HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING

==================================================================

CHAPTER THREE

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

3.1) INTRODUCTION
The safety, efficiency, and economic operation of a highway is governed
largely by the care with which the above geometric design elements such as
horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distance, etc… are worked out. The
design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting design
standards
 Volume and composition of traffic in the design year should be the basis of
design
 Faulty geometries are costly to rectify at a later date
 The design should be consistent and the standards used for the different
elements should be compatible with one another
 The design should embrace all aspects of design including signs, markings,
lighting, etc.
 The road should be considered as an element of the total environment and
its location and design should enhance rather than degrade the
environment
 The design should minimize the total transportation cost
 Safety should be built in the design
 The design should be enabled all road users to use the facility

3.2 ROAD CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or
curbs, drainage features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are shown
in fig. 3-1 below.

================================================================================================= 1
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Figure 3-1 Road Cross Section Elements

Major elements are defined here for clarity:
Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic,
including traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration
lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes
and viewing areas.
Earthwork profiles- include side slopes and back slopes.

For urban cross sections, cross section elements may include facilities like
pedestrians, cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs,
footpaths, and islands. For dual carriageways, cross sections will also
include medians.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and
characteristics of the terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular
route because these controlling factors vary. The basic requirements are,
however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform within
each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross-section
shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or
isolated changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and
reduced traffic capacity and complicate construction operations.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in
cross-section standards, for example when an existing narrow structure has to
be retained because it is not economically feasible to replace it. In such cases a
proper application of traffic signs and road markings is required to warn
motorists of the discontinuity in the road.

================================================================================================= 2
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

ROAD WIDTH
Road width should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of construction and
maintenance, whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading efficiently and
safely.
The following factors need to be taken into account when selecting the width of
a road:
i. Classification of the road: A road is normally classified according to its
function in the road network. The higher the class of road, the higher the level
of service expected and the wider the road will need to be.
ii. Traffic: Heavy traffic volumes on a road mean that passing of oncoming
vehicles and overtaking of slower vehicles are more frequent and therefore the
paths of the vehicles will be further from the center line of the road and the
traffic lanes should be wider.
iii. Vehicle dimension: Normal steering deviations and tracking errors,
particularly of heavy vehicles, reduce clearances between passing vehicles.
Higher truck percentages require wider traffic lanes.
iv. Vehicle speed: As speed increase, drivers have less control of the lateral
position of vehicles, reducing clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are needed.

LANE WIDTHS
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width
of the carriageway. The wider 3.65m lane provides desired clearances between
large commercial vehicles on two-way rural highways.
Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads.
Tip: The carriageway width should be increased on low radius curves to allow
the swept paths of longer vehicles and the necessary tolerances flow a curve
path. Widening may occur in high fill embankments of tangent portion.
Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement.
SHOULDERS
A shoulder is that surfaced clear portion of the roadway cross section
immediately adjacent to the carriageway edge. They vary from no shoulder on
minor rural roads where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or greater
shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and design classification.
Wider configurations cater to the need for parking lane in urban/peri-urban
areas where paved carriageway exists.
Shoulders serve a number of purposes- for example
Refuge for vehicles forced to make emergency stops
A recovery space for vehicles that inadvertently leave the carriageway or
deliberately do so during emergency evasive maneuvers
Temporary extra traffic lanes during road maintenances or carriageway
reconstruction
Assistance in achieving desired horizontal sight distances
Structural support to road pavement (usually by extending all or part of the
road base through the shoulder width)

================================================================================================= 3
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a
single bituminous surface treatment. The followings are advantages of sealed
shoulder, it would:
Prevent edge ravelling and maintenance problems associated with parking
on a gravel shoulder,
Provide paved space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow,
Provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs,
Provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages, traffic
that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use the roadway.

