A presentation on

Highway Geometric Elements

Presented By:
Dr. Jitendra Gurjar
Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Srinagar

Design Controls and criteria
• Topography
• Design speed
• Traffic factors
• Design hourly volume and capacity
• Environmental and other factors

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Topography

• Classified based on the general slope of the country.

 Plane terrain- <10%
 Rolling terrain- 10-25%
 Mountainous terrain- 25-60%
 Steep terrain- >60%
Design speed
• In India different speed standards have been assigned for
different class of road
• Design speed may be modified depending upon the terrain
conditions.
Traffic factor
• Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road users.

• Different vehicle classes have different speed and acceleration

characteristics, different dimensions and weight.

• Human factor includes the physical, mental and psychological

characteristics of driver and pedestrian.

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Design hourly volume and capacity
• Traffic flow fluctuating with time
• Low value during off-peak hours to the highest value during
the peak hour.
• It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak traffic flow.

Environmental factors

Aesthetics
Landscaping
Air pollution
Noise pollution

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 Geometric Design

 Geometric design of highways deals with following elements :

o Cross section elements
o Sight distance considerations
o Horizontal alignment
o Vertical alignment
o Intersection elements
 Cross Section Elements
 The features of the cross-section of the pavement influence the
life of the pavement as well as the riding comfort and safety.
 The major cross-sectional elements considered in the design of
streets and highways include:
o Pavement Surface Characteristics
o Carriageway
o Camber
o Median or Traffic Separator
o Kerbs
o Road Margin
o Width of formation or Roadway
o Right of way
 Cross Section Elements
Pavement Surface Characteristics
 Pavement surface characteristics depend on the type of
pavement which is decided based on the,
o Availability of material
o Volume and composition of traffic
o Soil subgrade
o Climatic condition
o Construction facility
o Cost consideration
Pavement Surface Characteristics
 For safe and comfortable driving the following aspects of the
pavement surface are important:
o Friction
o Pavement unevenness
o Light reflecting characteristics
o Drainage to water
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Friction
 Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a
crucial factor in the design of horizontal curves and thus the
safe operating speed.
 Further, it also affect the acceleration and deceleration ability
of vehicles.
 Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Friction
 Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road
surface is more than the circumferential movement of the
wheels due to friction
 Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the
corresponding longitudinal movement along the road.
 Various factors that affect friction are:
o Type of the pavement (like bituminous or concrete,
o Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
o Condition of the tyre (new or old), and
o Speed and load of the vehicle.
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Friction
 The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the
pavement is the load acting multiplied by a factor called the
coefficient of friction and denoted as f.
 The choice of the value of f is a very complicated issue since it
depends on many variables.
 Smooth and worn out tyres offer a higher friction factor on dry
pavement
 New tyres with good threads gives a higher friction factor on wet
pavement.
 IRC recommended the longitudinal coefficient of friction varies
from 0.35 to 0.4 and the lateral coefficient of friction of 0.15
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Pavement Unevenness
 It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom
possible to have such a one.
 Even if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is
possible to develop unevenness due to pavement failures.
 Pavement Unevenness is measured in terms of the Unevenness
index.
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Pavement Unevenness
 Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the
cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement
surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road.
 Higher operating speed is possible on even surfaces than on
uneven surfaces.
 Pavement Unevenness affects:
 Vehicle operation cost
 Comfort and safety
 Fuel consumption
 Wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Pavement Unevenness
 Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by
 In adequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and pavement layers
 Un-scientific construction practices including the use of boulder
stones and bricks as soiling course over loose subgrade soil
 Use of inferior pavement material
 Improper surface and subsurface drainage
 Improper construction machinery
 Poor maintenance
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Pavement Unevenness
 It is commonly measured by an equipment call “Bump
Integrator”
 Bump integrator is the cumulative measure of vertical
undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit of
horizontal length.
 An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is
considered as good, a value less than 2500 mm/km is
satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than
3200 mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55
kmph.
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Light-reflecting
Characteristics
 Night visibility very much depends upon the light-reflecting
characteristics of the pavement surface.
 The glare caused by the reflection of the headlight is high on
wet pavement surfaces than on dry pavement.
 White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare
during day time.
 Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at
night
 Concrete roads has better visibility and less glare
Pavement Surface Characteristics: Drainage
 The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to
prevent seepage of water into the pavement layers.
 Both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help
in draining out the water from the surface in less time.
 Cross Section Elements
 The major cross-sectional elements considered in the design of
streets and highways include:
o Pavement Surface Characteristics
o Carriageway
o Camber
o Median or Traffic Separator
o Kerbs
o Road Margin
o Width of formation or Roadway
o Right of way
 Cross Section Elements

Carriage-way
 It is the travel way which is
used for movement of
vehicle, it takes the
vehicular loading.
 Width of the carriageway is
determined on the basis
of the width of the vehicle
and the minimum side
clearance for safety.
 Cross Section Elements
Carriage-way
 As per IRC specification, the maximum width of the vehicle is
2.44m, minimum clearance of 0.68 in case of single lane and
1.06m in case of double lane.
 Cross Section Elements
Carriage-way

