrian and Bicycle
PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE PART
19
Disclaimer
of any kind.
Copyright © 2020. All rights reserved

PART PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE
19

19
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations..................................................................................................xi

1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Structure......................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Pedestrian Facilities...................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Purpose and Intent of the Manual........................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Scope and Jurisdiction of the Manual.................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Intended Users............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Road Design and Stakeholders.............................................................................................................. 6
2.5 Organization of QHDM, Volume 3 Part 19......................................................................................... 7
2.6 Integration with Other Publications.................................................................................................... 9
3 Planning Guidance.......................................................................................................11
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 11
3.2 Pedestrian Crossing Planning Guidance Principles..................................................................... 11
3.2.1. Safe System............................................................................................................................ 11
3.2.2. Accessibility for all Pedestrians...................................................................................... 12
3.2.3. Planning for Walking........................................................................................................... 12
3.2.4. Level of Service..................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.5. Types of Pedestrian Crossings........................................................................................ 15
3.2.6. Considering the Legal Aspects of Pedestrian Crossings...................................... 18
3.3 Pedestrian Crossing Planning Policies............................................................................................. 18
3.3.1. Providing Crossings............................................................................................................. 18
3.3.2. Identifying the Need for a Pedestrian Crossing....................................................... 19
3.3.3. Crossing Warrants................................................................................................................. 20
3.3.4. Grade-Separated Crossings.............................................................................................. 21
3.3.5. Signalized Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossings................................................................ 23
3.3.6. Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings............................................................................... 24
3.3.7. Raised Pedestrian Crossings............................................................................................ 25
3.3.8. Pedestrian Refuge Islands and Curb Extensions..................................................... 26
3.3.9. Pedestrian Crossings Warrant Summary..................................................................... 26
3.3.10. Spacing of Crossings........................................................................................................... 27
3.3.11. Coordinating with Planning for Bicycles..................................................................... 28
3.3.12. Selecting the Crossing Type............................................................................................ 28
3.3.13. Pedestrian Crossings Design........................................................................................... 30
3.3.14. Pedestrian Bridges.............................................................................................................. 30
3.3.15. Pedestrian Underpasses.................................................................................................... 39
3.3.16. At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings....................................................................................... 46
3.3.17. Special Crossing Types....................................................................................................... 48
3.3.18. Pedestrian-Related Signing............................................................................................. 49

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3.3.19. Wayfinding Signs for Pedestrians.................................................................................. 49

3.3.20. Wayfinding Signs Types..................................................................................................... 50
3.3.21. Existing Facilities Review................................................................................................. 56
3.3.22. Prohibited Crossing.............................................................................................................. 57
3.4 Development Planning........................................................................................................................... 57
3.4.1. Urban Roads........................................................................................................................... 57
3.4.2. Rural Roads............................................................................................................................. 59
3.4.3. Building Developments - District Developments..................................................... 59
3.4.4. Building Developments - Single Development......................................................... 60
3.5 Shading and Cooling................................................................................................................................ 60
3.5.1. General Requirements........................................................................................................ 60
3.5.2. Pedestrian Crossing Facilities......................................................................................... 61
3.5.3. Pedestrian Routes................................................................................................................ 62
3.5.4. Development Planning....................................................................................................... 63
3.6 Public Transport Facilities.................................................................................................................... 64
3.6.1. Transit Stops.......................................................................................................................... 65
3.6.2. Bus Shelter Design.............................................................................................................. 65
3.6.3. Air-Conditioned Shelters................................................................................................... 66
3.6.4. Pedestrian Supportive Infrastructure.......................................................................... 66
3.6.5. Intramodal Transfer Stations........................................................................................... 68
3.6.6. Intermodal Transit Stations and Hubs......................................................................... 69
3.7 Using Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) to Facilitate Pedestrians.................................. 70
3.7.1. Using ITS at Traffic Signals.............................................................................................. 70
3.7.2. Providing Mapping and Directional Information....................................................... 72
3.8 Providing Public Transit Information................................................................................................ 73
3.8.1. At Transit Stops and Transit Stations........................................................................... 73
3.9 Maintenance............................................................................................................................................... 73
3.9.1. Pedestrian Facilities During Construction.................................................................. 73
3.9.2. Providing Temporary Pedestrian Crossings............................................................... 73
4 Design Standards.........................................................................................................75
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 75
4.2 Best Practice Design Principles.......................................................................................................... 76
4.3 Common Design Elements.................................................................................................................... 76
4.3.1. Pedestrian Envelopes......................................................................................................... 76
4.3.2.Sidewalks................................................................................................................................. 77
4.3.3. Dropped Curbs....................................................................................................................... 78
4.3.4. Tactile Surfaces..................................................................................................................... 79
4.3.5. Surface Treatments............................................................................................................. 84
4.3.6.Gradients.................................................................................................................................. 87
4.3.7. Pedestrian Refuges............................................................................................................. 87
4.3.8. Pedestrian Guardrails.......................................................................................................... 89
4.3.9. Visibility Requirements...................................................................................................... 93

19
4.3.10. Vertical Clearance................................................................................................................. 93

4.3.11. Drainage Grates and Utility Covers............................................................................... 94
4.3.12.Lighting.................................................................................................................................... 94
4.3.13. Traffic Signals........................................................................................................................ 95
4.3.14. Traffic Signs and Road Markings.................................................................................... 95
4.3.15. Speed Reducing Features................................................................................................. 95
4.3.16.Ramps....................................................................................................................................... 98
4.3.17.Stairs.......................................................................................................................................... 99
4.3.18.Handrails............................................................................................................................... 100
4.3.19. Elevators and Escalators................................................................................................. 101
4.4 Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings........................................................................................ 102
4.4.1. Pedestrian Bridges........................................................................................................... 103
4.4.2. Pedestrian Underpasses................................................................................................. 110
4.4.3. Pedestrian Half-Underpasses....................................................................................... 117
4.5 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings........................................................................................................ 118
4.5.1. Signalized Pedestrian Crossings................................................................................. 119
4.5.2. Traffic Signal-Controlled Intersections..................................................................... 123
4.5.3. Signalized Crossings: Facilities to be Provided..................................................... 124
4.5.4. Signalized Crossings: Design Guidance.................................................................... 124
4.5.5. Signalized Pedestrian Crossings at Intersections: Typical Layouts.............. 125
4.5.6. Crossings on Right-Turn Slip Lanes............................................................................ 128
4.5.7. Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Crosswalk Design............................................ 132
4.5.8. Traffic Signal Timings...................................................................................................... 133
4.5.9. Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings............................................................. 136
4.5.10. Mid-Block Signalized Crossings: Facilities to be Provided................................. 136
4.5.11. Mid-Block Signalized Crossings: Design Guidance............................................... 137
4.5.12. Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Typical Layouts........................... 138
4.5.13. Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Cross Walk Design..................... 140
4.5.14. Types of Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings.......................................... 143
4.5.15. Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Traffic Signal Timings.............. 146
4.5.16. Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings............................................................................ 148
4.5.17. Pedestrian-Friendly Features....................................................................................... 153
4.5.18. Raised Pedestrian Crossings......................................................................................... 153
4.5.19. Curb Extensions................................................................................................................. 158
4.5.20. Pedestrian Refuge Islands............................................................................................. 160
4.5.21. Pedestrian Crossings at Roundabouts...................................................................... 163
4.5.22. Shared-Use (Pedestrian and Bicycle) Crossings.................................................... 164
5 Bicycle Facilities........................................................................................................ 168

5.1 Types of Bicycle Facilities.................................................................................................................. 168
5.1.1. On-Road Facilities............................................................................................................. 168
5.1.2. Off-Road Facilities............................................................................................................ 168

19
5.2 Design Criteria: On-Road Bicycle Facilities................................................................................. 169

5.2.1. Level of On-Road Provision........................................................................................... 169
5.2.2. Full Integration................................................................................................................... 169
5.2.3. Partial Integration............................................................................................................. 169
5.2.4. Paved Shoulders................................................................................................................ 170
5.3 Design Criteria—Off-Road Cycle Paths.......................................................................................... 171
5.3.1. Design Speed...................................................................................................................... 171
5.3.2.Visibility................................................................................................................................ 172
5.3.3. Sight Distances on Nonmotorized User Routes.................................................... 172
5.3.4. Eye and Object Heights.................................................................................................. 172
5.3.5. Street Furniture and Other Obstructions................................................................. 173
5.3.6. Visibility to and from Nonmotorized User Crossing Points............................... 173
5.3.7. Visibility Splays at Intersections on Nonmotorized User Routes.................. 173
5.3.8. Horizontal Alignment....................................................................................................... 175
5.3.9. Vertical Alignment............................................................................................................ 175
5.3.10.Gradient................................................................................................................................. 175
5.3.11. Cross Section....................................................................................................................... 177
5.3.12. Boundary Treatments...................................................................................................... 178
5.3.13. Physical Separation.......................................................................................................... 179
5.3.14.Crossfall................................................................................................................................. 184
5.3.15. Vertical Clearance.............................................................................................................. 184
5.3.16. Cycle Path Shading and Water Stations.................................................................... 184
5.4 Off-Road Cycle Path Intersections................................................................................................. 184
5.4.1. Path-Path Intersections.................................................................................................. 184
5.4.2. Path–Road Intersections................................................................................................. 185
5.4.3. Road Intersections............................................................................................................ 186
5.5 Cycle Path Terminal Treatments...................................................................................................... 186
5.5.1. Path Terminal Treatments............................................................................................. 186
5.5.2. Separate Entry and Exit Treatment........................................................................... 187
5.5.3. Bollards and U-Rails.......................................................................................................... 188
5.5.4. Staggered Fence Treatment......................................................................................... 191
5.5.5. Offset Path Treatment.................................................................................................... 192
5.6 Bicycle Provision at Structures........................................................................................................ 193
5.6.1.General................................................................................................................................... 193
5.6.2. Protective Railings............................................................................................................ 194
5.6.3. Cycle Wheeling Ramps.................................................................................................... 194
5.7 Bicycle Parking....................................................................................................................................... 195
5.7.1. High-Security Facilities................................................................................................... 196
5.7.2. Medium-Security Facilities............................................................................................ 196
5.7.3. Low-Security Facilities.................................................................................................... 196
References............................................................................................................................ 198

19
Tables
Table 2.1 Key Stakeholders....................................................................................................................................................7

Table 2.2 Organization of the QHDM, Volume 3 Part 19............................................................................................8
Table 3.1 Level of Service Classifications......................................................................................................................13
Table 3.2 Pedestrian LOS Criteria for Signalized Crossing Delay.........................................................................14
Table 3.3 Pedestrian LOS Criteria for Unsignalized Crossing Delay....................................................................14
Table 3.4 Suitable Pedestrian Crossing Types by Posted Speed Limit..............................................................17
Table 3.5 Identifying the Need for a Pedestrian Crossing......................................................................................20
Table 3.6 Pedestrian Crossing Warrants.........................................................................................................................27
Table 3.7 Pedestrian Crossing Spacing Requirements.............................................................................................28
Table 3.8 Use of On-Street Information.........................................................................................................................54
Table 3.9 Pedestrian Crossing Types on Urban Roads.............................................................................................58
Table 3.10 Pedestrian Crossing Types on Rural Roads............................................................................................59
Table 3.11 Hierarchy of Walking Routes........................................................................................................................62
Table 3.12 Pedestrian Behavior at Signalized Crossings........................................................................................71
Table 4.1 Paved Widths for Pedestrian Only Sidewalks..........................................................................................77
Table 4.2 Typical Applications of Tactile Paving.........................................................................................................80
Table 4.3 Surface Treatment Options.............................................................................................................................85
Table 4.4 Visibility of Pedestrian Crossings to Drivers............................................................................................93
Table 4.5 Lighting Level Requirements..........................................................................................................................95
Table 4.6 Ramp Gradients....................................................................................................................................................99
Table 4.7 Geometric Design Requirements for Stairs............................................................................................ 100
Table 4.8 Guidelines for Pedestrian Bridge Design................................................................................................ 106
Table 4.9 General Guidelines for Underpass Design.............................................................................................. 112
Table 4.10 Signalized Pedestrian Crossing Geometric Design Requirements at Intersections............ 125
Table 4.11 Right-turn Slip Lane and Associated Pedestrian Facilities........................................................... 129
Table 4.12 Pedestrian Signal Timings..........................................................................................................................135
Table 4.13 Geometric Design Requirements for Mid-Block Signalized Crossings......................................138
Table 4.14 Signal Timings for Standard Mid-Block Signalized Crossings.......................................................146
Table 4.15 Clearance Periods for Intelligent Mid-Block Signalized Crossings..............................................147
Table 4.16 Crossing times for Intelligent Mid-Block Signalized Crossings....................................................148
Table 4.17 Geometric Design Guidance for Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings........................................151
Table 4.18 Geometric Design Recommendations for Raised Pedestrian Crossings..................................155

19
Table 4.19 Geometric Design Guidance for Curb Extensions.............................................................................160

Table 4.20 Geometric Design Guidance for Pedestrian Refuge Islands.........................................................162
Table 4.21 Taper Lengths for Markings on Approach to Pedestrian Refuge Islands................................163
Table 4.22 Provision for Non-Motorized Users at Roundabouts.......................................................................163
Table 5.1 On-Road Bicycle Facilities.............................................................................................................................168
Table 5.2 Off-Road Bicycle Facilities............................................................................................................................168
Table 5.3 Relationship of Road Type, Traffic Volumes, and Bicycle Facilities Required..........................169
Table 5.4 Suggested Widths of Paved Shoulders....................................................................................................171
Table 5.5 Design Speeds for Off-Road Bicycle Routes..........................................................................................172
Table 5.6 Sight Distances for Off-Road Bicycle Routes........................................................................................172
Table 5.7 Minimum “x” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings.......................................................................174
Table 5.8 Preferred Minimum “y” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings...................................................174
Table 5.9 Preferred Minimum Radii for Cycle Paths................................................................................................175
Table 5.10 Minimum Paved Width of Off-Road Bicycle Facilities.....................................................................178
Table 5.11 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops.......................................................................................181
Table 5.12 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles................................................................182
Table 5.13 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles.......................................................................182
Table 5.14 Acceptable Cycle Path Crossfall Gradient.............................................................................................184
Table 5.15 Classifications of Bicycle Parking Facilities.........................................................................................195
Table 5.16 Layout of Bicycle Rails and Racks...........................................................................................................196
Figures
Figure 2
‎ .1 International Road Safety Comparison....................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2
‎ .2 Actions for Pedestrian Safety......................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2
‎ .3 Pedestrian Fatality Likelihood Due to Speed of Collision.................................................................... 5
Figure 3
‎ .1 Pedestrian Queuing Area Level of Service..............................................................................................13
Figure 3
‎ .2 Existing Pedestrian Bridges in Doha.........................................................................................................15
Figure 3
‎ .3 Typical At-Grade Signalized Crossing, Doha............................................................................................17
Figure 3
‎ .4 Crossing Type Hierarchy.................................................................................................................................18
Figure 3
‎ .5 Existing Grade-Separated Crossing in Doha...........................................................................................22
Figure ‎3.6 Signalized Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossing...............................................................................................23
Figure ‎3.7 Unsignalized Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossing..........................................................................................24

19
Figure ‎3.8 Raised Pedestrian Crossing...........................................................................................................................25

Figure ‎3.9 Pedestrian Refuge Island...............................................................................................................................26
Figure ‎3.10 Pedestrian Bridge Minimum Requirements..........................................................................................31
Figure ‎3.11 Basic Pedestrian Bridge Design Example.............................................................................................33
Figure ‎3.12 Intermediate Pedestrian Bridge Design Example, Doha.................................................................33
Figure ‎3.13 Detailed Pedestrian Bridge Design Example, Doha..........................................................................34
Figure ‎3.14 Leisure Purpose Pedestrian Bridge Design Example.......................................................................34
Figure ‎3.15 Examples of Design Family of Pedestrian Bridges - Modern........................................................35
Figure ‎3.16 Examples of Design Family of Pedestrian Bridges - Heritage......................................................36
Figure ‎3.17 Pedestrian Bridge Interior...........................................................................................................................37
Figure ‎3.18 Pedestrian Underpass Desirable Minimum Requirements.............................................................40
Figure ‎3.19 Underpass and Car Park Entrance at Road Level, West Bay, Doha..............................................41
Figure ‎3.20 Underpass and Car Park Entrance Below Road Level, West Bay, Doha.....................................41
Figure ‎3.21 Pedestrian Underpass Access Point, Corniche, Doha.......................................................................42
Figure ‎3.22 Pedestrian Underpass Access Point, Feature Design......................................................................42
Figure ‎3.23 High Quality Pedestrian Underpass Interior, Doha...........................................................................43
Figure 3
‎ .24 High Quality Pedestrian Underpass Interior, Abu Dhabi.................................................................44
Figure 3
‎ .25 Washroom Facilities in a Pedestrian Underpass, Doha....................................................................46
Figure 3
‎ .26 Example Map Sign..........................................................................................................................................50
Figure 3
‎ .27 Example Map with Local Directions Indicator......................................................................................51
Figure 3
‎ .28 Example Directional Finger Post..............................................................................................................51
Figure 3
‎ .29 Example Route Marker................................................................................................................................52
Figure 3
‎ .30 Sign Placement................................................................................................................................................53
Figure 3
‎ .31 Incorporating 3D Graphics into Maps......................................................................................................55
Figure 3
‎ .32 Map Heights......................................................................................................................................................56
Figure 3
‎ .33 Example Bus Stop Pole.................................................................................................................................67
Figure 3
‎ .34 Intramodal Transit Station, Doha..............................................................................................................68
Figure 3
‎ .35 Intermodal Transit Station Area Plan Example...................................................................................70
Figure 3
‎ .36 Example of Electronic Message Center..................................................................................................72
Figure 4
‎ .1 Minimum Pedestrian.........................................................................................................................................77
Figure 4
‎ .2 Curb and Pedestrian Sidewalk Details.......................................................................................................79
Figure 4
‎ .3 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at a Signal-Controlled Crossing.........................................82
Figure 4
‎ .4 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at a Flat-Top Hump................................................................83
Figure 4
‎ .5 Layout of Corduroy-Type Tactile Paving at the Top of Stairs...........................................................83

19
Figure 4
‎ .6 Tactile Paving at Intersection of Segregated Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths..............................84
Figure 4
‎ .7 Layout of Pedestrian Refuge........................................................................................................................88
Figure 4
‎ .8 Layout of Pedestrian Refuge at Dedicated Left-turn Lanes............................................................89
Figure 4
‎ .9 In-Situ Example of Pedestrian Guardrails, Doha....................................................................................90
Figure 4
‎ .10 Typical Pedestrian Guardrails Used at Pedestrian Crossing..........................................................91
Figure 4
‎ .11 Pedestrian Guardrails in Median...............................................................................................................92
Figure 4
‎ .12 Ornate Pedestrian Guardrails, Doha........................................................................................................93
Figure 4
‎ .13 Transverse Rumble Strips............................................................................................................................96
Figure 4
‎ .14 Typical Details of Speed Humps and Raised Tables.........................................................................98
Figure ‎4.15 Handrail Dimension Details......................................................................................................................101
Figure 4
‎ .16 Profile of Handrail Provision for Stairs................................................................................................101
Figure ‎4.17 Minimum Internal Elevator Dimensions..............................................................................................102
Figure 4
‎ .18 Air-Conditioned Pedestrian Bridge, Doha..........................................................................................104
Figure 4
‎ .19 Shaded Pedestrian Bridge, Doha...........................................................................................................104
Figure ‎4.20 Shaded Pedestrian Bridge, Qatar..........................................................................................................105
Figure 4
‎ .21 Minimum Pedestrian Bridge Dimensions............................................................................................106
Figure ‎4.22 Concept Design Example of a Pedestrian Bridge Landing Area................................................108
Figure 4
‎ .23 Bicycle Channel.............................................................................................................................................109
Figure 4
‎ .24 Entrance to Pedestrian Underpass and Car Park, West Bay, Doha...........................................111
Figure ‎4.25 Pedestrian Underpass in Hong Kong...................................................................................................113
Figure 4
‎ .26 Pedestrian Underpass, Souq Waqif, Doha..........................................................................................113
Figure ‎4.27 Pedestrian Underpass Minimum Internal Dimensions..................................................................114
Figure 4
‎ .28 Example of a Pedestrian Underpass Access Point, Doha............................................................115
Figure ‎4.29 Bicycle Channel.............................................................................................................................................116
Figure ‎4.30 Cross section of Pedestrian Half-Underpass....................................................................................117
Figure 4
‎ .31 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossing, The Pearl, Doha...............................................................................119
Figure ‎4.32 Far-Side Pedestrian Signal.......................................................................................................................120
Figure 4
‎ .33 Typical Push Button Unit..........................................................................................................................121
Figure ‎4.34 Pedestrian Push Button Location.........................................................................................................121
Figure 4
‎ .35 Pedestrian Count Down Signal...............................................................................................................123
Figure ‎4.36 Traffic Signal Controlled Intersection, Doha.....................................................................................124
Figure 4
‎ .37 Typical Small ‘T’ Intersection...................................................................................................................126
Figure ‎4.38 Complex ‘T’ Intersection with Slip Lanes...........................................................................................127
Figure 4
‎ .39 Typical Intersection Without Right-Turn Slip Lanes......................................................................128

19
Figure ‎4.40 Typical Intersection with Right-Turn Slip Lanes..............................................................................129

Figure 4
‎ .41 Right-Turn Slip at Unsignalized Crossing with Raised Crosswalk.............................................130
Figure ‎4.42 Right-Turn Slip at Signal-Controlled Crossing...................................................................................131
Figure 4
‎ .43 Right-Turn Slip with an Acceleration Lane and Signalized Crossing.......................................132
Figure ‎4.44 Right-Turn Slip with Acceleration Lane and Raised Cross Walk................................................132
Figure 4
‎ .45 Pedestrian Crossing Layout Detail at a Signalized Intersection...............................................133
Figure ‎4.46 ‘Walk-With-Traffic’ Pedestrian Phase...................................................................................................134
Figure 4
‎ .47 Signalized Mid-Block Crossing, Qatar...................................................................................................136
Figure ‎4.48 Typical Signalized Pedestrian Crossing Layouts.............................................................................140
Figure 4
‎ .49 Pedestrian Crossing Layout Details......................................................................................................141
Figure ‎4.50 Zigzag Marking Details..............................................................................................................................142
Figure ‎4.51 Typical Pedestrian Crossing near Uncontrolled Side-Road..........................................................142
Figure 4
‎ .52 Typical Mid-Block Crossing near an Intersection.............................................................................143
Figure ‎4.53 ‘Intelligent’ Pedestrian Crossing Push Button Unit........................................................................144
Figure 4
‎ .54 On-Crossing Pedestrian Detectors........................................................................................................145
Figure ‎4.55 Curbside Pedestrian Detectors...............................................................................................................146
Figure 4
‎ .56 Example Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing, West Bay, Doha....................................................150
Figure ‎4.57 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing Markings, QTCM Marking M311.........................................151
Figure 4
‎ .58 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing Layout..........................................................................................152
Figure ‎4.59 Zigzag Marking Details..............................................................................................................................152
Figure ‎4.60 Pedestrian Crossing Warning Sign, QTCM Sign W406...................................................................153
Figure 4
‎ .61 Example Raised Pedestrian Crossing, Doha......................................................................................154
Figure ‎4.62 Typical Cross-Section of Raised Pedestrian Crossing...................................................................156
Figure 4
‎ .63 Road Marking M601....................................................................................................................................156
Figure ‎4.64 Use of Road Marking M601.....................................................................................................................157
Figure 4
‎ .65 Typical Layout of Curb Extensions.......................................................................................................158
Figure ‎4.66 Typical Layout of Curb Extensions at Intersection........................................................................159
Figure 4
‎ .67 Typical Layout of Curb Extensions as part of a Table Top Intersection.................................159
Figure ‎4.68 Typical Layout of a Pedestrian Refuge Island..................................................................................161
Figure 4
‎ .69 Road Marking M110....................................................................................................................................162
Figure ‎4.70 Traffic Signal-Controlled Pedestrian Crossing Adjacent to a Roundabout............................164
Figure 4
‎ .71 Shared-Use At-Grade Crossings at Signalized Intersection........................................................165
Figure ‎4.72 Far-Side Pedestrian Signal Aspect for a Shared-Use Crossing..................................................166
Figure 5
‎ .1 Vehicle Positions on Roadway Associated with Wide Curbside Lanes.....................................170

19
Figure 5
‎ .2 Forward Visibility for Cyclists....................................................................................................................173
Figure ‎5.3 Visibility Splay for NMU Routes................................................................................................................174
Figure 5
‎ .4 Maximum Lengths of Gradients for Ease of Cycling.........................................................................177
Figure ‎5.5 Boundary Treatments for Pedestrian/Cycle Paths............................................................................179
Figure 5
‎ .6 Separation Width between Pedestrian/Cycle Paths and the Roadway....................................180
Figure ‎5.7 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops........................................................................................181
Figure 5
‎ .8 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles.................................................................181
Figure ‎5.9 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles.......................................................................182
Figure 5
‎ .10 Example of a Partial Barrier Fence.......................................................................................................183
Figure ‎5.11 Example of a Full Barrier Fence.............................................................................................................183
Figure 5
‎ .12 Intersections between Cycle Paths and Shared-Use Paths........................................................185
Figure ‎5.13 Crossing Angle..............................................................................................................................................186
Figure 5
‎ .14 Separate Entry and Exit Terminal..........................................................................................................187
Figure ‎5.15 Bollard-Restricted Terminal Point.........................................................................................................189
Figure 5
‎ .16 Example Bollard Treatment.....................................................................................................................190
Figure ‎5.17 Example of U-Rail and Bollard Treatment..........................................................................................190
Figure 5
‎ .18 Details of a Bollard and U-Rail................................................................................................................191
Figure ‎5.19 Staggered Fence Treatment....................................................................................................................192
Figure 5
‎ .20 Offset Path Treatment...............................................................................................................................193
Figure ‎5.21 Bicycle Safety Railing.................................................................................................................................194
Figure 5
‎ .22 Bicycle Wheeling Ramp Key Dimensions............................................................................................194
Appendixes
Appendix A – Pedestrian Crossing Selection Flowcharts.......................................................................................205

Appendix B – Shade Audit Framework...........................................................................................................................212

19
AADT Annual average daily traffic
CCTV Closed-circuit television
DETR Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, United Kingdom
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GIS Geographic information system
ITS Intelligent transportation system
Km kilometer(s)
k-value modulus of subgrade reaction; measured in pounds per cubic inch
LTPD Land Transport Planning Department
m meter(s)
m2 square meters
m2/p square meters per person
mm millimeter(s)
m/s meters per second
Mawani Qatar Qatar Ports Management Company
MOI Ministry of Interior
NMU Non-motorized User
NTSC National Traffic Safety Committee

19
PEO Private Engineering Office
PWA Public Works Authority (Ashghal)
QNV Qatar National Vision
QPCMP Qatar Pedestrian Crossings Master Plan
QPRG Qatar Public Realm Guidelines
QSTM Qatar Strategic Transport Model
ROW Right-of-Way
RMS Roads and Maritime Services
SRI Solar Reflective Index
TA Technical Affairs
TMPQ Transportation Master Plan of Qatar
TRS Transverse Rumble Strips
UPDA Urban Planning Development Authority
WHO World Health Organization

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Glossary
85th percentile speed
A statistical figure that represents the speed that is exceeded by 15% of vehicles on a section of road.

The total annual Volume of traffic passing a point or segment of a highway in both directions divided by
At-grade
On the same vertical level as the road surface.
Bicycle
ride.
Crash
Clearance period
The time allowed for pedestrians to complete their crossing of a road once the invitation to cross period
has expired.
Curb
A structure with a vertical, horizontal, or sloping face placed between the roadway and sidewalk
strengthening or protecting the edge of a sidewalk.
Curb extension
A section of sidewalk extending into the roadway at an intersection or mid-block crossing that reduces
the crossing width for pedestrians and may help reduce traffic speeds.
Cycle
Design criteria
Criteria, coupled with prudent judgmental factors, that are used in design.
Designer
The individual or organization designing the pedestrian crossing.
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Divided roadway
Dropped curb
Far-side
On the opposite side of the road
Footbridge
Geometric design
grades, sight distances, clearances, and slopes. This is distinct from structural design, which is concerned

Grade
The vertical level at which a crossing is to be provided.
Grade-separated
At a level either above (pedestrian bridge) or below (pedestrian underpass) the roadway surface.
Green man
The traffic signal that informs pedestrians they may cross the road if it is safe to do so.
Intelligent Crossing
A traffic signal-controlled crossing that varies the time allowed for pedestrians to cross using sensors.

Invitation to cross
The time during which pedestrians can start to cross the road at a traffic signal-controlled crossing,
indicated by a solid green man on the pedestrian signal aspect.
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Level of Service (LOS)

such as speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. (see the
QTCM for further details).
Median
Non-motorized users (NMU)

A term used to refer to road users who are not in motor vehicles or on motorcycles (such as cyclists,
The government agency responsible for the subject area.
Path
A track laid down for use by pedestrians.
Peak period
Pedestrian
Person traveling on foot. This includes those using wheelchairs or other mobility aids, or walking with a
bicycle, pram, stroller, or animal.
Pedestrian crossing
An area designated for pedestrians to cross a road.
Pedestrian-friendly feature
A small element of road infrastructure provided to assist pedestrians to cross a road, but not considered
a formal pedestrian crossing.
Posted speed limit

The speed limit on a section of road, indicated to motorists by traffic signs.
Red Man
The traffic signal that informs the pedestrians they must not cross the road.
Refuge (island)
cross the roadway.
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Right-of-Way
Land, property, or interest therein, usually a strip, acquired for or devoted to transportation purposes. This
can be for roads, railway, as well as electrical transmission lines, oil, and gas pipelines. It is reserved for
maintenance or expansion of services within its confines.
The precedence in passing or proceeding relating to one vehicle or person over another.
The legal power of passage over another person’s land.
Roundabout
An intersection at which traffic circulates counterclockwise around a central traffic island; traffic entering
Rural area/environment
Safe system
Shared-use path
A track laid down for use by both pedestrians, cyclists and other non-motorized users.
Shared-use pedestrian and cyclist crossing

A crossing that can be used by both pedestrians and cyclists.
Sidewalk
A path running parallel to and next to a road and is intended for pedestrians.
Sign
Signal face
The Part of the traffic signal containing the red, amber, and green lights.
Signalized crossing
A pedestrian crossing controlled by traffic signals.
Stroller
A chair on wheels in which a baby or young child can be pushed along. Also referred to as a pushchair or
a buggy.
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Tactile paving
Traffic signal
Underpass
A grade separation where the subject road passes under an intersecting road. Also referred to as
“undercrossing”.
Unsignalized crossing
A pedestrian crossing that is not controlled by a traffic signal.
Urban area/environment
Walkway
The area of a pedestrian bridge, pedestrian underpass, or transit interchange designed to be used by
pedestrians. A facility provided for pedestrian movement and segregated from vehicular traffic by a curb
or provided for on a separate right-of-way.
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xviii VOLUME 3 | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

19
1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Part is to help designers provide adequate facilities, safety and access
for nonmotorized users (NMUs) and for public transport users. For the purposes of this
Manual, NMUs are pedestrians and cyclists, and public transport refers to bus transit and bus
facilities.
1.2 Structure
Section 2 in this Part provides information and guidance relating to the provision of pedestrian
facilities including different types of pedestrian facilities, recommended geometric design
criteria, and consideration of features to improve pedestrian safety.
Section 3 in this Part provides designers with appropriate tools to develop the design of
safe and attractive pedestrian crossings which are fully accessible to all users throughout
the State of Qatar.
Section 4 in this Part provides designers with the tools to produce, appropriate, safe,
accessible, and attractive pedestrian crossing facilities in Qatar. This advice supports delivery
of inclusive facilities for the mobility-impaired.
Section 5 in this Part provides information and guidance relating to the provision of bicycle
facilities recommended geometric design criteria, integration of bicycle facilities with the
highway network, and design of other bicycle-related features.

19

19
2 Pedestrian Facilities
2.1 Purpose and Intent of the Manual

This section of the Manual was prepared to reflect the content of the Qatar Pedestrian
Crossings Master Plan (QPCMP) project. The vision of the QPCMP is “Qatar has a world-class,
safe, connected, accessible, enjoyable pedestrian environment that encourages people to
walk more.”
The QPCMP project was undertaken in response to Qatar National Vision 2030 (QNV) and in
recognition of the State of Qatar’s commitment to “a long-term plan to develop an integrated
public transport network that supports the transition of the State of Qatar from a vehicle
trip-based society to a modern, sustainable, multimodal society”.
This section of the Manual outlines the requirements for the design of pedestrian crossings
in Qatar, provides general guidance, and acknowledges the importance of safety and
sustainability in road infrastructure in Qatar. The goal is to achieve consistently safe and
cost-effective pedestrian crossings in the State of Qatar.
The road system in Qatar includes freeways, expressways, and major arterials. The primary
function of these facilities is the provision of safe mobility along with consistently high
levels of service. The road system also includes local roads, collector streets, and boulevards
that have somewhat different functions and design characteristics. This section of the
QHDM provides requirements and guidance for the design and implementation of pedestrian
crossings on all roadway types.
In the past, the needs of pedestrians have not always been given a high priority in road
design in the State of Qatar although this has improved over recent years. As a result,
the road safety record for pedestrians in the State of Qatar is poor in comparison to other
countries, as Figure 2.1 indicates.
Where station facilities and station realm are interfering with the public realm special
branding requirements for the rail have to be considered in coordination with Qatar Rail.

