A presentation on

Presented By:
Dr. Abdullah Ahmad
Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Srinagar

 Highway alignment

• Horizontal alignment is the

positioning of a roadway, as
shown in the plan view, using a
series of straight lines called
tangents connected by circular
curves.
• Horizontal alignment includes
straight and curved paths.
Horizontal
curve
 Horizontal Curves

o A horizontal highway curve is a

curve in plan to provide change
in direction to the central line of
a road.
o When a vehicle traverses a
horizontal curve, the centrifugal
force acts horizontally outwards
through the centre of gravity of
the vehicle.
 Horizontal Curves

o P = Wv²∕gR
o Where,
• P = Centrifugal force, kg
• W = Weight of the vehicle, kg
• R = Radius of the circular curve, m
• v = Speed of vehicle, m/sec
• g= Gravitational Acceleration
m/sec2
 Horizontal Curves
o P/W= v²∕gR
o P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact
factor.
o The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has two effects.
• Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the
outer wheels
• Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards.
 Horizontal Curves
Overturning Effect
 Horizontal Curves
Overturning Effect
 Horizontal Curves
Overturning Effect
o The condition for
overturning will occur when
Ph ≥ Wb/2, or when P/W ≥
b/2h.
o This means that there is
danger of overturning when
the centrifugal ratio P/W or
v²/gR attains a value of
b/2h.
 Horizontal Curves

Transverse skidding effect

• In equilibrium condition
• P = FA+ FB
• P = f.RA+f.RB
• P = f.(RA+RB) =f .W
• P = f .W
 Horizontal Curves
Transverse skidding effect
 Horizontal Curves
o Vehicle overturn prior to skidding
b/2h < f
o Vehicle skidding prior to overturn
f < b/2h
o Thus to avoid overturning and
lateral skidding on a horizontal
curve,
P/W < Minimum of (b/2h & f)
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation
o To counteract the effect of centrifugal
force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised
with respect to the inner edge.
o Thus, providing a transverse slope throughout the length
of the horizontal curve, this transverse inclination to the
pavement surface is known as Superelevation or cant or
banking.
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation
o The Superelevation ‘e’ is
expressed as the ratio of
the height of the outer
edge with respect to the
horizontal width.
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation
o The centrifugal force
P = Wv²/gR acting
horizontal outwards
through the centre of
gravity (CG).
o The weight W of the
vehicle acting
vertically downwards
through the CG.
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation
o The frictional force (F)
developed between the
wheels and the pavement
counteraction transversely
along the pavement
surface towards the centre
of the curve.
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation
o The frictional force (F)
developed between the
wheels and the pavement
counteraction transversely
along the pavement
surface towards the centre
of the curve.
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation

The value of the coefficient of lateral friction ‘f’ is taken as 0.15 and tanө
i.e. super elevation seldom exceeds 7-10%.
 Horizontal Curves
Superelevation

o Therefore, the general equation for the design of super

elevation is given by,
e + f = v²∕gR
o If ‘V’ speed of the vehicle is in kmph,
e + f = V²∕ 127R
o where,
e=rate of Superelevation=tanӨ
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec²
 Horizontal Curves
Maximum Superelevation
o In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less
dense materials like straw or cotton.
o The centre of gravity of the loaded vehicle will be relatively high
and it will not be safe for such vehicles to move on a road with a
high rate of Superelevation.
o Because of the slow speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly
small in the case of bullock carts.
o Hence to avoid the danger of toppling of such loaded slow moving
vehicles, it is essential to limit the value of maximum allowable
Superelevation.
 Horizontal Curves
Maximum Superelevation
o Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of
Superelevation in plain and rolling terrains and is snow
bound areas as 7.0 %.
o On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevation
upto 10%.
o On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may
be necessary to limit the maximum Superelevation to 4.0 %.
 Horizontal Curves
Minimum Superelevation
o From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a
minimum cross to drain off the surface water.
o If the calculated Superelevation is equal to or less than the
camber of the road surface, then the minimum Superelevation
to be provided on horizontal curve may be limited to the
camber of the surface.
 Horizontal Curves
Equilibrium Superelevation

o It is that super
elevation which is
provided to the road
so that there will be
equal pressure at
inner and outer tyre.
i.e. f=0
 Horizontal Curves
Design of Superelevation

o Step-I: The super elevation for 75 percent of design speed is

calculated, neglecting the friction.
e =(0.75v)²∕ gR …..if ‘v’ is in m/sec
e =(V)²∕ 225R …..if ‘V’ is in kmph
o Step-II: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07
the value so obtained is provided.
o If the value of ‘e’ exceeds 7% or 0.07 then provides
maximum superelevation equal to 7% or 0.07 and proceed
with step-III or IV.
 Horizontal Curves
Design of Superelevation

o Step-III: Check the coefficient of friction developed for the

maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value of design speed.
f =v²∕ gR - 0.07……… if ‘v’ is in m/sec
f =V²∕ 127R - 0.07…..if ‘V’ is in kmph
o If the value of ‘f’ thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super
elevation of 0.07 is safe for the design speed.
o If not, calculate the restricted speed as given in Step -IV
 Horizontal Curves
Design of Superelevation

