Wa0004.

UNIT - II
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY S:

Introduction; highway cross section elements; sight distance, design
of horizontal alignment; design of vertical alignment; design of
intersections, problems, Highway drainage, Importance of highway
drainage, subsurface and surface drainage systems.
Design controls for geometric design
•The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout
of visible features of the highway.
•The features normally considered are
the cross section elements,
sight distance consideration,
horizontal alignment details,
Vertical alignment details
and intersection elements
•The design of these features is to a great extend influenced by driver
behaviour and psychology, vehicle characteristics, traffic
characteristics such as speed and volume.
•Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents and
their severity.
•The objective of geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in
traffic operations with maximum safety at a reasonable cost.
Factors affecting geometric design
1. Design Speed –
 It is most important factor that affects the geometric design.
 It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of
vertical curves.
 Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is
adopted for all the geometric design.
 In India, different speed standards have been assigned depending upon the
importance or class of road.
Factors affecting geometric design....contd.
2. Topography
 The design standards vary depending on the terrain condition.
Eg – design speed of NH/SH for plain terrain = 100kmph. The same
for rolling terrain = 80 kmph and mountainous terrain = 50kmph.
Hilly terrain – steep gradient and sharper horizontal curves due to
constructional problems.
Factors affecting geometric design....contd
3. Traffic features
 Vehicle characteristics - standard vehicle as design vehicle.
 Road users Characteristics - physical, mental and psychological
characteristics of the driver and pedestrians like the reaction time.
4. Environmental Factors – aesthetics, landscaping, noise and air

pollution
5. Economy: The design adopted should be economical as far as

possible. It should match with the funds alloted for capital cost and
maintenance cost.
Highway Geometric Design
 Geometric design of highways deals with following elements

 Cross Section Elements
 Sight Distance Consideration
 Horizontal Alignment Details
 Vertical Alignment Details
 Intersection Elements
Highway Cross sections Elements
Pavement Surface Characteristics
Camber
Width of the pavement
Kerbs
Width of Roadway
Median/traffic seperator
Right of Way
1. Pavement Surface Characteristics
 Friction
Friction between the tyre and the pavement surface is an important factor for
determination of safe operating speed and distance requirements in stopping and
accelerating vehicles.
Horizontal curve – lateral friction

Acceleration and retardation ability of vehicle - longitudinal friction
Skid – occurs when the wheels slide without revolving or when the wheels partially
revolve i.e. when the path travelled along the road is more than the circumferential
movements of the wheels due to their rotation
Slip – occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal
movement along the roads.
 For a safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface
are important; the friction between the wheels and the pavement surface,
smoothness of the road surface, the light reflection characteristics of
the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.
 Friction:
 Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in
the design of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed.
 Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.
Factors affecting friction or skid resistance

 Type of pavement surface -
Macro texture of the pavement
Condition of the pavement – wet, dry, oil spilled
Type and condition of tyre
Speed of vehicle
 Brake efficiency
Load and tyre pressure
Temperature of tyre and pavement
Type of Skid
 Longitudinal friction coefficient values – 0.35 to 0.40

Lateral friction coefficient – 0.15
 PAVEMENT UNEVENNESS
• It is desirable that the pavement surface should have minimum possible
unevenness.
• Pavement unevenness affects vehicle operation cost, comfort and safety.
• Pavement surface condition is commonly measured by Bump Integrator in terms
of Unevenness Index which is a cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the
surface per unit horizontal length of road (cm/km).
• Unevenness Index : < 150 cm/km for good pavement
upto 250 cm/km satisfactory
> 350 cm/km considered uncomfortable
 Light Reflecting Characteristics

• Night visibility depends on the light reflecting characteristics of the pavement
surfaces
• The glare caused by reflection of headlight is high on wet surface than on dry
surface.
• Light coloured surface gives good visibility at night
2. Highway Cross sectional elements – 1. Cross Slope or Camber
• It is the slope provided on the road surface in the transverse direction to drain
off the rain water from the surface.
Provided to :
I. To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade through pavement.
II. To prevent the entry of water into the pavement layer.
III. To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible.
Camber is provided on the straight roads by raising the centre of the carriageway
with respect to the edges forming a crown or highest point on the centre line.
The required camber depends on : i) type of pavement surface
ii) amount of rainfall
2. Highway Cross sectional elements – 1. Cross Slope or Camber
Shape of camber:
A) Parabolic – profile is flat in the middle and steeper towards the edges.
Preferred by fast moving vehicles.
B) Straight Line – preferred in case of cement concrete pavement
C) Combination – of straight and parabolic type camber.
2. Highway Cross sectional elements – 2. Width of carriageway
• Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width
of the traffic lane and number of lanes.
• Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the side
clearance.
 Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.
 The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side
clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m.
2. Highway Cross sectional elements – 2. Width of carriageway
Carriage Way
2. Highway Cross sectional elements – 3. Kerb
 Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
islands or footpaths.
 Low or mountable kerbs :