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Source: WHO, Road Safety Status Report 2015
Figure ‎2.1 International Road Safety Comparison
The Qatar National Road Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022 (National Traffic Safety Committee,
2013), identified the need to improve pedestrian safety and highlighted several key
actions required to improve pedestrian safety, as Figure 2.2 illustrates. One of the actions
highlighted in the National Road Safety Strategy was the need to “provide consistent and
complete crossings for pedestrians.”
Source: National Road Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022
Figure ‎2.2 Actions for Pedestrian Safety
According to the National Road Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022 “Qatar’s road safety vision
is to have a safe road transport system that protects all road users from death and serious
injury.”
The State of Qatar has adopted the ‘safe system’ approach and principles, which are reflected
in this Manual.

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The safe system approach incorporates the following:
• Safe Road Users - are competent and comply with traffic laws, supported by effective
public education and campaigns, driver training and licensing, legislation, and
enforcement.
• Safe Vehicles - prevent crashes and protect road users, supported by minimum safety
standards, inspections, and a public desire for safer vehicles.
• Safe Roads - are self-explaining, forgiving roads and roadsides that protect road users.
• Safe Speeds - reflect the protection offered by the design of roads and vehicles.
The safe system approach has been developed with recognition of the link between vehicle
speeds and pedestrian safety. Figure 2.3 provides an illustration of the likely consequences of
a crash between a vehicle and a pedestrian at different speeds. The likelihood of a pedestrian
being killed in a crash notably increases between 30 kph and 50 kph. If a pedestrian is struck
by a vehicle travelling faster than 50 kph, there is a greater than 80% probability that the
pedestrian will be killed. It therefore follows that on roads with speed limits of 50 kph or
higher, pedestrians need assistance to be able to cross safely.
Source: WHO, Speed Management – A Manual for Decision-Makers and Practitioners
Figure ‎2.3 Pedestrian Fatality Likelihood Due to Speed of Collision

The requirements and guidance provided in the QHDM relate to the design of pedestrian
crossings in the State of Qatar. The requirements and guidance apply to designs for construction
of new pedestrian crossings and improvements or upgrades to existing pedestrian crossings.
If any ambiguity arises over the applicability of the QHDM for any project, clarity should be
sought from the Overseeing Organization. The Overseeing Organization is the government
agency responsible for the planning of the road network, currently the MOTC.

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The QHDM contains new and revised technical guidance for the design of pedestrian
crossings. Accordingly, crossings designed using the 1997 version of the QHDM may have
elements that do not comply with the QHDM. The fact that the QHDM contains some guidance
that differs from that contained in the 1997 version of the QHDM does not necessarily imply
that facilities must be reconstructed to conform with this QHDM.
The need for reconstruction or otherwise of a pedestrian crossing shall be considered on a

case by case basis. The decisions on the appropriate course of action in each case shall be
based upon an objective assessment of the performance of the crossing taking account of
its operation, safety, and infrastructure condition.
2.3 Intended Users

The QHDM is intended as the primary guidance for the design of all pedestrian crossings
in the State of Qatar. Accordingly, it should be used by all organizations and professionals
involved with the planning, design, and approval of both new pedestrian crossings, and
existing facilities that undergo reconstruction.
Roadway engineers, reviewers, and designers should be familiar with the QHDM. The QHDM
accompanies the QTCM, therefore, the designers of pedestrian facilities should also be
familiar with the requirements of the QTCM.
The term ‘designer’, as used in the QHDM, refers to all professionals involved in the planning,
design, and approval of a pedestrian crossing design. Every project has a unique context
and features that require the application of the design values and approaches in the
QHDM, and QTCM, alongside the application of professional judgment by the designer. The
Overseeing Organization, which is ultimately responsible for the construction, operation, and
maintenance of a roadway project, holds the final design decision-making authority for each
project.
2.4 Road Design and Stakeholders

Ensuring that good pedestrian provision is an integral Part of road design and transport
planning requires effective collaboration between internal and external stakeholders.
Stakeholders should work together from the early stages of planning and design when
providing input into development proposals and jointly consider pedestrian needs.
Designers can provide much of the information that will enable the various stakeholders
to jointly address pedestrian needs, in balance with requirements for other road users, as
appropriate for the context. The combined aim is to create complete roadways that encourage
pedestrian activity by being safe, active, and reassuring, while maintaining the efficient and
safe movement of all modes of transport.
This Manual was developed through a collaborative consultation process that involved
stakeholders who have regular involvement in road projects in the State of Qatar. Table 2.1

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summarizes the key stakeholders in the State of Qatar who work with the Overseeing
Organization to plan, design, construct, and operate the road system, and who were consulted
during the development of the QHDM.
Table ‎2.1 Key Stakeholders
Key Stakeholders
Central Municipal Council MOI - General Directorate of Traffic
Ministry of Development and Statistics Private Engineering Office (PEO)
Ministry of Education and Higher Education Public Works Authority (Ashghal)
Ministry of Energy and Industry Qatar Engineers Society
Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC) Qatar Foundation - Capital Project Directorate
MME – All Qatar Municipalities Qatar Olympic Committee
Qatar Rail (formally known as Qatar Railways

MME – Infrastructure Planning Department (IPD)
Company
MME – Qatar National Master Plan (QNMP) Statistics Authority
MME – Urban Planning Department (UPD) Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy -2022
MOI - General Directorate of Civil Defence
Source: Based on Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 of the QPCMP Consultation Plan, 2017.
2.5 Organization of QHDM, Volume 3 Part 19

This part of QHDM has five sections as follows:
1. Section 1 - Introduction
2. Section 2 – Pedestrian Facilities
3. Section 3 - Planning Guidance
4. Section 4 – Design Standards
5. Section 5 - Bicycle Facilities
The sections are logically subdivided as shown in Table 2.2.

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Table ‎2.2 Organization of the QHDM, Volume 3 Part 19
Section Design or Planning Aspect

Section 1 - Introduction
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Structure
Section 2 - Pedestrian Facilities
2.1 Purpose and Intent of this Manual
2.3 Intended Users
2.4 Road Design and Stakeholders
2.5 Organization of QHDM, Volume 3, Part 19
Section 3 - Planning Guidance
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pedestrian Crossing Planning Guidance Principles
3.3 Pedestrian Crossing Planning Policies
3.4 Development Planning
3.5 Shading and Cooling
3.6 Public Transport Facilities
3.7 Using Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) to Facilitate Pedestrians
3.8 Providing Public Transit Information
3.9 Maintenance
Section 4 - Design Standards
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Best Practice Design Principles
4.3 Common Design Elements
4.4 Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings
4.5 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings
Section 5 – Bicycle Facilities
5.1 Types of Bicycle Facilities
5.2 Design Criteria: On-Road Bicycle Facilities
5.3 Design Criteria—Off-Road Cycle Paths
5.4 Off-Road Cycle Path Intersections
5.5 Cycle Path Terminal Treatments
5.6 Bicycle Provision at Structures
5.7 Bicycle Parking

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This Part of the QHDM should be understood and used in conjunction with other relevant
published guidance and requirements.
There are three levels of documentation which should be referenced when providing
• Policy – setting out the overall strategy
• Standards – the design requirements that shall be followed
• Procedures – detailed guidance relating to how the design standards shall be implemented
Policy documents set out the overall vision and the future plans of the State of Qatar. The
main policy document is the Qatar National Vision, 2030 (QNV). Below the QNV are related
policy documents covering specific areas defined in the QNV. Such documents include the
Qatar National Road Safety Strategy and the QPCMP.
The standards include guidelines and requirements for road design and construction. There
are two tiers of standards; the top tier comprises the QHDM and the second tier includes
detailed guidelines and requirements, as defined in outline in the QHDM and/or the QTCM.
Procedures documents provide specific guidance on the implementation of design elements

referenced in the standards. For example, this Part of this Manual specifies the standards
to be met when traffic signal control is provided at pedestrian crossings. An associated
procedures document will provide essential information relating to the detailed design and
specification of the traffic signals equipment.
The current version of the Qatar Public Realm Guidelines (QPRG), produced by Qatar
Public Works Authority (Ashghal), should be consulted in order to assist the selection and
specification of street furniture and construction materials.

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3 Planning Guidance
3.1 Introduction
This section of QHDM provides designers with appropriate tools to develop the design of
safe and attractive pedestrian crossings which are fully accessible to all users throughout
the State of Qatar.
The definition of a pedestrian crossing is, “an area designated for pedestrians to cross a
road.”
This section provides information on the planning requirements associated with pedestrian
crossings.
The primary definitions used in the Manual are:
• Must – is used to indicate a legal requirement which must be complied with.
• Shall – indicates an essential requirement of compliance with the manual.
• Should – indicates a course of action that is strongly recommended.
• May – is used to indicate an option that requires consideration, depending on the

circumstances.
For further information on the specification of construction materials and street furniture
that should be used when implementing pedestrian crossings reference should be made to
the QPRG.
3.2 Pedestrian Crossing Planning Guidance Principles

This section of the QHDM sets out the principles for the planning of pedestrian crossings
throughout the State of Qatar.
3.2.1 Safe System

Road design in the State of Qatar is based on the safe system approach to road safety. The
basic principle of safe system is that no one should die or be seriously injured for making a
simple mistake while using the road network. The safe system recognizes that road users
do make mistakes, and consequently, the road network should be designed to protect users
when they make a mistake.
The safe system recognizes human frailty. In a collision between a pedestrian and a vehicle,
the pedestrian is likely to suffer serious or fatal injuries if vehicle speeds are above 30 kph;
see Figure 2.3. An aligned principle of the QHDM is therefore, to minimize or manage

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interactions between vehicles and pedestrians where vehicle speeds are likely to exceed
30 kph.
3.2.2 Accessibility for all Pedestrians

A primary aim of the QHDM is to improve accessibility for all pedestrians. This includes
recognizing and accommodating for the needs of young pedestrians, users in wheelchairs,
people pushing strollers, and users with visual impairments.
The MOTC is developing accessibility standards for the State of Qatar. Designs shall take
cognizance of the forthcoming advice, and consultation shall be undertaken with the
Overseeing Organization to confirm applicability on a case-by-case basis.
3.2.3 Planning for Walking

Walking shall be considered when planning for both the existing and future road networks as
well as for new developments. Pedestrian needs on the existing network can be identified
by surveying current pedestrian activity and providing suitable facilities at locations where
pedestrian demand is evident and contextually appropriate or feasible.
When a new road is developed, pedestrian demand shall be considered, and facilities
provided accordingly. Typical road cross sections, including pedestrian facilities, are
provided in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. An overview of the
requirements to ensure the needs of pedestrians are considered in the planning and design
of road projects is provided in Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
When planning is undertaken for new developments consideration should be given to

pedestrian access. Where significant numbers of pedestrians are expected, routes should
be identified, and crossings provided accordingly. Further planning requirements for
developments are outlined in Section ‎ 3.4.

The pedestrian level of service (LOS)1 provides a useful means of evaluating the capacity and
comfort of pedestrian facilities and associated queuing areas, such as sidewalks adjacent to
pedestrian crossings. LOS for queuing areas is based on available standing space, perceived
comfort and safety, and the ability to maneuver from one location to another.
Table 3.1 quantifies spatial LOS criteria, while Figure 3.1 illustrates typical pedestrian
densities for each LOS.
1 Fruin, J. J. (1971). Pedestrian planning and design (No. 206 pp)

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Table ‎3.1 Level of Service Classifications
Average Pedestrian Area

Level of Service (square meters per person) Average Interpersonal Spacing
A > 1.2 > 1.2
B 0.9-1.2 0.9-1.2
C 0.7-0.9 0.7-0.9
D 0.3-0.7 0.3-0.7
E 0.2-0.3 < 0.3
F < 0.2 Negligible
Source: Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board, 2010)
Figure ‎3.1 Pedestrian Queuing Area Level of Service
The pedestrian LOS is based upon the amount of pedestrian space available, accordingly
therefore the LOS thresholds may be used to assist the specification of design parameters,
including sidewalk width, pedestrian refuge size, and the width of the pedestrian crossing

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facility.
The pedestrian LOS required for waiting at a facility is a function of the amount of time spent
waiting, the number of people waiting, and the desired level of comfort. The longer the wait,
the greater the space required per person; typically, a person’s tolerance of crowding varies
with time. For example, people will be more accepting of using a busy elevator (LOS E) for
30 seconds, than being held in a moderately busy waiting area (LOS C) for a longer period.
A person’s acceptance of close interpersonal spacing will also depend on the characteristics
of the population, weather conditions, and facility type. The primary method of evaluating
pedestrian LOS at crossings should be based on the space criteria presented in Figure 3.1.
The designer should also consider the average delay per pedestrian. Table 3.2 and Table 3.3
present the pedestrian LOS for waiting time.
Table ‎3.2 Pedestrian LOS Criteria for Signalized Crossing Delay
Average Delay per Pedestrian Likelihood of Risk-Taking

Level of Service (seconds) Behavior
A < 10 Low
B 10-20 Low to moderate
C 20-30 Moderate
D 30-40 Moderate to high
E 40-60 High
F > 60 Very high
Table ‎3.3 Pedestrian LOS Criteria for Unsignalized Crossing Delay
Average Delay per Pedestrian Likelihood of Risk-Taking

Level of Service (seconds) Behavior
A <5 Low
B 5-10 Low to moderate
C 10-20 Moderate
D 20-30 Moderate to high
E 30-45 High
F > 45 Very high
Level of service criteria provide a useful means of determining the environmental

quality of a pedestrian space, however, the economic practicality and feasibility of
providing space with an appropriate LOS may also require appraisal. When designing
for extreme peak demands of short duration a lower LOS may be applied to obtain a
more economical design. In addition to LOS, the pedestrian crossing design process
may include an assessment of the magnitude and duration of traffic peaks, and numbers of
pedestrians.

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3.2.5 Types of Pedestrian Crossings

There are two main types of pedestrian crossings:
• Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings
• At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings
3.2.5.1 Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings

Grade-separated crossings require pedestrians to cross at a level either above or below the
road. There are three types of grade-separated crossings:
• Pedestrian Bridge
• Pedestrian Underpass
• Pedestrian Half-Underpass
Figure 3.2 shows examples of existing pedestrian bridges in Doha.
Figure ‎3.2 Existing Pedestrian Bridges in Doha
3.2.5.2 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings

At-grade crossings enable pedestrians to cross the road at the same level as the sidewalk.
At-grade crossings do, however, require pedestrians to share the same road space as
vehicles and accordingly, there are associated safety considerations if at-grade crossings are
implemented on high-speed roads.
At-grade crossings can be signalized or unsignalized:
• Signalized
o Pedestrian crossing at signalized intersections
o Signalized mid-block pedestrian crossing
• Unsignalized
o Pedestrian crossing at unsignalized intersection; YIELD or STOP controlled
o Pedestrian crossing at mid-block location; YIELD controlled

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Signalized pedestrian crossings incorporate traffic signal control for vehicles. A red-light
traffic signal mandates a vehicle to stop to allow pedestrians to cross the road. When traffic
signals are introduced, the delays for pedestrians shall be considered and, if appropriate,
additional facilities incorporated to make waiting more comfortable. Figure 3.3 shows an
example of an existing at-grade signalized pedestrian crossing in Doha.
Signalized crossing facilities may be customized to accommodate a shared-use signalized

crossing for use by pedestrians and cyclists.
Unsignalized pedestrian crossings are locations where crosswalk markings are placed on
the road to indicate where pedestrians should cross, and traffic signs are erected to indicate
that vehicles shall yield to pedestrians. Under current legislation, it is left to the driver’s
discretion as to whether or not they should stop at an unsignalized pedestrian crossing.
Legislative requirements are outlined in Section ‎3.2.6.
Unsignalized pedestrian crossings are recommended for use on roads with a posted speed
limit of 50 kph or less.
Pedestrian-friendly facilities may be provided to assist pedestrians to cross the road and
may be integrated as features in at-grade crossings or as standalone infrastructure. These
facilities include:
• Pedestrian refuge (can be standalone or integral to median)
• Curb extensions
• Dropped curbs

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Figure ‎3.3 Typical At-Grade Signalized Crossing, Doha
Pedestrians tend to prefer crossing a road without changing grade. For this reason, when a
crossing facility is provided, it should be at the same grade as the pedestrian, unless safety
and/or operational reasons dictate otherwise.
3.2.5.3 Choice of Crossing Facility

Table 3.4 summarizes suitable types of pedestrian crossings for each speed limit.
Table ‎3.4 Suitable Pedestrian Crossing Types by Posted Speed Limit

Posted Speed Limit Suitable Crossing Types
All types of pedestrian crossing can be used
50 kph or less
Grade-separated crossings should only be used for strategic purposes
Grade-separated crossings
>50 kph – 80 kpha
Signalized at-grade crossingsa
>80 kph Grade-separated crossings only
Note:
a
Where pedestrian crossing movements exceed 600 pedestrians per hour in the peak period, a grade-
separated crossing shall be used.
Crossing facilities should be provided as close as practical to where pedestrians want to

cross the road; the ‘desire line’. Crossing facilities and pedestrian-friendly features should
be implemented at all recognized forms of intersection and where appropriate at mid-block
locations, as shown in Figure 3.4.

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Source: MOTC
Figure ‎3.4 Crossing Type Hierarchy
Design considerations and example crossing facility arrangements for different forms of
intersection are included in Section ‎4 of this document.
3.2.6 Considering the Legal Aspects of Pedestrian Crossings

When a crossing is provided, both the legal and safety aspects of the crossing must be
considered.
Currently, in the State of Qatar, drivers are not required to yield to pedestrians at unsignalized
pedestrian crossings. In the short term at such locations, it should be assumed that traffic
speeds will not reduce, and drivers will not yield. In the longer term, it is recommended that
the legislation be changed to mandate drivers to stop.
Pedestrians are required to follow signals for pedestrian crossings and abide by traffic signs
and rules. Article 62 of Qatari Traffic Law states that, “In all cases, pedestrians must observe
and take account of traffic signals and rules.” Currently, it is an offense if a pedestrian does
not ensure they are crossing the road safely.
Pedestrians should be prohibited from gaining access to roadways which have a posted
speed limit greater than 80 kph.
An exception can be made in certain circumstances. If an assessment is made of the crossing

point of a road with a speed limit of 100 kph as outlined in Section ‎3.3.4, and it is judged that
pedestrians can cross safely without the provision of a pedestrian crossing, then this rule
does not apply and pedestrians can be allowed to cross at-grade on this road.
3.3 Pedestrian Crossing Planning Policies

3.3.1 Providing Crossings
The following sections provide guidance on how to identify whether a pedestrian crossing is
needed and, once a need has been identified, the type of crossing that is appropriate.

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The following guidance is provided:
• The identification of the need for a pedestrian crossing

• The justification of the provision of a pedestrian crossing using warrants
• The spacing required between pedestrian crossings
• The coordination of pedestrian crossings with planning for bicycles
• The selection of the type of pedestrian crossing to install using flowcharts
• The design of pedestrian crossings
• The use of pedestrian related traffic signs
• The review of existing crossing facilities
• Prohibited crossing
3.3.2 Identifying the Need for a Pedestrian Crossing

To determine whether a crossing is needed, the following three stage approach should be
implemented:
• Identify the existing and potential demand for a pedestrian crossing

• Use crossing warrants to establish if a crossing is justified
• Select the appropriate type of crossing
The process used to identify the need for a crossing will vary depending on whether it is an
existing or a proposed road, and whether the road is in an urban or rural environment.
The need for a crossing on an existing road should be established by:
• Observing pedestrians attempting to cross the road

• Reviewing complaints/comments from the public
• Reviewing crash data for crashes involving pedestrians
• Reviewing land uses on both sides of the road
• Identifying new developments creating new pedestrian desire lines
The Qatar Pedestrian Demand GIS tool, developed as part of the QPCMP, can use planning
data from the Qatar Strategic Transportation Model (QSTM) to identify pedestrian demand
and potential crossing locations. Guidance on the use of the Qatar Pedestrian Demand GIS
tool can be obtained from the Overseeing Organization.
The Qatar Pedestrian Demand GIS tool may also be used to analyze pedestrian movements
associated with a proposed development. The tool is suitable for use on road corridors or on
an area-wide basis.
3.3.2.1 Road Corridors

When considering improvements to road corridors, an assessment should be made of current
pedestrian movement patterns and crossings provided accordingly.

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3.3.2.2 Proposed New Developments

For proposed new developments, an assessment should be made of the volume of
pedestrians expected to walk to and from the development, alongside associated
origins and destinations. If the predicted volume of pedestrians warrants it,
then pedestrian crossings should be provided accordingly. For example, if a new
development is situated opposite a metro station, a pedestrian crossing shall be
provided if the qualifying criteria are met, as outlined in Section ‎3.3.3.
3.3.2.3 Rural Environments

The processes identified above are most relevant in areas where pedestrian demand
exists or is forecast to exist. As such, the processes are generally most appropriate
to use in urban environments. In rural environments, pedestrian demand is likely to
be much lower than in urban situations. Crossings in rural areas can still be justified as
Part of a road improvement scheme where a demand can be demonstrated.
3.3.2.4 Summary
Table 3.5 provides a summary of the processes involved in identifying the need for a
pedestrian crossing.
Table ‎3.5 Identifying the Need for a Pedestrian Crossing
Road Environment Indicators of Crossing Need

Identification of existing problem locations
Existing road
Identification of suppressed demand from existing developments
network
Identification of need from planning data
Identification of existing problem locations

Improvement of
Identification of suppressed demand from existing developments
existing corridor
Identification of need from planning data
Proposed new road Identification of need from planning data
Can be justified as part of a road improvement scheme where a demand can be

Rural
demonstrated.
3.3.3 Crossing Warrants

It is not practical or economically feasible to provide a crossing at every location where a
pedestrian wants to cross a road. For this reason, warrants should be satisfied before one of
the various crossing types is provided Table 3.6 provides a summary of crossing warrants.
It is recommended that for Qatar Pedestrian facilities should be provided on all arms of traffic
signal-controlled intersections in urban areas, unless there is a specific reason not to do so.

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3.3.4 Grade-Separated Crossings

Grade-separated crossings are most appropriate on expressways and arterial roads but can
also be used on boulevard and collector roads for strategic reasons. For example, if a road has
multiple traffic lanes and experiences high volumes of traffic, the provision of an at-grade
crossing would have potential to create local traffic congestion.
If a pedestrian crossing is proposed on a road with a posted speed limit greater than 80 kph,
a grade-separated type of crossing shall be used. Grade-separated crossings are appropriate
on roads with an 80 kph posted speed limit and no traffic signals. Grade-separated crossings
may also be used on roads with lower speed limits for strategic reasons. An example of
grade-separated pedestrian crossing in Doha is as shown in Figure 3.5.
3.3.4.1 Identifying Demand

A grade-separated crossing should be provided where demand can be demonstrated through
one or more of the following:
• Surveys of existing pedestrian movements and subsequent demand for crossing points.
• Evidence of recent crashes involving a pedestrian, in the absence of a pedestrian crossing
• Analysis of existing land uses, and an assessment of any existing crossing provision for
suitability, for example, to ensure that a suitable crossing facility is provided across a
major road to connect a shopping mall with a residential area
• Analysis of future development impacts on crossing provision, based upon anticipated

pedestrian demand, and access routes to a development
• Analysis of vehicle speeds and volumes indicate that pedestrians cannot cross the road
safely without a formal crossing facility

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Figure ‎3.5 Existing Grade-Separated Crossing in Doha
3.3.4.2 Speed Limit Requirements

For roads with posted speed limits greater than 50 kph and not more than 80 kph, where
pedestrian crossing movements exceed 600 pedestrians per hour in the peak period, a
grade-separated crossing shall be used.
For roads with posted speed limits greater than 50 kph and not more than 80 kph, where
the peak pedestrian flow is less than 600 per hour, an assessment of the crossing difficulty
should be undertaken as follows:
• Assess the time required to cross the road using a walking speed of 1.2 m per second.
• Identify the number of gaps in traffic flow that exceed this crossing time in a five-minute
window during the peak traffic period of the day.
A grade-separated pedestrian crossing may not be required if traffic volume and speed leave
gaps which allow pedestrians to cross 50% of the time. If a grade-separated crossing facility
is not assessed as a requirement, dropped curbs and a clear walking route with appropriate
width through the median may be provided instead. For divided roads, the assessment
should be carried out for each roadway, and the worst case identified for pedestrians applied
to both roadways.
For roads with posted speed limits greater than 80 kph, a grade-separated crossing shall be
used.
There should be a gap of at least 250 m between grade separated crossings and the nearest
alternative crossing facility.

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3.3.4.3 Crossing Distance

If notable pedestrian demand is identified and the total distance required to cross by a
pedestrian is greater than 32 m, or when one side of a divided road has four lanes or more,
then provision of a grade-separated crossing may be recommended.
Pedestrians should not be allowed access to roadways with speed limits of 120 kph or
greater.
3.3.5 Signalized Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossings

Signalized mid-block crossings are appropriate for use on boulevard, collector, service, and
local roads. An example of a signalized mid-block at-grade pedestrian crossing is shown
Figure 3.6.
Warrant requirements for signalized mid-block pedestrian crossings are particularly important
to ensure that such crossings are provided only where they will be used frequently. If crossings
are not used frequently, drivers can become accustomed to driving through the crossing
unimpeded, and they can fail to notice, on an infrequent occasion, when the crossing displays
a red signal for vehicles. In such a scenario, a mid-block signalized pedestrian crossing can
be a more hazardous location to cross the road than where no pedestrian crossing exists.
Signalized mid-block pedestrian crossings can disrupt traffic flows and result in traffic
congestion if not designed and sited correctly.
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎3.6 Signalized Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossing

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The signalized mid-block pedestrian crossings should be provided at or near pedestrian

desire lines that crossroads with speed limits of 80 kph or lower, and one or more of the
following conditions apply:
• The road section experiences traffic flows which exceed 600 vehicles per hour and 150
pedestrians per hour in the peak period for the site.
• The road has a central median that is wide enough to accommodate a pedestrian waiting
area, and flows exceed 1,000 vehicles per hour and 150 pedestrians per hour in the peak
period for the site.
• There is evidence of suppressed pedestrian crossing demand, based on analysis of

existing land uses. For example, lack of a crossing facility connecting a shopping mall to
a housing development separated by a major road.
• Analysis indicates a significant latent pedestrian crossing demand, for example, between
existing land uses and the location of a future development.
3.3.6 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings
Figure ‎3.7 Unsignalized Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossing
It is recommended that unsignalized mid-block pedestrian crossings (Zebra crossing) should

be provided when all three conditions below apply:
• The road section is a collector, service, or local road where there is only one traffic lane
in each direction.
• Where pedestrian peak hour flow is less than 400 per hour
• Where posted speed is 50 kph or lower

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It is recommended that unsignalized mid-block pedestrian crossings are not sited in locations
where the 85th percentile speed exceeds 50 kph. Generally, the use of unsignalized mid-
block crossings within 100m of a signalized pedestrian crossing will not be appropriate for
there will be an adverse effect on local traffic flow. An example of unsignalized mid-block
at-grade pedestrian crossing is as shown in Figure 3.7.
3.3.7 Raised Pedestrian Crossings
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎3.8 Raised Pedestrian Crossing
Raised pedestrian crossings incorporate ramped approaches and a tabletop (platform) in

the roadway, this is in order to encourage lower vehicle approach speeds. This arrangement
also allows pedestrians to cross at sidewalk level. Raised pedestrian crossing infrastructure
can be incorporated into signalized or unsignalized crossing facilities. Raised pedestrian
crossings can be considered for implementation where all the following conditions apply:
• Where the posted speed is 50 kph or lower
• Where pedestrian peak hour flow is equal to or less than 50 per hour
• On lit roads where the crossing is visible
• Where the road is not a freeway, expressway, arterial, or major collector route, and the
right of way corridor width is less than 32 m
An example of a raised pedestrian crossing is as shown in Figure 3.8
The design of raised pedestrian crossings on roads with a posted speed limit exceeding
50 kph is not recommended and, any proposals for such, shall be discussed and agreed with

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3.3.8 Pedestrian Refuge Islands and Curb Extensions
Figure ‎3.9 Pedestrian Refuge Island
Consideration should be given to the use of pedestrian-friendly features, such as pedestrian

refuge islands and curb extensions where all the following conditions apply:
• On collector, service, distributor and local roads
• For roads with posted speeds lower than 50 kph
• Where pedestrian peak hour flow is less than 50 per hour
Such features, as indicated in Figure 3.9, do not mandate any requirement for vehicles to
yield to pedestrians.
3.3.9 Pedestrian Crossings Warrant Summary

Table 3.6 provides a summary of crossing warrant requirements. Further details on the
selection process is provided in flow chart format in Appendix A.

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Table ‎3.6 Pedestrian Crossing Warrants
Permitted Road Posted Speed Peak Hour Pedestrian Crossing

Crossing Type
type Limit (kph) Flow (pedestrians per hour)
>600
Expressway Or where a safe crossing movement
Grade-Separated ≥80
Arterial cannot be made more than 50% of the
time and pedestrian flows are <600
Boulevard
Mid-Block Collector
≤80 50 - 1250
Signalized Service road
Local road
Collector
Mid-Block
Service road ≤50 <400
Unsignalized
Local road
≤50 if used as a standalone feature.

Collector May also be used with signalized
Raised Pedestrian
Service road ≤50 and unsignalized crossings. Subject
Crossing
Local road to agreement from the Overseeing
Organization.
Collector
Curb Extensions Service road ≤50 ≤50
Local road
Collector
Refuge Islands Service road ≤50 <50
Local road
3.3.10 Spacing of Crossings

The spacing requirements for pedestrian crossings along a road section vary depending
upon the type of crossing proposed:
• Grade-separated pedestrian crossings and the nearest alternative crossing facility

should have a minimum spacing of 250 m.
• Signalized mid-block pedestrian crossings and the nearest alternative pedestrian crossing
facility should have a spacing of at least 100 m. If a signalized pedestrian crossing is
proposed within 250 m of an existing signalized pedestrian crossing, then a traffic
model should be developed with the aim of ensuring that both pedestrian crossings can
operate effectively and safely, in consideration of the requirements of pedestrians and
vehicular traffic.
• Unsignalized pedestrian crossings and the nearest alternative pedestrian crossing

facility (signalized or unsignalized), should be separated by a gap of at least 100 m.
• In urban areas, it is recommended that a pedestrian crossing is provided within 250 m of

an identified pedestrian desire line.

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• In rural areas, the maximum distance a pedestrian crossing can be offset from an
identified pedestrian desire line will be dependent upon the local context and shall be
agreed with the Overseeing Organization.
• Raised pedestrian crossings may be spaced as closely as required to maintain the posted
speeds, provided they satisfy pedestrian desire line.
• Pedestrian refuge islands and curb extensions should be spaced as closely as required
to satisfy pedestrian desire lines.
Table 3.7 provides a summary of the spacing requirements.
Table ‎3.7 Pedestrian Crossing Spacing Requirements
Crossing Type Minimum Spacing to Alternative Facility

Grade-separated pedestrian crossing 250 m
Signalized mid-block pedestrian crossing 100 m
Unsignalized mid-block pedestrian crossing 100 m
As close as required to maintain low posted

Raised pedestrian crossing
speeds
Curb extensions As close as required
Refuge islands As close as required
3.3.11 Coordinating with Planning for Bicycles

Where a bicycle route requires to cross a road, it is recommended that a crossing facility is
provided that is convenient, and safe for use by both pedestrians and cyclists.
Cyclists will be required to dismount and push their bicycles across pedestrian bridges,
or through pedestrian underpasses, unless the bridge or underpass has specifically been
designed and warranted for cyclist use.
It is recommended that proposals for pedestrian refuge islands and curb extensions take
due account of bicycling routes, and that a suitable roadway space is provided to safely
accommodate cyclists along with other vehicular traffic.
3.3.12 Selecting the Crossing Type

When selecting the type of pedestrian crossing to use, each location should be assessed
independently, and judgement used to take account of local circumstances and conditions.
Appendix A includes a series of flowcharts to facilitate this assessment.
The flowcharts included in Appendix A are intended as a guide only, and engineering
judgment should be used in addition to appraise the most suitable type of crossing on a case-
by-case basis. If a crossing type other than that identified using the flowcharts is proposed,
then the selection of that crossing type shall be agreed with the Overseeing Organization.

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When making the assessment, bear in mind that pedestrians prefer to use the simplest and
most direct type of facility to cross the road. For example:
• Pedestrians prefer to cross a road at any point they wish, as long as traffic speeds and
volumes allow the pedestrian to do so.
• Pedestrians prefer to cross a road using an unsignalized at-grade crossing, rather than a
signalized at-grade crossing, as waiting times will usually be reduced.
• Pedestrians may prefer to use an at-grade crossing rather than a grade-separated

crossing, as there is usually less effort and time involved in using an at-grade facility.
Taking the above into account, it is recommended that the assessment of crossing type
would commence with the premise that the lowest suitable form of crossing for the
location should be proposed. The overall planning philosophy for a local area (relating to
requirements for consistency), and the impact on traffic flows will require consideration in
the assessment process. The main consideration in the assessment shall be to maintain the
safety of pedestrians.
The flowcharts in Appendix A cover three stages of assessment:
Stage 1 assists in identifying if there is an essential requirement for a pedestrian crossing

and sets out the process to be followed in making this assessment. This process is further
detailed in Section ‎3.3.2.
Stage 2 assists in identifying if an at-grade or a grade-separated crossing is required. The

information required at this stage is:
• The posted speed limits
• The number of traffic lanes
• The volume of pedestrians and vehicles per hour in the peak period
• Driver’s forward visibility of the crossing location
If a grade-separated crossing is identified as the most appropriate pedestrian crossing type,

then at Stage 2 a further assessment should be undertaken to establish if the crossing
should be a pedestrian bridge or a pedestrian underpass. The Stage 2 assessment should
take account of:
• Pedestrian preferences – pedestrians may prefer bridges to underpasses as they are

perceived to provide a higher level of personal safety. Natural light can be used to create
a more welcoming environment, and the surrounding area can be kept in view while
using the crossing.
• Physical constraints – the following aspects should be integrally considered in the Stage 2
assessment process:

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o Location and form of public utilities
o Privacy issues, if a bridge would overlook houses or gardens
o Availability of land to implement an attractive entrance to a pedestrian underpass

or landing space for a pedestrian bridge
• Visual impact of the bridge or entrance to the underpass
• Pedestrian starting grade; for example, if the pedestrian is using an underground car
park facility, then they would be most likely to prefer an underground connection to a
shopping mall rather than changing grade to cross at the road surface level
If an at-grade crossing is identified as appropriate at Stage 2, then the assessment should

continue to Stage 3.
Stage 3 involves consideration of the following criteria:
• The width of the adjacent sidewalk
• The posted speed limits
• The presence of other traffic signals on the road
• The number of traffic lanes
• The Volume of pedestrians in the peak period
• Anticipated proportion of elderly or disabled people
3.3.13 Pedestrian Crossings Design

Section ‎4 defines the minimum design requirements for pedestrian crossings.
Sections ‎3.3.14 to 3
‎ .3.17 provide specific guidance on issues related to each crossing
type.