 It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle, it

takes the vehicular

WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY
SL. NO. Class of road Width of carriageway in ‘m’
1 Single lane 3.75
2 Two lane without raised kerbs 7.0
3 Two lane with raised kerbs 7.5
4 Intermediate lane 5.5
5 Multilane pavement 3.5/lane
 Cross Section Elements
Camber
 It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rainwater from the road surface.
 To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil
through the pavement.
 To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement
layer.
 Cross Section Elements
Camber
 To remove the rainwater from the pavement surface as quick as
possible and to allow the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.
 It is expressed as a percentage or 1V: Nh.
 It depends on the pavement surface and the amount of rainfall.
Recommended values of camber for different types of road surface
Sl no. Type of road surface Range of camber in areas of rain
fall range

Heavy rain Light rain

1 Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50(2%) 1 in 60(1.7%)
bituminous pavement

2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40(2.5%) 1 in 50(2%)

3 Water bound macadam(WBM) and gravel I in 33(3%) 1 in 40(2.5%)
pavement

4 Earth 1 in 25(4%) 1 in 33(3%)

Too steep slope is not desirable because of the fallowing
reasons:

• Uncomfortable side thrust and unequal wear of the tyres

as well as road surface.
• Problem of toppling over highly laden bullock cart and
truck.
• Tendency of most of vehicle travel along the centre line.
 Cross Section Elements
Camber: Types of shape of the camber
 Straight line
 Parabolic shape (fast-moving vehicle)
 Combination of parabolic and straight line
Question:1
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major
district road of WBM pavement, 3.8 m wide, and a state
highway of bituminous concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide are
to be constructed. What should be the height of the crown
with respect to the edges in these two cases?
 Cross Section Elements
Traffic separators or median
 The main function is to
prevent a head-on
collision between the
vehicle moving in the
opposite direction.
 Channelize traffic into
streams at the
intersection.
 Segregate slow traffic and
protect pedestrians.
 Cross Section Elements
Traffic separators or median
 IRC recommends for in the Rural
highway a minimum desirable width
of the median 5 m and may be
reduced to 3 m where land is
restricted.
 In the urban area, absolute minimum
width of median in urban areas is 1.2
m; a desirable minimum width is 5
m.
 Cross Section Elements
Kerb
 It indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder.
 It is desirable to provide kerbs in urban areas.
 It is of three types
 Low or mountable kerb
 Semi-barrier kerb
 Barrier kerb
 Submerged kerb
kerb
 Cross Section Elements
Kerb
 Low or mountable kerb
 It allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty.
 The height of this type of shoulder kerb is about 10 cm
above the pavement edge with a slope to help the vehicle
climb the kerb easily.
 Cross Section Elements
Kerb
 Semi barrier kerb
 It is provided on the periphery of a roadway where the
pedestrian traffic is high.
 height of about 15 cm above the pavement edge with a batter
of 1:1 on the top 7.5 cm.
 It prevents parking the vehicle, but during an emergency it is
possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
 Cross Section Elements
Kerb
 Barrier Type kerb
 It is provided in built-up area adjacent to the foot
paths with considerable pedestrian traffic.
 The height of the kerb is about 20 cm above the
pavement edge with a steep batter of 1V:0.25H.
 Cross Section Elements
Kerb
 Submerged Type kerb
 They are used on rural roads.
 The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the
pavement edge and shoulders.
 They provide lateral confinement and stability to the
pavement.
 Cross Section Elements
Shoulder
 It is provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency
lane for vehicles.
 It acts as a service lane for vehicles that have broken down.
 IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width of 2.5 m
 It should have sufficient load-bearing capacity even in wet
weather.
 shoulder