o Step-IV: The allowable speed at the curve is calculated by

considering the design coefficient of lateral friction and the
maximum superelevation.
e + f =0.07+0.15=va²∕ gR=Va²∕ 127R
e + f =0.22=va²∕ gR = Va²∕ 127R
o Safe allowable speed (va or Va) is calculated as:
 Horizontal Curves
Design of Superelevation

o If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher than the

design speed, then the design is adequate and provides a
superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
o If the allowable speed is less than the design speed, the speed
is limited to the allowed speed calculated above and
appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are
installed to restrict and regulate the speed.
 Horizontal Curves
Q.1 The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design
speed is 50kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
Calculate
a) the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop.
b) the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is
provided.
c) the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer
wheels should be equal.
Solution 1:
a) the superelevation required if full lateral friction is
assumed to develop.
e + f = V^2/127R
e + 0.15= 50^2/127*100
e= 0.047
b) the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation
is provided.
No superelevation
f=V^2/127*R =50^2/127*100= 0.197
c) the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on
inner and outer wheels should be equal.
f=0,
e= V^2/127*R=50^2/127*100=0.197 ( Superelevation is
very high)
 Horizontal Curves

Q.2 Design the super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of

radius 500m and speed100kmph.
 Horizontal Curves

Q.2 Design the super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of

radius 500m and speed100kmph.

Solution 2
e= V^2/(225*R)= 100^2/(225*500)=0.089
As the value is greater than 0.07, superelevation will be restricted to
0.07
Check for f
f= V^2/(127*R) –e
=100^2/(127*500) -0.07
=0.087
As the value is less than 0.15, design is safe with superelevation of
0.07
 Horizontal Curves
Minimum Rulling Radius
o The minimum rulling radius of the curve for ruling design
speed V kmph is given by.
 Horizontal Curves
Q.3 Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute
minimum radius of horizontal curve of a national highway
in plane terrain. Assume ruling design speed and minimum
design speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
 Horizontal Curves
Q.3 Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute
minimum radius of horizontal curve of a national highway
in plane terrain. Assume ruling design speed and minimum
design speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.

Solution:
R ruling= V2/(127(e+f))= 1002/(127(0.07+.15))
= 357.9m say 360m
R min= V2/(127(e+f))= 802/(127(0.07+.15))
= 230m
 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
o On horizontal curves, especially • While two vehicle cross or
when they are not of very large overtake at horizontal curve
radii, it is common to widen the there is psychological
tendency to maintain a
pavement slightly more than the
greater clearance between
normal width. the vehicle for safety.
o Widening of pavement is needed
for the following reasons:
• For greater visibility at
curve, the driver have
tendency not to follow the
central path of the lane, but
to use the outer side at the
beginning of the curve.
 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

o The driver experience

difficulties in steering along
the curve.
o The vehicle occupies a
greater width as the rear
wheel doesn’t follow the
track of the front wheel
known as ‘Off tracking’
Off tracking
o An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front
wheels can be turned, when this vehicle takes a turn to
negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do not follow
the same path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking.
 Analysis of extra widening on curves
o The required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal
curves depends on the length of the wheel base of the vehicle
‘l’, radius of the curve ‘R’ and the psychological factors.
o It is divided into two parts;
 Mechanical Widening
 Psychological widening
o Total widening W = Wps+ Wm

•
 Analysis of extra widening on curves
Mechanical widening (Wm): o l=length of wheelbase in m
o The widening required to o = (6.0-6.1 m)
account for the off tracking o R=mean radius of the
due to the rigidity of wheel horizontal curve, m.
base is called mechanical o OB-OA= R2 - R1 =Wm
widening.
o Consider
o Wm=mechanical widening
due to off-tracking, m
o OA=R1=radius of the path
B
traversed by the outer rear
wheel, m
o OB=R2=radius of the path
traversed by the outer front
wheel, m

A
 Analysis of extra widening on curves

B
o If road having ‘n’ traffic lanes
and ‘n’ vehicles can travel
simultaneously, mechanical
widening reqd. is given by,

A
 Analysis of extra widening on curves
Psychological widening (Wps):
o Widening of pavements has
to be done for some
psychological reasons also.
o There is a tendency for the
drivers to drive close to the
edges of the pavement on
curves.
o Some extra space is to be
provided for more
clearance for the crossing
and overtaking operations
on curves.
 Analysis of extra widening on curves
Psychological widening (Wps):
o An empirical formula has been recommended by IRC for
deciding the additional psychological widening.
o The psychological widening is given by the formula:

o Total extra widening = Mechanical widening

+Psychological Widening
 Analysis of extra widening on curves

Note
IRC recommended value of extra widening for single and tow lane pavement
are given below.
1. Psychological widening is important in pavements with more than one lane.
2. If R> 300 m, then extra widening is not provide.
3. If R< 50 m, then extra widening is provided at inner edge.
4. If 50<R<300 m, then extra widening is provided at both the edge.
 Example-1
Q.4 Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of
width 7m on a horizontal curve of radius 250m if the longest
wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7.0 m. Design
speed is 70 kmph.
Solution:
Here n=2 (Two lane for pavement width 7m) and l=7m