To ensure best practice is followed in the design of pedestrian bridges it is recommended
that the designer take account of the following design aims:
• Design to serve wheelchair users, unless the bridge is at a location inaccessible to

wheelchair users.
• Where practical, provide edge protection for cyclists to prevent handlebars clashing with
bridge parapets.
• Ensure good visibility to and from surrounding areas.

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• Provide shade from sun and shelter from adverse weather.
• Provide barriers to discourage at-grade crossing in the vicinity of the pedestrian bridge.
Any rigid structures, such as footbridges, placed within the safety zone adjacent to a
network with a posted speed of 50 kph, or more, shall require a vehicle restraint system, in
compliance with the safe system approach in Volume 3, Part 23, Design and Operations of
Road Safety, of this Manual.
3.3.14.1 Minimum Geometric Requirements

To ensure best practice is followed in the design of pedestrian bridges, the following
geometric design requirements shall be adhered to:
• Shall have a minimum width of 2.4 m
• Shall have 6.5 m vertical clearance above roads
• Shall have a minimum parapet height of 1.5 m
• Shall have a minimum clearance height of 2.4 m for pedestrians under roofs, shading, or
fixtures
The minimum geometric requirements are shown on Figure 3.10.
Figure ‎3.10 Pedestrian Bridge Minimum Requirements
3.3.14.2 Pedestrian Bridge Facilities

The type of facilities that should be provided at a pedestrian bridge depends upon the local
environmental context. Options for facilities include:
• Air-conditioning
• Shade cover
• Elevators
• Escalators
• Ramps

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If a pedestrian bridge is required to be accessible by wheelchair, then it shall include elevators.

Where elevators are provided, and space is available, it is recommended that ramps are also
provided, in case of elevator failure.
Where a pedestrian bridge is proposed in a busy urban environment or where the bridge
connects two air-conditioned environments, the bridge should be enclosed and air-
conditioned.
Bridge decks should be shaded. The material of the shade cover should be selected to ensure
it does not radiate heat. Where feasible, natural planting can help to provide shade. Planting
also provides a natural cooling effect on the surrounding environment.
3.3.14.3 Architectural Requirements

Pedestrian bridges can have a significant visual impact on their surrounding environment,
accordingly aesthetic considerations are a key factor in design. In some locations, it may be
appropriate to use the bridge as a design statement to create a high-profile impact, whereby
the bridge itself may become a local landmark. In other locations, it will be more appropriate
for the bridge to maintain a basic, functional appearance, and/or for the bridge to match and
blend with the surrounding environment. There are three main bridge types:
Basic, see Figure 3.11, design aspects can include:
• Covered deck and accessible by stairs but not necessarily elevator

• Consideration as a temporary solution where mobility-impaired pedestrians do not
require access
• Lighting and air conditioning not essential
• Functional appearance
Intermediate, see Figure 3.12 design aspects may include:
• Covered deck and accessible by both elevators and stairs

• Include appropriate lighting but not necessarily air-conditioning
• Contextual architectural appearance
Detailed, see Figure 3.13 design aspects may include:
• Covered deck and accessible by both elevators and stairs essential

• Lighting and air-conditioning essential
• Contextual or landmark architectural appearance

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Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎3.11 Basic Pedestrian Bridge Design Example
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎3.12 Intermediate Pedestrian Bridge Design Example, Doha

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Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎3.13 Detailed Pedestrian Bridge Design Example, Doha
If a pedestrian bridge is proposed to provide a link on a walking route that is serving a

utilitarian purpose, then that bridge should provide as direct a route as is practical. In
some locations however, the bridge will form Part of a leisure or recreational route. In such
locations, a more inventive approach may be taken to the bridge design and alignment, as
illustrated in Figure 3.14.
Figure ‎3.14 Leisure Purpose Pedestrian Bridge Design Example

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3.3.14.4 Bridge Design Families

Where more than one pedestrian bridge is proposed in a locality, design ‘families’ should be
considered so that the bridges have a consistency of character and visual impact. Design
families should be integrated and developed in such a way that they fit within the context
of the local surroundings.
In West Bay, Doha, for example, the building architecture is modern, with tall buildings
incorporating significant use of steel and glass materials. A modern design family palette
could be considered to complement the surrounding structures. Two modern style pedestrian
bridge designs are shown in Figure 3.15.
Figure ‎3.15 Examples of Design Family of Pedestrian Bridges - Modern

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By contrast, other localities in Doha, such as Souq Waqif and Grand Hamad Street, incorporate
more traditional architectural themes. Accordingly, the two ‘Heritage’ themed pedestrian
bridge design examples, as shown in Figure 3.16, would blend consistently with the
surrounding architectural landscape.
Figure ‎3.16 Examples of Design Family of Pedestrian Bridges - Heritage
3.3.14.5 Materials
The choice of materials for pedestrian bridges will be influenced by the overall design
theme. The materials should be chosen to be robust and easy to maintain. The specification
of materials should take account of the desired quality and appearance of the pedestrian
bridge as well as the impact that the materials may have on the urban heat island effect.
The interior of the bridge should ideally be ‘light and airy’, to provide a welcoming environment
for pedestrians, as illustrated in Figure 3.17.

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Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎3.17 Pedestrian Bridge Interior
A well-designed bridge interior arrangement can be used to reduce the impact of the urban
heat island effect, while maintaining a minimum solar reflective index (SRI) of 29. The SRI is
a measure of the amount of solar energy reflected by the surface of a material. The choice
of materials for the bridge deck superstructure and the choice of any cladding material
for enclosed stairs and elevators, shall take into account the radiated heat impact and the
heating effect they will have on the enclosed pedestrian space. Materials with a minimum
SRI value of 29 should be specified.
Specification of construction materials shall conform to the requirements defined in of this

Manual and with reference to the QPRG. The QPRG provides direction on the specification of
materials that can be used in specific areas of the State of Qatar.
3.3.14.6 Landscaping
The landscaping associated with pedestrian bridges may be restricted to hard landscaping,
and as such, should match and blend with the hard landscaping in the surrounding area.
When soft landscaping is incorporated into the bridge design, the choice of planting used
should be verified as suitable for the local environment.
When designing landscaping associated with the bridge, reference should be made to
Volume 3, Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this Manual, the QPRG, and the Qatar
Construction Specification (2014, Section 28).
3.3.14.7 Supporting Infrastructure

Pedestrians may prefer crossing roads at-grade because it is generally the most direct route,
and usually involves the least effort. To encourage pedestrians to use bridges, where they

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exist, pedestrian guardrails should be erected in the vicinity to prevent at-grade crossings
taking place. Section ‎4.3.8 provides details of pedestrian guardrails.
Bus passengers generally use a bus stop on one side of a road at the start of their journey,
and one on the other side of the road when they return, accordingly, they will need to cross
the road either at the start or end of their trip. Where practical, coordinating the pedestrian
bridge location with bus stops on both sides of a road will improve connectivity and encourage
bus passengers to cross the road using a safe facility.
In urban environments, a pedestrian footbridge can provide an important link in overall

journeys and can also be used for purposes other than just providing a pedestrian route.
These purposes can include providing opportunity and space for retail which could operate
on either a permanent or temporary basis.
A pedestrian footbridge may accommodate food and drink kiosks, and other small-scale
service offerings. If retail facilities are to be provided within a pedestrian footbridge, then
floor space, and placement should be treated as paramount. Vendors should be located so
that they are accessible to the public along their routes and, importantly, their operations
should not impede the movement of pedestrians. Adequate operational space would be
required to accommodate a customer serving area, stock holding, and space for customers to
queue, while maintaining a minimum ‘effective’ width of 2.4 m for users of the footbridge to
pass unobstructed in both directions.
In some cases, it may be warranted to provide furniture such as seating where pedestrians
can stop and rest along their route. This could help provide a sense of place to the footbridge
rather than it being simply a facility for crossing a road. If seating is provided it shall be
located to ensure it does not reduce the minimum effective width of 2.4 m.
Servicing of ancillary uses would need detailed consideration at the design stage. High
quality lighting and air conditioning would be essential. Available space, economics, licensing
requirements, and other factors would need to be appraised in design.
Small-scale retail operations (food or non-food uses), may be provided if space allows.
Electricity supply for lighting and air-conditioning of the footbridge may also be used for
power supply for retail operations, but provision of other service connections such as fresh
water and foul drainage could be more technically challenging. The practicality of supplying
such services, and the available floor space for operation, and queuing, would largely
determine the suitability of different forms of retail and non-retail use.
3.3.14.8 Construction Considerations

In order to safely facilitate construction of a pedestrian bridge facility it will often be
necessary to implement adjacent traffic management which may temporarily result in less
available traffic lane space. If a bridge is being retrofitted into an existing road space, the
bridge deck may be formed as a prefabricated unit off-site and then lifted into place on-site.

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Undertaking the bridge construction in this manner will reduce the consequential delay and
impact created for traffic but may restrict the design options.
3.3.14.9 Advertising on Bridges

Provision of pedestrian bridges provides an opportunity for incorporating advertising space
over a road. The MME must be consulted to ascertain whether advertising is permitted in
the location where the bridge is proposed. If allowable, the form of advertising shall take
road safety into account and minimize driver distraction. If electronic advertising screens are
used, the following design principles shall apply:
• Roadside advertising devices shall not contain motion, changes in luminance, or any
effects that create the illusion of movement.
• Use of words shall be minimized.
• Messages shall change instantly, without fade, zoom, or fly-in effects, and without black
screens between messages.
• Messages shall not contain images that look like traffic signs.

To ensure best practice is followed in the design of pedestrian underpasses, the designer
shall take account of the following design aims:
• Design to serve wheelchair users, unless the underpass is at a location inaccessible to

wheelchair users.
• Where practical, include separate ramps or paths to segregate cyclists from pedestrians.
• Where practical, consider provision of a raised ‘sidewalk’ and lower ‘bicycle way’.
• Where practical, provide edge protection for cyclists to prevent handlebars clashing with
underpass walls.
• Provide barriers to discourage at-grade crossing near the pedestrian underpass.
• Where practical, include provision of CCTV or other security surveillance.
• Provide effective air circulation.
• Provide good sight lines on approach inclines.
Any rigid structures, such as the above-ground parts of underpasses, placed within the
safety zone adjacent to a network with a posted speed of 50 kph, or more, shall require a

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vehicle restraint system, in compliance with the safe system approach in Volume 3, Part 23,
3.3.15.1 Minimum Requirements

To ensure best practice is followed in the design of pedestrian underpasses, the following
geometric design requirements shall be adhered to:
• An absolute minimum width of 2.3 m
• 3.0 m minimum width desirable for <20 m underpass lengths
• 3.3 m minimum width desirable for ≥20 m underpass lengths
• Minimum width of 4.0 m, if pedestrians and cyclists share the underpass
• A minimum clearance height of 3.5 m
The minimum geometric requirements are shown on Figure 3.18.
Figure ‎3.18 Pedestrian Underpass Desirable Minimum Requirements
3.3.15.2 Architectural Requirements

The architectural approach to the design of a pedestrian underpass will be influenced by
the space available and the ability to landscape the surrounding area to provide a level
and open approach to the underpass. If sufficient space is available, extensive landscaping
can be developed, and the underpass can be designed as a local feature. Figure 3.19 and
Figure 3.20 provide examples of an entrance to a combined underpass and underground car
park near the Sheraton Hotel in West Bay, Doha.

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Figure ‎3.19 Underpass and Car Park Entrance at Road Level, West Bay, Doha
Figure ‎3.20 Underpass and Car Park Entrance Below Road Level, West Bay, Doha

19
If the pedestrian underpass is being retrofitted into an existing road, the space available
for the access to the underpass may be limited. In such cases a minimalist approach may
be taken, as shown in Figure 3.21 Alternatively, a feature may be made of the access point
to highlight where it is and to enhance the street environment. Figure 3.22 provides an
example of such a design form.
Figure ‎3.21 Pedestrian Underpass Access Point, Corniche, Doha
Figure ‎3.22 Pedestrian Underpass Access Point, Feature Design

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The interior of a pedestrian underpass shall be designed to ensure the environment is

welcoming, pleasant, and accessible for pedestrian use. If a pedestrian underpass connects
two facilities, for example; a car park to a shopping mall, then the design of the interior
space should be consistent with the facilities that are being connected. In such cases
the pedestrian underpass is likely to comprise a completely enclosed facility. Figure 3.23
demonstrates an example of an existing underpass in Doha, which connects Souq Waqif to
the Corniche.
Figure ‎3.23 High Quality Pedestrian Underpass Interior, Doha
If a pedestrian underpass is a standalone facility the visual impact of the underpass access
points should be given detailed consideration. The design of the access points should be
consistent with, and blend with the local environment. The design of the underpass should
maximize sight lines to, and through the underpass, to make the environment appealing
to users. Figure 3.24 provides an example of a pedestrian underpass in Abu Dhabi. The
underpass provides a route to the beach area of the Corniche, and the sea is reflected in the
interior design theme.

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Figure ‎3.24 High Quality Pedestrian Underpass Interior, Abu Dhabi
3.3.15.3 Materials
The choice of materials for the internal design of pedestrian underpasses will be influenced
by the overall design theme. The materials should be chosen to be robust and easy to
maintain.
The specification of materials should take account of the desired quality and appearance of
the pedestrian underpass as well as the impact that the materials may have on the urban
heat island effect. It is recommended that materials which balance the negative impacts of
reflectivity and heat absorption should be used to reduce the impact of the urban heat island
effect, while maintaining a minimum SRI of 29.
Specification of construction materials shall conform to requirements defined in of this

Manual and with reference to the QPRG. The QPRG provides direction on the specification of
materials that can be used in specific areas in the State of Qatar.
3.3.15.4 Landscaping
The landscaping associated with pedestrian underpasses may be restricted to hard
landscaping and, as such, should match and blend with the hard landscaping in the
surrounding area.
When soft landscaping is incorporated into the underpass design, the choice of planting used
should be verified as suitable for the local environment.

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When designing landscaping associated with an underpass, reference should be made to

guidance contained in the QPRG and the Qatar Construction Specification.
3.3.15.5 Supporting Infrastructure

Pedestrians may prefer crossing roads at-grade because it is generally the most direct route
and usually involves the least effort. To encourage pedestrians to use underpasses, where
they exist, pedestrian guardrails should be erected in the local vicinity to prevent at-grade
crossings taking place. Section ‎4.3.8 provides details of pedestrian guardrails.
Bus passengers generally use a bus stop on one side of a road at the start of their journey,
and one on the other side of the road when they return, accordingly they will need to cross
the road either at the start or at the end of their trip. Where practical, coordinating the
pedestrian underpass location with bus stops on both sides of a road will improve connectivity,
and encourage bus passengers to cross the road using a safe facility.
In urban environments, a pedestrian underpass can provide an important link in overall

journeys and can also be used for purposes other than just providing a pedestrian route.
These purposes can include providing opportunity and space for retail which could operate
on either a permanent or temporary basis. Non-retail uses also have potential, including
providing space for washrooms or a prayer room. Figure 3.25 shows washroom facilities
incorporated into an existing pedestrian underpass in Doha.
An underpass could accommodate small shops, cafes, take away food and drink kiosks, and
other small, to medium-scale service offerings. If retail facilities are to be provided within
a pedestrian underpass, then floor space, and placement should be treated as paramount.
Shops, stalls, or food and beverage vendors should be located so that they are accessible
to the public along their routes, and, importantly, their operations should not impede
the movement of other pedestrians. Adequate operational space would be required to
accommodate a customer serving area, stock holding, and space for customers to queue,
while maintaining a minimum ‘effective’ width of 2.3 m for other users of the underpass to
pass unobstructed in both directions.
In some cases, it may be warranted to provide furniture such as seating where pedestrians
can stop and rest along their route. This could help provide a sense of place to the underpass,
rather than it being simply a facility for crossing a road. If seating is provided it shall be
located to ensure it does not reduce the minimum effective width of 2.3 m.
Servicing of ancillary uses would need detailed consideration at the design stage. High
quality lighting and air conditioning would be essential. Available space, economics, licensing
requirements, and other factors would need to be appraised in design.
Medium-scale retail operations (food or non-food uses), along with non-retail facilities such
as prayer rooms or washrooms, could be provided if space allows. Electricity supply for
lighting and air-conditioning of the underpass may also be used for power supply for retail
operations, but provision of other service connections such as fresh water and foul drainage

19
could be more technically challenging. The practicality of supplying such services, and the
available floor space for operation, and queuing, would largely determine the suitability of
different forms of retail and non-retail use.
Figure ‎3.25 Washroom Facilities in a Pedestrian Underpass, Doha
3.3.16 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings
3.3.16.1 Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

Features recommended to assist pedestrians using crossings at signalized intersections and
signalized mid-block locations include the following:
• Push-button pedestrian phase activation

• Dropped curb approaches to the crosswalk to assist the mobility impaired
• Tactile paving to assist the visually impaired
• Audible indicators or tactile surfaces with haptic feedback to assist the visually impaired
• Countdown timers, to notify pedestrians how much time remains on the crossing signal.
Prior to implementation the potential use of countdown timers shall be agreed with the
• Pedestrian refuge islands to provide additional protection where crossings are too wide
to complete in a single phase
• Adequate space for a waiting area at crossing approaches

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The designer shall also consider:
• The distance between a proposed crossing location and priority intersections or

roundabouts, as queuing traffic from the intersection or roundabout may obstruct the
pedestrian crossing
• Achieving a balance between pedestrian wait time and traffic flow considerations as
reducing wait times for pedestrians could exacerbate local traffic congestion and queuing
• The requirement and spatial requirement for slip roads
3.3.16.2 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings

Features recommended to assist pedestrians using crossings at unsignalized mid-block
pedestrian crossings include the following:
• Tactile surfaces to assist the visually impaired

• Pedestrian refuge islands to provide additional protection at wide pedestrian crossings.
• Zigzag markings on approaches to the crossing to provide advance warning to drivers
and to restrict parking.
• Yield sign for vehicular traffic
• Speed reducing features on the approaches to the crossing
Where practical, unsignalized pedestrian crossings shall be formed as raised crossings to
reduce approach speeds of vehicular traffic.
3.3.16.3 Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian-friendly features which can assist pedestrians crossing a road, include the
following:
• Dropped curb approaches to assist the mobility-impaired

• Tactile surfaces to assist the visually impaired
• Pedestrian refuge islands to provide additional protection where crossing distances are
too long to complete comfortably
3.3.16.4 Materials
The choice of materials for at-grade pedestrian crossings will be influenced by the local
environmental context. The materials should be chosen to be robust and easy to maintain.
The specification of materials should take account of the desired quality and appearance
of the pedestrian crossing. Specification of construction materials should conform to
requirements defined in of this Manual and with reference to the QPRG. The QPRG provides
direction on the specification of materials that can be used in specific areas of the State of
Qatar.
When selecting materials, the urban heat island effect shall be considered. Paving materials
that balance the negative impacts of reflectivity and heat absorption should be used to
reduce the impact of the urban heat island effect while maintaining a minimum SRI of 29.

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3.3.16.5 Landscaping and Public Realm

Landscaping opportunities are often limited with at-grade crossings. A key consideration
for landscaping is the provision of shading for pedestrians waiting to cross the road, either
in the form of natural shading from planting (typically trees), or a purpose-built structure.
Guidance on the provision of shade is provided in Section ‎3.5.
The specification of street furniture associated with pedestrian crossings should be

developed with reference to guidance contained in the QPRG. The QPRG provides direction
on the choice of materials that can be used in specific areas of the State of Qatar.
3.3.17 Special Crossing Types
3.3.17.1 School Crossings

The design of pedestrian crossings near schools shall be coordinated with the Ashghal
School Safety Zone project.
The roads around schools can be low-speed environments, and as such, are generally suitable
for unsignalized mid-block pedestrian crossings formed as raised pedestrian crossings.
During school arrival and dismissal times, school crossing supervisors may be located at the
crossings to control the movement of children and improve their safety when crossing the
road. The school crossing supervisors are adults appointed to supervise a crossing point. Low
and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning,
of this Manual.
If existing legislation is revised, school crossing supervisors may be given the legal power to
control vehicles and stop traffic so that children can cross. It would be necessary for school
crossing supervisors to be highly visible to approaching traffic. They would require high-
visibility clothing and flags to highlight their presence and status.
Where a school has an access connection to a busy road, actions should be taken to minimize
the need for children to make at-grade crossings. If crossing is unavoidable, provision of a
signalized pedestrian crossing should be considered, as well as positioning school crossing
supervisors to control the movements of children.
3.3.17.2 Temporary Crossings for Major Events

Where significant pedestrian movements are expected in association with a major event, for
example the FIFA 2022 World Cup, temporary pedestrian crossings should be considered;
temporary bridges or temporary traffic signals.
If temporary bridges are used the minimum design requirements for stairway, and bridge
deck widths shall be followed. If alternative arrival arrangements are provided for mobility-
impaired pedestrians, the temporary bridges do not need to include facilities for them.

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Shade provision requirements will depend upon what time of day the bridge will most
frequently be used, and the prevailing temperatures.
If temporary traffic signals are used, the visibility and impact of the signals should be
appraised in detail, with the aim of ensuring drivers take sufficient notice of the signals.
Signals may require installation to the same specification as if they were permanent.
3.3.18 Pedestrian-Related Signing

The rules and regulations governing the use of traffic signs and road markings in the State of
Qatar are set out in the latest version of the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM).
In particular the following parts of the QTCM should be applied for both vehicles and
pedestrians:
• Volume 1, Part 2, General Road Signs

• Volume 1, Part 3, Signs Relating to Specific Types of Roads and Road Users
• Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings
In addition; guidance on signalized pedestrian and shared-use cycle crossings, including

signal aspects and push button units, is provided in Clause 4.5.1, Signalized Pedestrian
Crossings, Clause 4.5.14, Types of Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossings, and Clause 4.5.22,
Shared-Use (Pedestrian and Bicycle) Crossings of this Part.
3.3.19 Wayfinding Signs for Pedestrians

The MOTC is developing wayfinding standards, and when designing and locating wayfinding
signs, the latest version of these standards shall be consulted. The QPRG also provides
guidance for the design and location of directional signs for pedestrians.
The wayfinding system assists a wide range of users, each having navigational requirements
and information needs. Users may include:
• Cultural tourists
• Event visitors
• Business visitors
• Shoppers
• Residents
Visitors from other districts of Qatar, from other countries in the Gulf region, and from other
parts of the world, may be unfamiliar with local geography. The wayfinding system shall
‘speak’ to each user group by providing directional information specifically targeting the
group’s requirements. Some people are time poor and require efficient point A to point B
guidance. Others have more time and make open-ended journeys with the opportunity to
explore. Effective wayfinding will communicate what Doha, and more widely, what the State
of Qatar has to offer and will provide information to users, be they visitor or resident, on the
full range of cultural, recreational, and retail destinations.

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To make the complex subject of ‘urban navigation’ easier to understand for pedestrians, the
QPRG has developed a core family of wayfinding and information signs. Each type of sign
has a role in helping the user travel from journey start to journey end, although an individual
journey may not involve using every type of sign.
There are three basic types of wayfinding and information signs in the QPRG:
• Map signs
• Finger post signs
• Interpretation or commemorative signs
3.3.20 Wayfinding Signs Types

MOTC has developed a wayfinding standard with the Qatar Integrated Public Transportation
Wayfinding Standards (MOTC, 2019) which provides guidance for wayfinding and associated
signage and shall be referenced when designing and locating any wayfinding signs. Map
signs as per the example in Figure 3.26, provide pedestrians with information about the
local area.
Source: Qatar Integrated Public Transportation Wayfinding Standards (MOTC, 2019)
Figure ‎3.26 Example Map Sign

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Figure 3.27 shows a wayfinding sign with an integral map, similar to that in Figure 3.26, and
directions to local destinations.
Figure ‎3.27 Example Map with Local Directions Indicator
Directional Finger Posts – used to provide pedestrians with directions to a specific location.
Figure 3.28 shows an example.
Figure ‎3.28 Example Directional Finger Post

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Route Marker Sign –used along footpaths or cycling paths for directing pedestrians or cyclist
to a nearby public transport station and cycle parking., an example is shown on Figure 3.29.
Figure ‎3.29 Example Route Marker
3.3.20.1 Locating Pedestrian Signs

Figure 3.30 illustrates how pedestrian signs should be located from a journey’s origin to its
destination. Full details on the locating of pedestrian directional signs are provided in the
Qatar Integrated Public Transportation Wayfinding Standards (MOTC, 2019).

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Source: QPRG
Figure ‎3.30 Sign Placement
3.3.20.2 Direction Signing for Pedestrians with Disabilities

When considering the requirements for directional signing provision for pedestrians with
disabilities, consideration shall be given as to how they will be likely to use the information.
Table 3.8 provides a summary of the on-street information relevant to different user groups.

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Table ‎3.8 Use of On-Street Information
Use of On-Street
User Group
Information
Resident
No pre-journey
Commuter
planning, uses on-
Frequent visitor
street information
Person who has some hearing loss
out of interest and
Person with some limit on their mobility but can still manage stairs
for reassurance on
Person with a slight visual impairment but can read on-street maps and signs
some journeys
using an aid
Some pre-journey
Person who is deaf or hard of hearing (wants to avoid asking for directions)
planning, but will
Person with a visual impairment but has some vision
look for on-street
Person with a learning disability or a learning difficulty
information for
Person whose first language is not English
reassurance (so it
Younger person, new or infrequent visitor, or an inexperienced city traveler
should be consistent)
Person using a wheelchair Detailed pre-journey

Person who is blind or is severely visually impaired planning required
Source: Transport for London, Legible London, Yellow Book
Specific consideration shall be given to pedestrians with visual impairments. Most visual
impairments develop over time as a pedestrian gets older. As a consequence, such pedestrians
may not to have the ability to read braille and will rely on easy to read information. Font size
and type should be chosen to improve legibility. Displaying landmarks in 3D on maps, as
Figure 3.31 indicates, assists people who struggle to read maps to orient themselves.

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Figure ‎3.31 Incorporating 3D Graphics into Maps
Pedestrians who have very limited, or no sight at all, may pre-plan their journey and not rely
upon on-street information. Developments are underway whereby smartphone technology
can be used with GPS to assist visually impaired pedestrians.
Information on map-based direction signs should generally be provided at a height ranging

between 900 mm, and 1800 mm, in order to assist readability for wheelchair users, as
indicated in Figure 3.32. Full details on the design of signs is provided in the Qatar Integrated
Public Transportation Wayfinding Standards (MOTC, 2019).

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Figure ‎3.32 Map Heights
3.3.20.3 Route Naming and Signing

Walking routes will generally follow the road network and will not require specific naming,
other than the existing road names.
Exceptions will be routes developed for tourist or cultural reasons, for example, the proposed
‘Cultural Trail’, to link Souq Waqif to the National Museum. In such cases, signing associated
with the route should be provided in addition to existing street name and pedestrian
signs. Full details on the methodology of route naming and signing is provided in the Qatar
Integrated Public Transportation Wayfinding Standards (MOTC, 2019).
3.3.21 Existing Facilities Review

With QHDM requirements and guidance, several existing pedestrian crossings will not meet
the required minimum standards. All existing pedestrian crossings shall be assessed, and if
they do not meet required standards they shall be upgraded.
Any review should include counting the number of pedestrians and measuring traffic volume
at and in the vicinity of the crossing location. Pedestrian crossing movements should also
be observed in order to ensure the crossing is sited in the optimal location. If an existing
pedestrian crossing does not coincide with a pedestrian desire line the pedestrian crossing
should, if practical, be relocated to the pedestrian desire line.
3.3.21.1 Reviewing the Type of Crossing

As Part of the review process, the flowcharts in Appendix A should be used to determine
the type of crossing to provide. If, for example, the flowcharts indicate that a signalized mid-

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block pedestrian crossing is required, an associated assessment should be undertaken, with

the aim of minimizing the impact on traffic flow.
3.3.21.2 Reviewing the Requirement to Upgrade in Accordance with the QPCM

If the assessment indicates that the existing crossing is the correct type, then it is
recommended that the crossing’s component parts should be assessed and upgraded as
necessary to ensure compliance with the new standards.
3.3.21.3 Removing Existing Crossings

The aim of the QPCM is to improve the road environment for pedestrians and to increase
the number of journeys undertaken on foot. As such, a basic assumption is that an existing
pedestrian crossing should not be removed unless an alternative facility replaces it. The
alternative facility shall match or exceed the existing crossing’s standard of safety. The
exception would be a location where a crossing had been provided for a specific demand that
no longer exists.
3.3.22 Prohibited Crossing

Pedestrians should be prohibited from gaining access to roadways having a posted speed
limit greater than 80 kph. An exception can be made to this rule to allow pedestrians to cross
at-grade over a road with a speed limit of 100 kph, if an assessment is made of the crossing
point as outlined in Section ‎3.3.3, and it is judged that pedestrians can cross safely without
the provision of a pedestrian crossing. In such cases a suitable pedestrian facility should be
provided.
On roads with a speed limit of 80 kph or 100 kph, pedestrians should only cross at designated
locations, with penalties imposed for crossing at other locations.
For roads with 85th percentile speeds less than 80 kph, but greater than 50 kph, a jaywalking
safety assessment should be made. If jaywalking is determined to be unsafe, physical
measures should be introduced to encourage pedestrians to use crossings. If there are no
pedestrian crossings, then one should be provided.
On roads with an 85th percentile speed less than 50 kph, pedestrians should be permitted
to cross where they wish, however pedestrian crossings should still be provided to help
pedestrians cross where warranted.
3.4 Development Planning

3.4.1 Urban Roads
When developing plans for roads in urban areas, the needs of pedestrians shall be considered.
As an integral Part of the planning process, the potential demand for pedestrian crossings
should be evaluated, and the most appropriate locations of pedestrian crossings determined.
The process to follow in order to identify potential pedestrian crossing demand is outlined
in Section ‎3.3.2.

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Not all pedestrian crossing types are suitable on all road types. Table 3.9 provides a summary
of the types of crossings that are most appropriate on different classes of urban road.
Table ‎3.9 Pedestrian Crossing Types on Urban Roads
QHDM Road Posted Speed Limits

Suitable Pedestrian Crossing Type *
Classification (kph)
Expressway 80/100 Grade-separated
Grade-separated
Arterial 50/80
At-grade, signalized
Grade-separated
Boulevard 50/80
Grade-separated
Collector 50/80 At-grade, signalized
At-grade, unsignalized (50 kph only)
Grade-separated
Service Road 50 At-grade, signalized
At-grade, unsignalized
Local Road 30/50
At-grade, unsignalized
*See Section ‎3.3 for description of pedestrian crossing types and restrictions on their use.
3.4.1.1 Expressways
Due to the speed and Volume of traffic on expressways, pedestrian access shall be
completely restricted. Pedestrian crossings shall be grade-separated and will normally be
placed at strategic locations along the road where the development on each side of the road
will generate a pedestrian demand to cross. Pedestrian crossings should also be provided if
strategic walking or bicycling routes are required to cross the road. The needs of vehicular
traffic shall be given higher priority than the needs of pedestrians.
3.4.1.2 Arterials
The speed and Volume of traffic on arterial roads can create a serious safety risk for
pedestrians and it is accordingly recommended that pedestrian crossings provided will be
either grade-separated or signalized. Pedestrian crossings will normally be located based on
existing or latent crossing demand. The requirements of vehicular traffic would normally be
given higher priority on arterial routes than the needs of pedestrians.
3.4.1.3 Boulevards
The Volume of traffic on boulevards can create a safety risk for pedestrians, however speeds
will be lower than on arterial roads. Pedestrian crossings should be located based on crossing
demand. The needs of vehicular traffic and the needs of pedestrians may be given equal
consideration.
3.4.1.4 Collectors
The speed and Volume of traffic on collector roads will assist in determining what type of
pedestrian crossing should be provided. Pedestrian crossings should be located based on

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crossing demand and should be placed to help pedestrian flows. The needs of vehicular
traffic and the needs of pedestrians should be given equal consideration.
3.4.1.5 Local Roads

On local roads, the needs of pedestrians should be given higher priority than the needs of
vehicular traffic
3.4.2 Rural Roads

In rural areas, pedestrian demand may not to meet the requirements set for the provision of
pedestrian crossings in urban areas. The need for pedestrian crossings should therefore be
considered at strategic locations to ensure a pedestrian route is not discontinued because of
the need to cross a road.
The processes to identify if a crossing is required, set out in Section ‎3.3.2, are most relevant
in areas where pedestrian demand exists, or is forecast to exist. As such the process is
generally most appropriate to implement for urban environments. In rural environments,
pedestrian demand is likely to be much lower than in urban situations and consequently the
process for urban areas is not fully relevant in rural locations. Crossings in rural areas can
still be justified as part of a road improvement scheme or where pedestrian demand can be
clearly demonstrated.
Table 3.10 provides a summary of the types of pedestrian crossings most suitable on
different classes of rural road.
Table ‎3.10 Pedestrian Crossing Types on Rural Roads
Road Posted Speed

Suitable Pedestrian Crossing Type a
Classification Limits (kph)
Freeway 100/120 Grade-separated
Grade-separated
Arterial 80/100 At-grade, signalized (80kph only, if other traffic signal-controlled
intersections are also present on the route)
Grade-separated
Collector 50/80
Signalized at-grade crossings b
Local Road 50 Pedestrian crossings not suitable
Notes:
a
See Section 3‎ .3 for description of pedestrian crossing types and restrictions on their use.
b
Where pedestrian crossing movements exceed 600 pedestrians per hour in the peak period, a grade-
separated crossing shall be used.
3.4.3 Building Developments - District Developments
3.4.3.1 Establishing Need for Pedestrian Crossings

The initial design phase of a district development should consider the needs of pedestrians.
The design philosophy should establish whether pedestrians or vehicles will be given priority
on the development’s internal roads.