Tip: All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway safety.
The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban
areas where a provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of
urbanization determines whether a parking lane is required.
In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and
where the shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive
volume of earthwork – e.g. at escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced
through the Departure from Standard process.
Median
A road on which traffic in one direction of travel is separated from that in the
opposite direction is called a divided highway and dividing a strip in the middle
of the road way is known as median strip.
Positive segregation of traffic between opposing streams is essential for efficient
and safe movement of vehicles in the two directions. Median strips are required
on very busy roads, which have four or more lanes, especially in crowded cities.
Median strips from 3 to 9m wide are recommended. If these strips are narrow,
separation is provided by raised curbs and where greater space not available.
Central reservation or median strip on dual carriage ways has a number of
uses, including
Separating high-speed opposing traffic, thereby lessening the chances
of head-on collision
 Providing opportunities for erring vehicles to recover when they
inadvertently leave carriageway
 Providing a safe waiting place for pedestrians crossing a high speed
dual carriageway
 Providing space for road furniture such as road signs and street
lighting
Wide median strips are to be preferred for the following reasons:
 Chance of accidents resulting in head collusion are reduced,
 Head light glare at night from opposite direction is less troublesome, 
 At intersections these provides a refuge for the cross traffic.
NORMAL CROSS FALL
Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate
surface drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The
ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On
unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of cross fall should be related to
the need to carry surface water away from the pavement structure effectively,

================================================================================================= 4
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

with a maximum value above which erosion of material starts to become a

problem.
According to ERA manual, the normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on paved
roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads. Shoulders having the same surface as
the roadway should have the same normal cross fall. Unpaved shoulders on a
paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the cross fall of the roadway.
The precise choice of normal cross fall on unpaved roads will vary with
construction type and material rather than any geometric design requirement.
SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Three
regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects: the
top of the slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of the slope
(intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope, forming a
ditch). Figure 3-2 illustrates these three regions.
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce
the hazard potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also
beneficial
(1) HINGE POINT

CARRIAGEWAY (2) SIDESLOPE

(5) BACKSLOPE

(4) DITCH BOTTOM

SHOULDER

(3) TOE OF SLOPE

Figure3-2: Designation of Roadside Regions

Source: AASHTO

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as

recoverable, non-recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all
embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable
slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return to the
roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not extend
above the embankment within the clear zone distance.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which
most motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily.
Typically, vehicles on such slopes typically can be expected to reach the
bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this category.
Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of these
slopes, the clear zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear run out
area at the base is desirable.

================================================================================================= 5
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper

than 1:3 generally fall into this category.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety
considerations, height of cut or fill, and economic considerations. Table 3-1
indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according
to the height of fill and cut, and the material.

Table 3-1: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal [ERA]

Material Height of Side Slope Back Zone

Slope Cut Fill Slope Description
0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Earth or Soil 1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-
recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock 0.0 - 2.0m 1:2 5:4 - Critical
Over 2.0m 1:4 1:1 -

However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns

applicable standards in rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost.
Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope stability
problems should be addressed as a final design issue.
ROADSIDE DITCHES
When a highway is located in cut, runoff may be collected in shallow ditches
till discharged by cross drainage (culverts or bridges). Ditches are typically
have a trapezoidal, triangular, or rounded shapes. But usually ditches are
constructed in a shallow V- shaped section, since this section:
 Is easily maintained by graders
 Is less hazardous to vehicles, and
 Permitted the shallow flow necessary to avoid erosion.
However, in urban areas trapezoidal sections are used. The cross section
should be deep enough to convey the design storm flow to a discharge point.
For larger water flows than the capacity of a shallow ditch, paved gutters or
drain pipes with larger capacities will have to be used.

According to ERA, however, a summary of minimum ditch dimensions is

given as follows. Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous
and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a “v-ditch”
configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be
no less than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given
in Table 3.1.

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as
black cotton soils. Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a

================================================================================================= 6
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the embankment, dependent on

functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Figure 3.3. The
ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.

Figure 3-3: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils [ERA]

CLEAR ZONE

Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result
of an encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the
roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable slopes will minimize
overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside
furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas are options in the
development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard
cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason,
consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it is readily
visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside
recovery area that is as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The
cleared width should be a minimum of 15 meters each side from the edge of
the roadway for the higher road standards.
It should extend beyond the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between
roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of
1.0m from the edge of the carriageway.

RIGHT-OF-WAY

Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road

width and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads.
The width of right-of-way depends on the cross section elements of the
highway, topography and other physical controls together with economic
considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to
accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border

================================================================================================= 7
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both

rural and developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.

Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left
and to the right of the carriageway. It should always be determined and
shown on the final design plans of road projects.

Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are 50m, 30m,
and 20m for DS1-DS5, DS6 & DS7, and DS8-DS10 respectively. In
mountainous or escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth
that the right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side to the
other top of cut.
Tip: Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found
necessary for economic, financial or environmental reasons in order to
preserve valuable land, resources or existing development or when
provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that
the right-of-way should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from
the edges of the road works. However, where this occurs, it is advisable
to restrict building activity along the road to prevent overcrowding, to
preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight
distances at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building
line to building line should be a minimum of 15m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve
width above the given values.