=2*72/(2*250) + 70/(9.5*sqrt250)
=0.196+0.466
=0.662 m
 Horizontal transition curves
o When a non circular curve is o The rate of change of radius
introduce between a straight of the transition curve will
and a circular curve. depend on the shape of the
curve adopted and the
equation of the curve.

o A transition curve has a

radius which decreases from
infinity at the tangent point
to a designed radius of the
circular curve.
Objectives for providing transition curve
o To introduce gradually the
centrifugal force between
the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular
curve.
o To avoid sudden jerk on the
vehicle.
o To increases the comfort of
passengers.
 Objectives for providing transition curve
o To enable the driver turn the
steering gradually for his own
comfort and security.
o To provide gradual introduction
of superelevation.
o To provide gradual introduction
of extra widening.
o To enhance the aesthetic
appearance of the road.
 Type of transition curve
 Spiral or clothoid
 Cubic Parabola
 Lemniscate
 Type of transition curve
 Spiral Curve
o IRC recommends spiral curve as the transition curve
because it fulfills the requirement of an ideal transition
curve.
The requirement of an ideal transition curve are:
o rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is
consistent.
o Radius of the transition curve is infinity at the straight
edge and changes to R at the curve point (Ls
ᾳ1/R)and calculation and field implementation is very
easy.
 Length of transition curve
The requirement of an ideal transition curve:
i) The curve should be tangential to its junction points.
ii) The rate of change of superelevation provided should be equal
to the rate of change of curvature so that full superelevation can
be provided within the length of the transition curve.
iii) The length of the transition curve is inversely proportional to
the radius of curvature.
iv) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be
consistent, this implies the radius of the transition curve should
be consistently decreased from infinity at the tangent point to
the radius R of the circular curve.
 Length of transition curve
 The length of transition curve is calculated based on three
conditions:
o Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be
developed gradually.
o Rate of introduction of the designed superelevation to
be at a reasonable rate
o Length of Transition Curve by IRC empirical
formula.
 Length of transition curve
 Length of transition curve: Based on the rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration
Let us consider,
v=Velocity of the vehicle in m/s
V =Velocity of the vehicle in kmph
R= Radius of the transition curve at the junction of transition
and circular curve in m
C=Rate of change of radial acceleration m/sec3
L = length of transition curve in m
t = time taken by the vehicle to travel the length of the
transition curve.
 Length of transition curve
 Length of transition curve: Based on rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration
 Length of transition curve
 Length of transition curve: Based on the rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration
o the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is given by the
empirical formula which is
recommended by IRC i.e.

o The value of the C varies from

0.5 to 0.8 and V in kmph
 Length of transition curve
 Length of transition curve: Based on the rate of change of
Superelevation
Let us consider,
v=Velocity of the vehicle in m/s
V =Velocity of the vehicle in kmph
R= Radius of the transition curve at the junction of transition
and circular curve in m
C=Rate of change of radial acceleration m/sec3
L = length of transition curve in m
t = time taken by the vehicle to travel the length of the
transition curve.
case-2:Rate of introduction of super-elevation
• If the pavement is rotated about the center line.

Ls=EN/2=eN/2(W+We)

• If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge

Ls= EN= eN(W+We)

• Where W is the width of pavement

• We is the extra widening
• Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N
case-3:By empirical formula
• According to IRC standards:
For plane and rolling terrain:
2
2.7V
LS =
R
For mountainous and steep terrain:
2
V
LS =
R
The design length of transition curve(Ls) will be the
highest value of case-1,2 and 3
Example-1
• Calculate the length of the transition curve using the
following data;
Design speed= 65 kmph
Radius of circular curve= 220 m
Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavment
Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m
• Superelevation, e=0.07
Example-1
• Calculate the length of the transition curve using the
following data;
Design speed= 65 kmph
Radius of circular curve= 220 m
Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavment
Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m
• Superelevation, e=0.07
Solution:
a)Ls as per allowable rate of centrifugal acceleration
C= 80/(75+v)= 80/(75+65)=0.57 m/sec^3
Ls=0.0215*v^3/(C*R)= 0.0215*65^3/(0.57*220)= 47.1m

b)Ls as per allowable rate of superelevation

Ls= eN/2*(w+we) =0.07*150/2*7.5= 39 m

c)Minimum Ls as per IRC

Ls=2.7*V^2/R= 2.7*65^2/220 = 51.9 m
Adopt highest value among three number, answer is 51.9m
 Horizontal transition curves
o To facilitate a smoother
transition to the vehicle
while traveling form
transition curve to the
circular curve.
o The circular curve is
provided with some
downward displacement to
match the properties of the
transition curve. Such
downward displacement is
known as shift of curve.
Where,

L = Length of Transition Curve and

R= Radius of Circular Curve