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If pedestrians have priority, which would minimize vehicle volumes and speeds, formal
pedestrian crossings may be unnecessary. Where vehicles have priority, pedestrian desire
lines in and around the development should be identified and appropriate crossings provided
where they intersect vehicle routes.
External to the development, routes pedestrians will follow to surrounding facilities should
be identified and crossings provided where they intersect the existing road network.
3.4.3.2 Locating Pedestrian Crossings

Crossings shall be provided where pedestrian desire lines and planned pedestrian routes
cross vehicle routes.
3.4.3.3 Selecting the Crossing Type

The type of crossing selected should be determined by using the flowcharts in Appendix A.
3.4.4 Building Developments - Single Development
3.4.4.1 Establishing Need for Pedestrian Crossings

Pedestrian desire lines and level of demand should be established, and the routes pedestrians
will follow to gain access to a development can then be identified.
3.4.4.2 Locating Pedestrian Crossings

Pedestrian crossings shall be provided where pedestrian desire lines crossroads and the
warrants for creating a crossing are satisfied.
3.4.4.3 Selecting the Crossing Type

The type of crossing selected should be determined by using the flowcharts in Appendix A.
3.5 Shading and Cooling

Shading and cooling should be used to counteract the effects of the sun and improve the
environment for pedestrians.
3.5.1 General Requirements
3.5.1.1 Complying with Highway Design Standards

Pedestrian shading features shall comply with the sight triangle and lateral clearance
requirements of this Manual. Where the shade element of the structure is above the driver’s
eye height, only the supporting structure should be considered when considering sight
triangles.

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If the shade facility overhangs the roadway, it shall comply with vertical clearance
requirements in Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual. If the shade
facility overhangs the sidewalk only, the vertical clearance shall be a minimum of 2.4 m.
3.5.1.2 Design Requirements

Shade Structures
The design of shade facilities shall:
• Ensure that free movement of pedestrians is not compromised

• Use materials that reduce the impact of the urban heat island effect
• Ensure that lighting levels below the shade structure meet the minimum requirements
of this Manual
• Be contextually sensitive with local surroundings
• Reference the guidance contained in the QPRG
• Not impede people with disabilities
• Have a minimum solar reflectance index (SRI) of 29
Paving Materials
Paving materials that balance the negative impacts of reflectivity and heat
absorption should be used to reduce the impact of the urban heat island effect,
while maintaining a minimum SRI of 29.
3.5.2 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities
3.5.2.1 Provision of Free-Standing Shade Structures at at-grade Pedestrian Crossings

If waiting areas at a pedestrian crossing are not shaded by surrounding buildings or
landscaping which provides natural shade, then a free-standing shade structure may be
provided when the following conditions also apply:
• Pedestrians are required to wait for an average period of at least one minute to cross
the road.
• Pedestrian flow rate exceeds 60 pedestrians per hour during the peak hour period.
If pedestrians are required to wait for more than two minutes a fan should be included in the
shade structure if local conditions allow.
3.5.2.2 Major Intersections

At major intersections, free-standing shade structures should be provided at the side of
the road so that pedestrians can wait in shade before crossing to the refuge island in the
intersection. Fans should also be provided, if practical, depending on the physical constraints
of the location.

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3.5.2.3 Pedestrian Bridges

Pedestrian bridges should be provided with a shade structure over the crossing deck,
approach ramps, and stairs. The materials chosen for the shade structure should minimize
absorbed heat and have a minimum SRI of 29. Consideration should be given to the impact
of the shade structure on the lighting of the pedestrian bridge. The shade structure should
only be omitted if design requirements or local environmental conditions dictate.
3.5.3 Pedestrian Routes

Pedestrian routes should be assessed using the Shade Audit Framework in Appendix B and
additional shading provided as appropriate. Routes should be assessed as a whole with
shade calculations applied at noon. The implemented shading strategy for the assessed
route should be;
• Context sensitive, and if practical and defined as a prestige, city or local walking route,
then continuous shade will be provided for a minimum of 80% of the route length. This
is based upon a minimum 1.8 m width of sidewalk coverage, thus shaded area (m2) ≥
Length of route (m) x 1.8 m x 0.8.
• Provide a minimum of one shaded rest area every 500 linear meters of prestige or city
walking route. The appropriate size of the rest area will depend upon the anticipated
number of pedestrians that will use it. The rest area would typically accommodate bench
type seating for resting pedestrians.
The QPCMP hierarchically organizes walking routes into four main categories, as defined in
Table 3.11:
Table 3
‎ .11 Hierarchy of Walking Routes
Route Category Description
High quality, attractive pedestrian facilities, and features

Not necessarily the shortest route between two points
Segregated from traffic or adjacent to low speed/controlled traffic area
Leisure, recreational, and tourist uses prevalent
Prestige
Connects major attractions and tourist sites
Highly accessible to everyone, including users of strollers and wheelchairs
Easily navigable with high quality public spaces and wayfinding
Provision of shading and rest areas
High mobility function, capable of accommodating large pedestrian volumes

Access functions to major business districts, shopping malls, and major tourist
destinations
Access function to metro stations and major public transit interchanges
City
Usage includes work/commute trips
Predominantly found parallel to major and minor arterial roads in urban areas
Clear signage and wayfinding
Maximize effective width and capacity and minimize obstructions

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Route Category Description

Distributors of pedestrian traffic
High access function to local shops, schools, mosques, and local employment and
Neighborhood residential land uses
Increased opportunities to provide lighting and shading from adjacent buildings
Predominantly found parallel to major and minor collector roads
High access functions to local residences, shops, and mosques
Feeder routes to higher categories in the pedestrian network
Local
Pedestrian users typically familiar with the area so signage and wayfinding not
essential features
3.5.4 Development Planning

MME have responsibility for assessing planning applications and subsequent approval
decisions. This section provides development planning guidance associated with shade
provision for pedestrian facilities.
3.5.4.1 Major New Developments

When planning for new major developments consideration should be given to the shading
potential of new buildings. Furthermore, internal road widths should be minimized, and roads
oriented to minimize direct sunlight.
Where wide roads are a practical necessity, building frontages should, where practical,
include colonnades, awnings, or natural landscaping to provide shade for pedestrians. Where
wide pedestrian routes are provided, then hard or soft landscaping should be incorporated
where practical to provide shade for pedestrians.
3.5.4.2 Individual Buildings

When planning for new building structures, it is recommended practice to establish the
need to provide shade for pedestrians by assessing the building’s surrounding area and
referencing the Shade Audit Framework in Appendix B. If the provision of shade is proposed,
then the design of shading should take account of the local environment and be developed
with reference to guidance contained within the QPRG.
3.5.4.3 Public Transit Impact

It is advised that when planning for new developments, an assessment of the impact on
public transit should be undertaken in accordance with guidelines issued by the Overseeing
Organization. In cases where a new development will become a significant pedestrian
generator, it is recommended that the route to/from the nearest public transit facility
should be assessed using the Shade Audit Framework in Appendix B and shading provided
accordingly. For major developments it is recommended that pedestrian routes within a
500 m radius should be assessed and shading then provided as contextually appropriate.

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3.5.4.4 Transit Stops

Bus Stops
MOTC has developed Bus Infrastructure Design Guidelines, as Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and
Public Transportation, of this Manual, which specify the different types of bus stops based
on known (or anticipated demand; bus service types and the infrastructure specification
used at the stop. These stop hierarchy identifies four different types of stops as follows:
• Regular bus stops (typically 30 minutes or more between services)

• Intermediate bus stops (typically 15 to 20 minutes between services)
• Premium bus stops (typically 5 to 15 minutes between services)
• Signature bus stops (priority corridors and iconic locations)
Transit Stations
It is recommended that pedestrian routes to/from transit stations should be assessed in

accordance with the Shade Audit Framework in Appendix B. It is further recommended
that the assessment should cover a radius of 500 m around the station, with shading then
provided as appropriate.
3.5.4.5 Public Buildings

Schools
It is recommended that routes between school entrance locations and nearby public transit
facilities are assessed using the Shade Audit Framework in Appendix B and shading then
provided as appropriate.
Mosques and Public Buildings
It is recommended that shading should be provided outside mosques and other public
buildings if pedestrians are anticipated or observed to congregate there during daylight
hours or for Friday prayers.
3.6 Public Transport Facilities

There are four categories of public transit transfer stations:
• Transit stops
o A stop for an individual bus or tram
• Intramodal transfer stations
o A connection between two services of the same form of transit. In the State of
Qatar, these are typically connections between long distance or express bus
services and local bus services.
• Intermodal transfer stations
o A transfer station serving two or more modes of transit. In Doha, these are mainly
metro stations with supporting bus or tram services.

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• Transit hubs
o A metro station connecting two or more metro lines and other transit services.
o The central bus station in Doha connecting long distance and short distance bus
services.
Where station facilities and station realm are impacting on the public realm, special branding
requirements for the rail facilities have to be considered in coordination with Qatar Rail.
Volume 3 Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual, provides guidelines on
Bus Stops and Related Infrastructure Design and should be followed when designing public
transport facilities.
3.6.1 Transit Stops

Transit stops should be provided in consultation with MOTC and comply with the Bus Stops and
Related Infrastructure Design Guidelines (Volume 3 Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation,
of this Manual), which include the following typical spacing specifications:
• City areas – Preferred 300 m to 500 m, typical 400 m

• Urban areas/ arterial roads– Preferred 400 m to 600 m, typical 500 m
• Sub-urban areas/ rural areas/ Expressways – Preferred 500 m to 600 m, typical 600 m
To achieve a higher quality, more consistent, more accessible, and better-connected network
of stop facilities, refer to Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual,
for design of bus infrastructure facilities in new developments, and urban and rural areas.
Designers should submit all proposed new or altered bus infrastructure designs to MOTC for
approval prior to installation or construction.
For further guidance on the design and siting of the bus stops please refer to Volume 3,
Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual.
3.6.2 Bus Shelter Design

The Overseeing Organization shall oversee the provision of shelters in accordance to
Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual.
The design of bus shelters shall be based on passenger volumes, various site demands, and
the type of stop. Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual, defines
four categories of bus stop, depending on service frequency:
• Regular bus stops (typically 30 minutes or more between services)
• Intermediate bus stops (typically 15 to 20 minutes between services)
• Premium bus stops (typically 5 to 15 minutes between services)
• Signature bus stops (priority corridors and iconic locations)
The location of bus shelters should be given careful consideration to ensure that they do not
adversely affect the safety of road users.

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3.6.3 Air-Conditioned Shelters

The Overseeing Organization will agree the design of air-conditioned shelters. The shelters
should have sufficient capacity to provide a pedestrian level of service (LOS) grade C for
waiting passengers, as described in Section ‎3.2.4 and shall be designed in accordance with
Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual.
3.6.4 Pedestrian Supportive Infrastructure

Where transit stops are provided the remaining sidewalk width should allow for the
maintenance of a LOS grade C.
The access to and egress from bus stops should be assessed. If passengers are required to
cross a road to reach a stop, the crossing point should be assessed using the flowcharts in
Appendix A and a crossing facility implemented as appropriate.
When a pedestrian crossing is proposed near a bus stop, the crossing should be located
downstream of the bus stop. This arrangement makes it easier for drivers to see pedestrians
waiting to cross. When a bus is stopped at the bus stop, a driver can see if a pedestrian is
using the crossing to cross the roadway and will know to wait for the pedestrian. When
considering forward visibility requirements during the design of the pedestrian crossing,
the forward visibility for drivers approaching the crossing should be calculated with a bus
positioned at the bus stop.
3.6.4.1 Bus Stop Poles

Volume 3, Part 26, Bus and Public Transportation, of this Manual, specifies the information
that should be provided at a bus stop. Figure 3.33 shows an example bus stop pole.

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Figure ‎3.33 Example Bus Stop Pole
The size of the downlight facility in Figure 3.33 is constrained because bus stop poles
are being provided on concrete blocks on a temporary basis. When the poles are erected
permanently the downlight facility should be increased in size and supported on a second
pole, so an area of shade is provided.
When a bus stop is installed, the poles should be designed to be passively safe and comply
with the requirements of the Qatar Construction Specifications (2014) and British Standard
EN 12767 (2007) Passive safety of support structures for road equipment. Requirements,
classification, and test methods.
3.6.4.2 Platform Height for Accessibility

Optimally passengers should have level access to public transit vehicles making the vehicles
suitable for wheelchair users. Therefore, optimal platform height depends on the design of
the access point into the vehicle.
Curb height at bus stops will ideally provide level entry to the bus. Accordingly, curb height
requirements depend on the design of the bus. Such accessibility requirements demand
coordination between curb construction details and bus specifications.
3.6.4.3 Passenger Information

It is recommended that passengers are provided with high quality information regarding the
transit service at the stop and the nearby pedestrian network. The Overseeing Organization
should be consulted on format and content. Figure 3 33 shows how useful information can

19
be suitably displayed at stops. Passenger information could be designed for, and tested by,
first-time users of the service.
To support the information at the bus stop, additional pedestrian signing may be provided in
accordance with the guidance provided in Section ‎3.3.19. Information may also be provided
inside the bus to inform passengers of upcoming stops so that first time passengers can use
the service independently.
3.6.5 Intramodal Transfer Stations
3.6.5.1 Layout
In the State of Qatar, intramodal transfer stations accommodate bus services. Optimal design
will allow the free flow of air throughout a transfer station. The transit system may provide
shaded walkways between individual stops and pedestrian areas with a minimum LOS C.
Other related design elements can be developed with reference to guidance contained within
the QPRG. To encourage safety, vehicle movements and pedestrian movements should be
completely separated.
Figure 3.34 shows an intramodal transit station in Doha.
Bicycle parking should be provided within the range of 25 m to 50 m of the intramodal

station at a location that does not conflict with pedestrian movements.
Figure ‎3.34 Intramodal Transit Station, Doha
3.6.5.2 Shade Provision

Individual shelters should be provided for each vehicle stop in the station. These shelters do
not need to be air-conditioned if a suitable central air-conditioned waiting area is provided.
The central waiting area could either be in the form of an elongated, air-conditioned bus
shelter or a bus station building. The central waiting area should contain seating and provide
waiting passengers a LOS grade C. The Overseeing Organization should agree to the details
of the central waiting area.

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3.6.5.3 Platform Height for Accessibility

Platform height should allow level access into the vehicle. For bus stations, curb details
should be the same as for individual bus stops.

Passenger information should be provided at individual bays or platforms at a bus station.
The level of detail provided should be the same as for individual bus stops. Information about
transit services at the station and the nearby pedestrian network should be provided in the
central waiting area.
3.6.6 Intermodal Transit Stations and Hubs
3.6.6.1 Layout
In the State of Qatar, intermodal transit stations generally serve the metro and buses or the
metro and a tram. The metro’s design concept defines the overall design of any intermodal
station building, while the station area plan dictates the layout of the surrounding area.
The layout of the station building interior and the layout for its surrounding area should
comply with the following principles:
• Passenger routes through transit stations and between transit stops should be as direct
as practical.
• Passenger routes should be clearly signed and easy to follow, based on the needs of a
first-time user.
• A pedestrian LOS C should be maintained.
• Pedestrians and passenger vehicles should be completely separated.
• Pedestrian access routes into the transit stations should tie into the surrounding
pedestrian network.
Figure 3.35 provides an example of an intermodal transit station area plan.

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METRO STATION
LIFT AND STAIRS
BUS STOPS
LIFT AND STAIRS
Source: Qatar Rail
Figure ‎3.35 Intermodal Transit Station Area Plan Example
3.6.6.2 Shade Provision

The overall design of the transit station controls the provision of shade within the station.
For information about shade for individual bus stops see Section ‎3.5.4.4.

Passenger information should be provided for each service operating from the station.
Directional signage will make it easy for first-time passengers to find their next mode of
transportation. Passenger information and maps should comply with the guidance issued by
It is recommended that the station should provide maps which show the surrounding
pedestrian network and that these maps are developed with reference to guidance contained
in the QPRG.
3.7 Using Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) to Facilitate

Pedestrians
3.7.1 Using ITS at Traffic Signals
ITS can have a major positive impact on the operation of traffic signals, improving signal
efficiency and reducing delays experienced by pedestrians. The correct use of ITS in traffic
signal operations is outlined in the QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic Signals.
Traffic signal provision and associated ITS shall be discussed with the Overseeing
Organization.

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Timings for traffic signals can be controlled in three ways:

• Fixed time plans
• Vehicle actuation
• Pedestrian actuation
3.7.1.1 Fixed Time

Fixed time settings for an intersection do not vary. Different fixed-time plans can be
implemented for different periods of the day, to accommodate peak and off-peak traffic
volumes. Fixed time plans limit the positive impact of ITS.
3.7.1.2 Vehicle Actuation

Vehicle actuated traffic signals rely on a background timing program that adjusts in real
time to handle changes in traffic flow. Vehicle-actuated traffic signals can operate at single
intersections, two linked intersections or across an entire network. Regardless of the
configuration ITS is a critical component.
3.7.1.3 Pedestrian Actuation

Pedestrian actuated traffic signals can be provided at traffic signal-controlled intersections
or at mid-block locations. At intersections, the traffic signals can operate without making
allowances for pedestrians until a pedestrian pushes a button. The traffic signal plan can
then introduce a pedestrian stage into the traffic signal sequence.
At mid-block crossings, the pedestrian crossing signal remains green for traffic until a
pedestrian pushes a button and the pedestrian stage then come into operation.
Pedestrian actuated crossings can include sensors to detect the presence of pedestrians and
are referred to as intelligent crossings. Section ‎4.5.14 outlines the main types of intelligent
3.7.1.4 Waiting Time

Pedestrian behavior is typically influenced by the length of time that a pedestrian has to
wait to cross a road. Table 3.12 provides a summary of likely pedestrian risk-taking behavior,
based upon waiting time.
Table ‎3.12 Pedestrian Behavior at Signalized Crossings

Average Delay per Pedestrian
Likelihood of Risk-Taking Behavior
(seconds)
< 10 Low
10-20 Low to moderate
20-30 Moderate
30-40 Moderate to high
40-60 High
> 60 Very high

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3.7.2 Providing Mapping and Directional Information

The MOTC is in the process of developing an online pedestrian route mapping tool. Users of
the online application will be able to select start and end points for an intended journey and
will be provided with a mapped output of the most convenient walking route.
The MOTC is also developing an ‘Integrated Passenger Information and Awareness System’
for the State of Qatar. The system is intended to inform users of transport route options.
3.7.2.1 Using On-Street Mapping

Additional to the static pedestrian directional signing outlined in Section ‎3.3.19, ITS can also
provide variable message outputs and interactive information for pedestrians. Electronic
message centers can provide bus and/or train information, along with live information that
can assist pedestrians negotiate a busy city center. Travelers can also interact with the
information points to obtain additional local information. Figure 3.36 provides an example of
an electronic message centers.
Electronic message centers may be located outside transit stations, at tourist locations, and
at major intersections.
Figure ‎3.36 Example of Electronic Message Center
3.7.2.2 Providing Mapping at Transit Stations

On-street electronic message centers may also be provided in transit stations. In addition
to displaying street information, the message centers can include maps of the station and
routing information to help passengers find their next service.

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3.8 Providing Public Transit Information

3.8.1 At Transit Stops and Transit Stations
Real-time information which can be provided at transit stops and transit stations indicates
to travelers how long they need to wait for their next service to arrive. Access to such
information increases user confidence in the service and can help travelers decide whether
to wait or use an alternative transport option, for example taxi or walking.
Providing information inside buses can also reassure passengers, especially infrequent
or first-time users. When a display inside the bus indicates the next stop, passengers are
informed when to alight to reach their destination.
3.9 Maintenance
3.9.1 Pedestrian Facilities During Construction
3.9.1.1 Maintaining Pedestrian Routes

When a development road improvement scheme is under construction and this results in
closures of sidewalks, maintaining some form pedestrian route is an important requirement.
If a sidewalk cannot be kept open because of construction, signs must be placed in advance
of the closed sidewalk to inform and guide pedestrians towards the temporary route
incorporating road crossings as necessary. Providing a suitable alternative pedestrian route
may require closing a traffic lane. Traffic management requirements must be agreed with the
3.9.1.2 Adhering to Minimum Requirements for Pedestrian Routes

The requirements for providing a safer route for pedestrians in the vicinity of construction
works is detailed in the Work Zone Traffic Management Guide, published by Ashghal.
A minimum sidewalk width of 1m shall be maintained and increased to 1.5 m or more where
this can be practically achieved. Wherever feasible, diverted pedestrian routes should be
located away from live traffic.
If any diversion requires pedestrians to negotiate a change in level, for example to step up
to or off a curb, a temporary ramp should be provided. The gradient of the temporary ramp
should not exceed 1:12 (8.33%).
3.9.2 Providing Temporary Pedestrian Crossings

If a temporary pedestrian crossing is required, the most appropriate location may be assessed
using the flowcharts in Appendix A, and the appropriate form of crossing provided.

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Temporary crossing design should take account of the same criteria that would apply for
a permanent crossing of the same type and in the same location. Certain relaxations in
material specifications may however be appropriate. For instance, a temporary crossing
could be designed with lower durability materials or lower aesthetic standards than for a
permanent crossing.

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4 Design Standards
4.1 Introduction
QHDM design standards provide designers with the tools to produce, appropriate, safe,
accessible, and attractive pedestrian crossing facilities in Qatar. This advice supports delivery
of inclusive facilities for the mobility-impaired.
QHDM design standards defines design requirements for pedestrian facilities, pedestrian
safety, and access. Relevant Sections of this Manual to reference in conjunction with these
design standards include:
• Volume 1, Part 7, “Design for Roundabouts”
• Volume 1, Part 8, “Design for Signalized Intersections”
• Volume 2, Part 10, “Drainage”
• Volume 2, Part 13, “Structures Interfaces”
• Volume 3, Part 18, “Street Lighting”
• Volume 3, Part 26, “Bus and Public Transportation”
While this Manual discusses regulatory signs and road markings for pedestrian crossings, the
following volumes of the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM) contain detailed requirements,
and shall also be referenced:
• Volume 1, Part 2, “General Road Signs”
• Volume 1, Part 3, “Signs Relating to Specific Types of Road and Road Users”
• Volume 1, Part 5, “Traffic Signals”
• Volume 2, Part 6, “Road Markings”
• Volume 2, Part 7, “Design Guide for Traffic Signs”
Additionally, the QHDM, Volume 1, Part 4, “Intersections and Roundabouts” provides guidance
on the process for the selection of the appropriate form, or concept, for an intersection of
two highways or roadways.
The QPRG should be referenced to assist with the selection and design of street furniture.
Before materials and products are used for road infrastructure in the State of Qatar they
should be approved for use by the Overseeing Organization. Designers shall follow the
product approval process advised by the Overseeing Organization.

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4.2 Best Practice Design Principles

Best practice principles for pedestrian crossings design include:
• Ensuring good visibility between approaching vehicles and pedestrians
• Ensuring levels of lighting appropriate for the local environment
• Providing crossings wide enough to achieve an acceptable level of service for pedestrians
• Providing pedestrian crossings with the shortest crossing distance practical to assist
pedestrian safety and minimize vehicle delays
• Creating a high-quality urban realm that incorporates landscaping and public art elements
to increase the attractiveness of crossing locations and lessen aesthetic impacts of
segregated facilities
• Designing pedestrian crosswalks and waiting areas to be as level as is practical and with
no trip hazards
• Locating crossings as close to pedestrian desire lines as practical
• Incorporating audible and tactile devices at crosswalk entry points; they are important
features for pedestrians with visual or hearing impairments
• Considering the use of countdown facilities which inform pedestrians of the number of
seconds remaining to safely complete their crossing
• Avoiding locating drainage gratings in the crosswalk
• Providing dropped curbs for all crossings
• Wherever practicable orienting crossings perpendicular to the road
• Designing staggered pedestrian crossing refuges to orient pedestrians towards oncoming

traffic
• Ensuring that raised pedestrian crossings are level with the surrounding sidewalk
• Avoiding the use of different types of crossing facilities at the same intersection
• Considering using shade structures for crossings when the use of trees for this purpose
is not practical
4.3 Common Design Elements

4.3.1 Pedestrian Envelopes
The physical characteristics of humans, their capabilities in walking, and their comfort levels
and desires with respect to privacy and proximity to other pedestrians are all inputs to design
for pedestrian. The term “pedestrian envelope” describes these considerations. Figure 4.1
shows typical minimum pedestrian envelopes. The pedestrian envelop encompasses the
different needs of pedestrians, be they semi-mobile, on wheels, or mobility impaired.

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Figure ‎4.1 Minimum Pedestrian
4.3.2 Sidewalks
Sidewalks represent the pedestrian realm in a road corridor. Sidewalks are typically separated
from the road by curbs or barriers. Curb heights are typically within the range of 150 mm to
200 mm. For purposes of this Manual, only the width of sidewalks at pedestrian crossing
facilities has been considered.
When a pedestrian crossing is constructed, a sidewalk shall also be provided (if one does not
already exist) to form a direct link from the pedestrian crossing to the surrounding pedestrian
network.
Where possible, a separation strip with a desirable minimum width of 1.2 m and absolute
minimum width of 0.5 m should be included to act as a buffer between vehicular and
pedestrian traffic. Providing a buffer can improve pedestrian safety, particularly where there
is a significant volume of vehicular traffic. A buffer can also enhance the overall walking
experience.
Table 4.1 lists minimum sidewalk widths in relation to road classification. Sidewalks should
be at least 3.0 m wide where significant pedestrian volumes are anticipated, for example,
near schools, large sports venues, in commercial areas, and at bus stops. Preferably the
minimum width shall only be used where space is constrained and only over short distances.
Table ‎4.1 Paved Widths for Pedestrian Only Sidewalks
Desirable
Road Classification Minimum
Minimum
Urban local or service road 3.0 m 1.8 m
Urban minor/major collector road 3.0 m 2.0 m
Boulevard or urban minor/major arterial 4.5 m 3.0 m
Expressway Segregated Segregated
Source: Pedestrian Facilities Guidelines (TMPQ -MMUP, 2008)

Note: m = meters
A good practice is to locate street furniture, such as light poles, utility poles, signposts,
bollards, and refuse bins outside of the designated pedestrian sidewalk. However, where

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space is limited, street furniture may have to be located within the pedestrian sidewalk.
When this is the case, the unobstructed width should be at least 1.5 m. A 1.5 m effective
width is adequate to enable a pedestrian to pass a wheelchair user.
A sidewalk width in the range 1.8 to 3.0 m is desirable on arterial, collector, and local roads.
4.3.3 Dropped Curbs

At all pedestrian crossing points, dropped curbs (also known as curb ramps), shall be provided
to assist a smooth transition from the sidewalk to road level as indicated in Figure 4.2. This
arrangement enables safe and convenient movement of pedestrians, including people
pushing strollers and wheelchair users.
Breaks in pedestrian path grades should be consistent with the maximum change in grade
not to exceed 10 percent, as this may affect wheelchair clearances. Where a difference of 10
percent is unavoidable, a short length (1525 mm) of flat transition should be used to create
two breaks of gradient, both below 10 percent.
The ramped section of the pedestrian crossing should be no steeper than a 1:12 (8.3%)
gradient. All dimensions in Figure 4.2 are in mm and the dimensions indicated by “Wn” (where
n is a number) are as follows:
• Curb transition: W1 = 1800 mm for asphalt or precast concrete slabs; 3000 mm for block
paving
• Dropped curb: W2 = The full width of the crossing being provided
• The dimensions W1 and W2 may be amended to suit site-specific circumstances

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Figure ‎4.2 Curb and Pedestrian Sidewalk Details
4.3.4 Tactile Surfaces

All pedestrian crossings should incorporate ‘blister-type’ tactile paving surfaces, this is to
assist pedestrians with visual impairments locate a designated crossing point. Corduroy-type
tactile paving should be provided at the top and bottom of stairs.
Table ‎4.2 provides examples of typical applications, Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4, Figure 4.5 and
Figure 4.6 all show typical layouts.

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Table ‎4.2 Typical Applications of Tactile Paving
Application Surface Type Color Layout
Where the dropped curb at the

signalized crossing is in the direct line of
travel, the tactile surface should be laid
to a depth of 1200mm.
At all other signalized crossings, a depth
of 800mm is acceptable. The surface
should be laid to the full width of the
dropped curb.
The back edge of the section of tactile
surface that extends across the dropped
Blister type
curb should be at right angles to the
Signalized Details of blisters to
Red direction of the crossing.
crossings be agreed with the
Where the back edge is not parallel to
the curb (the crossing itself is not at
right angles to the curb), the tactile
surface should be not less than 800mm
in depth at any point. A stem of the
surface, 1200mm wide and 1200mm
long, should extend back from the
tactile surface adjacent to the push-
button control box, and should be in line
with the direction of travel across the
road.
For crossings at, or close to, road

intersections. The blister surface should
extend across the full width of the
dropped curb, with a depth of 400 mm,
where the crossing is inset, and is not
in the direct line of pedestrian travel; or
1200mm, where it is in the direct line
of travel.
Blister type Buff or any color As with the surface at signalized
Unsignalized Details of blisters to except red that crossings, the back edge should be
crossings be agreed with the contrasts with at right angles to the direction of the
Overseeing Organization the surroundings crossing.
When the dropped curb is inset into the
side road, it should not be located on the
radius, but set approximately 1000 mm
in from the end of the radius.
Where there is an unsignalized crossing
away from an intersection, the blister
surface should be laid to a depth of
800mm.

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Application Surface Type Color Layout
The surface should be laid so that

the bars run transversely across the
direction of pedestrian travel and
extend across the full width plus
Hazard Corduroy Any color 400 mm on each side of stairs at top
warnings Rounded bars, except red, that and bottom.
At tops and 6 mm high, 20 mm wide, contrasts with Recommended depth for the corduroy
bottoms of and spaced center to the surrounding surface:
stairs center at 50mm. area • 800 mm in direct line of travel
• 400 mm otherwise
Surfaces laid to warn of stairs should
start 400 mm away from the nosing of
the first step.
The surface should be laid so that

Hazard
the bars run transversely across the
warning where
Corduroy; rounded bars Contrast with direction of pedestrian travel and
a pedestrian
6 mm high, 20 mm wide, the surrounding extend the full width of pedestrian
path joins a
and spaced, center to area but should entry to the shared bicycle/ pedestrian
shared bicycle/
center at 50mm not be red route.
pedestrian
The recommended depth of the corduroy
route
is 800 mm
The start of the pedestrian part of the

shared surface is a ladder pattern with
No specific
bars laid at right angles to the direction
color required;
of travel.
however,
The start of the cyclist Part of the
Segregated colored surfaces
shared surface is a ladder pattern with
shared and varying
Ladder pattern; raised bars laid parallel to the direction of
pedestrian/ materials, such
flat-topped bars each travel.
cycle path as bitumen and
5 mm high, 30 mm wide, The tactile surfaces should be laid at
surface concrete, on the
and spaced 70 mm apart the beginning and end of the shared
and center different sides
segregated route, at regular intervals
delineator strip of the route, can
along the route, and at any intersection
provide helpful
with other pedestrian or cyclist routes.
cues to partially
The surfaces should be 2400 mm long,
sighted people.
across the full width of the pedestrian
and cycle paths.

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Source: Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving Surfaces (DETR, 1998)
Figure ‎4.3 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at a Signal-Controlled Crossing

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Figure ‎4.4 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at a Flat-Top Hump
Figure ‎4.5 Layout of Corduroy-Type Tactile Paving at the Top of Stairs

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Figure ‎4.6 Tactile Paving at Intersection of Segregated Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths
4.3.5 Surface Treatments

When considering surfacing materials to be used for pedestrian paths, the following
items should be considered:
• Whether the surface is to be used by pedestrians or cyclists, or both
• Quality and appearance of the finished surface
• Slip-resistance properties of the surface
• Overall surface stability and smoothness
Different types of surface treatments and their suitability to different applications are
shown in Table 4.3.