Cycle track

Footpath
 Cross Section Elements

Shoulder
 The surface should be rougher
than the traffic lanes so that
vehicles are discouraged to use
the shoulder as regular traffic.
 The color should be different from
that of the pavement so as to be
distinct.
 Shoulder can be Treated/
Untreated
 Cross Section Elements
Road Margin
 The different cross-sectional parts of the road, excluding the
carriageway or pavement width, are referred to as road margins.
 The following are the elements of the road margins.
 Footpath
 Cycle-track
 Frontage Path
 Drive-ways
 Lay Byes
 Parking Lanes
 Guard Rails
 Side Slopes
 Cross Section Elements
Footpath
 A road footpath is a sort of roadway designed just for
pedestrians and not for other types of transportation such as
cars, bicycles, or horses.
 Where there is a high volume of pedestrian traffic, footpaths
are required.
 They can be found in a wide variety of places, including city
centers, farms, and mountain ridges.
 Cross Section Elements
Footpath
 Pedestrians use footpaths, especially
in urban areas.
 The footpath should be provided
with a surface as smooth as or even
smoother than the adjacent traffic
lane so as to induce the pedestrians
to keep on to the footpath.
 1.5m should be the minimum width.
 The cross fall of the footpath may be
2.5 to 3.0 percent.
 Cross Section Elements
Footpath
 Cross Section Elements
Cycle Track
 A cycle track, also known as a
separated bike lane or a
protected bike lane, is a private
bikeway with aspects of both a
separated path and an on-road
bike lane.
 They are available in urban
locations with a large number
of cycle traffic.
 Cycle tracks will have a
smooth surface of asphalt or
concrete.
 Paver blocks will be avoided.
 Cross Section Elements
Cycle Track
 Cycle tracks will have at least
2 m of clear space per
direction for one-way
movement and 3 m for two-
way movement,
 Painting cycle tracks, without
segregation, shall be
discouraged as they are likely
to be encroached by parked
vehicles.
 They shall be elevated 100-
150 mm above the
carriageway.
 Cross Section Elements
Driveway
 Driveway is a way to secure access from a road to private
property and constructed with the permission of and to the
standards fixed by the highway authority.
 It is provided to reach the buildings like fuel pumps or service
centers.
 It is owned and maintained by an individual or group.
 It should have a less width as much as possible because they
are a hindrance to the pedestrian traffic traveling along the
foot-paths.
 Cross Section Elements
Parking Lanes
 They are provided for parking
the vehicular traffic generally
needed in the market centers or
the urban areas.
 Parallel parking is
recommended in order to avoid
hindrance to the traffic and a
minimum of 3 m parking lane
is recommended.
 Cross Section Elements
Bus bays
 A bus bay, otherwise called bus turnout,
bus pullout, the off-line bus stop is a
designated spot on the side of a road
where buses may pull out of the flow of
traffic to pick up and drop off passengers.
 It is often indented into the sidewalk or
other pedestrian areas.
 They are provided so that they don’t
obstruct the movement of vehicles in the
carriageway.
 Bus bays should be located at least 75 m
away from the intersection.
 Cross Section Elements
Laybys
 Laybys are the paved areas provided at some places on the
sides of the lanes for providing a stoppage for the vehicles.
 Layby should normally be of 3.0 m width and at least 30 m
length with 15 m end tapers on both sides.
 Cross Section Elements
Side Slopes
 Side slope is defined as the slope of the cut or fills expressed as
the ratio of horizontal distance to vertical distance.
 A 2:1 side slope indicates that for every horizontal distance of 2
ft, the corresponding vertical distance is 1 ft as indicated in the
following diagram: The embankments are provided with a 1:2
or 1:1.5 (V:H) side slopes for the stability of embankment
 Cross Section Elements
Frontage Road
 A frontage road (sometimes called an access road, outer road, service
road, feeder road, or parallel road) is a local road that runs beside a
higher-speed, limited-access highway.
 Access to private driveways, shops, houses, factories, or farmland is
frequently provided via a frontage road.
 Local-express lanes refer to parallel high-speed roadways that are
given as part of the main highway.
 Cross Section Elements
Guard Rail
 It is provided at the edge of
the shoulder especially
when the height of the fill
exceeds 3 m.
 It is also provided on the
horizontal curve so as to
provide better night Guard rail

visibility of the curves under

the headlight of the vehicle.
 Cross Section Elements
Width of Formation or Roadway
 It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or
pavement including separators if any and the
shoulders.
WIDTH OF ROADWAY OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF ROADS
SL. No. Road classification Roadway width
Plane and rolling Mountainous and
terrain steep terrain
1 NH & SH
a) Single lane 12 6.25
b) two lane 12 6.25
2 MDR
a) Single lane 9 4.75
b) two lane 9 4.75
3 ODR
a) Single lane 7.5 4.75
b) two lane 9 4.75
4 Village roads-single lane 7.5 4
 Cross Section Elements
Right of Way
 It is the total area of land acquired for the road
along its alignment.
 It depends on the importance of the road and
possible future development.
 It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the
cost of adjoining land invariably increases very
much, soon after the new highway is constructed.
Cross Section Elements
Right of Way
 Cross Section Elements
Right of Way
 Building Line
 In order to reserve sufficient space for future
development of roads.
 It is desirable to control the building activities on either side of the
road boundary, beyond the land width acquired for the land.
 Cross Section Elements
Right of Way
 Building Line
 Building line refers to the front line up to which the building can
lawfully extend. it is also called as set- back or font building line.
 A minimum distance of this building line from the center line of
the accompanying road is laid down as the limit beyond which no
construction is allowed towards the road.
 Cross Section Elements
Right of Way
 Control Line
 In addition to “building line”, it is desirable to
control the nature of building up to further “set back distance”
 In case of a public building such as cinemas, a commercial
concern, factories, which attract a large number of vehicles,
should be set back at a further distance apart from the building
line.
 The line which accounts for this extra margin is known as the
control line.
 The limits of building and control lines
are given in the table.

Types of Road Building line Control line

National state highways
30 m 45m
(N.H. and S.H.)
Major District Roads
15 m 24 m
(MDR)
Other District Road
9m 15 m
(ORD)