3.3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

Highway geometric design involves the design of geometric elements of a
highway and fixation of standards with respect to various components.
It is dictated within economic limitations to satisfy the requirements of
traffic in designing elements such as
 Sight distances
 Cross-section
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Lateral and vertical clearances
 Intersection,
 Etc.

I. SIGHT DISTANCE
To promote adequate safety and also to have the maximum capacity on
roads, it is necessary that the road be open to view from all points from a
distance known as sight distance, sufficient for a driver to see ahead and
control the speed or adjust the path of the vehicle in order to avoid any

================================================================================================= 8
.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

stationary obstruction or to stop the vehicle well in time, or to cross a

moving vehicle safely without collision.
Sight distances are of three
 Stopping sight distance
 Passing sight distance
 Intersection sight distance
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
It is the total distance traveled by a given vehicle before stopping during two
time interval.
1st –the time required for the driver to perceive (dp) and the time required for
the driver to react (dr)
2nd – the time elapsed between reaction of the driver against the situation
and stopping of the vehicle (db)

dp+dr=0.278Vt, and

db= v2/254(f ±g)

Therefore the minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the

following formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time
and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:

V2
d  (0.278)(t )(V ) 
254 f  g 

d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
g=the grade in decimal

Actual field tests have indicated that as speed increases the perception
reaction time decreases and vice versa.
Example:-calculate the SSD for a road designed at 50km/hr. assume co-
efficient of friction between the tyre and the road is 0.4and perception
reaction time (PRT) =3 sec.
a) When the road is leveled
b) When the road has 6% slopes.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE: SINGLE LANE ROADS
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In
these circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both
approaching drivers to stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight
distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-meter safety distance.

================================================================================================= 9
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way two lane
roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass
another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle traveling at the design speed.

Within the sight area, the terrain should be the same level or a level lower
than the roadway. Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to
remove obstructions and widen cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain
the required sight distance. Care must be exercised in specifying
passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be
obscured in the future due to vegetative growth.

The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four

components, as follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and
reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver,
=it varies from 30-90
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately
equal to d2 less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the
left lane, estimated at:

d4 = 2d2/3
Therefore, the minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is
therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

================================================================================================= 10
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Figure 3-4: Passing Sight Distance

Example:-calculate the passing sight distance requirement of a road

designed at 50km/hr, assuming rate of acceleration a= 4km/hr/sec,
t1=3sec, t2=7sec.and m = 15km/hr.

Criteria for measuring sight distance.

According to AASHTO 1994
Sight distance height of eye height of object
SSD 1.07m (pc) 0.15m
(2.4m) (large truck)
PSD 1.07m 1.3m
(2.4m)

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to

meet the minimum requirements. The following values should be used for
the determination of sight lines (see Figures 3-5 and 3-6):

Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

================================================================================================= 11
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Figure 3-5: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

Figure 3-6: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest

On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings,
trees or other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to
obtain the required sight distance (see Figure 3-7).

Figure 3-7: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

================================================================================================= 12
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Relevant formulae are as follows:

Sight Line (S) = 2R sin  where  = Deflection angle (o)

2
Middle ordinate (M) = R (1-cos  )
2
Example: Radius = 1000 meters,  = 20o;
S = 2R sin  M = R (1 – cos )
2 2
= 2(1000) (sin 100) = 1000(1- cos 10o)
= 347 meters = 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel

II. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

A horizontal alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents and
circular curves, with or without transition curves. This alignment should
always be designed to the highest standard consistence with the topography
and be chosen carefully:
 to provide good drainage,
 to minimize earthwork, and
 to achieve a uniform operating speed.

Since the horizontal alignment is developed to accommodate a given design

speed, typically the alignment dimensions and distance are tabulated in a
manner that facilitates construction staking as conducted by a field
surveying crew.
Tip: Elements must be considered in horizontal alignment are:
 Minimum curve radius (max. degree of curve);
 Minimum length of tangent between compounds or reveres
curves;
 Transition curve parameters; and
 Minimum passing sight distance and stopping sight distance
on horizontal curves.