Table ‎4.3 Surface Treatment Options
Suitable Suitable for

Suitable for
Material Type for Wheelchair Positive Features Negative Features
Pedestrians?
Cyclists? Users?
Can be used to create Paver material would require adequate slip-resistant

aesthetically pleasing patterns features.
Pavers Yes Yes Yes
Easy to reinstate to original Debris may collect in the cracks, thus requiring
condition after construction ongoing maintenance.
Interlocking blocks create an uneven surface for

cyclists.
Can be used to create Loose blocks would be hazardous for cyclists at high
aesthetically pleasing patterns speeds.
Paving blocks Yes No Yes
Easy to reinstate to original Paving block material would need adequate slip-
condition after construction resistant features.
Debris may collect in the cracks, thus requiring
ongoing maintenance.
Most practical for persons with

disabilities
Not aesthetically pleasing
Suitable for use in beach areas
Repair requirements
Concrete Yes Yes Yes where pedestrians are likely to be
Temperature fluctuations may cause cracks in
barefoot; the light color absorbs
concrete surface
less heat and remains cooler to
the touch
May have a greater ongoing maintenance liability than

Most practical for persons with
concrete
disabilities
Asphalt Yes Yes Yes In hot weather, asphaltic materials soften and create
Colored resins can be applied to
unpleasant walking environments, such as radiant
enhance appearance
heat.
Loose materials such as Relatively inexpensive

Unsuitable for wheelchair users
stone chippings, gravel, Yes No No Aesthetically pleasing in tourist
Can quickly become worn or rutted
and tree bark chippings areas such as parks
PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE
Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.

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PART
85
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4.3.6 Gradients
Where sidewalks are provided adjacent to roads, the longitudinal sidewalk gradient will
be consistent with that of the road. Pedestrian sidewalk gradients of up to 1:20 (5%) are
considered acceptable. Where the gradient exceeds 1:20 (5%), the designer should consider
the need to separate the sidewalk from the road, and, for design purposes, should consider
the pedestrian path as a ramp. Accordingly, a maximum gradient of 1:12 (8.3%), may be used
over very short lengths in exceptional circumstances.
Sidewalks should have a crossfall gradient of 1:50 (2%), and a maximum longitudinal gradient
of 1:20 (5%).
4.3.7 Pedestrian Refuges

Pedestrian refuges provide a safe and protected area for pedestrians to wait in the middle
of an intersection. Refuges shall have a minimum dimension of 2.5 m to safely accommodate
users of wheelchairs and strollers. A greater dimension is always desirable; 3 m being a
reasonable goal. The absolute minimum width is 1.5 m, which is applicable only at constrained
locations and where pedestrian flows are very low. The preferred crossing width of refuge
islands when cyclist is also using the crossing is 3.0 m to 4.0 m with 2.5 m minimum at
constrained locations and where cyclist flows are very low. Pedestrian refuges at intersection
median locations, shall be a minimum width of 3.5 m. Typical layouts are shown in Figure 4.7
and Figure 4.8. Tactile paving surfaces for pedestrian refuge crossings shall be provided as
specified in Section ‎4.3.4. Audible signals and tactile push buttons shall be provided where
applicable, as detailed in Sections 4‎ .5.1, and 4
‎ .5.10.
The width of the crossing shall be maintained across the full roadway including through the
refuge island, either incorporating dropped curbs, or continuing the crosswalk through the
refuge island at the level of the road surface. The refuge shall be sized to accommodate
an acceptable pedestrian level of service. For further information on pedestrian levels of
service see Section ‎3.2.4.
The recommended traffic lane width at the crossing is within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 m.
This width is sufficient to prevent vehicles from passing too closely to pedestrians who
are waiting in the refuge area and provides some lateral space sufficient for vehicles to
pass cyclists. If the refuge island is not located on a straight section of road, the adjacent
roadway width may need to be widened to safely accommodate vehicular movement. In all
cases, refuges shall be designed and located to ensure that large vehicles do not overrun
the refuge.
To prevent obstructions to free-flowing traffic and issues of obscured visibility, parking

restrictions may need to be implemented adjacent to refuges. Refuges sited near bus stops
shall be designed so that they do not prevent traffic from passing a stationary bus.

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Source: Based upon Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Junctions, of this Manual
Figure ‎4.7 Layout of Pedestrian Refuge

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Source: Based upon Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Junctions, of this Manual
Figure ‎4.8 Layout of Pedestrian Refuge at Dedicated Left-turn Lanes
Pedestrians shall be discouraged from crossing divided roadways unless signal control is
provided. Special pedestrian refuge sections may be provided at selected points, ideally
at intersection locations, and preferably incorporated in the median. These refuge areas,
or medians, should be a minimum of 3.5 m wide. The accesses to the refuge area shall be
staggered so that pedestrians are not able to approach and cross both roadways in one
straight movement.
4.3.8 Pedestrian Guardrails

Pedestrian guardrails may be used to channel pedestrians towards crossing facilities. The
design of guardrails requires careful consideration and they should only be used at locations
where a specific safety issue has been identified. For example, if a grade-separated crossing is
provided, pedestrian guardrails may be provided in the central median to restrict pedestrians
crossing at-grade. Figure 4.9 illustrates a good example of the use of pedestrian guardrails.

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Figure ‎4.9 In-Situ Example of Pedestrian Guardrails, Doha
4.3.8.1 Curbside Guardrails

Where pedestrian guardrails are used between the sidewalk and the roadway edge, the
height of the guardrails should be within the range 1.05 m to 1.15 m, and they should be
set back at least 450 mm from the curb edge. Where this curb offset cannot be practically
achieved without the sidewalk being narrowed to less than 1.5 m, measures should be
explored to widen the sidewalk, either further away from the roadway, and/or by narrowing
the roadway. If neither option can be practically achieved, then alternative routes should be
considered for pedestrians which avoid the narrow section.
Pedestrian guardrails used on the approach to a crossing point incorporate staggered infill
bars, the bars should be aligned to allow visibility to and from the vehicular approach
direction, and a sight gap incorporated at the top of the guardrail, so that that pedestrians
are not masked from drivers view by the guardrails.
Figure 4.10 shows a typical pedestrian guardrail used adjacent to a pedestrian crossing.

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Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.10 Typical Pedestrian Guardrails Used at Pedestrian Crossing
4.3.8.2 Median Guardrails

Pedestrian guardrails should be installed in the median of multi-lane high-speed roads, to
prevent pedestrians from crossing that road at inappropriate locations. Pedestrian guardrails
should be used near to where a grade-separated facility has been provided to encourage use
of the grade-separated facility. The design of pedestrian guardrails can be varied to suit the
local environment. Figure 4.11 shows ‘head high’ (1.8 m height) guardrails for arterial roads.

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Figure ‎4.11 Pedestrian Guardrails in Median
4.3.8.3 Ornate Guardrails

Pedestrian guardrails may be used in urban environments to prevent pedestrians crossing
urban arterial roads. In such locations, the use of ornate guardrails may be appropriate to
merge with the local design environment as Figure 4.12 shows.
Ornate guardrails may not be as effective as ‘head high’ standard form guardrails in restricting
pedestrians crossing the road.

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Figure ‎4.12 Ornate Pedestrian Guardrails, Doha
4.3.9 Visibility Requirements

The entire pedestrian crossing area, including pedestrian waiting areas, shall be visible to
drivers. Table 4.4 provides the minimum stopping sight distances for drivers approaching a
pedestrian crossing.
Table ‎4.4 Visibility of Pedestrian Crossings to Drivers
Posted speed 30 kph 50 kph 80 kph

Minimum stopping sight distance 30 m 70 m 150 m
It is important that pedestrians can see and be seen by approaching traffic, therefore
the provision of large street furniture and trees which might reduce visibility, shall
be avoided. It is important that trees and other vegetation are regularly maintained
to retain appropriate sight lines. Keeping approaches to pedestrian crossings free of
parked vehicles may, in some cases, necessitate the use of parking restrictions, for
example zigzag markings in the case of unsignalized pedestrian crossings.

For pedestrian safety reasons, adequate vertical clearance shall be provided under
overhanging tree branches, road signs, and overhead structures. For vegetation,
the implemented maintenance regime shall preserve the required minimum vertical

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clearance. See Section ‎4.4.1.4 for guidance on vertical clearance for pedestrian

bridges and shelter structures and Section ‎4.4.2.3 for minimum vertical clearances
related to pedestrian underpasses. The standard minimum vertical clearance to overhead
obstructions is 2.4 m. This minimum clearance should be increased to 2.6 m for obstacles
which are longer than 20 m.
4.3.11 Drainage Grates and Utility Covers

Installation of drainage grates and utility covers in the area pedestrians will cross the road
shall be avoided where practical to do so. Where it is unavoidable, utility covers shall
be installed flush with the roadway or sidewalk to avoid creating a trip hazard. Where
utility covers are located within areas of tactile paving, the ‘inset’ variety can be specified to
help maintain continuity of the tactile surface.
4.3.12 Lighting
Lighting is an important design consideration in the provision of safe and attractive pedestrian
facilities. Adequate lighting ensures that drivers can see pedestrians waiting to cross or in
the act of crossing the road. Sidewalks shall be illuminated for the following reasons:
• To help pedestrians navigate their route and to enable them to perceive hazards such as
unusual or uneven surfaces and obstacles such as steps or street furniture.
• To enhance the personal security of pedestrians by helping them to recognize potential

threats in time to take evasive action.
Refer to QHDM Volume 3 Part 18 for recommended Illumination Levels for Bike Paths and
Pedestrian Walkways.
4.3.12.1 Grade-Separated Crossings

Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual, specifies that pedestrian underpasses
require lighting where natural light does not penetrate adequately or where the length of
the underpass exceeds 75 m. Vandal-resistant lighting should be used at all pedestrian
underpasses and should also be considered at pedestrian bridge sites.
Refer to QHDM Volume 3 Part 18 for minimum performance requirement for under-bridge
and underpass lighting.
4.3.12.2 At-Grade Crossings

Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual, specifies that all marked at-grade pedestrian
crossings shall have lighting provided. Table 4.5 provides a summary of the minimum
illumination levels for pedestrian crossings vary depending on the road classification.

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Table ‎4.5 Lighting Level Requirements
Maintained Average
Illuminance, Overall Uniformity
Road Classification
Ratio, Uo
Eav (lux)
A Freeways and expressways Not applicable Not applicable
B Major urban arterials 30 0.4
C Boulevards, minor urban arterials, and major
30 0.4
urban collectors
D Collector Distributor roads, minor collectors
20 0.4
and service roads
E Local roads 15 0.4
Source: Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual
4.3.13 Traffic Signals

Sections ‎4.5.1 to ‎4.5.15 inclusive provide details of the traffic signals that shall be used in
association with signalized pedestrian crossings.
Specific guidance on the design details of traffic signals is provided in QTCM Volume 1,
Part 5. Whenever traffic signals are proposed to be installed their design shall be agreed
with the Overseeing Organization.
4.3.14 Traffic Signs and Road Markings

Section ‎3.3.18 provides guidance on the traffic signs and road markings that shall be
provided at pedestrian crossings. The details of which signs and markings to use with each
crossing type are shown in Section ‎4.5.
Specific guidance on the design details of traffic signs and road markings is provided in QTCM
Volume 1 Part 2 and Part 3, Volume 2 Part 6, and Part 7.
4.3.15 Speed Reducing Features

In some locations, it may be necessary to introduce speed reducing, or speed controlling
features. Suitable locations for speed reduction measures shall generally be situated where
the 85th percentile speeds recorded on the approaches to the crossing exceed the maximum
speed limit. Speed reducing features may also act as an aid to warn drivers of the presence
of a crossing, particularly if the forward visibility to the crossing is restricted.
4.3.15.1 Transverse Rumble strips

Transverse rumble strips (TRS) are one of the simplest forms of speed reducing feature. They
are used to alerting drivers to reduce their speed. Installing traffic rumble strips creates a
visual, audible, and physical alert to drivers in traffic areas where caution is critical, such as at
school and recreational areas with pick-up and drop-off zones, hospitals, and near pedestrian
areas and crossing points. TRS should be used sparingly to maintain their effectiveness.
TRS are formed of yellow colored thermoplastic material built up at least 5 mm, but no

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more than 15 mm above the roadway surface. A basic TRS configuration consists of five
transverse 300 mm width yellow color bar markings, such that, at the posted speed limit,
all five markings will be traversed during a period of approximately one second. Figure 4.13
indicates a recommended layout and spacing of bar markings.
TRS are suitable to be used in both high speed and low speed environments and can be
useful in reducing vehicle speeds approaching a pedestrian crossing. Low and high vehicle
speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2, Planning, of this Manual.
Source: QTCM, Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure ‎4.13 Transverse Rumble Strips
The noise of vehicles passing over speed humps or rumble strips may cause disturbances
in areas where residences are close to the highway. Such disturbances should be taken into
consideration at the design stage.
Rumble strips shall extend over the entire width of one-way roads or at least half the width
of two-way roads, including paved shoulders, so all approaching traffic receives adequate
warning. Further guidance on the installation of TRS is provided in the QTCM, Volume 2
Part 6, Road Markings.
4.3.15.2 Drainage
Drainage is an important feature of speed humps. Where the road is curbed, positive drainage
should be provided so that water accumulation does not occur. Alternatively, where there is
no local drainage system, or where soakaways cannot be provided, the hump should stop

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short of the curb to allow for drainage, as shown in Figure 4.14. For safety reasons, the hump
should not be used as a crossing point. If the road has no curb, the hump shall be graded into
the verge.
4.3.15.3 Speed Humps and Raised Tables

In low speed areas, speed humps and raised tables can help to maintain suitably low vehicle
speeds. Low and high vehicle speeds on roads are defined in Clause 10.4 of Volume 1, Part 2,
Planning, of this Manual. Speed humps and raised tables may be appropriate for use when
the following apply:
• The posted road speed limit is 50 kph or less.

• The road is lit, and the speed humps are clearly visible to approaching vehicle drivers.
• The road is not a freeway, expressway, arterial, or major collector route.
Speed humps and raised tables shall be designed in accordance with the Ashghal Standard
Drawings and Details. For guidance on traffic signs and road markings relating to speed
humps and raised tables see the QTCM, Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.
The speed humps are generally round-topped and raised tables are flat-topped. When used in
association with pedestrian crossings, a flat top raised table shall be used, and the crossing
placed on top of the raised table, as that is the location where vehicle speeds will be the
lowest. Section ‎4.5.18.3 of this Part provides further information relating to the use of flat
top raised tables at raised pedestrian crossings.
Round-topped humps are suitable for routes where there is no public bus route, and their
use is primarily to calm traffic speeds that are suitable for a residential neighborhood. Speed
humps should not be used on major roads, bus routes, or primary emergency response routes.
Signs and road markings should be provided in advance to warn the drivers and cyclists to
reduce their speed accordingly.
A warning sign should notify motorists before they approach the humps. Humps generally
have pavement markings to enhance visibility and a taper edge near the curb to allow a
gap for drainage. Speed humps are used in locations where very low speeds are desired and
reasonable. A speed hump is generally placed mid-block between intersections. A spacing of
100 to 150 m apart is normally recommended for round-top and flat-top raised tables and
raised intersections when used in series. For school zones and residential areas with speed
limited to 30 kph and lower, a spacing of 60 to 70 m may be required.
The length and height of the speed humps determine the speed at which traffic will travel
over the devices. Shorter lengths and greater heights drastically reduce vehicle speeds.
Reduced humps height of 40 mm may be used on higher-speed approaches, such as the

approach to a village. However, it is still preferable to use other additional speed-reducing
features, such as speed limits and yellow bar markings ahead of the speed hump.

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Raised tables are flat-topped speed humps with room for the entire wheelbase of a passenger
car to rest on top. The flat top design allows cars and other vehicles to maintain slightly
higher speeds than they would on speed humps, slowing vehicle to speeds of about 35 to
40 kph. Raised tables are ideal solution for roads with typical residential speed limits. Typical
examples of speed hump and raised table layout and cross sections that are used in the
State of Qatar are shown in Figure 4.14. Speed humps and raised tables shall be designed in
accordance with the Ashghal Standard Drawings and Details.
Figure ‎4.14 Typical Details of Speed Humps and Raised Tables
4.3.16 Ramps
In general, ramps are preferred to stairs for the approaches to new pedestrian bridges and
underpasses, because they assist the mobility-impaired, and help meet the requirements set
out in international accessibility legislation and guidance (for example the ‘Americans with
Disability Act’). In certain constrained circumstances, such as in existing dense urban centers,
providing ramps may not be feasible. Alternative accessible facilities such as elevators may
therefore be provided instead.
cognizance of the forthcoming advice. Consultation shall be undertaken with the Overseeing
Organization to confirm applicability on a case by case basis.
The provision of an elevator is a good alternative to a fully accessible and design compliant
ramp. Importantly, the elevator shall be regularly serviced to maintain reliability. When an
elevator is provided, an alternative route down from the bridge should also be provided, this
can be in the form of stairs, escalator or a ramp. If an elevator has been provided and a ramp
is also provided, the ramp gradient may be steepened to 1:15 (6.7%).

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A ramp gradient of 1:20 (5%) is recommended but steeper gradients may be adopted over
short distances, indeed this may be a practical necessity dependent upon local site conditions.
When designing ramps, the following gradient relationships are applicable:
For ramps <2 m long – 1:12 (8.3%) maximum
For ramps 2 m to 10 m long – 1:15 (6.7%) maximum
For ramps >10 m long – 1:20 (5%)
Gradients steeper than 1:10 (10%) are considered hazardous and challenging to negotiate,
particularly by wheelchair users. A ramp gradient of 1:12 (8.33%), is considered the maximum
permissible; steeper gradients are not advisable in the State of Qatar. Even a slightly steeper
gradient of 1:10 is only acceptable over very short distances; for example, a ramp covering a
distance of 600 mm. Depending on the ramp length, intermediate rest areas with a minimum
length of 1.5 m shall be provided at a maximum spacing interval of 10 m. They shall also be
provided at all changes of direction. For ramps that are likely to generate notable use, with
frequent concurrent two-way movements, rest areas with 1.8 m lengths shall be provided.
Ramps shall have a minimum width of 1.8 m, be free of obstruction, and incorporate a nonslip
surface. Ramp gradient advice is summarized in Table 4.6.
Table ‎4.6 Ramp Gradients
Ramp Length Maximum Gradient Rest Area Requirements

<2 m 1:12 (8.3%) Not applicable
2 m – 10 m 1:15 (6.7%) Not applicable
Maximum spacing every 10 m
>10 m 1:20 (5%)
At every change in direction
Source: Pedestrian and Cyclist Design Manual (Dubai Municipality, 2003)
Exposed ramp edges shall be protected by a raised solid curb of at least 100 mm in height.
Crossfalls are usually not required, but drainage issues should be considered early in the
design.
Level landings at the top and bottom of ramps shall have a minimum clear length of 1.5 m
and be provided over the whole width of the ramp.
Section ‎4.3.18 provides details of handrails on ramps.
4.3.17 Stairs
Stairs need not be provided where a change in level can be safely and effectively achieved
using ramps. In certain circumstances, physical constraints may make stairs the most practical
solution, in which case, alternative access arrangements shall be provided to accommodate
the needs of those with mobility impairments. Where the climb distance is significant, an

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elevator may be required to provide an alternative means of access. Table 4.7 provides the
geometric design parameters which are relevant when designing stairs.
Table ‎4.7 Geometric Design Requirements for Stairs
Design Parameter Dimensions

Width Minimum 1.5 m.
1.8 m where there is concurrent two-way movement.
3.0 m where stairs lead to a platform where people carry
luggage.
Height of risers (constant over a Preferred 150 mm.
whole flight of stairs) Minimum 100 mm.
Maximum 170 mm.
Tread depth (constant over a whole Preferred 300 mm.
flight of stairs) Minimum 250 mm.
Maximum number of risers in a flight 12
Minimum number of steps in a flight 3
Intermediate flat rest areas shall be a minimum length of 1.5 m, preferably 1.8 m across full
width of the stairway and be provided between flights of stairs. An unobstructed landing
space shall be provided at the top and bottom of each flight, having a length at least equal
to the unobstructed width of the stairway, but not less than 1.5 m. The landing space shall
be provided over the whole width of the stairs.
The absolute minimum height of risers is 100 mm and the maximum is 170 mm; the preferred
height is 150 mm. The minimum number of risers in one flight of stairs shall be 3 and the
maximum is 12. The minimum depth of stair treads (goings), is 250 mm, and the preferred
depth is 300 mm. Open risers shall be avoided to reduce the risk of tripping.
The nose of each step shall be rounded to form a 6 mm radius without overhang. Some
people with walking difficulties pull their feet up the face of the riser and an overhang would
be a trip hazard.
Steps should be surfaced with a slip-resistant material. Color contrast on the step noses is
essential for visually impaired persons and should extend across the full width of each tread,
55 mm deep on both tread and riser.
Tactile warning surfaces shall be provided at the top and bottom of stairs as detailed in
Section ‎4.3.4.
4.3.18 Handrails
For both ramps and stairs, smooth handrails, 45 mm wide or in diameter, shall be provided on
both sides of the ramps or stairs, with a clear 1000 mm wide spacing provided between rails.
Where the unobstructed width exceeds 2 m a central continuous handrail may be used as

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an alternative to a handrail on each side. Handrails shall be mounted at a height of 900 mm

for sloping sections and 1m for level sections. Ramps when provided shall accommodate an
intermediate handrail mounted at a height of 650 mm for sloping sections and 900 mm for
level sections.
Handrails should be finished in a cool-to-touch material and be continuous over the entire
length of the ramp or flight of stairs. The cool touch finishes will depend on the design of the
feature, but could take the form of wood, stone and powder coated metals. Figure 4.15 and
Figure 4.16 show the recommended profiles for handrails. Where handrails are free-standing
and are at risk of being hit by a vehicle, they should be constructed of frangible materials.
Figure ‎4.15 Handrail Dimension Details
Figure ‎4.16 Profile of Handrail Provision for Stairs
4.3.19 Elevators and Escalators

The technical requirements of elevators and escalators must comply with of the Qatar
Construction Specifications (2014, Section 21, Part 20).

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An elevator shall be of sufficient size to provide a level of service C, appropriate for the
estimated Volume of pedestrians that will use the elevator. As a minimum, the elevator car
shall have internal dimensions of 1730 mm by 1370 mm, as shown in Figure 4.17.
The width of an escalator will depend on the standard designs of the supplier. Escalators
shall have a minimum width of 600 mm.
Elevators may be used in preference to ramps to accommodate the needs of those with
mobility impairments. The choice between a ramp and an elevator requires balanced
consideration of the following design and maintenance issues:
• Physical space - Site conditions may preclude use of ramps; the footprint of an elevator
shaft structure is notably less than that of a typical ramped structure.
• Maintenance - Elevators require regular cleaning and preventative maintenance, and

occasional reactive maintenance (repairs). Ramps if designed appropriately will, in
comparison to elevators, require minimal and less costly maintenance.
• Cooling - Elevators and ramps can be air-conditioned, the decision on whether to apply
cooling will be taken on a case by case basis and assessed current and future pedestrian
demand will be a key consideration.
Source: Americans with Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible Design (United States Department of
Justice Civil Rights Division, 2010)
Figure ‎4.17 Minimum Internal Elevator Dimensions
4.4 Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings

Pedestrian bridges and pedestrian underpasses are usually more expensive to construct than
at-grade pedestrian facilities. It is generally quicker and less expensive to retrofit pedestrian
bridges on existing road networks than to construct a new pedestrian underpass However
in some cases dependent on a variety of factors, notably including ground conditions,
pedestrian underpasses which are implemented as part of new highway scheme can be more
cost effective than pedestrian bridges.

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Pedestrian bridges can be formed from a variety of materials. The specification of

prefabricated materials can reduce implementation costs and construction program duration.
There is an extensive range of structural forms and styles available. Aesthetic considerations
as well as location and siting are important in pedestrian bridge design.

The style and materials specified for a pedestrian bridge, is a partly aesthetic consideration,
and it is important the structure merges seamlessly with the adjacent environmental setting.
For example, functional and generic steel-frame prefabricated structures are commonly
implemented on busy roadways situated away from city centers, while a pedestrian bridge
in a city center may take the form of a unique ‘landmark’ structure, designed by a qualified
architect. Pedestrian bridges can create a significant visual impact on their surroundings
and so their designs should be context sensitive. Refer to Section ‎3.3.14.4 for examples of
design styles in the State of Qatar.
Pedestrian bridges should be accessible for all pedestrians and may incorporate ramps
and elevators in their design, if they are in locations readily accessible by wheelchair
users. Pedestrian bridges may also incorporate shared pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
Section ‎3.3.14 summarizes facilities that shall be provided for a pedestrian bridge.
When a pedestrian bridge is constrained by its surroundings there may be less freedom for
design options. For example, long ramps require significant space, which is seldom available
in urban environments. Furthermore, indirect and long ramps which require a significant
amount of time to negotiate, can be off-putting for potential users, particularly those with
mobility impairments. Users presented with numerous stairs or the alternative of an indirect
and long ramp, may choose neither and risk crossing the road at-grade at an unsuitable
location. If a ramp cannot be provided due to physical site restrictions, then an elevator shall
be provided to allow the bridge to be used by those with mobility impairments, including
wheelchair users. In remote locations, however, it may not be essential to provide either
ramps or elevators.
Depending on the scale and location, protection from the elements in the form of a canopy
may be appropriate. Shading features may be incorporated into the design of a pedestrian
bridge. The bridge deck should be enclosed to eliminate the risk of objects being dropped
or thrown from the bridge, or the risk of a person jumping onto the road below, particularly
on expressways. Air-conditioning should also be considered particularly for sites where
high pedestrian demand is assessed. The design of such an enclosure should consider the
potential for prevention of unauthorized access.
Bridges shall be designed so that pedestrians are able to see out, and motorists see in.
There is a potential that some users may perceive that the reduced visibility from the
enclosure compromises their personal security, so when solid panels are specified as
cladding to the enclosure frame, they can be specified as transparent, incorporating
provision to assist cleaning. The materials specified for covered walkways should be

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appraised in detail, and, as far as is reasonably practicable, visibility should be maintained

between pedestrians using the bridge and the outside environment. Figure 4.18, Figure
4.19 and Figure 4.20 show examples of pedestrian bridges in GCC cities.
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.18 Air-Conditioned Pedestrian Bridge, Doha
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.19 Shaded Pedestrian Bridge, Doha

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Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.20 Shaded Pedestrian Bridge, Qatar
Pedestrian bridges must be designed to comply with the structural design standards and
specifications set out in the QHDM.
4.4.1.1 Best Practice Principles

Best practice principles for pedestrian bridge design include:
• Avoiding long straight ramps
• If designated for use by cyclists, provide edge protection to prevent handlebars clashing
with bridge parapets
• Designing the pedestrian bridge as a safe and secure facility
• Providing adequate lighting
• Ensuring good visibility from the surrounding areas
• Specifying slip-resistant surfaces, as appropriate
• Ensuring safe and comfortable access for pedestrians with disabilities
• Providing shade from sun and shelter from rain
• Using barriers on adjacent road sections to discourage at-grade crossing
Design guidelines are included in Table 4.8 and illustrated in Figure 4.21.

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Table ‎4.8 Guidelines for Pedestrian Bridge Design
Design Element Recommendation

Unsegregated shared bridge
2.4 m
minimum clear width
Segregated bridge minimum clear
3.0 m
width
6.5 m (See Table 4.5 of Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design
Minimum vertical clearance from road
Elements, of this Manual)
Recommended Height of parapet 1.5 m
0.6 m minimum for curbed roads, 0.9 m for locations at
intersections/driveways and 1.2 m for roads with no curb. Refer
Lateral clearance from road
to Volume 3 Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of
this Manual, for isolated structures on high speed roads.
The forward visibility to traffic signals is stipulated in the
Minimum distance from nearest QHDM and depends on the design speed of the road. Pedestrian
signalized crossing bridges, shall be located so that forward visibility to traffic
signals complies with the requirements of this Manual.
Roof/shading clearance 2.4 m
Figure ‎4.21 Minimum Pedestrian Bridge Dimensions
4.4.1.2 Minimum Clear Width

The minimum clear width of a pedestrian bridge is 2.4 m. Optimally a LOS C shall be provided.
Pedestrian flows should be estimated, and an extra 0.5 m width added for every 200 extra
pedestrians per hour, over an initial 1200 pedestrians per hour.

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When cyclists use a pedestrian bridge, they should normally be expected to dismount,
unless the bridge has been specifically designed and designated for use by cyclists. In such
a scenario, the cyclists and pedestrians shall be segregated, and the minimum internal and
effective bridge width will be 3.0 m.
4.4.1.3 Height of Parapet

A parapet shall be provided at the edge of the bridge. The parapet shall have a minimum
height of 1.5 m.
4.4.1.4 Roof/ Shading Clearance

The minimum clearance height to any element of structure or infrastructure is 2.4 m. This is
to provide a welcoming environment for pedestrians. Figure 4.21 provides an illustration of
the minimum internal dimensions of a pedestrian bridge.
4.4.1.5 Common Pedestrian Bridge Design Elements

Guidance for common design elements to be considered when designing a pedestrian bridge
are provided in the following sections:
• Section ‎3.2.4 Level of Service

• Section ‎4.3.2 Sidewalks
• Section ‎4.3.3 Dropped Curbs
• Section ‎4.3.4 Tactile Surfaces
• Section ‎4.3.6 Gradients
• Section ‎4.3.7 Pedestrian Refuges
• Section ‎4.3.8 Pedestrian Guardrails
• Section ‎4.3.9 Visibility Requirements
• Section ‎4.3.10 Vertical Clearance
• Section ‎4.3.11 Drainage Grates and Utility Covers
• Section ‎4.3.12 Lighting
• Section ‎4.3.16 Ramps
• Section ‎4.3.17 Stairs
• Section ‎4.3.18 Handrails
• Section ‎4.3.19 Elevators and Escalators
4.4.1.6 Sidewalks at Pedestrian Bridge Sites

When designing a pedestrian bridge, consideration shall be given both to those pedestrians
continuing along the sidewalk and to those using the pedestrian bridge. A minimum sidewalk
width as specified in Section 4.3.2, shall be maintained. Careful consideration shall also be
given to the access arrangement for the pedestrian bridge and how the access infrastructure
will tie into the surrounding sidewalk network. Figure 4.22 demonstrates an example of a

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bridge landing area which is accommodated within the right of way and maintaining adequate
lateral clearance. If the access to the pedestrian bridge is separated from the surrounding
sidewalk network by a service road, then appropriate crossing facilities shall be provided on
the service road.
Figure ‎4.22 Concept Design Example of a Pedestrian Bridge Landing Area
4.4.1.7 Ramps at Pedestrian Bridge Sites

The length of ramp required to achieve the minimum height clearance above the roadway
can result in a considerable addition to the length and duration of a pedestrian’s journey. The
ramp will also occupy a considerable area of land space. Accordingly, in urban environments,
the provision of a ramp may not be the most practical option.
The provision of an elevator is a good alternative to a fully design compliant ramp. However,
the elevator shall be maintained to be reliable. When an elevator is provided, an alternative
route down from the bridge shall also be provided, this can be in the form of stairs, escalator,
ramp, or a second elevator. If an elevator is provided, and a ramp is also provided, then the
ramp gradient may be increased up to a maximum 1:15 (6.7%).

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4.4.1.8 Stairs at Pedestrian Bridge Sites

In the hot summer months, the necessity of climbing stairs may deter pedestrians from using
a pedestrian bridge. In suitable locations, escalators may provide an attractive alternative
to stairs.
Where it is anticipated that cyclists will use a pedestrian bridge, a channel shall be provided
at the side of the stairs, as Figure 4.23 illustrates. The provision of a channel will make it
easier and safer for cyclists to use the bridge.
Figure ‎4.23 Bicycle Channel
4.4.1.9 Pedestrian Guardrails at Pedestrian Bridge Sites

Some pedestrians will try to cross at-grade, regardless of the provision of a pedestrian
bridge. To prevent pedestrians from crossing at-grade, and to encourage them to use the
pedestrian bridge, pedestrian guardrails should be provided. Guardrails should be placed in
the median and be at least head height (1.8 m), to deter pedestrians from climbing over. For
optimal effectiveness, the guardrails should extend for a minimum distance of 100m on both
sides of a pedestrian bridge.
4.4.1.10 Lighting at Pedestrian Bridge Sites

Lighting is an important design consideration in the provision of safe and inviting pedestrian
facilities. If street lighting is provided around the bridge, then any lighting specified for the

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bridge deck, stairs, or ramp shall be consistent and at least match with the adjacent street
lighting luminance. The minimum lighting level for the bridge deck, stairs, or ramp shall be
15 lux.
All components of lighting systems, their fittings, and connections, shall be robust and
tamper proof. Important design considerations are as follows:
• The arrangement of internal lighting shall be sufficient to ensure that no dark areas
exist.
• External architecture details can be highlighted by appropriately positioned external
lights.
• Design shall ensure that there is no glare effect to drivers.
• The designer, where practical, should specify energy efficient technologies that have
a positive impact on the environment and preserve existing natural resources, e.g., LED
lighting.