 This type of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to
remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty.
 The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a
slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily.
 This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and also
helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs :
 When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
 Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge.
 This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute
emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
 Barrier type kerbs :

 They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
 They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian
traffic.
 They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a
steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs :
 They are used in rural roads.
 The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the pavement edge
and shoulders.
 They provide lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.
Highway Cross sectional elements – 4. Shoulders and Right of Way
Shoulders
• Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for
vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface courses.
• A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended by IRC.
• The surface of the shoulder should be should be rougher than the
traffic lanes so that vehicles are discouraged to use the shoulder as a
regular traffic lane.
Highway Cross sectional elements – 4. Shoulders and Right of Way
 Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the
road, along its alignment.
 It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of
the highway and may reasonably provide for future development.
 To prevent ribbon development along highways, control lines and building
lines may be provided.
Highway Cross sectional elements
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road.
Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so
that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way.
Footpath
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas.
They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic
and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased
based on the traffic.
Driveways
connect the highway and the commercial establishments like fuel-station,
service-station etc.
Highway Cross sectional elements 5. Width of roadway or
formation width
 Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths

of pavements or carriage way including separators and shoulders.
 This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The
values suggested by IRC are given in Table below.
Highway Cross sectional elements 6. Median / Traffic Separator
“Road median is the portion in between the dual carriage way which
separates the traffic flow in opposite direction.”
• Purposes of road medians:
1. To avoid accidents.
2. Place provided for the pedestrians to pass the road.
3. To install lighting system.
4. To install traffic signs and traffic signals.
5. It provides to avoid from glare of lights from the opposite traffic.
6. Sometimes in rural areas, we can park on medians in case of emergency.
• The Median / Traffic separators may serve the following functions:

1. To channelize traffic into streams at intersections.
2. To shadow the crossing and turning traffic.
3. To segregate slow traffic.
4. To protect pedestrians.
Highway Cross sectional elements 6. Median / Traffic Separator
• The IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5m for medians of rural

highways which can be reduced to 3m where land is restricted.
• For long bridges the width of median may be reduced upto 1.2 to 1.5m.
• The absolute minimum width of median in urban area is 1.2m and desirable
minimum is 5.0m.
• The desirable width of median for expressway s without a median barrier is 15m
and the minimum width is 10m.
• It is desirable to have wide medians so that additional lanes can be created on

the median side for future widening and if so the desirable width of the median is
15.5m and a minimum width is 12m
The right of way width is governed by
 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and

width of roadway and road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the
topography and the vertical alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of
the slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall,
topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to
the visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of
some obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in
advance anticipating future developments like widening of the road.
Sight Distance
Introduction
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very
much on the visibility of the road ahead of the driver.
Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such that any
obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some
distance ahead. This distance is said to be the sight distance.
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road
surface, over which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way
has visibility of stationary or moving objects.
The IRC has suggested the eye level of driver as 1.2 m and the height of
the object 0.15 m.
Sight Distance
 Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the
road surface, over which a driver from a specified height above the
carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving objects.
 Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
 Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight
distance
 Safe Sight Distance for entering into uncontrolled intersection
 Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation or
Passing Sight Distance.
 Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during
night driving under the illumination of head lights.
The computation of sight distance depends on:
 Reaction time of the driver : Many of the studies shows that drivers
require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions. For example, IRC
suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs.
 Speed of the vehicle: As the speed increases, sight distance also
increases.
 Efficiency of brakes: The sight distance required will be more when the
efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric design, we assume
that the vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.
 Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road: When the
frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. IRC has
specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.
 Gradient of the road: While climbing up a gradient, sight distance
required is less. While descending a gradient, sight distance required will
be more.
Stopping Sight Distance
The computation of sight distance depends on:
i) Reaction time of the driver

• Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible
to the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied.
• The total reaction time may be split up into four components based on PIEV
theory.
• In practice, all these times are usually combined into a total perception-reaction
time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy measurement.
• Many of the studies shows that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal
conditions.
• However, taking into consideration the variability of driver characteristics, a
higher value is normally used in design.
• For example, IRC suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs
Road Users – Physical Characteristics
a) See - more important for pedestrian and drivers.