TANGENT SECTIONS
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in
flat country but are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety
standpoint, they provide better visibility and more passing opportunities.
However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and
usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas, long tangents have

================================================================================================= 13
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

been shown to increase driver fatigue and hence cause accidents. This issue
needs to be addressed in the course of the horizontal design. According to
ERA, the maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0
kilometers.
On the other hand, short straights between curves in the same direction
should not be used because of the broken back effect. In such a cases where
reasonable tangent length is not attainable, the use of long, transition, or
compound curves should be considered.
Tip:
The unavoidable broken back effect may be improved by the
introduction of a sag curve.
The followings are guidelines concerning length of straights:

1. Straights  20V meter, V=design speed in KPH(kilometer per hour)

2. Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction > 6V meter, V=in
KPH
3. Straights between the end and the beginning of untransitioned reverse circular
curves should have > 2/3 of the minimum of total super elevation run-off.
CURVES
Curves are provided on the highway in order that the change of direction at
the intersection of straight alignments in horizontal plane shall be gradual.
The necessity of providing curves arises due to the following reasons:
1. Topography of the country
2. To provide access to a particular locality.
3. Restriction imposed by some unavailable reasons of land, etc
4. Preservation of existing amenities
5. Avoiding of certain religious, monumental, or some other structures.
6. Making use of existing sight of ways.
The following factors will influence the design of curves:
 Design speed of the vehicles,
 Allowable friction,
 Maximum permissible super-elevation, and
 Permissible centrifugal ratio.
Curves are of two types, those are, horizontal and vertical. The horizontal
curves allow change in direction of the road while the vertical curves allow
change in gradient.
The horizontal curves used in the design of highways are:
i. Circular curves: are of three type a) simple b) compound, and c)
reverse circular curves
ii. Transition curves: can be divided into four group
a. True spiral or clothoid,
b. Cubic spiral,
c. Cubic parabola, and
d. Lemniscates

================================================================================================= 14
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

CIRCULAR CURVES

a) Simple Circular Curves

A simple circular curve consists of a single arc connecting two straights. The
following figure illustrates how two tangents are joined by simple circular
curve and show some related circular curve terminologies.

Fig. 4-14: Simple circular curve elements [terminology].

Variables

PC, TC, BC = Point of Curvature,[Tangent to Curves], Beginning of Curve

PT, CT, EC = Point Of Tangent, [Curvet to Tangent End Of Curves]
PI = Point of tangent Intersections
 =Deflection [central] angle
L =length of curve [BC to EC]
T = subs tangent length [BC to PI & PI to EC]
R = Radius of curve
E = External distance [from PI to the mid of circular curve]
M = Middle ordinate [distance from the middle of curve to the middle of
Chord]
C =Chord length [straight distance from BC to EC]

Circular Curve Equations

1. Degree of Curvature, D
The sharpness of the curve is determined by the choice of the radius [R];
larger radius curves are relatively flat, where as small radius curves are
relative sharp.

================================================================================================= 15
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Many highway agencies use the concept of degree of curve (D) to define the
curve. Degree of curve D is defined to be that the central angle subtained by
100 ft (m) of arc (i.e. arc definition). In railway design, D is defined to be
the central angle subtended by 100ft (m) of chord (i.e. chord definition).

L 100

R
50
D 50
R
 0.5D 0.5D

Fig.4-15; Relationship between the degree of curve (D) and the circle for
100 ft (m) arc stations.

From figure,
D0 3600 5729.58
Arc definition; = =>D =
100 2R R
Thus, L=100 
D
Chord definition: sin [D/2] = 50/R
 R = 50 Cosec [D/2]

Tip:
20
 In condition when one station is 20m, shall multiply the above
100
relation.
 Sub arc angle, di = angle subtended by an arc less than 100ft (m) xi.
di/xi = D/100
di = D* xi /100

 di = D* xi /100 R
di xi < 100

================================================================================================= 16
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

 Sub chord angle, Ci = angle subtended by a chords less than 100ft (m)
yi
 
Sin Ci 
2 2R
yi

C
 yi  2 R sin( i )
2 R
For, R = 50Csc( ) 
2 Ci 2

2
 
yi  10Csc  sin i 
C
 2
Ci 2

yi < 100
2) Radius of curve, R
5729.58
i. By Arc definition R=
D
ii. By chord definition, R =50Csc[D/2]

3) Tangent distance, T =R tan ( )
2

4) External distance, E  R Sec   1
2

2R R 
5) Length of curve, L=   100
360 180 D
6) Middle ordinate, M  R 1  cos 
2
7) Chord from BC to EC, C = 2R sin 
2
8) Point of curvature (PC) station, PC = PI –T
9) Point of tangent (PT) station, PT =PC + L

Remarks

The use of degree curvature and chord length in the design of circular
curves primarily stems from the methods used in surveying to locate and
stake out the highway curves for construction. Typically, a surveyor would
place his instrument at a point on the tangent where the curve begins and
then incrementally turn angles equivalent to D and measure calculate chord
distance until the entire length of the curve was locate.