Like pedestrian bridges, underpasses are most effective when there are minimal changes in
gradient. In most cases, the nature of a pedestrian underpass means that it is normally less
visually intrusive than a pedestrian bridge.
Effective surface water drainage design should minimize the requirement for ongoing
maintenance. When designing a pedestrian underpass, consideration shall be given to the
drainage of ground water and rainwater. Removal of water may require the installation of
drainage sumps and pumps. For details of drainage requirements, refer to Volume 2, Part 10,
Drainage, of this Manual, and Tunnel and Underpass Drainage (Ashghal, 2013).
In comparison to at-grade pedestrian crossings, the disadvantages of pedestrian underpasses

are relocation of existing utilities and extensive temporary traffic management as well
as the perceived issues of personal safety and anti-social behavior. Due to the concealed
nature of the facility, a poorly designed pedestrian underpass can be unappealing for use
by pedestrians, particularly after dark in less busy areas. Consequently, pedestrians may
avoid using the pedestrian underpass and risk crossing at-grade near the underpass or travel
further along the road to cross at the nearest at-grade signalized or unsignalized crossing.
This need not be such an issue if the pedestrian underpass is well designed and incorporated
into the local landscape.
When designed into facilities such as underground parking, pedestrian underpasses can
create inviting and efficient crossing options for pedestrians. Air-conditioning should also
be considered, particularly for sites where high pedestrian demand is assessed. Figure 4.24
provides example of an entrance to a pedestrian underpass and car park with sympathetic
design to increase its desirability. Design elements that should, as far as is reasonably
practicable, be provided include:

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• Open entrances, unless requirements for air-conditioning dictate otherwise, to provide

an inviting approach to the pedestrian underpass.
• Clear sight lines through the pedestrian underpass, so users can see the other end and
what is inside the pedestrian underpass.
• Spacious, light, and airy interior.
• No corners around which assailants could hide.
Figure ‎4.24 Entrance to Pedestrian Underpass and Car Park, West Bay, Doha
Similar to pedestrian bridges, pedestrian underpasses are often served by ramps, in order to
comply with local accessibility legislation, and can incorporate shared pedestrian and bicycle
facilities.
4.4.2.1 Good Practice Principles

General good practice principles for underpass design include:
• Designing the facility to feel convenient to use. Minimizing changes in elevation can
assist
• Designing underpasses to be safe and bicycle-friendly
• Including CCTV and/or other forms of security surveillance
• Providing edge protection for cyclists to prevent handlebars clashing with underpass
walls
• Providing sufficient head clearance to accommodate cyclists

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• Providing two ramps or paths to segregate cyclists from pedestrians

• Providing a raised sidewalk and a lower bicycle way to segregate faster cyclists from
slower pedestrians to reduce conflict
• Providing adequate lighting
• Ensuring good visibility from surrounding areas
• Using skid-resistant surfaces, as appropriate
• Providing for effective air circulation or air-conditioning
• Providing adequate sight lines on approaches
• Designing access for pedestrians with disabilities
• Using barriers to discourage adjacent at-grade crossing when necessary
Table 4.9 sets out the recommended guidelines for underpass design.
Table ‎4.9 General Guidelines for Underpass Design
Design Element Recommendation

2.3 m minimum.
3.0 m minimum preferred for <20 m pedestrian
Pedestrian-only minimum width
underpass lengths.
3.3 m for ≥20 m lengths.
Pedestrian and bicycle underpasses 3.5 m
Shared minimum width 4.0 m
Shared minimum height 3.5 m
4.4.2.2 Minimum Clear Width

The minimum clear width of a pedestrian underpass shall be 2.3 m. A LOS C should be provided.
Pedestrian flows should be monitored or estimated, and an extra 0.5 m width added for
every 200 extra pedestrians per hour over an initial 1200 pedestrians per hour. The width
of the underpass shall consider the length of the underpass and the local environment. If
it is a facility for a location that only provides for a small number of regular users, then the
minimum value quoted above is sufficient. The width of the underpass can also be linked to
its length. Table 4.9 provides a summary of the widths that shall be used.
When cyclists use a pedestrian underpass, the cyclists shall be expected to dismount, unless
the underpass has been specially designed for cyclists. In this situation, the cyclists and
pedestrians shall be segregated, and the minimum pedestrian underpass width is 4.0 m.
Regardless of the width, the pedestrian underpass shall provide a welcoming environment
for pedestrians. The width of the underpass shall take this into account and be adjusted
above the minimum values as appropriate. For example, if the pedestrian underpass is long,
then the minimum widths will appear restrictive, and adding width along the pedestrian
underpass will increase its desirability. Figure 4.25 and Figure 4.26 provide examples of
well-designed pedestrian underpasses where the width provided is suitable for the length
of the underpass.

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Figure ‎4.25 Pedestrian Underpass in Hong Kong
Figure ‎4.26 Pedestrian Underpass, Souq Waqif, Doha
4.4.2.3 Minimum Height

The minimum clearance height below any element of structure or infrastructure (e.g. air-
conditioning unit), is 3.5 m. This is to provide a welcoming environment for pedestrians and
to ensure that the pedestrian underpass does not have an oppressive atmosphere. Figure
4.27 provides an illustration of the minimum internal dimensions of a pedestrian underpass.

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Figure ‎4.27 Pedestrian Underpass Minimum Internal Dimensions
4.4.2.4 Common Underpass Design Guidance

Guidance for common design details to be incorporated within underpass design is provided
in the following sections:

• Section ‎4.3.17 Stairs
• Section ‎4.3.18 Handrails
• Section ‎4.3.19 Elevators and Escalators
4.4.2.5 Sidewalks at Pedestrian Underpass Sites

When retrofitting a pedestrian underpass into an existing road, consideration shall be
given both to pedestrians continuing along the sidewalk and to those using the underpass.
Section 4.3.2 specifies the minimum sidewalk width that shall be maintained. Careful
consideration should also be given to how the access to the pedestrian underpass ties into
the surrounding sidewalk network.

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When a pedestrian underpass is being incorporated into a new road design, consideration
shall also be given to the needs of pedestrians walking along the road. Figure 4.28 provides
an example arrangement, near the Souq Waqif, Doha.
Figure ‎4.28 Example of a Pedestrian Underpass Access Point, Doha
4.4.2.6 Ramps at Pedestrian Underpass Sites

When retrofitting a pedestrian underpass into an existing road, the space required to provide
ramps of a suitable grade to reach the underpass entrance is often not available. Elevators
are a good alternative to a ramp in this situation.
The provision of an elevator is a good alternative to a fully design-compliant ramp. However,

the elevator shall be maintained to be reliable. When an elevator is provided, an alternative
route down to the underpass should also be provided, this can be either, stairs, escalator,
ramp, or a second elevator. If an elevator has been provided, and a ramp is also provided, the
ramp gradient may be increased to 1:15 (6.7%).
When a pedestrian underpass is being incorporated into a new road design, optimally the
surrounding pedestrian network shall be designed to minimize the differences in level
between the pedestrian underpass and the adjacent sidewalk. The top of the ramp shall be
flush with the surrounding sidewalk, as illustrated in Figure 4.28.

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4.4.2.7 Stairs at Pedestrian Underpass Sites

In the hot summer months climbing stairs may deter pedestrians from using a pedestrian
underpass. In suitable locations escalators can provide an attractive alternative to stairs.
Where it is anticipated that cyclists will use a pedestrian underpass, a channel shall be
provided at the side of the stairs, as indicated in Figure 4.29. The provision of a channel will
make it easier for cyclists to use the underpass.
Figure ‎4.29 Bicycle Channel
4.4.2.8 Pedestrian Guardrails at Pedestrian Underpass Sites

Pedestrian guardrails should be provided to encourage pedestrian use of grade-separated
facilities along high-speed multi-lane roads. Guardrails should be placed in any median and
should be at least head height (1.8 m height), to deter pedestrians from climbing over. The
guardrails should extend for a minimum distance of 100 m on both sides of a pedestrian
underpass.
4.4.2.9 Lighting at Pedestrian Underpass Sites

Lighting is an important design consideration in the provision of safe and attractive to
use pedestrian facilities. If street lighting is provided on the approach to the pedestrian
underpass, any lighting provided for the underpass, stairs, or ramp shall match the street
lighting luminance, as a minimum. The minimum lighting level of the underpass, stairs, or
ramp shall be 15 lux.

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Volume 3, Part 18, Street Lighting, of this Manual, specifies that pedestrian underpasses
require lighting where natural light does not penetrate adequately or where the length of the
underpass exceeds 75 m. Enhanced lighting also promotes the natural flow of pedestrians.
All components of the lighting systems, their fittings and connections, should be robust and
tamper proof. Important considerations are:
• Design of internal lighting to be sufficient to ensure that no dark areas exist.
• External architecture details, to be highlighted by appropriately positioned external

lights.
• Design shall ensure that there is no glare effect to drivers.
• The designer should specify energy efficient technologies, that have a positive impact
on the environment, and preserve existing natural resources, e.g., LED lighting.
• The lighting design should promote the natural flow of pedestrians.
4.4.3 Pedestrian Half-Underpasses

One of the main issues with the design of pedestrian underpasses is the depth of construction
needed between the road surface and the top of the underpass roof. This depth can cause
perception problems for pedestrians and deter them from using the pedestrian underpass.
To reduce the depth of construction, the roadway can be raised. This design form is referred
to as a pedestrian half-underpass and is illustrated in Figure 4.30.
Figure ‎4.30 Cross section of Pedestrian Half-Underpass

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A pedestrian half-underpass is practical in limited situations. However, where half-underpass

construction is practical, they offer the following advantages over standard pedestrian
underpasses:
• Pedestrian half-underpasses provide a more open view for pedestrians entering the
facility making it more attractive to use. The increased visibility into the facility also
provides a ‘safer’ feeling to the crossing activity in comparison to a standard underpass.
• To access a half-underpass there will typically be a reduced number of steps and shorter
ramps, making them easier to use for pedestrians, in comparison to a standard underpass.
All the design requirements for standard pedestrian underpasses, detailed in Section ‎4.4.2,
apply to pedestrian half-underpasses.
4.5 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings

At-grade pedestrian crossings involve pedestrians crossing the road on the roadway. This
automatically introduces a potential conflict point between pedestrians and vehicles.
This conflict shall be managed to reduce the likelihood of crashes between vehicles and
pedestrians. There are two main types of at-grade pedestrian crossing:
• Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Pedestrian crossings where traffic signals control the
movement of pedestrians and vehicles. This category includes signalized pedestrian
crossings at intersections and mid-block locations. This category covers traffic signal-
controlled crossings suitable for use only by pedestrians and crossings suitable for use
by pedestrians and cyclists.
• Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings: Pedestrian crossings that have been marked,

signed, and therefore designated for use by pedestrians, designed so that vehicles give
priority to pedestrians, but where there are no traffic signals present.
In addition to the defined pedestrian crossing types, pedestrian-friendly features can also
be provided to assist pedestrians to cross the road where vehicles maintain priority. Such
features include dropped curbs and vehicle speed reducing features, such as a raised crossing.
Section ‎3.3 sets-out the process for identifying suitable locations for pedestrian crossings
and the appropriate type of crossing to use.
At-grade crossings shall consider the needs of all road users. Figure 4.31 provides an example
of how an at-grade signalized pedestrian crossing provides level access for pedestrians.

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Figure ‎4.31 At-Grade Pedestrian Crossing, The Pearl, Doha
4.5.1 Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

Signalized pedestrian crossings shall be provided at locations where there is an assessed
requirement to control the movements of pedestrians and vehicles using traffic signals.
There are two forms of signalized crossings:
• Traffic Signal-Controlled Intersections

• Traffic Signal-Controlled Mid-Block Crossings
Guidance on the design and installation of traffic signals is provided in Volume 1 Part 8,
Design for Signalized Intersections of this Manual and the QTCM Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic
Signals. The design and installation of traffic signals shall be agreed with the Overseeing
Organization.
4.5.1.1 Far-Side Signal Aspect

The standard arrangement for far-side pedestrian signals comprise a red man and a green
man indicator (aspect), positioned so that pedestrians waiting on one side of the
roadway can clearly see the signal on the opposite side of the roadway. The signals
shall conform to the diagram included as Figure 4.32. The green walking man signal
aspect must only be displayed where no other traffic movement conflicts with the
pedestrian right of way. It is important that these signals are positioned in locations
where they do not confuse conflicting pedestrians or vehicle drivers undertaking different
movements. Pedestrian can start to cross the road during the ‘invitation to cross’ period,
indicated by a solid green man. A ‘clearance’ period is then indicated by the flashing green

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man, which indicates to pedestrians they may complete their crossing, but they should not
start to cross.
Source: QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic Signals
Figure ‎4.32 Far-Side Pedestrian Signal
Signal posts with pedestrian aspects should be located 0.5 m in advance of the pedestrian
crossing markings.
The use of traffic signals is subject to approval from the Overseeing Organization.
4.5.1.2 Pedestrian Push Buttons

Push button units can be used at traffic signal-controlled intersections to activate a green
man signal in the appropriate phase, as specified in the intersection operating logic. In
the State of Qatar, the use of pedestrian push-button units is subject to approval by the
Overseeing Organization. An example of the type of pedestrian push button unit used in
Qatar is shown in Figure 4.33.

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Source: Based on QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic Signals
Figure ‎4.33 Typical Push Button Unit
If used, pedestrian push button units shall be located on all pedestrian approaches to signal-
controlled crossing points, Figure 4.34 shows plan view of a push button unit. Pedestrian
push button units should be located on the left-hand side of the pedestrian approach to a
crossing point. The use of an arrow is optional and shall point in the direction pedestrians
are expected to cross.
Source: Based on QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic Signals
Figure ‎4.34 Pedestrian Push Button Location
Pedestrian push button units shall incorporate a feature to aid visually impaired pedestrians,
in two ways:

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• Firstly, a vibrating tactile device providing haptic feedback shall be incorporated into
the pedestrian push button unit. A visually impaired pedestrian would place their hand
on the pedestrian push button unit to feel a vibration. The vibration indicates when the
green man signal is showing.
• Secondly, the unit may incorporate technology which emits an audible signal. The
audible signal should be provided where safe and appropriate to aid visually impaired
pedestrians. The audible signals are emitted during the green man period and indicates
to a visually impaired pedestrian that it is an appropriate time to cross. The setting of
the Volume of the audible signal can be adjusted to take account of the prevailing noise
conditions. The minimum distance between two audible signal units is normally 50 m,
and for this reason, audible signals are generally not appropriate at intersections, unless
an ‘all red’ pedestrian phase is provided. Section ‎4.5.8 provides information on traffic
signal phasing and timings.
4.5.1.3 Countdown Timers

Pedestrian countdown timers although not compulsory are recommended to act as a visual
indicator to inform pedestrians how much time they have available to safely complete a
crossing movement. Pedestrian countdown timers provide a visible number display (in
seconds) mounted beside the red man/green man aspects at far-side pedestrian signals.
Figure 4.35 shows such an example.
Countdown timers are useful at intersections with long crossing distances to aid pedestrians
and can be particularly useful where pedestrians are required to cross four or more lanes
of traffic. Countdown facilities should be provided where the crosswalk width is greater
than 7.5 m. Pedestrian countdown timers count down to the period from the end of the
invitation to cross until the end of the clearance period, i.e. the period during which the
flashing green man is shown. The use of pedestrian countdown timers is subject to approval
by the Overseeing Organization.
The time over which the countdown occurs has to be fixed. This means that countdown timers
are not generally suitable with adaptive or reactive control strategies or with intelligent
crossings because the countdown periods may vary from one cycle to the next. However,
with some more flexible systems, it is possible to know the point at which the signals will
change before the period occurs, making it feasible, in theory, to use countdown timers.
Refer to QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5 for specific guidance.

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Source: QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic Signals
Figure ‎4.35 Pedestrian Count Down Signal
4.5.2 Traffic Signal-Controlled Intersections

Signalization of intersections is undertaken to control competing flows of traffic. Signalized
intersections often incorporate marked pedestrian crosswalk facilities. Traffic signal phases
to allow pedestrians to cross the road can either be incorporated into the traffic signal phases
for traffic, or a separate phase can be provided just for pedestrians.
Intersections incorporating pedestrian crosswalk facilities shall be installed in areas where

large numbers of pedestrians can be expected to cross trafficked roads, so are typically
situated in urbanized areas. Signalized pedestrian crossings allocate a period of time to each
competing traffic movement, within ‘cycles’, to ensure the appropriate time is apportioned
to each movement. The allocation of time is either ‘fixed’, meaning that each arm is given
a set period of time, or can be actively managed though a range of dynamic, adaptive, or
coordinated control technologies.
Figure 4.36 provides an example of a traffic signal-controlled intersection with pedestrian

facilities in Doha.

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Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.36 Traffic Signal Controlled Intersection, Doha
4.5.3 Signalized Crossings: Facilities to be Provided

Facilities to assist pedestrians using crossings at signalized intersections shall include:

• Dropped curb approaches to the crosswalk, which will assist pedestrian movement,
particularly for those with mobility impairments.
• Audible indicators, or tactile surfaces with haptic feedback can assist visually impaired.
The following facilities may also be provided, depending on location and need:
• Countdown timers, as appropriate, to notify pedestrians how much time remains on the
crossing signal.
• Pedestrian refuges, to provide additional protection where crossings are too long to
complete in a single phase.
4.5.4 Signalized Crossings: Design Guidance

Guidance for common design details to be incorporated within traffic signal-controlled
intersection design, is provided in the following sections:

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• Section ‎4.5.1.1 Far-side Signal Aspects
• Section ‎4.5.1.2 Pedestrian Push Buttons
• Section ‎4.5.1.3 Countdown Timers
Table 4.10 provides a summary of the geometric design requirements for signalized
pedestrian crossings at intersections.
Table ‎4.10 Signalized Pedestrian Crossing Geometric Design Requirements at

Intersections
Design Element Design Requirement

Minimum crosswalk width 3.0 m minimum
Maximum crosswalk width 10.0 m
Yield line clearance from crosswalk 1.5 m-2.0 m
Transverse markings to be used in accordance with

Crosswalk markings
the QTCM, Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.
All red pedestrian phases should be avoided at

Dedicated ‘all red’ pedestrian crossing phases
large crossroad intersections to prevent extensive
permitted
delays to traffic.
4.5.5 Signalized Pedestrian Crossings at Intersections: Typical Layouts

There are two typical layouts where signalized pedestrian crossings are proposed at
intersections; ‘T’ intersections and crossroads.
4.5.5.1 Signalized Pedestrian Crossings at ‘T’ intersections

Figure 4.37 indicates a typical layout for a ‘T’ intersection; the basic form of traffic signal-
controlled intersection. The pedestrian crossing should be situated as close as practical to
the pedestrian desire line while also minimizing the crossing distance for pedestrians.

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Source: Based on Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual
Figure ‎4.37 Typical Small ‘T’ Intersection
Figure 4.38 shows an example with slip lanes. In this example pedestrians have to divert
from their desire line. Optimally pedestrian crossings should be provided on all arms of the
intersection.

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Source: Based on the QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5, Traffic Signals.
Figure ‎4.38 Complex ‘T’ Intersection with Slip Lanes
4.5.5.2 Signalized Pedestrian Crossings at Crossroads

Crossroads can also be simple intersections as Figure 4.39 shows, or they can include right-
turn slip lanes. As with ‘T’ intersections, pedestrian crossing facilities should be provided as
close as is practical to the pedestrian desire line. Crossroads with right-turn slip roads are
considered in Section ‎4.5.6.

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Source: Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual
Figure ‎4.39 Typical Intersection Without Right-Turn Slip Lanes
4.5.6 Crossings on Right-Turn Slip Lanes

Many crossroad intersections in the State of Qatar are situated at intersections of two major
roads, and as such, are large and complicated Figure 4.40 provides a typical example of such
an intersection. There are two main areas of road safety concern for this type of intersection.
The first is the tendency for pedestrians to disregard the traffic signals and cross the road
when a red man signal is showing. This tendency can be influenced by the length of time
that pedestrians may need to wait until they can cross the road. Section ‎4.5.8 provides
guidance on traffic signal timing.
The second area of concern is related to the design of the right-turn slip lanes and the resulting
conflict that can occur between pedestrians and vehicles. Several existing intersections in
Doha are designed so that the slip lanes are free flowing, often resulting in high vehicle
speeds through slip sections. Often pedestrians are not able to see if a vehicle is approaching
in the slip lane, due to restricted sight lines associated with adjacent buildings or other
boundary features, and therefore, there is an increased risk of pedestrians stepping into
the path of a vehicle. The geometric design of the right-turn slip lanes, and the associated
control of vehicle speeds shall be developed, considering the safety of pedestrians as the
most important factor.

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Figure ‎4.40 Typical Intersection with Right-Turn Slip Lanes
4.5.6.1 Location Requirements

To fully consider the needs of pedestrians at intersections, a design hierarchy should be
adopted that is appropriate to site conditions, traffic composition, and pedestrian demand.
Table 4.11 defines this hierarchy.
Table ‎4.11 Right turn Slip Lane and Associated Pedestrian Facilities
Location/ Road Type Slip Lane Facilities

Rural expressways No pedestrian facilities required.
Urban distributors and ring roads Right-turn slip lanes with acceleration lanes.
City center business and commercial/tourist
Right-turn slip lanes without acceleration lanes.
districts
Avoid dedicated right-turn slip lane as much as
Local and collector roads
practicable.
4.5.6.2 Urban Environments at Right-Turn Slip Lanes

Right-turn slip lanes in business or commercial city centers which experience high levels of
pedestrian activity shall conform with the layouts shown in Figure 4.41 and Figure 4.42,
acknowledging that local site conditions may require minor adjustments to accommodate the
recommended geometry. Under this arrangement, vehicles on the right-turn slip can either

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be held by traffic signals or be required to yield to pedestrians who are waiting to cross
at an unsignalized crossing. If the warrant is satisfied for the provision of traffic signals,
as specified in Section ‎3.3.3, the intersection should be modeled to ensure the provision
of traffic signals does not cause unacceptable congestion problems at the intersection,
while ensuring that the needs of pedestrians take priority. If an unsignalized crossing is
provided, it shall be situated on top of a raised table top (platform), as Section ‎4.5 describes.
Pedestrians cross the main intersection arms under signalized control.
Source: Based on the QTCM, Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure ‎4.41 Right-Turn Slip at Unsignalized Crossing with Raised Crosswalk

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Figure ‎4.42 Right-Turn Slip at Signal-Controlled Crossing
4.5.6.3 Acceleration Lanes at Right-Turn Slip Lanes

Intersections with acceleration lanes are designed to accommodate high vehicle speeds and
therefore favor vehicles over pedestrians. In urban areas, raised pedestrian crossings may be
desirable in order to reduce vehicle speeds in the slip lane. Figure 4.43 and Figure 4.44 show
typical layouts of a junction with a right-turn slip and an acceleration lane.
With this arrangement, vehicles in the right-turn slip lane shall either be held by traffic
signals or slowed by a raised pedestrian crossing. Section ‎4.5.18 provides information on the
use of raised pedestrian crossings. If traffic signal control is proposed, then the intersection
should be modeled to ensure the provision of traffic signals does not cause unacceptable
congestion problems at the intersection while ensuring that the needs of pedestrians are
taken into consideration. Pedestrians must cross the main intersection arms under signalized
control.

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Figure ‎4.43 Right-Turn Slip with an Acceleration Lane and Signalized Crossing

Figure ‎4.44 Right-Turn Slip with Acceleration Lane and Raised Cross Walk
4.5.7 Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Crosswalk Design

Pedestrian flow will determine the appropriate width of a cross walk. The minimum crosswalk
width is 3.0m and an extra 0.5 m should be added to the minimum width for every 125
pedestrians per hour above 600, averaged over the four peak hours, up to a maximum width
of 10 m. The first line of the pedestrian crossing markings or studs shall be within the range
1500–2000 mm from the traffic yield line. Figure 4.45 illustrates the key dimensions. Further
details are provided in the QTCM, Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.

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Figure ‎4.45 Pedestrian Crossing Layout Detail at a Signalized Intersection
4.5.8 Traffic Signal Timings

The timings of traffic signals at intersections will normally be dictated by road user safety,
traffic flows, and the need to address vehicle congestion. The safety of pedestrians shall be
considered paramount, but vehicle congestion is also a significant consideration. One of the
common safety problems involving pedestrians at traffic signal-controlled crossings is the
tendency for some pedestrians to cross when traffic is still flowing rather than wait until
their allotted time to cross the road. The tendency for pedestrians to disregard traffic signals
increases with the length of time that they are required to wait. For this reason, traffic signal
cycle times should be minimized. Ideally the maximum traffic signal cycle time should be no
more than two minutes.
There are two ways pedestrians crossing phases can be incorporated into a signalized
intersection:
• ‘All Red’ Phase
• ‘Walk-With -Traffic’
4.5.8.1 All Red

‘All Red’ pedestrian crossing phases are provided at traffic signals when all vehicles on all
arms are stopped and pedestrians can cross any of the approach arms. ‘All Red’ pedestrian
crossing phases may not be practical at large crossroad intersection.
4.5.8.2 ‘Walk-With-Traffic’
A ‘Walk-With-Traffic’ arrangement is preferable at multiple lane intersections. ‘Walk-
with-traffic’ means the traffic signals allow pedestrians to cross an approach arm to the
intersection when the traffic on that approach arm has been stopped.

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The geometric layout and signal phasing of an intersection may be designed so that
pedestrian crossings run independently of each other. This can be undertaken in conjunction
with configuring the push buttons in such a way that they only call a green man for the
pedestrian crossing that they are associated with. Combining these two practices can result
in improvements to the signal timings at traffic signal-controlled intersections by enabling
cycle times to be reduced, which can in turn lead to improved capacity through a more
efficient operation.
Figure 4.46 shows an example of the ‘Walk-With-Traffic’ approach. In this example a

staggered pedestrian crossing has been provided at a traffic signal-controlled intersection.
The pedestrian crossings on each arm can be run separately. This means that the signal
phasing can be designed so that the pedestrians cross the arm in a more operationally
efficient way as the clearance periods can be shorter. In such locations a pedestrian demand
call button shall be provided in the pedestrian reserve (or central median) as well as at the
side of the road. The crossing points should also be staggered to discourage pedestrians
from trying to cross both arms at the same time.
Figure ‎4.46 ‘Walk-With-Traffic’ Pedestrian Phase
Pedestrian groups may be designed into a traffic signal sequence to either be operational in
each traffic signal cycle or only be ‘called’ if a pedestrian demand button is pressed.

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4.5.8.3 Traffic Signal Timings

Traffic signal timings for pedestrians at intersections full signal cycle comprises seven
periods as shown in Table 4.12. Refer to QTCM Volume 1 Part 5 for specific guidance.
The ‘Invitation to Cross’, is the time period during which pedestrians can start to cross the
road. The length of the ‘invitation to cross’ can be varied depending on the distance to be
crossed. Typically, ‘invitation to cross’ has a period of 6-7 seconds, with a minimum period of
4 seconds allowed. On a long crossing, it can be increased to 12 seconds to allow pedestrians
to become established on the second half of the crossing. For ‘All Red’ phases it shall be
based on the longest distance to be crossed by a pedestrian. An all-red pedestrian phase
indicates that pedestrians have right-of-way and all traffic movements are stopped. This is
the least favored solution because of the less efficient way it deals with all traffic, including
pedestrians.
For ‘Walk-with-traffic’ phases, the invitation to cross can be as long as the associated vehicle
green signal minus the required clearance period. The invitation to cross is indicated to
pedestrians by a solid green man symbol. The addition of central medians in the roadway and
the provision of staggered pedestrian facilities assist with making the “walk-with-traffic”
strategy more usable.
The clearance time is set by calculating the time it will take a pedestrian to walk across the
crossing. The walking speed assumed for the calculation is 1.2 meter per second (m/s). The
clearance time is indicated to pedestrians by a flashing green man symbol.
Clearance time (s) = crossing length (m) / 1.2 (m/s)
Table ‎4.12 Pedestrian Signal Timings
Period Period Name Description and Length

A Green to traffic Variable
B Stopping yellow 3 seconds
C Red (vehicle clearance) 2 seconds

Typically, 6 or 7 seconds, minimum 4 seconds. May be up to
12 seconds. The period is not intended to get pedestrians all
D Invitation (to cross)
the way across; however, it must allow pedestrians to become
established on the second half of the crossing.
This is the time between the start of the flashing green man and
Overlap (Not typically the start of the flashing yellow to traffic (flashing green man
E
used) displayed together with red to traffic). 0 or 2 seconds – the latter
if encroachment by drivers is a problem.
Clearance or flashing Calculated based on pedestrian crossing distance and walking
F
green man speed (length of crossing in meters /1.2).
The timing for the solid red standing / flashing yellow period
G Overlap should normally be set at 1 second for crossings up to 10.5
meters in length and 2 seconds for longer crossings.

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4.5.9 Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

Where pedestrian desire lines do not cross a road near intersections there may be a need to
provide a mid-block crossing facility. This demand can be met either with an unsignalized mid-
block marked crossing or with a signalized mid-block crossing. Section ‎3.3 details the process
to follow and what type of crossing should be used if a crossing is required. To facilitate a
safe mid-block crossing on larger roads with high traffic flows, a signalized crossing may
provide an opportunity for pedestrians to cross at-grade. Figure 4.47 provides an example of
a signalized mid-block pedestrian crossing.
Mid-block pedestrian signals should not be used on roads with a posted speed limit of
80kph and with more than three lanes in each direction. If a mid-block crossing is considered
essential on a road with an 80kph posted speed limit, that is either a multi-lane roadway
(four lanes or more) or has a high pedestrian flow, then accompanying speed reduction
measures should be provided.
Figure ‎4.47 Signalized Mid-Block Crossing, Qatar
4.5.10 Mid-Block Signalized Crossings: Facilities to be Provided

Facilities to assist pedestrians using mid-block signalized crossings shall include:

• Dropped curb approaches to the crosswalk to assist the mobility-impaired
• Audible indicators or tactile surfaces with haptic feedback to assist the visually impaired

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The following facilities may also be provided, depending on location and need:
• Countdown timers, as appropriate, to notify pedestrians how much time remains on the
crossing signal
• Pedestrian refuges to provide additional protection where crossings are too long to
complete in a single phase
When designing mid-block signalized pedestrian crossings the following design aspects shall
be appraised:
• The distance between a crossing and priority intersections or roundabouts to avoid

vehicle queues from the crossing blocking the intersection
• The balance between pedestrian wait time and traffic flow
• The requirement for dropped curb approaches to crossings to assist the mobility-impaired
• The requirement for pedestrian refuge islands for additional protection where crossings
are too long to complete in a single signal phase
• The appropriate arrangement of road markings, the first line of pedestrian crossing
markings/studs shall be offset 6m from the traffic yield line, this offset is important
because mid-block crossings in the State of Qatar are uncommon, therefore warranting a
higher margin of safety than is typically provided for signalized crossings at intersections.
• Pedestrian demand; if pedestrian demand is assessed to be high then consideration

should be given to grade-separation to avoid excessive delays for vehicular traffic and
groups of pedestrians accumulating on the sidewalk near a crossing.
4.5.11 Mid-Block Signalized Crossings: Design Guidance

Guidance for common design details to be appraised during the mid-block signalized crossing
design process, is provided in the following sections:

• Section ‎4.5.1.1 Far-side Signal Aspects

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• Section ‎4.5.1.2 Pedestrian Push Buttons

• Section ‎4.5.1.3 Countdown Timers
Table 4.13 summarizes the geometric design requirements for mid-block signalized
Table ‎4.13 Geometric Design Requirements for Mid-Block Signalized Crossings
Design Element Design Requirement

Minimum cross walk width 3.0 m
Maximum Cross walk Width 10.0 m (can be exceeded in specific circumstances)
Yield line clearance from cross walk 6.0 m
Transverse markings to be used in accordance with the QTCM,

Cross walk markings
Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.
1.8 m absolute minimum (Refer to Table 4.1 of this Manual for

Minimum width of adjacent sidewalk
minimum widths for a range of road classifications)
Width to consider staggered crossing 12.0 m
3.0 m
The stagger in the refuge island should be orientated to ensure
Staggered refuge minimum width
pedestrians are walking towards oncoming traffic, where
practical to do so.
4.0 m
The design of the stagger should ensure the ‘see through’
Minimum stagger overlap distance
effect of signal heads is minimized, and the layout should be
easily comprehensible by pedestrians.
100 m
Minimum distance for independent
If pedestrian signals are provided within 250 m of an existing
mid-block signalized crossings from
traffic signal, a traffic model should be produced to ensure both
signalized intersection
sets of signals can operate effectively and safely.
4.5.12 Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Typical Layouts

There are three typical layouts for mid-block signalized crossings:
• Simple undivided road
• Undivided road with pedestrian refuge
• Staggered divided road
4.5.12.1 Undivided Roads, Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

For undivided roads, incorporating a pedestrian refuge is preferable if space is available. The
addition of a pedestrian refuge will increase the conspicuity of the crossing for drivers. If a
pedestrian refuge is included in the design, then pedestrian call buttons shall be provided
on the pedestrian refuge to assist pedestrians who may get stranded on the refuge island.

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4.5.12.2 Divided Roads, Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

On divided roads a staggered crossing should be provided. Staggered crossings require
pedestrians to cross a road in two stages incorporating a stop on an island or central median.
Splitting the crossing into two stages reduces the distance pedestrians require to cross at
each stage and can also reduce traffic congestion. If the central reserve/median is not wide
enough to provide a stagger, then a straight crossing shall be provided with a layout similar
to a crossing with a pedestrian refuge island.
Each side of the crossing should be treated as a separate signal crossing. Where there is a
staggered pedestrian facility the island should be at least 3m wide. The minimum distance
between crossings, the distance between the inside line of road studs on each side of
the island, should be 4m. Preferably the stagger in the median should be situated so that
pedestrians are turned to face oncoming traffic.
It is important that pedestrians do not mistakenly observe the green signal at the second
half of the staggered facility and misinterpret it as controlling both sides of the stagger,
especially where the stagger distance is short. To eliminate this likelihood, equipment
positioning requires careful appraisal, and potentially, the addition of louvers or screens
for the pedestrian green man signal aspects on the far-side of the crossing. Figure 4.48
illustrates these typical layouts.