b) Hearing – more important for pedestrians and cyclists
c) Physical Strength – for parking manoeuvres for heavy
vehicles
d) Reaction Time
• Perception
Sees or hears situation (sees deer)
• Intellection
Identify situation (realizes deer is in road)
• Emotion
Decides on course of action (turn sharply, stop, change
lanes, etc)
• Reaction (volition)
Acts (time to start events in motion but not actually do
action)
Foot begins to hit brake, not actual deceleration
Reference : civilceg.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/he-unit-ii-handout.ppt
ii) Speed of the vehicle

The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance.
Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle.
Hence it is clear that, as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.
iii) Efficiency of brakes
• The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc.
• If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are
applied.
• But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency.
• Hence the sight distance required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are
less.
• Also for safe geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake
efficiency.
iii) Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

• The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to
bring the vehicle to stop.
• When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately.
• Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is
provided while computing the sight distance.
• This is taken into account along with the factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has
specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.
iv) Gradient of the road.

• Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance.
• While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately.
• Hence sight distance required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity also
comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle.
• Sight distance required will be more in this case.
The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking
distance.
Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t and is
given by vt, where v is the velocity in m/sec2.
Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation.
For a level road this is obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle
and the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l,
then work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is
Fxl=fWl
“It is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed,
safely without collision with any other obstruction.”
stopping sight distance = lag distance + braking distance
Stopping Sight Distance at Slopes

•When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of gravity adds
to braking action and hence braking distance is decreased.
•The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which adds to the the
braking force is equal to
W sin W tan = W n=100.
•Equating kinetic energy and work done:
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
 The kinetic energy at the design speed is
1 1 W v2
mv2
=
2 2 g
W v2
fWl =
2g
v2
l =
2gf
 where v is the design speed in m/sec,

 t is the reaction time in sec,
 g is the acceleration due to gravity and
 f is the coefficient of friction.
 The coefficient of friction f is given below for various design speed
 When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of

gravity adds to braking action and hence braking distance is
decreased.
 The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which adds
to the the braking force is equal to
W sinα W tanα = W n/100.
 Equating kinetic energy and work done:
 Similarly the braking distance can be derived for a descending

gradient. Therefore the general equation is given by the above eqn
Overtaking sight distance
 The minimum overtaking sight distance or safe passing sight

distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver
of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely
against the traffic in the opposite direction.
 The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured
along the center line of the road over which a driver with his eye
level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m
above the road surface.
d1 s
s b s
d1 d2 d3
 Vehicle A = v m/s or V kmph (Fast moving vehicle)

 Vehicle B = vb m/s or Vb kmph (Slow movingvehicle)
 Assume vehicle C is moving with same speed as vehicle A but
moving in opposite direction
 d1 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during reaction time
t from A1 to A2
 d2 is the distance travelled by the vehicle A during actual overtaking
operation during time T
 d3 is the distance travelled by oncoming vehicle C during actual
overtaking operation A
The factors that affect the OSD are:

 Speed or Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and
the vehicle coming from the opposite direction.
 Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road
Where, vb is the velocity of the slow moving vehicle inm/sec,

t the reaction time of the driver in sec,
s is the spacing between the two vehicle in m and
a is the overtaking vehicle’s acceleration in m/sec2.
 In case, the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given, it can be assumed
that it moves 16 kmph slower the design speed.
 On divided highways, d3 need not be considered.
 On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not
necessary to provide the OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.
Overtaking zones
 Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided

throughout the length of the highway.
 These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with wide
roads.
 The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the
minimum is three times OSD.
Sight distance at intersections
 At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be

provided for the drivers approaching the intersection from either sides.
 They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle if required.
 Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design
speed.
 The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side
should be able to see each other.
 Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on three possible
conditions:
1. Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
2. Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
3. Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Sight distance at intersections
Horizontal Alignment
 Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features

influencing the efficiency and safety of a highway.
 Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the
design aspects such as design speed and the effect of horizontal
curve on the vehicles.
 The horizontal curve design elements include design of super
elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design of transition
curve, and set back distance.
Horizontal curve
 The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is

a reactive force acting outward on a vehicle negotiating it.
 Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the horizontal
curve and is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction
between the tyre and pavement surface.
 On a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun
or to slide outward from the centre of road curvature.
 For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the forces
acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary.
Horizontal curve
 Various forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in the figure.

