2.

3 Highway Route Surveys and Location

To determine the geometric features of road design, the following surveys must be conducted
after the necessity of the road is decided.

A variety of survey and investigations have to be carried out by Road engineers and
multidiscipline persons.

A. Transport Planning Surveys

 Traffic Surveys
 Highway inventories
 Pavement Deterioration Study
 Accident study

B. Alignment and Route location surveys

 Desk study
 Reconnaissance
 Preliminary Survey
 Final location survey

C. Drainage Studies

 Surface run- off : Hydrologic and hydraulic

 Subsurface drainage: Ground water & Seepage
 Cross–drainage: Location and waterway area required for the cross-drainage structures.

D. Soil Survey

 Desk study
 Site Reconnaissance

E. Pavement Design investigation Soil property and strength, Material Survey

INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN

4.1. Overview

Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross sections,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various design details. These basic
elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways, railways, and airport runways and
taxiways. Although the details of design standards vary with the mode and the class of facility,
most of the issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes. In all cases, the goals
of geometric design are to maximize the comfort, safety, and economy of facilities, while
minimizing their environ-mental impacts.

The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway. The features normally considered are the cross section elements, sight distance
consideration, horizontal curvature, gradients, and intersection. The design of these features is to
a great extend influenced by driver behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics, traffic
characteristics such as speed and volume. Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of
accidents and their severity. Therefore, the objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost.

The planning cannot be done stage wise like that of a pavement, but has to be done well in
advance. The main components that will be discussed are:

1. Factors affecting the geometric design,

2. Highway alignment, road classification,

3. Pavement surface characteristics,

4. Cross-section elements including cross slope, various widths of roads and features in the road
margins.

5. Sight distance elements including cross slope, various widths and features in the road margins.

6. Horizontal alignment which includes features like super elevation, transition curve, extra
widening and set back distance.
7. Vertical alignment and its components like gradient, sight distance and design of length of
curves.

8. Intersection features like layout, capacity, etc.

4.2 Factors affecting geometric design

 Design speed: Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric
design. It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical
curves. Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is adopted
for all the geometric design.
 Topography: It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain.
However, for a given design speed, the construction cost increases multi form with the
gradient and the terrain.
 Traffic factors: It is of crucial importance in highway design, is the traffic data both
current and future estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of services (LOS) for
which the highway is being planned and directly affects the geometric features such as
width, alignment, grades etc., without traffic data it is very difficult to design any
highway
 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity: The general unit for measuring traffic on highway
is the Annual Average Daily Traffic volume, abbreviated as AADT. The traffic flow (or)
volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off peak hours to the highest
value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for
the peak traffic flow.
 Environmental and other factors: - The environmental factors like air pollution, noise
pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and other global conditions should be given due
considerations in the geometric design of roads.

4.3 Road classification

The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and accessibility is
the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road increases, the speed reduces. (See Fig.
4.1). Accordingly, the roads can classified as follows in the order of increased accessibility and
reduced speeds.
 Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four
lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as
they enter urban areas. Access is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type
of interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another
freeway etc.)
 Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds(120
km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with
grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and
pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
 Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are of two
types - rural highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing through
rural areas (villages) and urban highways are those passing through large cities and
towns, i.e. urban areas.
 Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually
on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially
controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and
regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian
crossings.
 Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to
residence, business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large volume of
traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.
 Collectors streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and
from local streets and also for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is
provided on these streets. There are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.
 Fig.4.1. Speed vs accessibility

Roads can be classified based on some other criteria. They are given in detail below.

Based on usage

This classified is based on whether the roads can be used during di erent seasons of the year.

 All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers, except at major
river crossings where interruption of tra c is permissible up to a certain extent are called
all weather roads.
 Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather are called fair
weather roads.

Based on carriage way

This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.

 Paved roads with hard surface : If they are provided with a hard pavement course such
roads are called paved roads.(eg: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), Bituminous
macadam (BM), concrete roads)
  Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of atleast a WBM layer
they is called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this category.

Based on pavement surface

Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and unsurfaced
roads.

 Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called surfaced roads.
 Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or
cement concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.

Other criteria

Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load transported through
that road, or location and function of that road.

 Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy, medium and
light tra c roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class may be
expressed as vehicles per day.
 Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be classified as class
I, class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be expressed as tonnes per day.
 Location and function: The classification based on location and function should be a
more acceptable classification since they may be defined clearly.
4.3 Highway alignment
Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment.
The highway alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are described in
detail in the following sections.
4.3.1 Alignment
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment includes
level and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is xed and constructed,
it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly
structures by the roadside.
4.3.2 Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are:
 The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
 The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
 It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at
slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
 The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
4.3.3. Factors controlling alignment
We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all these
requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
 Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These
points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass and points
through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:
 Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent
path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach to
the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible. Thus to
locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.
 Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to
either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends
on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
 Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate
town or village nearby.

These were some of the obligatory points through which the alignment should pass. Coming to
the second category that is the points through which the alignment should not pass are:
  Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any
purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
 Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated not to pass
through that point.
 Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.
 Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-
destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should
be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
 Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight
distance etc. also governs the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve
minimum, it may be required to change the alignment of the highway. The alignments
should be finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum
requirements of sight distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and the
terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.

Cross sectional elements

5.1 Overview

The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross sections for highways, run-ways, and
taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on the type of facility Highway cross sections
consist of traveled way, shoulders (or parking lanes), and drainage channels. Shoulders are
intended primarily as a safety feature. They provide for accommodation of stopped vehicles,
emergency use, and lateral support of the pavement. Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.
Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed swales) or of paved shoulders with
berms or curbs and gut-ters. Cross section of various roads are given bellow.
Fig.5.1. Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

Fig.5.2.Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

Pavement surface characteristics

For a safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the
friction between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light
friction characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.

Friction

Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also a ect the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.
Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to friction

Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road. Various factors that affect friction are:

The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting
multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f . The choice of the value
of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coe cient of
longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of later friction as 0.15.
The former is useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.

Unevenness

It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such one. Even if
a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to
pavement failures. Unevenness affect the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety,
fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres.

Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical

undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road. An
unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a value less than 2500
mm.km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.

Light reflection

Drainage

The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in
draining out the water from the surface in less time.
Camber

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain o rain water from road surface.

Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n%
(Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.

Width of carriage way

Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.

Kerbs

Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Di erent types of kerbs are (Figure 12:3):

 Low or mountable kerbs :

 Semi-barrier type kerbs :
 Barrier type kerbs :

Road margins

The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.

 Shoulders

 Parking lanes

 Bus-bays

 Service roads

 Cycle track

 Footpath
 Guard rails