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Figure ‎4.48 Typical Signalized Pedestrian Crossing Layouts
4.5.12.3 Traffic Signal Requirement, Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

The QTCM sets out a requirement for one primary and one secondary signal on each
approach to the crossing. To improve safety, additional secondary signals should be used
where practical. Where crossing a divided road, with two lanes in each direction, a primary
and secondary signal shall be provided on each side of each approach. On divided roads with
two lanes in each direction a secondary mast signal may be provided. Figure 4.48 indicates
the position of traffic signals in this scenario. If the divided road has three or more lanes
in each direction a secondary mast signal shall be provided, with a signal positioned above
each traffic lane, The QTCM Volume 1, Part 5, Traffic Signals, provides further details on
the design of the traffic signals including the definition and requirements for primary and
secondary traffic signals.
4.5.13 Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Cross Walk Design

Pedestrian flow determines the width of a pedestrian crossing. The minimum crosswalk width
is 3.0m and an extra 0.5 m should be added to the minimum width for each 125 pedestrians

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per hour above 600, averaged over the four peak hours, up to a maximum width of 10 m. At
locations where high flows of pedestrians are assessed, such as sports venues and outside
shopping malls, a crossing width of more than 10 m wide may be acceptable. The aim should
be to provide a queuing LOS C for the number of pedestrians expected to use the crossing,
see Section ‎3.2.4 for details of LOS.
4.5.13.1 Road Markings, at Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

The road markings associated with mid-block signalized pedestrian crossings are detailed in
the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings. The edge of the area on the road that pedestrians
can use to cross shall be marked by either road markings or road studs. The first line of
the pedestrian crossing markings, or studs, shall be set back 6 m from the traffic yield line.
The yield line consists of a single broken line, comprising 500 mm length bar markings, and
500 mm gaps; the line is 200 mm wide, and extends across the roadway for the number of
lanes on the approach. Figure 4.49 illustrates the key dimensions, and the QTCM, Volume 2,
Part 6, Road Markings, provides further details.
Source: Based on the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings
Figure ‎4.49 Pedestrian Crossing Layout Details
Zigzag markings on the approach to a mid-block signalized pedestrian crossing warn drivers
of the presence of the crossing and designate that no vehicle may park within the length
of the marking, except to permit a pedestrian to cross the roadway. The individual marking
is 2 m long, angled between two guidelines 500 mm apart with each mark separated by
150 mm. The standard pattern of zigzag markings consists of twelve 2 m length marks, and
a terminal bar. The terminal bar is 200 mm wide, and 600 mm long. If there are physical
restraints preventing all 12 marks from being laid, then the number of marks may be reduced
to a minimum of two.
The zigzag markings shall comply with marking M312 in the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road
Markings, as Figure 4.50 indicates.

19
Source: QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings
Figure ‎4.50 Zigzag Marking Details
Signalized at-grade pedestrian crossing points on major roads shall be located at least 20 m
away from an uncontrolled side-road junction (measured from the curb line of the side road),
as Figure 4.51 indicates.
Figure ‎4.51 Typical Pedestrian Crossing near Uncontrolled Side-Road
4.5.13.2 Traffic Signal Coordination, at Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

Mid-block signalized pedestrian crossings situated close to signalized intersections should
ideally be linked to one another. The minimum distance for the siting of two independently
operating signalized crossings is 100 m, and there should be sufficient storage distance

19
between the two crossings to hold the anticipated traffic queue. Figure 4.52 provides
an example layout. Volume 1, Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this Manual,
provides additional information.
Figure ‎4.52 Typical Mid-Block Crossing near an Intersection
4.5.14 Types of Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings

There are two main types of mid-block signalized pedestrian crossings:
• ‘Standard’ - referred to a Pelican Crossing in the UK

• ‘Intelligent’ - referred to as a Puffin Crossing in the UK
‘Standard’ crossings require a pedestrian demand button, as specified in Section ‎4.5.1.2, and
far-side signal aspects, as specified in Section ‎4.5.1.1.
For ‘Intelligent’ crossings, the pedestrian push button and pedestrian signal aspect are
housed in the same unit. The unit may be placed at the same location as a standard push
button, as detailed in Section ‎4.5.1.2. An example pedestrian unit is indicated in Figure 4.53.
The use of such units should be trialed for suitability in the State of Qatar before they are
implemented on a regular basis. The use of ‘intelligent’ crossings shall be agreed with the

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Source: Based on QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5 Traffic Signals & latest Ashghal Standard Details
Figure ‎4.53 ‘Intelligent’ Pedestrian Crossing Push Button Unit
‘Intelligent’ crossing points can be used to provide more flexibility on pedestrian crossing
times. In these arrangement, only nearside aspects are used for the pedestrian crossings.
The pedestrian push button is housed in the same unit as the pedestrian signals.
‘Intelligent’ crossings use on-crossing detectors to automatically vary the pedestrian crossing
time depending on the speed at which pedestrians cross the road. ‘Intelligent’ crossings
also incorporate sidewalk detectors to monitor the presence of pedestrians. The detectors
make use of microwave technology and can be susceptible to the hot and dusty conditions
in the State of Qatar. The type of equipment used shall be agreed with the Overseeing
Organization.
‘Intelligent’ crossings improve the pedestrian experience because vehicle-facing signals

remain red, for a pre-determined maximum duration, if pedestrians are still crossing. Driver
experience also should improve, because if pedestrians have finished crossing, traffic signals
will not remain on red longer than necessary. Also, if a pedestrian pushes the call button, and
then crosses before the pedestrian crossing operates, the demand is cancelled. Primarily this
type of system is used to improve traffic flow rather than enhance pedestrian safety.
Sensors mounted on top of traffic signal poles scan the pedestrian crossing area, as Figure
4.54 shows. After the green-man invitation to cross has expired, these sensors extend the

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pedestrian crossing time from a minimum, up to a pre-determined maximum. Section ‎4.5.15

provides details of the traffic signal time periods at pedestrian crossings. Extending the
pedestrian crossing time up to the maximum could increase vehicle congestion. Therefore,
implementation should be considered location by location, and maximum and minimum
pedestrian timings need to be established at crossings where this intervention is used.
Figure ‎4.54 On-Crossing Pedestrian Detectors
Following a pedestrian demand input, curbside detectors will sense whether pedestrians are
waiting to cross and will cancel the pedestrian phase if the pedestrian walks away from the
crossing or crosses the road before the traffic signals turn green for pedestrians.
Detectors are mounted on traffic signal poles overlooking pedestrian waiting areas as
Figure 4.55 shows. The pedestrian demand for the signals remains in place if pedestrians
stand within the waiting area. If the pedestrian leaves the waiting area the pedestrian
demand is cancelled.

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Figure ‎4.55 Curbside Pedestrian Detectors
4.5.15 Mid-Block Signalized Pedestrian Crossings: Traffic Signal Timings

The traffic signal cycles for standard crossings are detailed in the QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5,
Traffic Signals, and are repeated in Table 4.14 Traffic signal timings shall be agreed with the
Table ‎4.14 Signal Timings for Standard Mid-Block Signalized Crossings

A Green to traffic Variable
B Stopping yellow 3 seconds
C Red (vehicle clearance) 2 seconds

Typically, 6 or 7 seconds, minimum 4 seconds. May be up to
12 seconds. The period is not intended to get pedestrians all
D Invitation (to cross)
the way across; however, it must allow pedestrians to become
established on the second half of the crossing.
This is the time between the start of the flashing green man and
Overlap (Not typically the start of the flashing yellow to traffic (flashing green man
E
used) displayed together with red to traffic). 0 or 2 seconds – the latter
if encroachment by drivers is a problem.
Clearance or flashing Calculated based on pedestrian crossing distance and walking
F
green man speed (length of crossing in meters /1.2).

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The timing for the solid red standing / flashing yellow period
G Overlap should normally be set at 1 second for crossings up to 10.5
meters in length and 2 seconds for longer crossings.
The base traffic signal cycle for intelligent crossings is calculated in a same way as the
timings for a standard crossing. There are nine periods in the cycle as Table 4.15 shows.
The ‘invitation to cross’, is the time period during which pedestrians can start to cross the
road. Typically, it lasts 6-7 seconds, with a minimum period of 4 seconds. On a long crossing,
it can be increased to 12 seconds to allow pedestrians to become established on the second
half of the crossing. During the invitation to cross period the pedestrian aspect shows a
solid green man.
Table 4.16 shows typical crossing times for intelligent crossings.
The clearance time is set by calculating the time it will take a pedestrian to walk across the
crossing. During the clearance time, the pedestrian aspect shows a flashing green man. The
walking speed assumed for the calculation is 1.2m/s
Clearance time (s) = crossing length (m) / 1.2 (m/s)
The overlap time allows drivers to proceed if pedestrians have finished crossing the road.
During the overlap period, the pedestrian aspect shows a flashing green man and the traffic
aspect shows a flashing yellow light.
Table ‎4.15 Clearance Periods for Intelligent Mid-Block Signalized Crossings

P1 Green to traffic Variable
P2 Stopping yellow 3 seconds
Red Vehicle Typically, 2 seconds. Can be increased or decreased by 1 second

P3
Clearance depending on site and speeds and conditions.
Minimum of 5 seconds or half the crossing width divided by a walking

Invitation (to
P4 speed of 1.2 m/s, whichever is larger.
cross)
1 – 5 seconds. Used to ensure pedestrians starting to cross at the

end of the invitation period are established on the crossing (i.e., are
P5 Fixed red
detected by the on-crossing detectors). Shall not be longer than
necessary.
0 – 30 seconds, subject to a maximum for each site calculated based on

Clearance
P6 pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m/s. The time is extended as needed
(variable red)
by the on-crossing detectors each time the pedestrian phase runs.
This period may appear in some configurations and some controllers,

P7 Not used
but is incorporated into P6

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P8 Not used Same as for P7
P9 Red 1 second
Table ‎4.16 Crossing times for Intelligent Mid-Block Signalized Crossings
Distance (meters) Time (seconds)
Up to 6 5
7 6
8 7
9 8
10 9
11 10
12 10
13 11
14 12
15 13
16 14
17 15
18 15
19 16
20 17
4.5.16 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings

Unsignalized pedestrian crossings are locations where signs (see Section ‎3.3.18, signs R101
and R102 and road marking M311) indicate that drivers should stop2 and then give priority
to pedestrians who are waiting to cross the road. As there are no traffic signals to indicate
drivers must stop, safety is largely dependent upon driver and pedestrian behavior. Crossings
of this nature can be used either at mid-block locations, including slip roads, or at intersections.
Section ‎4.5.19 indicates that unsignalized pedestrian crossings at intersections are safer if
curb extensions are provided.
2 Current legislation does not require drivers to yield to pedestrians at unsignalized crossings. It is recommended that the legislation be
changed to require drivers to yield to pedestrians at unsignalized crossings.

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Unsignalized pedestrian crossings shall be located where drivers have a clear view of
the waiting areas for the pedestrians on both sidewalks. On two-way roads, unsignalized
pedestrian crossings shall only be used when there is one lane in each direction. On one-way
roads, unsignalized pedestrian crossings shall only be used where there are no more than
three lanes and shall only be used where average speeds do not exceed 30 kph.
Unsignalized pedestrian crossings are generally less expensive to install than signalized
crossings and maintenance costs will be lower. However, a signalized pedestrian crossing
would be preferable where one or more of the following conditions apply:
• Where vehicle speeds are high, and pedestrians find it difficult to judge the speeds
and stopping distances of approaching vehicles. Accordingly, unsignalized pedestrian
crossings are not recommended where the posted speed limit exceeds 50 kph, or where
the posted speed is less than 50 kph and the road layout is such that speeds in excess
of 50 kph are likely to occur.
• Where a significant proportion (>10%) of pedestrians are elderly or have disabilities
• In busy commercial areas or adjacent to bus or train stations, where there are periods of
near continuous pedestrian flows and excessive delays to traffic may therefore result.
• Where traffic is particularly heavy pedestrians may then be unwilling to step onto the
unsignalized pedestrian crossing because of the lack of positive control for vehicles.
• Where existing crossing facilities on the route are signalized pedestrian crossings, this
is especially important where pedestrian crossings are linked to optimize the flow of
traffic.
To maximize road safety, provided the posted speed limit of the road does not exceed
50 kph, unsignalized pedestrian crossings shall be placed on top of a raised hump, this is to
ensure approaching vehicle speeds are low. Section ‎4.5.18 gives details of raised pedestrian
crossings. The design of raised pedestrian crossings on road with a posted speed limit
exceeding 50 kph is not recommended and, any proposals for such, shall be discussed and
agreed with the Overseeing Organization.
Additional speed reducing features may also be used if considered appropriate and such
features could include:
• Rumble strips
• Signs
• Road markings
• Lights
• Reflectorized road studs

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Figure 4.56 shows an example of an unsignalized pedestrian crossing in West Bay, Doha.
Figure ‎4.56 Example Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing, West Bay, Doha
4.5.16.1 Facilities to be Provided for Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings

Facilities to assist pedestrians using unsignalized pedestrian crossings shall include features
such as:
• Road markings to designate the crossing area
4.5.16.2 Design Guidance for Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings

Guidance for common design details to be appraised for use at an unsignalized pedestrian
crossing are provided in the following sections:


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Table 4.17 summarizes geometric design guidance for unsignalized pedestrian crossings.
Table ‎4.17 Geometric Design Guidance for Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossings
Element Recommendation
Minimum crosswalk width 3.0 m
Maximum crosswalk width 10.0 m
Vehicle yield line clearance 6.0 m
Minimum width of adjacent 1.8 m absolute minimum (Refer to Table 4.1 for minimum widths for
sidewalk a range of road classifications)
4.5.16.3 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing Design

Pedestrian demand determines the width of a pedestrian crossing. An unsignalized
pedestrian crossing should have a minimum width of 3.0 m and a maximum of 10 m. For
each 125 pedestrians per hour above 600, averaged over the four peak an extra 0.5 m
should be added to the minimum width of 3.0 m. Crossings wider than 10 m may be required
in circumstances where there are high pedestrian flows, such as outside shopping malls,
mosques, metro stations or sports stadia. The markings for the crossing area shall comply
with the requirements of the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings, as Figure 4.57 details.
Source: Based on the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure ‎4.57 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing Markings, QTCM Marking M311
R101, yield, and R102, pedestrian crossing, signs must be provided to notify drivers of
an unsignalized pedestrian crossing. A sign must inform pedestrians of the presence of a
mid-block pedestrian crossing (refer to the QTCM, Volume 1 Part 2, General Road Signs, and
Volume 1, Part 3, Signs Relating to Specific Types of Roads and Road Users).
For mid-block pedestrian crossings, zigzag lines in the direction of travel on both approaches
must be provided, this is in order to make these crossings more conspicuous to drivers and to
define a controlled zone (no parking area) around the crossing point as Figure 4.58 indicates.

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Parking is prohibited on crossing approaches and zigzag markings make this clearer to
drivers. Parking activity close to a crossing can restrict inter-visibility between drivers and
pedestrians. For unsignalized pedestrian crossings to be effective the markings should be
enforced, and contraventions penalized.
Source: Based on the QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure ‎4.58 Unsignalized Pedestrian Crossing Layout
The individual zigzag markings are 2 m long, angled between two guidelines 500 mm apart,
with each mark separated from the next by a 150 mm length space. The standard pattern
of zigzag markings consists of twelve 2 m length marks and a terminal bar marking. The
terminal bar marking is 200 mm wide and 600 mm long. If there are physical restraints
preventing all twelve marks from being laid, then the number of marks can be reduced to
a minimum of two. The zigzag markings shall comply with marking M312 in the QTCM,
Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings, as Figure 4.59 indicates.
Source: QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure ‎4.59 Zigzag Marking Details

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A yield marking is normally sited between 1.1 and 3.0 m from the edge of the stripes on the
crossing as Figure ‎4.58 details.
The requirement to provide sign R101, yield, and sign R102, pedestrian crossing, on vehicular
approaches to unsignalized pedestrian crossings are specified in the QTCM, Volume 1 Part 2,
General Road Signs. Sign reference W406 should also be used to warn vehicle drivers of the
presence of an unsignalized pedestrian crossing facility and should be erected on the right
side of the roadway at the approaches to the crossing. An additional sign should be provided
on the left side of the roadway when a median island is provided before the pedestrian
crossing. On roadways where the surveyed 85th percentile speed is less than 45 kph, the
sign shall only be used where visibility of the crossing is impaired.
Figure 4.60 illustrates sign reference W406.
Source: QTCM, Volume 1 Part 3, Signs Relating to Specific Types of Roads and Road Users.
Figure ‎4.60 Pedestrian Crossing Warning Sign, QTCM Sign W406
4.5.16.4 Lighting
Inter-visibility between drivers and pedestrians is very important at unsignalized pedestrian
crossings and lighting of the waiting area for pedestrians is accordingly very important. The
lighting provision shall be designed to ensure that the waiting area is suitably illuminated,
and drivers can see pedestrians waiting to cross, and vice versa.
4.5.17 Pedestrian-Friendly Features

Pedestrian-friendly features can be provided to assist pedestrians to cross the road where
there are no controls on the movement of vehicles. There are three main forms of pedestrian-
friendly feature:
• Raised Pedestrian Crossings
• Pedestrian Refuge Islands
• Curb Extensions
4.5.18 Raised Pedestrian Crossings

Raised pedestrian crossings combine a traffic calming measure and a pedestrian crossing
facility. Raised crossings incorporate a raised flat area (platform) to allow pedestrians to
cross the road from top of curb to top of curb. When suitably marked and maintained, raised
crossings are highly visible to drivers, force slower traffic speeds, and thus provide a safer
pedestrian crossing environment.

19
By avoiding grade changes, raised pedestrian crossings can assist wheelchair users and
others with mobility impairments. Raised pedestrian crossings can be incorporated into both
signalized and unsignalized pedestrian crossings. Figure 4.61 shows an example of a raised
pedestrian crossing in Doha.
Figure ‎4.61 Example Raised Pedestrian Crossing, Doha
4.5.18.1 Features to be Provided

Features to assist pedestrians using raised pedestrian crossing shall include:
• Tactile paving to assist pedestrians with visual impairments
• Contrasting surfacing and or coloration for the raised tabletop (platform)
4.5.18.2 Design Guidance

Guidance for common design aspects to be appraised by raised pedestrian crossing designers
is provided in the following sections:


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4.5.18.3 Raised Pedestrian Crossing Design

Pedestrian flow determines the most appropriate width of a pedestrian crossing. A raised
pedestrian crossing should have a minimum width of 3.0 m, and a maximum of 10.0 m. For
each 125 pedestrians per hour above 600, averaged over the four peak hours an extra 0.5 m
should be added to the minimum width of 3.0m. In exceptional circumstances crossings
wider than 10 m may be required at locations with very high pedestrian demand, such as
outside shopping malls, mosques, or sports stadia.
The flat-top pedestrian crosswalk area of a raised pedestrian crossing should have a minimum
width of 3.0 m to allow for the entire wheelbase of a car to rest on the tabletop. A minimum
vehicle ramp length of 2.0 m shall be provided. Figure 4.62 shows a typical layout.
Individual raised pedestrian crossings may be used on bus routes but use of repeated raised
pedestrian crossings on bus routes is not recommended. The minimum width of raised
pedestrian crossings on bus routes should be 6.0 m.
A contrasting surface color should be used for the tabletop area in comparison to the roadway
surfacing color. This improves visibility of the crossing to approaching vehicle drivers.
Speed humps and raised tables shall be designed in accordance with the Ashghal Standard
Drawings and Details. For guidance on traffic signs and road markings relating to speed
humps and raised tables see the QTCM, Volume 2 Part 6, Road Markings.
A series of raised pedestrian crossings can provide effective traffic calming. However,
suitable spacing along the road is essential for raised crossings to perform this function
effectively. Optimally, raised pedestrian crossings should be placed at intervals of between
80 m and 120 m and this can be reduced to between 60 m and 70 m in school zones.
Geometric design recommendations for raised pedestrian crossings are summarized in Table
4.18.
Table 4
‎ .18 Geometric Design Recommendations for Raised Pedestrian Crossings
Minimum crossing width Retain as 3.0 m minimum, increased to 6m on bus routes
Maximum crossing width 10 m
Minimum length of side ramps 2.0 m
Recommended spacing 80 m to 120 m reducing to 60 m to 70 m in school zones
Max/Min Ramp Gradient 1:13 / 1:16

19
Signalized and unsignalized mid-block pedestrian crossings may incorporate a raised

pedestrian crossing tabletop to help control vehicle speeds and to allow pedestrians to cross
at sidewalk level.
Figure ‎4.62 Typical Cross-Section of Raised Pedestrian Crossing
To warn approaching drivers of the ramp on the approach to the raised pedestrian crossing,
the ramp shall be marked with road marking M601, as specified in the QTCM, Volume 2,
Part 6, Road Markings.
Figure 4.63 illustrates marking M601, Figure 4.64 illustrates how it shall be used on a raised
crossing.
Figure ‎4.63 Road Marking M601

19
Figure ‎4.64 Use of Road Marking M601

19
4.5.18.4 Lighting
Lighting near a raised pedestrian crossing shall be sufficient to ensure drivers can see the
ramp on approach and have enough time to adjust their speed accordingly.
4.5.19 Curb Extensions

Curb extensions are a pedestrian-friendly feature that improves inter-visibility between
pedestrians and vehicle drivers and reduces the crossing distance. Curb extensions may
be provided at intersections or at mid-block locations They are often used where there is
pedestrian requirement to cross a roadway adjacent to transit stops or parking bays.
Figure 4.65 shows an example of mid-block curb extensions. To be effective curb extensions
shall project sufficiently into the roadway to enable pedestrians to see and be seen by
drivers. The projection from the original curb line will typically be a minimum of 2.5 m. It
is recommended that curb extension locations incorporate sufficient illumination to ensure
that pedestrians can be seen by drivers at night.
Frequency of curb extensions can disrupt traffic flow if too many are provided within a
short distance. If they are too sparsely spaced however, uncontrolled crossing activity at
dangerous or inappropriate locations can increase. Mid-block curb extensions should be
optimally located between 60 m and 80 m apart in areas of high pedestrian activity.
Figure ‎4.65 Typical Layout of Curb Extensions
Figure 4.66 demonstrates that curb extensions may be provided at intersections

or at mid-block locations. At intersections curb extensions may be combined with
a tabletop arrangement and unsignalized pedestrian crossings as Figure 4.67 shows. A
tabletop intersection exists where the level of the road surface at the intersection is raised
and there are ramps on all approaches to reduce vehicle speeds. Providing a curb extension
with an unsignalized crossing improves the inter-visibility between pedestrians and drivers
and consequently improves the safety of the unsignalized crossing.

19
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.66 Typical Layout of Curb Extensions at Intersection
Source: Ashghal
Figure ‎4.67 Typical Layout of Curb Extensions as part of a Tabletop Intersection

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4.5.19.1 Features to be Provided

Pedestrian-friendly features to assist pedestrians using curb extension crossings shall
include features such as:
• Dropped curb approaches to the crossing to assist the mobility-impaired

Guidance for common design details to be appraised during a curb extension design process,

Table 4.19 summarizes geometric design guidance for curb extensions.
Table ‎4.19 Geometric Design Guidance for Curb Extensions
Curb extension length 2.0 m
Mid-block curb extension frequency Every 60 m – 80 m in areas of high pedestrian activity
Curb extension illumination Curb extensions should be illuminated
4.5.20 Pedestrian Refuge Islands

Pedestrian refuge islands may be installed in the middle of a road to allow pedestrians to cross
one half of the road at a time, thus allowing them to concentrate on vehicles approaching
only from one direction. This can make the crossing task easier and less intimidating
particularly for vulnerable user groups such as the elderly, mobility-impaired users, and
children. Pedestrian refuge islands may be provided as part of signalized intersections, mid-
block signalized crossings, or unsignalized pedestrian crossings. When used in isolation
pedestrian refuge islands are a pedestrian-friendly feature; assisting pedestrians to cross
the road.

19
Pedestrian refuge islands are often appropriate on wide roads where pedestrian flows are
low and vehicle flows are high Figure 4.68 shows a typical layout of a pedestrian refuge in
conjunction with curb extensions.
Pedestrian refuges can be standalone and purpose-built or be incorporated within sections

of central median.
The lane width adjacent to a pedestrian refuge should be sufficient to allow a large vehicle
to pass a cyclist safely. While widths narrower than 3.5 m are acceptable for vehicles only,
widths in the range of 3.5 m to 4.0 m, where practical, should be provided as the risks of
vehicle/cyclist conflict increases. The recommended lane width adjacent to refuge is within
the range of 4.0 m to 4.5 m.
Figure ‎4.68 Typical Layout of a Pedestrian Refuge Island
4.5.20.1 Facilities to be Provided

Facilities to assist pedestrians using refuge islands shall include features such as:
• Dropped curb approaches to crossing points to assist pedestrians with mobility

impairments
• Tactile paving at crossing points to assist pedestrians with visual impairments

Guidance for common design details to be incorporated for pedestrian refuge island design


19

Table 4.20 summarizes geometric design guidance for pedestrian refuge islands.
Table 4
‎ .20 Geometric Design Guidance for Pedestrian Refuge Islands
Design Element Recommended width

Desirable minimum
3.0 m
pedestrian refuge width
Minimum pedestrian
2.5 m
refuge width
1.5 m
Absolute minimum
Applicable only at constrained locations and where pedestrian flows are
pedestrian refuge width
very low.
3.0 m
Staggered refuge
The stagger in the refuge island should be orientated to ensure
minimum width
pedestrians are walking towards oncoming traffic, where practical to do so.
4.0 m
Minimum stagger overlap The design of the stagger should ensure the ‘see through’ effect of signal
distance heads is minimized, and the layout should be easily comprehensible by
pedestrians.
To warn drivers of the presence of a pedestrian refuge island, road marking M110 from the
QTCM, Volume 2, Part 6, Road Markings, shall be used to guide traffic past the island. M110
is illustrated in Figure 4.69. The appropriate taper length is provided in Table ‎4.21. The
recommended offset distance between the road marking and the edge of the pedestrian
island is 300 mm. The offset can be reduced when the posted speed limit is 50 kph or less
and there is limited width between the island and the curb.
Figure ‎4.69 Road Marking M110

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Table ‎4.21 Taper Lengths for Markings on Approach to Pedestrian Refuge Islands
85th percentile speed (kph) Preferred Minimum Taper Absolute Minimum Taper
Less than or equal to 50 1 in 40 1 in 20
>50 to less than or equal to 65 1 in 40 1 in 30
>65 to less than or equal to 80 1 in 45 1 in 40
>80 (See note) not applicable not applicable

Note: Pedestrian crossings on roads with 85th percentile speed greater than 80 kph shall be by grade-
separated crossings only.
4.5.21 Pedestrian Crossings at Roundabouts

Pedestrian crossings at roundabouts shall be designed in accordance with the same
requirements and reference to guidance for crossings at other locations.
A controlled crossing should be located sufficiently far from a roundabout to minimize

blocking of the roundabout on an exit leg. The crossing can use the splitter island to provide
a stagger on wider roads.
Table 4.22 summarizes the recommended crossing provisions for cyclists / pedestrians at
roundabouts where sufficient demand exists to justify them. At large roundabouts on high-
speed roads grade-separation for non-motorized users is preferable. Traffic signal-controlled
crossings on the exits of roundabouts would not usually be appropriate unless the whole
roundabout is also subject to traffic signal control.
Table ‎4.22 Provision for Non-Motorized Users at Roundabouts

Highway Posted Two-Way Recommended Recommended Combined
Type on Speed on AADT on Cyclist Provision Pedestrian Cycle&
Approach Approach Leg Provision Pedestrian
Provision
Four-lane Signalized, grade- Signalized, grade- Signalized,
>50 Any
divided separated separated grade-separated
Four-lane
≤50 >25,000 Signalized * Signalized * Signalized *
divided
Four-lane 16,000 to Signalized * or no
≤50 Signalized * Signalized *
divided 25,000 crossing
Four-lane Unsignalized or no
≤50 >16,000 Unsignalized Unsignalized
divided crossing
Two-lane
≤50 >12,000 Signalized * Signalized * Signalized *
undivided
Two-lane 8,000 to Unsignalized or no Unsignalized or
≤50 Unsignalized
undivided 12,000 crossing signalized
Two-lane
≤50 >8,000 Unsignalized Unsignalized Unsignalized
undivided
* In rural areas, signalized facilities may be omitted where pedestrian and cycle flows do not justify their
provision

19
Pedestrian crossings should be situated a minimum of 6.0 m from the traffic yield line at a
roundabout. Pedestrian refuge splitter islands should be a minimum of 2.0 m wide and be
provided at one and two-lane roundabout entry and exit arms. The island should be formed
with a raised-curb and the width should be appropriate to safely accommodate the assessed
pedestrian demand. On single-lane entries to roundabouts the pedestrian crossing should
be located approximately one vehicle length (7.5 m), away from the yield line. On two-lane
entries to roundabouts, the pedestrian crossing should be located between 7.5 m and 20 m
from the yield line. It is recommended that pedestrian crossings are not located between
20 m and 60 m from the yield line. Where signalized pedestrian crossings are provided,
careful consideration should be given to the length of the traffic queue that will result on
the exit arm and how that queue might impact safety on the roundabout.
Raised crosswalk is recommended for single lane roundabouts and optional for two lane
and mini roundabouts. Disruption to traffic exiting the circulatory area would need to be
considered.
Figure 4.70 shows a typical layout of a signalized pedestrian crossing adjacent to a

roundabout.
Figure ‎4.70 Traffic Signal-Controlled Pedestrian Crossing Adjacent to a Roundabout
4.5.22 Shared-Use (Pedestrian and Bicycle) Crossings

In general, the same principles that apply to the design of signalized pedestrian crossings
will also apply when designing shared-use signalized crossings; a crossing facility which
both cyclists and pedestrians can use.

19
It is important that signal timings are set to meet with the needs of cyclists as well as
pedestrians.
Cycle paths should be aligned to intersect roads at approximately 90 degrees.
Shared-use crossings should be a minimum of 4m wide in order to provide an appropriate

LOS. On roads narrower than 15 m a single-stage shared-use crossing will be appropriate.
On roads wider than 15 m a single-stage crossing is often appropriate, but wider single
stage crossings can have a detrimental impact on congestion if traffic flows are significant.
Solutions include the provision of a staggered layout or grade-separated facilities if the
combined pedestrian and bicycle flows warrant this. An at-grade example layout is shown in
Figure 4.71.
Where a significant cyclist demand exists, provision may be made for them to access a shared-
use crossing via a separate slip, this helps reduce potential conflict between pedestrians and
cyclists waiting to cross.
Figure ‎4.71 Shared-Use At-Grade Crossings at Signalized Intersection
For shared-use crossings the far-side pedestrian signal aspect should be revised to include
a bicycle symbol as Figure 4.72 illustrates.

19
Source: Based on QTCM, Volume 1 Part 5 Traffic Signals & latest Ashghal Standard Details
Figure ‎4.72 Far-Side Pedestrian Signal Aspect for a Shared-Use Crossing
This variation of the standard arrangement for far-side pedestrian signals at signalized
crossings consists of a red and green man indicator and a green bicycle indicator. A green
man and green bicycle must only be shown at crossings when there is no conflicting right of
way traffic movements across the crossing.
Signal posts with pedestrian aspects should be located 0.5 m in advance of the pedestrian
crossing markings.

19

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5 Bicycle Facilities
5.1 Types of Bicycle Facilities

5.1.1 On-Road Facilities
Table 5.1 summarizes the features of on-road bicycle facilities. The degree to which bicycle
facilities are integrated or separated depends on the following factors:
• Road classification and characteristics
• Traffic volumes
• Bicycle volumes; 12-hour, two-way
• Presence of parking
• Posted roadway speed
Table ‎5.1 On-Road Bicycle Facilities
Full
Motor vehicles and cyclists share the same traffic lane.
Integration
Partial The curbside lane, shared by both motor vehicles and cyclists, is widened to allow
Integration vehicles to overtake cyclists without changing lanes.
5.1.2 Off-Road Facilities

Off-road bicycle facilities provide safe access to local roads away from high-speed and
restricted roads, but they may also be warranted for such reasons as these:
• Enhancing recreational value, as for leisurely trips to parks and scenic areas
• Accommodating inexperienced cyclists, such as primary school children
• Providing facilities that can also be used by pedestrians
Table 5.2 summarizes the features of off-road bicycle facilities.
Table ‎5.2 Off-Road Bicycle Facilities
Cycle Path A separate path away from the roadway is used exclusively by cyclists.
Shared Path A separate path away from the roadway is shared by cyclists and pedestrians.
A separate cycle path is separated by a verge away from the roadway. Part of the
Segregated path is used by cyclists, the rest by pedestrians. Segregation may be achieved
Path by a white line or by a physical feature such as a verge, a fence, or a curbed level
difference.