Analysis of super-elevation
 Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided

at horizontal curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the
outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge,
throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
 When the outer edge is raised, a component of the curve weight
will be complimented in counteracting the effect of centrifugal
force.
 In order to find out how much this raising should be, the following
analysis may be done. The forces acting on a vehicle while taking a
horizontal curve with super elevation is shown in figure
 Forces acting on a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius ‘R’ m at a

speed of ‘v’ m/sec are:
 ‘P’ the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the

center of gravity,
 ‘W’ the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center
of gravity,and
 ‘F’ the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along
the surface inward.
 At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the

pavement we get,
 where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the

coefficient of friction, θ is the transverse slope due to superelevation.
Dividing by W cosθ , we get:
 We have already derived an expression for (P/W). By substituting this in

that equation, we get:
 But normally, f = 0.15 and θ< 4o, 1- f tanθ ≈ 1 and for small θ, tan θ ≈
sin θ = E/B = e, then the above equation becomes:
 where, ‘e’ is the rate of super elevation, ‘f ’ the coefficient of lateral

friction 0.15, ‘v’ the speed of the vehicle in m/sec, ‘R’ the radius of the
curve in m and ‘g’ = 9.8m/sec2.
 Three specific cases that can arise from above equation are as follows:
1. If there is no friction due to some practical reasons, then f = 0 and the
expression for super elevation becomes
 This results in the situation where the pressure on the outer and inner
wheels are same; requiring very high super-elevation e.
2. If there is no super-elevation provided due to some practical reasons,

then e = 0 and the expression for super elevation becomes
 This results in a very high coefficient of friction.

3. If e = 0 and f = 0.15 then for safe traveling speed from expressionfor

super elevation is given by
where vb is the restricted speed.

Design of super-elevation
 For fast moving vehicles, providing higher super elevation

without considering coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal
force is fully counteracted by the weight of the vehicle or super
elevation.
 For slow moving vehicles, providing lower super elevation considering

coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is counteracted by
super elevation and coefficient of friction .
 IRC suggests following design procedure:

 Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e
 Step 2: If e1 = 7% = 0.07, then
 Step 3: Find f1 for the design speed and maximum e, i.e.

 Step 4: If f1 > 0.15, then the maximum e = 0.07, is safe for the
design speed, else go to step 4.
 Find the allowable speed Va for the maximum e = 0.07 and f = 0.15
 Then the design is adequate otherwise use speeds adopt control measures or
look for speed control measures.
 Maximum and minimum super-elevation
 Depends on (a) slow moving vehicle and (b) heavy loaded trucks with high CG.
IRC specifies a maximum super-elevation of 7 % for plain and rolling
terrain, while that of hilly terrain is 10% and urban road is 4%.
 The minimum super elevation is 2-4% for drainage purpose, especially for
large radius of the horizontal curve.
Attainment of Super Elevation in the Field
 Introduction of super elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an

important feature in construction.
 The road c/s at a straight portion is cambered with a crown at the centre
of the pavement and sloping down towards both the edges.
 The c/s on the portion of circular curve of the road is superelevated with
a uniform tilt sloping down from the outer edge of the pavement up to
inner edge.
 The attainment of super elevation splits up into 2 parts.

A) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
B) Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation
 A) Elimination of crown of the cambered section

 1st method: Outer edge rotated about the crown
 Disadvantages:
 Small length of the road – cross slope less than the camber.
 Drainage problem in outer half.
 2nd method: Crown shifted outwards
 Disadvantages:
 Large negative super elevation on outer half.
 Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along shifted crown.
 B) Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation

 1st method: Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge and
raising out the outer edge each by half the total amount of the super
elevation)
 Advantages:
 Earthwork is balanced
 Vertical profile of the C/L remains
unchanged.
 Disadvantages:
 Drainage Problem:
Depressing the inner edge
below the general level.
 2nd method: Rotation about inner edge (raising both the centre as well
as outer edge – outer edge is raised by the total amount of super
elevation).
 Advantages:
 No drainage problem
 Disadvantages:
 Additional earth filling
 C/L of the pavement is also raised (vertical alignment of the roadis
changed)
Attainment of Super elevation
Radius of Horizontal Curve
 The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the

geometric design.
 The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the
radius of the curve.
 Although it is possible to design the curve with maximum super elevation
and coefficient of friction, it is not desirable because re-alignment would
be required if the design speed is increased in future.
 Therefore, a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be derived by assuming
maximum super elevation and coefficient of friction.
Extra widening
 Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is

required on a curved section of a road over and above that required on a
straight alignment.
Extra widening
 Widening is done due to following two reasons:

1. the additional width required for a vehicle taking a horizontal
curve. (mechanical widening )
2. due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from the edge of
the carriageway as they drive on a curve.(psychological
widening)
Extra widening
 When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the rear wheels follow

a path of shorter radius than the front wheels.
 This phenomenon is called off- tracking, and has the effect

of increasing the effective width of a road space required by
the vehicle.
 Speeds higher than the design speed causes transverse skidding

which requires additional width for safety purpose.
Extra widening
 Mechanical Widening
 The expression for extra width can be derived from the simple
geometry of a vehicle at a horizontal curve as shown in figure.
 Let R1 is the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel, R2 is
the radius of the outer track line of the front wheel, l is the distance
between the front and rear wheel, n is the number of lanes, then
the mechanical widening Wm (refer figure) is derived below:
Extra widening
 Therefore the widening needed for a single lane road is:
 If the road has n lanes, the extra widening should be provided on

each lane.
 Therefore, the extra widening of a road with n lanes is given by,
Extra widening
 Please note that for large radius, R2 ≈ R, which is the mean radius
of the curve, then Wm is given by:
 Psychological widening: There is a tendency for the drivers to

drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra
space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and
overtaking operations on curves.
Extra widening
 IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening

at horizontal curves Wps :
Therefore, the total widening needed at a horizontal curve We is:

Horizontal Transition Curves
 Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from

straight to circular curve gradually and has a radius which decreases from
infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the desired radius of the
circular curve at the other end (curve point).
Objectives for providing transition curve
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point

and the beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the
vehicle. This increases the comfort of passengers.
 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security.
 To provide gradual introduction of super elevation.
 To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Type of transition curve
 Different types of transition curves are spiral or clothoid, cubic

parabola, and Lemniscates.
 IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because: It fulfills the

requirement of an ideal transition curve, that is;
 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is consistent (smooth)and
 Radius of the transition curve is ∞ at the straight edge and changes to R

at the curve point and calculation and field implementation is very easy.
Type of transition curve
Length of transition curve
 The length of the transition curve should be determined as the

maximum of the following three criteria:
 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration,
 Rate of change of super elevation, and
 An empirical formula given by IRC.

 Rate of change of centrifugalacceleration:

 At the tangent point, radius is in infinity and hence centrifugal
acceleration is zero.
 At the end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value R.
 The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be adopted such

that the design should not cause discomfort to the drivers.
 If c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, it can be

written as:
 The length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is
where c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration given byan

empirical formula suggested by IRC as below:
subject to :
 Rate of introduction of super-elevation

 Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by E = eB
= e(W + We ).
 The rate of change of this raise from 0 to E is achieved gradually with a
gradient of 1 in N over the length of the transition curve (typical range
of N is 60-150). Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls2 is:
 By empirical formula
 IRC suggest the length of the transition curve is minimum for a
plain and rolling terrain:
and for steep and hilly terrain is

and the shift s as: Setting out of transition curve
 The length of the transition curve Ls is the maximum of equations

of Ls1, Ls2 and Ls3, i.e.
Setback Distance
 Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required

from the centerline of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the
inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight distance at a
horizontal curve.
 The setback distance depends on:

1. Sight distance (OSD, ISD and HSD),
2. Radius of the curve, and
3. Length of the curve.
Setback Distance
 Case (a) s < Lc

 For single lane roads:
Therefore,
Setback Distance
 For multi lane roads, if d is the distance between centerline of the

road and the centerline of the inner lane, then
Setback Distance
 Case (b) s > Lc

 For single lane:
 The set back is the sum of m1 and m2 given by:

Setback Distance
Setback Distance
Curve Resistance
 When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal

curve, the direction of rotation of the
front and the rear wheels are different.
 The front wheels are turned to move the
vehicle along the curve, whereas the rear
wheels seldom turn.
 The rear wheels exert a tractive force T
in the PQ direction.
 The tractive force available on the front
wheels is Tcosα in the PS direction as
shown in the figure.
Vertical Alignment
 The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients (straight lines ina

vertical plane) and vertical curves.
Gradient
 Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the roadwith
respect to the horizontal.
 While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the
vertical curve.
 Before finalizing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation
cost and the practical problems in the site also has to be considered.
Representation of gradient
 The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the

negative gradient as -n.
 The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which
measures the change of direction and is given by the algebraic difference
between the two grades (n1- ( -n2)) = n1 + n2 = α1+α2 . Example: 1 in
30 ≈ 3.33% ≈ 2o is a steep gradient, while 1 in 50 = 2% ≈ 1o 10' is a
flatter gradient.
Types of Gradient
 Ruling gradient: The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the

maximum gradient with which the designer attempts to design the vertical
profile of the road.
 This depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of
the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve.
 Limiting gradient: This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient
results in enormous increase in cost of construction.
 Exceptional gradient: Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients
given at unavoidable situations.
 At hairpin bends, the gradient is restricted to 2.5%.
 Minimum gradient: A certain longitudinal grade is desirable to drain the
water along the side drains if topography favours.
Grade compensation
 Grade compensation can be defined as the reduction in