The length of the radius is not as useful in field stake-out activities because
the center of the curve is typically to locate a considerable distance from the
construction area.

Most curve problems are calculated from fields measurement (  and the
chainage of PI) and from design parameters (R). Given R (which is dependent
on the design speed) and  , all others curve components can be computed.

================================================================================================= 17
.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

Setting Our Curves

This is the process of establishing the centerline of the curve on the ground
by means of pegs at 10m to 30m intervals. In order to do this the tangent
and intersection points must first be fixed in the ground, in their correct
positions.

I2 2

0+000
T3 T4
Origion

T2

T1

I1 1

F ig. 4-16: Setting out of curves.

The straight OI1, I1I2, I2I3 etc, will have been designed on the plan in the first
instance. Appropriate curves will now be designed to connect the straight.
The tangent point of these curves will then be fixed, making sure that the
tangent lengths are equal, i.e. T1I1 = T2I1 and T3 I2 = T4I2.

The difference of the bearing of the straights Provides the deflection angle
(  ) of the curves, which combined with the tangent length, enables chain
age and all setting out date.

The tangent and intersection points are set out from existing control survey
stations and the curves ranged between them using any one of the following
method:

1. Setting out with theodolite and tape

2. Setting out with two theodolites
3. Setting out using EDM
4. Setting out using coordinates
5. Setting out with two tapes [method of offsets]
6. Setting out by offsets with sub–chords
7. Setting out with inaccessible interaction point
8. Setting out with theodolite at on intermediate point on the curve
9. Setting out with an obstruction on the curve
10. Passing a curve via a given point
Sight Distance Requirements At Horizontal Curves
Adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the design of
horizontal curves. These restrictions on horizontal curves occur when

================================================================================================= 18
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

obstructions such as vegetations, building, or cut face are present. Such

obstructions are frequently encountered in highway design due to the cost
of the right-of-way acquisition and/or the cost of moving earthen materials
[ex. Rock outcropping].
When such an obstruction exists, the SSD is measured along the horizontal
curve from the center of the traveled lane [the assumed location of the
driver’s eyes]. If the pavement has two or more lanes, sight distance is
measured along the arc at the centerline of the inner lane. For a specified
stopping distance M [middle ordinate], must be visually cleared, so that the
sight is such that sufficient stopping sight distance is available i.e. the
required radius of curve is dependent on the distance of obstruction from
the centerline and the required safe SSD.
In deriving the equations for SSD relationships for horizontal curves two
cases can be considered:
1. Sight distance S is less than the length of the curve L.
2. Sight distance S is greater than the length of the curve L.
1. Sight distance S is less than the length of the curve L.

When S<L

I 

S
M
BC Line of Sight EC

Forward Tangent
Back Tangent
R
R
 /2


Fig.; Simple curve when S<L

Middle ordinate [set back distance],

M= R[1-Cos]
100 S L S
Where,  or 
D 2  2
D S
  S ,   
200 2L
Tip; When S=L,    / 2,  M  R[1  Cos / 2]

2. Sight distance S is greater than the length of the curve L.

================================================================================================= 19
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

When S>L

I 
S

y
BC M EC
Z
Line of Sight
Forward Tangent
x R
Back Tangent
R-M R
 /2


Fig ; Simple curve when S>L

L[2S  L]
M 
8R
Super-elevation, e
• Is the raising of the outer edge of the road along a curve in-order to
counteract the effect of radial centrifugal force in combination with
the friction between the surface and tyres developed in the lateral
direction
• Maximum value is controlled by:
– Climatic conditions: frequency & amount of snow/icing
– Terrain condition: flat vs. mountainous
– Area type: rural vs. urban
– Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
• 0.1m/m is a logical maximum super-elevation
• Minimum super-elevation rate is determined by drainage
requirements
• UK emax: 0.07 (rural) & 0.05 (urban)

================================================================================================= 20
.
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
==================================================================

V2
Rmin 
 
127 e  f s 
 
where
R _ minimum radius (ft)
u _ design speed (mi/h)
e _ superelevation (ft /ft)
fs _ coefficient of side friction

================================================================================================= 21
.