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5.2 Design Criteria: On-Road Bicycle Facilities

5.2.1 Level of On-Road Provision
All roads, except where cyclists are prohibited, should be designed, constructed, and maintained
under the assumption they will be used by cyclists. All such roads may be considered as fully
integrated facilities. Provision of a higher level of facility may be determined as vehicle or
bicycle volumes increase. This relationship is explored in Table 5.3.
Table ‎5.3 Relationship of Road Type, Traffic Volumes, and Bicycle Facilities Required
Annual Average Bicycle

Recommended Daily Traffic Volume
Road Type Comments
Level of Facility (vehicles per (12hour
day) Two-way)
Local roads
Full integration <3,000 Any
Service roads
Care should be taken

Local roads with provision of partial
Partial Service roads separation on minor
>3,000 <50
integration Minor collector collector roads that may be
roads heavily trafficked where full
separation may be desirable.
Major collector
Off-road facilities are
roads
required. Consider
Full separation Boulevard arterials >3,000 >200
potential shared-use with
Expressways
pedestrians.
Freeways
5.2.2 Full Integration

Fully integrated facilities are ubiquitous—on local neighborhood streets, on city streets, and
on urban, suburban, and rural highways.
There are no specific designs or dimensions for shared lanes or roads, but design features
such as these can make them more compatible with cycling:
• Smooth road pavement
• Adequate sight distance
• Road geometry that encourages lower traffic speeds
• Drainage inlets and utility covers within the line of travel that are flush with the roadway,
well seated, and use of bicycle-compatible gratings and covers
5.2.3 Partial Integration

In partial integration of cyclists and motorists, a wide curbside lane is provided to give
sufficient width to allow vehicles to overtake cyclists without having to change lanes.
Figure 5.1 illustrates vehicle positions for wide curbside lanes. Partial integration is used
for specific situations only and approval will be required by the Overseeing Organization for

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their use.
Source: Road Planning and Design Manual (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013)
Figure ‎5.1 Vehicle Positions on Roadway Associated with Wide Curbside Lanes
In selecting the width for a wide curbside lane, consideration should be given to the following:
• Lane widths of 4.0 m or less make it likely that vehicles will encroach at least partly into
the next lane to pass cyclists.
• Lane widths of 4.2 m or greater allow motorists to pass cyclists without encroaching into
the adjacent lane.
• Lane widths of 4.6 m allow greater maneuverability for cyclists and are more suitable
where the proportion of heavy trucks is higher.
5.2.4 Paved Shoulders

In certain circumstances, paved shoulders may be adopted in rural areas to provide informal
facilities for cyclists. A paved shoulder has the following features:
• A solid edge line between the shoulder and the traffic lane
• A smooth riding surface, free of debris and obstructions
Paved shoulders are often found on rural roads and seek to extend the service life of the
road by reducing edge deterioration.
Paved shoulders are not dedicated travel lanes and, therefore, may be used for parking.
Ongoing use of paved shoulders in urban areas for parking would render them unsuitable
for bicycle use; therefore, paved shoulders should not be used cyclists in urban areas. Paved

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shoulders may be used for parking which includes emergency parking, where it is considered
safe on rural and urban roads. Generally paved shoulder is used for vehicles for parking,
emergency stopping and emergency maneuvers.
Table 5.4 lists suitable widths to allow bicycle travel on paved shoulders.
Table ‎5.4 Suggested Widths of Paved Shoulders
Situation Width
Uncurbed shoulder 1.2 meters
Curb, guardrail, or barrier present at edge of shoulder 1.5 meters
High cycle usage expected; considerable use by heavy trucks, buses, or recreational
> 1.5 meters
vehicles
Paved shoulders are preferable on both sides of two-way roads. In addition, a paved shoulder
is preferable to an unpaved shoulder no matter which side of the roadway is being considered.
5.3 Design Criteria—Off-Road Cycle Paths

5.3.1 Design Speed
It is not necessary to consider design speed in designing facilities for use only by pedestrians.
Design speed is a factor when designing facilities for use by cyclists because speed affects
other design parameters, such as visibility.
Design speeds for cyclists can vary according to the following users:
• Fast commuters
• Other utility cyclists
• Inexperienced utility cyclists
• Children
• Users of specialized equipment
Typical cycling speed is 15 to 20 kph. However, it is possible for cyclists to travel as slow as
5 kph or as fast as 30 kph.
A design speed of 30 kph should be adopted for most off-road cycle routes. However, where
a cyclist would expect to slow down, such as an approach to a crossing or a subway, the
design speed may be reduced to 10 kph over short distances.
Table 5.5 lists design speeds appropriate for different route types. The design speed of
routes shared with other users should be that of the fastest user.

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Table ‎5.5 Design Speeds for Off-Road Bicycle Routes
Design Speed (kph)

Acceptable Minimum Over Short Distances 10
General Off-Road Bicycle Route Provision 30
Note: kph = kilometers per hour
Installation of speed bumps or other similar surface obstructions intended to cause cyclists
to slow down in advance of intersections or other geometric constraints may not be used
without prior approval. Formal approval of speed bumps on cycle paths may be required by
5.3.2 Visibility
The following visibility requirements should be considered:
• Forward visibility for cyclists along a route, such that an appropriate stopping sight
distance and eye-to-object height are met
• Visibility at intersections or crossings, to enable NMUs to see approaching traffic, and for
other users on the main route to see NMUs about to cross
5.3.3 Sight Distances on Nonmotorized User Routes

Sight distance is the distance for a rider to perceive, react, and stop safely in adverse
conditions, such as on wet asphalt or where the road surfacing is loose. Sight distance is
measured in a straight line between any two points on the center of the route. Cyclists
generally have a greater ability to avoid momentary obstructions due to lower speed and
greater maneuverability than vehicular traffic. Sight distances for cyclists are shown in Table
5.6.
Table 5
‎ .6 Sight Distances for Off-Road Bicycle Routes
Design Speed Minimum Sight Distance

30 kilometers per hour 30 meters
10 kilometers per hour 10 meters
5.3.4 Eye and Object Heights

Designers should check that an object at the minimum sight distance is visible from a range of
eye heights. For cyclists, an eye height range of 1.0 to 2.2 m should be used to accommodate
a range of cyclists, from children and recumbent users to adults. See Figure 5.2. The object
height should be taken as a range from ground level to 2.2 m, because cyclists should be able
to observe deformations, holes, and objects that could interfere with safe progress.

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Source: “The Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cycle and Equestrian Routes,” Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges (UK Department for Transport, 2005)
Figure ‎5.2 Forward Visibility for Cyclists
5.3.5 Street Furniture and Other Obstructions

Where practical, street furniture, trees, and shrubs should be located outside the visibility
envelope. In particular, trees can obscure pedestrians from approaching cyclists. Isolated
objects with widths of less than 300 mm are unlikely to have a significant effect on visibility
and may be ignored if removal is not practicable. For unmovable obstructions wider than
300 mm, it may be necessary to provide markings to guide cyclists accordingly.
5.3.6 Visibility to and from Nonmotorized User Crossing Points

Any crossing of a trafficked road should be located such that drivers of vehicles have full
visibility of NMUs wishing to use the crossing point. Minimum sight distance, as described in
Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual, should be available for drivers
on the highway approaching an NMU crossing point.
5.3.7 Visibility Splays at Intersections on Nonmotorized User Routes

A visibility splay should be provided for NMUs approaching crossings and intersections
where they shall stop or give way. Figure 5.3 shows “x” and “y” distances. The “x” distance is
normally measured from a yield line, back along the median of the minor leg. The “y” distance
is measured along the edge of the main road or NMU route.
For pedestrians, the preferred “x” distance is 2.0 m, to allow for the needs of persons with
disabilities and people with prams or strollers.
The preferred “x” distance for cyclists is 4.0 m, which equates to approximately the length
of two bicycles. This provides a reasonable distance for cyclists to slow down and observe
the full “y” distance necessary. While every effort should be made to achieve the preferable
value of 4.0 m, in practice, the “x” distance that can be achieved for urban local roads may be
limited. In these cases, the “x” distance can be reduced to a minimum of 2.5 m.

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Figure ‎5.3 Visibility Splay for NMU Routes
Table 5.7 is a summary of “x” distances.
Table ‎5.7 Minimum “x” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings
Urban Roads Urban Local and Service Roads
Pedestrian 2.0 m 1.5 m

Cyclist 4.0 m 2.5 m
Source: “Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (UK
A summary of “y” distances is provided in Table 5.8. These distances should be measured
from an eye height of 0.9 m to 2.0 m for pedestrians and 0 m to 2.2 m for cyclists. The object
height should be taken as 0.26 m to 2.0 m.
Table ‎5.8 Preferred Minimum “y” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings
Major Route
Minor Route Road Off-Road Cycle Path
Design Speed (kph) “y” Distance (m)a “y” Distance (m)a

30 30
Pedestrian/Cyclist 50 70a 30
80 150
Notes:
a
“y” distance may be reduced where main road has been classified as an urban street. Refer to Volume 1,
m = meters

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Where it is difficult to achieve the visibilities set out in this Section, measures to reduce
speeds on the major leg, commensurate with the maximum visibility that can be practically
provided, should be considered.
5.3.8 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment of the cycle path is often determined by the alignment of the
adjacent road. However, changes in horizontal alignment should ideally be achieved using
simple circular curves, rather than straight sections with occasional sharp curves. Providing
appropriate radii in horizontal and vertical planes should allow appropriate forward visibility
for cyclists. Table 5.9 lists the minimum radii for cycle paths.
Table ‎5.9 Preferred Minimum Radii for Cycle Paths
Design Speed (kph) Minimum Radii (m)

30 25
10 4
Note: m = meters
Cycle paths should provide a curvilinear alignment to achieve a visually pleasing path for
cyclists, where possible. Minimum curve radii shall not be used to provide this curvilinear
alignment.
5.3.9 Vertical Alignment

Only gentle crest curves are likely to occur along cycle paths; therefore, achieving adequate
forward visibility in the vertical direction will rarely be difficult. However, forward visibility
along cycle paths should be checked.
For comfort, the preferred minimum crest k-value of 5.0 should be used, and an acceptable
minimum crest k-value of 1.6 should be used along off-road cycle paths. For the definition of
crest k-value, see Volume 1, Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this Manual.
5.3.10 Gradient
Care should be taken in designing off-road cycle paths so that gradients are kept to a
minimum. The type of surface is important on slopes because the ability of the bicycle tires
to grip the surface will depend upon both the frictional resistance of the surface and its
gradient.
In addition to the length of the gradient, travel speed is another important factor to consider.
Steep gradients can lead to high speeds for descending cyclists or low speeds for climbing
cyclists, both of which can create hazards for all route users. Figure 5.4 shows the maximum
lengths of gradients acceptable to cyclists.

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Stopping distances also increase significantly on gradients greater than 5 percent. Obstacles
and sharp bends at the top or bottom of steep and/or long gradients should be avoided. If
a bend is required at the bottom of a steep slope, then consideration should be given to
providing additional path width and a clear escape route or recovery area adjacent to the
outside of the curve.
The preferred maximum gradient for off-road cycle paths is 2 percent, with an absolute
maximum of 5 percent. Where new routes are constructed adjacent to the existing roadway,
or when they interact with existing structures, underpasses for example, the gradient will
often be required to reflect conditions on the adjacent road or structure. As such, where
it is not practicable to provide gradients less than 5 percent, steeper gradients may be
considered over short distances. In these circumstances, adequate sight distances should
be provided together with appropriate delineation and signs should be provided advising
cyclists to proceed with care.
At the base and top of gradients exceeding 2 percent, a level plateau at least 5 m long is
desirable in advance of give way or stop lines.

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Source: Guide to Road Design, Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths (Austroads, 2009)
Figure ‎5.4 Maximum Lengths of Gradients for Ease of Cycling
5.3.11 Cross Section

The cross section of an off-road bicycle facility will depend upon a number of factors,
including:
• Facility type
• Visibility

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• Boundary conditions
• The need for street furniture within the facility
Table 5.10 lists the minimum values for the paved width of an off-road bicycle facility.
Table ‎5.10 Minimum Paved Width of Off-Road Bicycle Facilities
Preferred Minimum Width Acceptable Minimum Width

Cycle Path 3.0 m 2.0 m
Shared Path 3.0 m 2.0 ma
5.0 m; 3.0-m cycle path; 3.5 m; 2.0-m cycle path;
Segregated Path
2.0-m pedestrian route 1.5-m pedestrian route
Notes:
a
Denotes satisfactory operation for cyclist and pedestrian flows up to a maximum of 200 cyclists and
pedestrians per hour
m = meters
At gates and where routes are signed for single file use at pinch points, the surfaced width
of a cycle path may be reduced to 1.2 m. Single file sections should be no longer than the
sight distance for the route. Where there are different design speeds on either side of a
single file section, the lower value of sight distance should be used.
Transitions from one width to another should normally be tapered at a rate no sharper
than 1:7 for design speeds greater than or equal to 30 kph. For lower design speeds, the
taper may be reduced to 1:5.
Shared-use facilities should generally be restricted to locations where flows of either cyclists
or pedestrians are low, and therefore where the potential for conflict is low.
The potential for conflict between users increases where flows of more than one group are
high. In this case, it is generally necessary to have some form of segregation along the route.
Route segregation should also be considered if persons with disabilities, people with prams
or strollers, or other vulnerable users are likely to make frequent use of the facility.
The preferred separation between pedestrians and cyclists is 1.0 m, with an acceptable
separation of 0.5 m.
5.3.12 Boundary Treatments

Boundary treatment is a defining element of street scene because, after buildings and trees,
it is the main physical item at eye level to cyclist and pedestrians.
The functions of boundary treatments fall into the following categories:
• Privacy
• Protection

19
• Ownership identification
• Appearance
With respect to pedestrian/cycle paths, the form of the boundary treatment, including brick
walls, timber fences, and railings, will be reflective of the local character of the urban and
rural areas.
The widths for pedestrian/cycle paths should be modified in particular circumstances as

follows and as shown in Figure 5.5:
For a route bounded on one side and the boundary height is up to 1.2 m, an extra 0.25 m
should be provided to allow for a buffer width between the route and the barrier.
• For a route bounded on one side and the boundary height is greater than 1.2 m, an
extra 0.5 m should be provided to allow for a buffer width between the route and the
boundary.
• For a route bounded on both sides, an extra 0.25 m or 0.5 m should be provided on each
side as appropriate.
Figure ‎5.5 Boundary Treatments for Pedestrian/Cycle Paths
5.3.13 Physical Separation

It is desirable to provide a physical separation between pedestrian/cycle paths and roadways;
see Figure 5.6. The preferred separation width is 1.5 m, with an acceptable separation
of 0.5 m. Where possible, the higher value of 1.5 m should be used on roads with posted
speeds in excess of 50 kph. If a hard strip is provided, this can be considered as part of the
separation. Hard strips provide a safer roadway width to maneuver around vehicles that are
stopped due to an emergency. Hard strips also keep roadside debris away from the running
width of an outside lane and maintain pavement integrity and stability.

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Figure ‎5.6 Separation Width between Pedestrian/Cycle Paths and the Roadway
If the separation described above cannot be provided, segregation may be achieved by use
of a post-and-single-rail fences, railings, curbs, or delineator strip. Guardrails should be used
only in short lengths because over any appreciable distance, the risk of bicycle handlebars
and pedals colliding with them is increased. Fences and guardrails can also trap users on the
“wrong” side, exposing them to vehicular traffic.
Where a pedestrian/cycle path is adjacent to hazards such as a ditch or other water feature,
or embankment slopes steeper than 1:3, a separation greater than that recommended above
should be considered to minimize the risks. Designers should also consider providing physical
barriers, such as dense shrubbery, guardrails, or fences.
The installation of a fence at the side of a path used by cyclists is desirable where:
• There is a steep slope or large vertical drop located in proximity to the path
• The path is adjacent to an arterial road and it is necessary to restrict cyclist access to
the road
• A bridge or culvert exists on a path
• A hazard exists adjacent to a particular bicycle facility
• Cyclists are likely to be “blazing a separate trail” at an intersection between paths or

around a path terminal.
Figure 5.9 and Table 5.11 through Table 5.13 provide specific recommendations for the
provision of a fence on a path in proximity to a batter slope or vertical drop. In addition to
those referred to in the figures, other circumstances may exist where it may be desirable
to erect fences even if provision is not required by the figures; for example, a curving path
alignment located near batters or a drop-off and bridges.

19
A barrier fence may be appropriate where a path is adjacent to a watercourse, lake, or other
safety concern; for example, a full barrier fence would be appropriate where a vertical fall to
water occurs within 5 m of a path.
Figure 5.7 through Figure 5.9 and Table 5.11 through Table 5.13 illustrate the circumstances
in which a partial barrier fence, as shown in Figure 5.10, or a full barrier fence, as shown in
Figure 5.11, or equivalent form of protection should be used. These barriers are intended to
prevent access to a slope or to a drop away from a path or other riding surface, where injury
might occur if a cyclist were to leave the path inadvertently.
Figure ‎5.7 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops
Table ‎5.11 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops
Lateral Clearance, X (m) Vertical Drop, Y (m)

Fence Requirement
(see Figure 5.7) (see Figure 5.7)
Fence not requireda <2 <0.25
Partial barrier fence (Figure 5.10) <5 0.25 to 2
Full barrier fence (Figure 5.11) <5 >2
Notes:
a
Slope of the surface where fall is within 1 m of path.
m = meter(s)
Figure ‎5.8 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles

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Table ‎5.12 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles
Lateral Clearance, X (m) Slope, Z (m)

Fence Requirement
(see Figure 5.8) (see Figure 5.8)
<1 >8
Fence not required
1 to 5 >3
Partial barrier fence (Figure 5.10) <5 1 to 3
Full barrier fence (Figure 5.11) <5 <1
Note: m = meters
Figure ‎5.9 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles
Table ‎5.13 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles
Lateral Clearance, X (m) Slope, Z (m)

Fence Requirement (see Figure 5.9) (see Figure 5.9)
<1 >8
Fence not required
1 to 5 >4
Partial barrier fence (Figure 5.10) <5 3 to 4
Full barrier fence (Figure 5.11) <5 <3
Notes:
Barrier fence required if obstacle within 1 m of path.
m = meter(s)

19
Figure ‎5.10 Example of a Partial Barrier Fence
Figure ‎5.11 Example of a Full Barrier Fence
The recommended height for fences is 1.4 m; the minimum height is 1.2 m, as shown in
Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11. The minimum height should be used only where the severity
of the hazard is considered low. A fence that is higher than 1.4 m may be considered where
the fence is protecting the path user from a severe hazard, such as a high vertical drop from
a structure to a body of water or rocks.
Similar or even more stringent measures may be required adjacent to roads. Where a slope
or fall is located in proximity to a road, designers should follow the requirements presented
in this Section, particularly where no curb exists at the edge of a road. However, the actual
measures required should consider all road users and the particular circumstances of the
cycle path and its proximity to the roadway.

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5.3.14 Crossfall
Crossfall is applied to cycle paths principally for the purpose of drainage. The direction of fall
should generally be toward the adjacent road.
Acceptable gradients for crossfall are shown in Table 5.14. Crossfalls greater than these
values should be avoided other than for very short distances because they can create
maneuvering difficulties for cyclists.
Table 5
‎ .14 Acceptable Cycle Path Crossfall Gradient
Recommended Crossfall for Cycle Path 1:50 (2.0%)
Maximum Permitted Crossfall 1:20 (5.0%)
Crossfall either can be to one side or cambered to both sides. However, adverse crossfall
should be avoided on bends or curves.

For subways of any length and obstacles longer than 20 m, a minimum vertical clearance
of 3.5 m should be provided. For shorter obstructions, including signs, this may be reduced
to 2.4 m. In exceptional circumstances, where 2.4 m vertical clearance cannot be achieved,
signs advising cyclists to dismount will be required.
5.3.16 Cycle Path Shading and Water Stations

Cycle paths should be shaded at appropriate locations by either adjacent vegetation or
tensile shade structures such as self-standing structures.
Water stations and rest areas should be provided along stretches of cycle path. The exact
locations should be agreed upon with the appropriate authorities.
5.4 Off-Road Cycle Path Intersections

5.4.1 Path-Path Intersections
Intersections between cycle paths and shared paths for pedestrians and cyclists are simple
arrangements, as shown in Figure 5.12. Volume 1, Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of
this Manual, provides additional details regarding path-path intersections.

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Figure ‎5.12 Intersections between Cycle Paths and Shared-Use Paths
The main principles for the design of path intersections are as follows:
• A staggered T arrangement rather than a cross intersection should be adopted to prevent

high crossing speeds.
• The intersection angle should not be less than 70 degrees to achieve acceptable
observation angles and angles of conflict.
• Pavement markings should include medians and yield lines.
• Pavement splays in the corners should have a minimum radius of 2.0 m.
• Priority should normally be given to the path that has the highest daily volume of cyclists
and pedestrians.
5.4.2 Path–Road Intersections

The principles that apply to design for pedestrian crossings, which are addressed in
Section 4.3 in this Part, also apply to the design of intersections of shared-use and cycle
paths with roads.
Midblock intersections between shared-use paths or cycle paths and roads should be as close
to perpendicular as practical, as shown in Figure 5.13. The aim is to minimize the exposure of
path users to traffic and to maximize sightlines.
A crossing skewed at 30 degrees is twice as long as a perpendicular crossing, doubling the

exposure of path users to approaching motor vehicles and increasing delays for motorists

19
who should wait for path users to cross. A minimum 60-degree crossing angle may be
acceptable to better suit user desire lines.
Source: Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities (AASHTO, 2011)
Figure ‎5.13 Crossing Angle
5.4.3 Road Intersections

The design of integrated crossings and facilities for cyclists at road intersections is described
in the following parts of the Qatar Highway Design Manual, Volume 1:
• Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections
• Part 7, Design for Roundabouts
• Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections
• Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors
5.5 Cycle Path Terminal Treatments

5.5.1 Path Terminal Treatments
A path terminal treatment may be required where a shared-use path or cycle path intersects
with a road. Terminal treatments apply to off-road cycle paths or to paths that follow a major
road and cross side streets.
Terminal treatments for off-road, shared-use, and cycle paths are generally provided for the
following:
• Restrict illegal access by drivers of motor vehicles to road reserves and parkland to
prevent damage to paths and other assets and prevent rubbish from being dumped
illegally
• Advise cyclists of a road ahead and slow cyclists before they cross the road

19
Terminal treatments should be designed and installed in such a way that they serve their
intended purpose so that cyclists can:
• Easily negotiate path entrances
• Concentrate on other traffic, pedestrians, pavements, and ramps
• Not be distracted by overly restrictive barriers
5.5.2 Separate Entry and Exit Treatment

This treatment, as shown in Figure 5.14, is the cycle path equivalent of providing a median
island at a road intersection with similar benefits with respect to warning cyclists and
channelizing traffic movements. This treatment provides sufficient warning to cyclists that
they are approaching a road and does not place an obstacle, such as a bollard, in the path of
cyclists.
To restrict unauthorized access, it is critical that the fence extend to the edge of the path. If
access is required for authorized vehicles, removable posts may be placed within the fence
line.
Figure ‎5.14 Separate Entry and Exit Terminal

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5.5.3 Bollards and U-Rails

A common method of restricting access to paths is to install a bollard in the center of the path.
This type of treatment can create a risk for cyclists; it should be used only where provision of
the preferred treatments is not practicable. See Section 4.5 in this Part for details about the
preferred treatment. Lockable, removable, or reclining bollards may be used to enable access
for authorized vehicles.
Bollards on paths must be used in conjunction with a feature on the sides of the path to
provide openings that are no more than 1.6 m wide. The bollards should also be conspicuous
to cyclists and include markings to warn cyclists. Figure 5.15 shows the layout of a bollard-
restricted terminal point, and Figure 5.16 shows a typical bollard treatment.

19
Figure ‎5.15 Bollard-Restricted Terminal Point

19
Figure ‎5.16 Example Bollard Treatment
For paths that are 4 m wide or more, consideration could be given to the installation of a
U-rail rather than a bollard. Figure 5.17 shows a typical U-rail and bollard treatment.
Figure ‎5.17 Example of U-Rail and Bollard Treatment

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Figure 5.18 shows typical details of bollards and U-rails.
Figure ‎5.18 Details of a Bollard and U-Rail
5.5.4 Staggered Fence Treatment

The staggered fence treatment to slow cyclists should be used only for good reason, such
as a history of ride-out incidents, near misses, or crashes. Ride-out incidents or near misses

19
are when no crash takes place between cyclists or cyclists and pedestrians. As Figure 5.19
shows, this treatment involves the installation of two sections of mesh fence. The treatment
shall have adequate lighting and be constructed of materials that are inherently conspicuous.
For example, all posts and mesh colors should contrast with the surrounding environment,
as viewed by the approaching cyclists. Total reliance on fitted delineation devices poses a
risk to safety if the device is vandalized or poorly maintained. Mesh fencing provides high
visibility for pedestrians and cyclists, and it is an alternative to installing barriers.
Figure ‎5.19 Staggered Fence Treatment
The staggered fence treatment is particularly suitable for slowing down cyclists to negotiate
the treatment. The key requirement is to provide sufficient distance between the two fences
so that cyclists are not forced to stop or slow to the point that they become unstable during
the maneuver. A minimum distance of 3 m is suggested.
5.5.5 Offset Path Treatment

The offset path treatment shown in Figure 5.20 is an alternative to the staggered fence
treatment. The path is offset to one side as it approaches the intersection, causing cyclists
to reduce speed to negotiate the route. The path is bounded by a suitable fence treatment
so that cyclists remain on the path.

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Figure ‎5.20 Offset Path Treatment
5.6 Bicycle Provision at Structures

5.6.1 General
The primary requirements for cycle paths and shared-use paths over bridges and through
underpasses are to provide the following:
• Adequate path width and horizontal clearances to objects such as walls, safety barriers,
curbs, fences, poles, and street furniture
• Adequate vertical clearance, particularly in underpasses
• Good sight lines into and through structures
• A surface that is smooth and not slippery under any conditions
A particular issue can arise with expansion joints that can provide a rough ride and be slippery
when wet. Designers should seek better methods and materials to address this issue.
Avoid the use of surfaces, such as polished granite, that can be highly slippery, especially in
wet conditions.
Where a bicycle facility is provided on the approach to a road bridge, it is important that a
similar facility be continued across or under the structure. Such a bicycle facility should be
possible for new structures. For existing structures, a similar bicycle facility will not always
be possible, but consideration should be given to implementing measures that will improve
the situation for cyclists. For example, motor traffic lane widths could be reduced to make
space available for cyclists, and pedestrian paths could be modified to become shared-use
paths.
The minimum dimensions for newly constructed, grade-separated bicycle facilities are the
same as for grade-separated pedestrian facilities; see Section 4.4 in this Part. However,

19
daily volumes of cyclists or pedestrians, or both, should be estimated to determine the

recommended width of the footbridge or subway to be provided.
5.6.2 Protective Railings

Requirements for the provision of protective railings at structures are described in
Clause ‎5.3.13 in this Part. Where railings are terminated, they should be flared away from
the line of the rail to produce an offset of about 0.5 m, over a length of 5 m (Figure 5.21).
The end of all rails at all terminals should be joined smoothly to form a semicircular face; this
face forms the terminal presented to oncoming cyclists.
Source: Road Planning and Design Manual (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013)
Figure ‎5.21 Bicycle Safety Railing
5.6.3 Cycle Wheeling Ramps

A bicycle wheeling ramp may be provided where there are steps to change levels, where
acceptable gradients cannot be achieved, or space is not available to incorporate a ramp. Key
dimensions for bicycle wheeling ramps are shown in Figure 5.22.
Figure ‎5.22 Bicycle Wheeling Ramp Key Dimensions

19
The following issues should be considered in the design of bicycle wheeling ramps:
• Wheeling ramps should be provided on both sides of stairways where significant bicycle
volumes exist.
• Gradient of ramps should not exceed about 25 degrees.
• Narrow channels, from 75 to 150 mm wide, or channels that are rounded at the base
should be used to improve the ease of wheeling for cyclists. A channel designed to
accommodate an average wide cycle tire, such as a mountain cycle tire, would be ideal.
• The channel should be constructed approximately 0.4 m from a fence or wall to avoid
catching pedals or handlebars.
• Handrails should be specified as close as practical to the fence or wall, when erected
adjacent to a wheeling ramp.
• Wheeling ramps should be provided with a smooth transition on to and off the ramp.
• It may be desirable to provide a curb on the ramp, as shown in Figure 5.22, to limit the
possibility of pedestrians inadvertently stepping onto the ramp section.
• It would be prudent to design the ramp to minimize the possibility that it may be cycled on.
5.7 Bicycle Parking

Bicycle parking is an essential element in a multimodal transportation system.
Bicycle parking facilities may be classified by the degree of security required, as listed in
Table 5.15. The security class is directly linked to the type of user and length of time for
which the facility is required.
Table ‎5.15 Classifications of Bicycle Parking Facilities

Security
Class Level Description Main User Type
Cycle-and-ride commuters at
1 High Fully enclosed individual lockers
railway stations
Locked compounds fitted with Regular employees who use the
Class 3 facilities work location as their regular
2 Medium
Communal access using duplicate place of work, students, and
keys or electronic swipe cards cycle-and-ride commuters
Employees, shoppers, and
Facilities to which the bicycle frame visitors where parking facilities
3 Low
and wheels can be locked are supervised by security
personnel
Source: Road Planning and Design Manual (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013).

19
5.7.1 High-Security Facilities

Bicycle lockers, which provide the highest level of security, are completely enclosed individual
containers into which helmets, and other equipment can be placed with the bicycle locked
in. Bicycle lockers are the most appropriate for all-day parking at such places as bus and rail
terminals.
5.7.2 Medium-Security Facilities

Bicycle enclosures provide a medium level of security. Although bicycles can be locked in, an
enclosure is shared with the bicycles of several owners.
5.7.3 Low-Security Facilities

Bicycle parking rails/racks are facilities to which both the bicycle frames and wheels can be
locked if desired. They offer a low level of security and are suited to both short- and medium-
term parking.
Guidance for the layout of bicycle parking rails and racks is provided in Table 5.16.
Table 5
‎ .16 Layout of Bicycle Rails and Racks
Distance to
Rack units aligned side-by-side should be placed a minimum of 0.9 m apart
Other Rails and
Rack units aligned end-to-end should be placed a minimum of 2.4 m apart.
Racks
Distance from a Racks located parallel to a curb should be a minimum of 0.6 m from the back of curb.
Racks located perpendicular to the curb should be a minimum of 0.9 m from the
Curb back of curb.
Distance from a Racks located parallel to a wall should be a minimum of 0.9 m from the wall.
Assuming access is needed from both sides, racks located perpendicular to a wall
Wall should be a minimum of 1.2 m from the wall.
Note: m = meter(s)
In all cases, the parking area beneath the rack should be a concrete or asphalt surface and
large enough to support bicycles locked to the rail/rack. The design of rails/racks should
follow the following guidelines:
• Support the bicycle at two points above its center of gravity.
• Accommodate high-security, U-shaped bicycle locks.
• Accommodate locks to secure the cycle frames and one or both wheels, preferably
without removing the front wheel of the bicycle.
• Avoid bending wheels or damaging other bicycle parts.
• Avoid having the user lift the bicycle off the ground.
Avoid bicycle stand types referred to as “disk-rack” or “comb” style. These types of bicycle
stands provide little security and are generally unsuitable for public use because they either
support the front wheel only or allow only one wheel to be locked with a device

19

19
References
AASHTO. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, 4th edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2011.
Ashghal. Local Roads & Drainage Program Design Management Manual. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013a.
Austroads. Guide to Road Design, Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths. Sydney, Australia. 2009.
Austroads. Cycling Aspects of Austroads Guides. Sydney, Australia. 2011.
Department for Transport. “Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.” Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 2, Part 6. UK Highways Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/
ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section2/td4295.pdf. January 1995.
Department for Transport. “The Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cycle and Equestrian Routes.” Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 3, Part 5. TA 90/05. UK Highways Agency: London,
England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section3/ta9005.pdf. 2005.
Department of Transport and Main Roads. Road Planning and Design Manual, 2nd edition. Volumes 1 to 6.
Queensland, Australia. http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/business-industry/Technical-standards-publications/
Road-planning-and-design-manual-2nd-edition.aspx. 2013.
Dubai Municipality. Pedestrian and Cyclist Design Manual. Prepared by CHRI for Dubai Municipality.
Government of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. 2003.
Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME). “Pedestrian Facility Guidelines.” Transport Master Plan
Qatar. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2008.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). “Transportation Master Plan for Qatar—A Guide to
Planning Roads in Qatar.” State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2008.
Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. State of Qatar: Doha,
Qatar. 2015.
Ministry of Transport and Communication. Highway Design Standards. Prepared by Dar Al-Handasah (Shair
and Partners) for Sultanate of Oman. 2010.
Qatar Rail. ” Qatar Rail Website.” http://www.qr.com.qa/English/pages/default.aspx. Qatar Railways

Company: Doha, Qatar. Accessed June 5, 2014.

19
Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP). Guidelines for the Location and Design of Bus Stops. TCRP
Report 19. Transportation Research Board, National Academy Press: Washington, DC, United States. 1996.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington, DC, United
States. 2010.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) A Guide for Reducing
Collisions Involving Pedestrians. Volume 10. 2004.
American Association of State Highway

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Manual

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL Contents

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | MANUAL CONTENTS

Annual average daily traffic (AADT)

Approach half-width (v)

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 1

2 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 3

Bus rapid transit (BRT)

4 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Capillary break layer

Carrier filter drain

Catchment area (A)

Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessments System (CEEQUAL)

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 5

Cone penetration test (CPT)

Continuing professional development (CPD)

6 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Controller (traffic signal controller [TSC])

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 7

Decision tracking form (DTF)

Departure from Standards

8 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Design hour volume

Design team leader

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 9

2. The manner in which the waters of an area are removed.

10 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Emergency flood area

Equivalent axle load (EAL)

Equivalent single- or standard-axle load (ESAL)

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 11

12 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Full barrier fence

Geophysical survey company

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 13

Geotechnical risk register

Geographic information system (GIS)

Ground investigation company

Ground investigation factual report

14 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Health and safety

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 15

2. The flow of a fluid into a substance through pores or small openings.

16 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

2. The lane on an undivided roadway adjacent to the centerline of the roadway.

Intelligent transportation system (ITS)

2. The exchange of cars between railroads at specified junction points.

Interim road safety audit

Interim road safety audit file

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 17

Interstate Highway System

International Roughness Index (IRI)

Junction approach sight distance

18 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Level of service (LOS)

Light rail transit (LRT)

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL | GLOSSARY 19

Local road or street

Mid-block pedestrian crossing

20 GLOSSARY | QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANNUAL

Nonmotorized users (vulnerable road user)

Occupant impact velocity