gradient at the horizontal curve because of the additional
tractive force required due to curve resistance (T-Tcosα ),
which is intended to offset the extra tractive force involved
at the curve.
 IRC gave the following specification for the grade compensation.
1. Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4%
because the loss of tractive force is negligible.
2. Grade compensation is , where R is the radius of the
horizontal curve in meters.
3. The maximum grade compensation is limited to
Types of Vertical Alignment
Summit Curve (Crest Curve)
Summit Curve
 Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards.
 They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in
any of the following four ways:
a) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient [figure a].
b) When positive gradient meets a flat gradient [figure b].
c) When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient [figure c].
d) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient [figure
d].
Summit Curve
Design Consideration
 In determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design
considerations are comfort and security of the driver, and the appearance
of the profile alignment.
 A sight distance requirement for the safety is most important on summit
curves.
 The stopping sight distance or absolute minimum sight distance should be
provided on these curves and where overtaking is not prohibited, overtaking
sight distance or intermediate sight distance should be provided as far as
possible.
 When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, there is less
discomfort to the passengers.
 This is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards while the vehicle
negotiates a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of the
tyre pressure is relieved.
 Also if the curve is provided with adequate sight distance, the length
would be sufficient to ease the shock due to change in gradient.
 Circular summit curves are identical since the radius remains same
throughout and hence the sight distance.
 From this point of view, transition curves are not desirable since it has
varying radius and so the sight distance will also vary.
 The deviation angle provided on summit curves for highways is very large,
and so a simple parabola is almost congruent to a circular arc, between the
same tangent points.
 Parabolic curves are easy for computation and also it had been found out
that it provides good riding comfort to the drivers.
 It is also easy for field implementation. Due to all these reasons, a simple
parabolic curve is preferred as summit curve.
Length of the summit curve
 The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of

the length of the curve which is parabolic.
 the length of the curve is guided by the sight distance consideration.
 a driver should be able to stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction
on the other side of the road.
 Equation of the parabola is given by y = ax2,
where
where N is the deviation angle and L is the length of the summit curve.
Length of the summit curve (For SSD)
 Case a: Length of summit curve greater than SSD (L > S)

 In deriving the length of the curve, two situations can arise depending on
the uphill and downhill gradients when the length of the curve is greater
than the sight distance (L>SSD) and the length of the curve is less than
the sight distance (L<SSD).
 Let L is the length of the summit curve, S is the SSD/ISD/OSD, N is the

deviation angle, h1 or H driver's eye height (1.2 m), and h2 or h the height
of the obstruction, then the length of the summit curve can be derived
for the following two cases.
𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟒. 𝟒
 Case b: Length of summit curve less than SSD (L < S)
𝟒. 𝟒
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵
Length of the summit curve (For OSD or ISD)
 Case a: Length of summit curve greater than Safe OSD/ISD (L > S)
𝑵𝑺𝟐 𝑵𝑺𝟐 Where, H = h = 1.2m

𝑳= OR 𝑳=
𝟖𝑯 𝟗. 𝟔
 Case b: Length of summit curve less than Safe OSD/ISD (L < S)
𝟖𝑯 OR 𝟗. 𝟔 Where, H = h = 1.2m
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 − 𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵 𝑵
Valley Curve
Valley Curve
 There is no restriction to sight distance at valley curves during day time.

But visibility is reduced during night.
 In the absence of inadequacy of street light, the only source for visibility
is with the help of headlights.
 Hence valley curves are designed taking into account of headlight
distance.
 In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along with
the weight of the vehicle, and hence impact to the vehicle will be more.
 This will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause discomfort to the
passengers.
 Thus the most important design factors considered in valley curves are:
(1) Impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and
2) Availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for
night driving.
 For gradually introducing and increasing the centrifugal force acting

downwards, the best shape that could be given for a valley curve is a
transition curve.
 Cubic parabola is generally preferred in vertical valley curves.

 During night, under headlight driving condition, sight distance reduces

and availability of stopping sight distance under head light is very
important.
 The head light sight distance should be at least equal to the stopping sight
distance.
 There is no problem of overtaking sight distance at night since the other

vehicles with headlights could be seen from a considerable distance.
Length of the valley curve
 The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar

transition curves of equal length.
 The transitional curve is set out by a cubic parabola y = bx3 where

the length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two
criteria:
1. Comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is limited to a comfortable level of about 0.6m/sec3.
2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight
sight distance at any part of the country.
Length of the valley curve - Comfort criteria
 Comfort criteria: The length of the valley curve based on the rate
of change of centrifugal acceleration that will ensure comfort:
 Let c is the rate of change of acceleration, R the minimum radius
of the curve, v is the design speed and t is the time,
 For a cubic parabola, the value of R for length Ls is given by:

Length of the valley curve - Comfort criteria
𝟑 𝟏/𝟐
𝑵𝒗
𝑳=𝟐 OR 𝟑 𝟏/𝟐
𝑪 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝑵𝑽
V m/s V kmph
 where L is the total length of valley curve, N is the deviation angle
in radians or tangent of the deviation angle or the algebraic
difference in grades, and c is the allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration which may be taken as 0.6m/sec3.
Length of the valley curve – Safety criteria
 Safety criteria: Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be
determined for two conditions: (1) Length of the valley curve greater than
stopping sight distance and (2) Length of the valley curve less than the
stopping sight distance.
 Case 1 Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance
(L > S) for Head Light Sight Distance
 The total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight
distance SSD.
 The sight distance available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the
lowest point in the valley.
 This is because the beginning of the curve will have infinite radius and the
bottom of the curve will have minimum radius which is a property of the
transition curve.
𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺
 where N is the deviation angle in radians, h1 is the height of headlight beam, α
is the head beam inclination in degrees and S is the sight distance.
 The inclination α is ≈ 1 degree.
 Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight

distance (L < S)
 The length of the curve L is less than SSD. In this case the
minimum sight distance is from the beginning of the curve.
 The important points are the beginning of the curve and the
bottom most part of the curve.
 If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its headlight beam
will reach far beyond the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the
vehicle is at the beginning of the curve, then the headlight beam
will hit just outside the curve.
𝟖𝑯 𝟗. 𝟔
𝑳=𝟐𝑺 − OR 𝑳=𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵 𝑵
Where, H = h = 1.2m
 Note that the above expression is approximate and is satisfactory

because in practice, the gradients are very small and is acceptable
for all practical purposes.
 We will not be able to know prior to which case to be adopted.
 Therefore both has to be calculated and the one which satisfies the
condition is adopted.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
UNIT2
IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE,
SUBSURFACE AND SURFACE DRAINAGE
S YS TEMS
Interception of Subsurface
Interception Flow Flow
of Subsurface
Illustration courtesy of US Forest Service

(Adapted from Stone and Stone 1994)
Highway Drainage
Process of removal and controlling excess surface and sub-soil

water within the right of way
Surface Drainage Sub-surface Drainage
removal & diversion of surface removal & diversion of excess soil-

water water from subgrade
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@asia/@ro-bangkok/documents/genericdocument/wcms_101011.pdf
Highway Drainage
 Drainage Includes collecting, transporting, and disposing of

surface/subsurface water originating on or near the highway right of way
or flowing in streams crossing bordering that right of way.
 The water which are dangerous for highways are:

1.Rainwater: Cause erosion on surface or may seep downward and
damage pavement (surface drains)
2. Groundwater: May rise by capillary action and damage pavement (sub-
surface damage)
3. Water body: May cross a road (river/stream) and may damage road (cross
drainage works)
Ill effects of excess moisture in the soil subgrade
 Causes considerable lowering of its stability

 Reduction in strength of pavement materials
 Variation in the volume of subgrade
 Formations of waves and corrugations in flexible pavements
 Stripping of bitumen from aggregate on sustained contact with water
 Failure due to mud pumping in case of rigid pavements
 Causes damage to shoulders and pavement edge
 Erosion of soil from top of unsurfaced roads and slopes of
embankment, cut and hill side.
 In places where freezing temperature are prevalent, frost action may cause
considerable damage to the pavements.
Surface Drainage
 Diversion or removal of surface water from the roadway

 side drains/longitudinal drains collect and lead the water away from
the road
 cross drainage structure like culverts and small bridges disposes
water from side drains
Surface Drainage
 In urban roads because of limitation of land width and also due to

presence of foot path, dividing island etc, it is necessary to provide
underground longitudinal drains.
 The water may be collected in catch pits at suitable intervals and
lead through the underground pipes
 A highway gully is a drainage pit covered by an open metal grating
located on the road edge. It’s purpose is to drain rain water from
the highway into the sewerage system.
 Culverts are required in order to
(i) allow natural streams to cross the road, and
(ii)discharge surface water from drains and the areas adjacent to the
road (side drain)
Surface Drainage
 Urban Roads ???
A highway gully is a drainage pit covered by an open metal grating located on the
road edge. It’s purpose is to drain rain water from the highway into the sewerage
system.
http://www3.hants.gov.uk/roads/highway-information/flooding/highways-drainage/urban.htm
Surface Drainage
Types :
a) Slab Culverts
b) Box Culvert
c)Arch Culvert – brick or stone
masonry, PCC
d)Pipe Culvert – min diameter
= 75 cm, steel or prefabricated
RCC
Sub-Surface Drainage
1. Lowering of Water Table

2. Control of Seepage Flow
3. Control of Capillary Flow
 Highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of the
subgrade
 It is suggested that the water table should be atleast 1 to 1.2 m below the
subgrade.
 If water table is high, provide embankment of 1 to 1.2m.
 Lowering of water table can be done, in case of permeable soil, by
construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter
sand.
 In case of relatively less permeable soil, additional transverse drains may
be provided to effectively drain off the water.

 When the general ground as well as impervious strata below are sloping,
seepage flow is likely to exist.
 If the seepage zone is at the depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 m from the
subgrade level, longitudinal pipe drain in a trench filled with filter material
and clay seal may be constructed to intercept the seepage flow.

 The capillary rise may be checked by a capillary cut-off

 A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during
construction of an embankment, between the subgrade and highest level
of subsurface water table.
 Insert an impermeable or bituminous layer in place of a granular blanket.
Scope of Arboriculture for Highways
 Arboriculture
 Arbori (latin word)
 Arbor means Tree
 Arboriculture means Tree culture and planting of tree.
 Objective
 Attractive landscape
 Shade to the road user.
 Stabilization of foundation.
 Reduce Head Light reflection
Road Side Arboriculture
 Important aspects in road side development.

 Trees provided on both sides of urban and rural road serve the
following purposes:
 To provide attractive landscape of road sides

 To provide shade to the road users
 To protect against moving sand in desert areas
 To provide fruit bearing trees and timber
 To intercept the annoying sound waves and fumes from road

vehicles
 In urban areas, the road side planting is mainly for the beauty or the
landscape and therefore, tests of ornamental and flowering species
are generally preferred.
 On wide urban roads, the planting of shrubs is done on the

medians or separators besides providing trees on road sides.
 It is desired that the crowns of the trees planted on both sides of a

road do not cover the complete carriageway.
Mumbai Pune Expressway
Mumbai Pune Expressway

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UNIT - II

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY S:

4. Environmental Factors – aesthetics, landscaping, noise and air

5. Economy: The design adopted should be economical as far as

 Geometric design of highways deals with following elements

 Sight Distance Consideration

 Horizontal Alignment Details

 Vertical Alignment Details

Pavement Surface Characteristics

Width of the pavement

Horizontal curve – lateral friction

Factors affecting friction or skid resistance

 Longitudinal friction coefficient values – 0.35 to 0.40

 Light Reflecting Characteristics

 Low or mountable kerbs :

 Barrier type kerbs :

 Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths

• The Median / Traffic separators may serve the following functions:

• The IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5m for medians of rural

• It is desirable to have wide medians so that additional lanes can be created on

 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and

The computation of sight distance depends on:

i) Reaction time of the driver

a) See - more important for pedestrian and drivers.

ii) Speed of the vehicle

iii) Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

iv) Gradient of the road.

stopping sight distance = lag distance + braking distance

Stopping Sight Distance at Slopes

 The kinetic energy at the design speed is

 where v is the design speed in m/sec,

 When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of

 Similarly the braking distance can be derived for a descending

 The minimum overtaking sight distance or safe passing sight

 Vehicle A = v m/s or V kmph (Fast moving vehicle)

The factors that affect the OSD are:

Where, vb is the velocity of the slow moving vehicle inm/sec,

 Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided

 At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be

 Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features

 The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is

 Various forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in the figure.

 Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided

 Forces acting on a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius ‘R’ m at a

 ‘P’ the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the

 At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the

 where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the

 We have already derived an expression for (P/W). By substituting this in

 where, ‘e’ is the rate of super elevation, ‘f ’ the coefficient of lateral

2. If there is no super-elevation provided due to some practical reasons,

 This results in a very high coefficient of friction.

3. If e = 0 and f = 0.15 then for safe traveling speed from expressionfor

where vb is the restricted speed.

 For fast moving vehicles, providing higher super elevation

 For slow moving vehicles, providing lower super elevation considering

 IRC suggests following design procedure:

 Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e

 Step 2: If e1 = 7% = 0.07, then

 Step 3: Find f1 for the design speed and maximum e, i.e.

 Introduction of super elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an

 The attainment of super elevation splits up into 2 parts.

 A) Elimination of crown of the cambered section

 2nd method: Crown shifted outwards