❑ When a train moves on a curve path with normal speed , the following

difficulties may take place .

➢ Centrifugal force on the train acting horizontally away from the centre of
the curve
➢ Due to which the outer rail experiences heavy load and inner rail
experiences light load .
➢ The rail head experiences wear and tear .
➢ Chance of derailment due to rigid wheel base .
➢ Lateral bending due of lateral thrust .
❑ Above difficulties can be taken care by adopting the following measures
➢ Super-elevation must be provided at the curve section .
➢ Radius of the curve shall be large .
➢ Degree of curvature shall be low .
SUPERELEVATION :
When a train moves round a curve , it is subjected to a centrifugal force acting
horizontally at the centre of gravity of each vehicle radially away from the
centre of the curve . This increases the weight on the outer rail . To
counteract the effect of centrifugal force by a certain amount , introduce the
centripetal force . This raised elevation of outer rail above the inner rail at a
horizontal curve is called “ superelevation “ .
➢ The term “ cant “ is frequently used as a synonym for superelevation but “
cant “ should be used to represent the angle of a transverse slope .
Objects of providing superelevation :
1) To introduce the centripetal force for counteracting the effect of
centrifugal force , this will result in the faster movement of train on
curves . This will also prevent derailment and reduce side wear and creep
of rails .
2) To provide equal distribution of wheel loads on two rails so that there is
no tendency of track to move out of position due to more load on outer
rail . This reduces the wear of rails , equipment and results in saving in
maintenance cost .
3) To provide an even and smooth running track to ensure comfortable ride to
passengers and safe movement of goods .
α

G
W = Mg = weight of train
V = Velocity of train
R = Radius of curvature
G = Gauge width
Ff = µ R = µ ( W cosα + P sinα )
But force of friction Ff is zero as the rail is smooth
e = equilibrium superelevation ( in highway engg ., it was used when Ff = 0
and inner and outer rail get equal pressure but here Ff is automatically zero )
MV2
P=
R
e
tan α=
G
 For equilibrium i.e Σ F ( transverse) = 0
 ( W sinα - P cosα ) + Ff = 0
 W sinα = P cosα
MV2
 Mg tanα = P =
R
 V2
 g tanα =
R
e V 2
 g( )=
G R
2
𝑉 𝐺
 e =
𝑔𝑅
For B.G ;
G = 1.676 m = 167.6 cm
1000𝑚 ×100𝑐𝑚 250
V = km/hr = = cm/sec
60 ×60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 9
g= 981 cm/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
R is in ‘m’ = 100R cm
Therefore
𝑉 2𝐺 𝑉2
e = = 1.315 cm ;( use the value of V in km/hr , R in m )
𝑔𝑅 𝑅
For M.G ; G = 1.000 m = 100 cm
𝑉2
 e = 0.8 cm ; ( use the value of V in km/hr , R in cm )
𝑅
For N.G ; G = 0.762 m = 76.2 cm
𝑉2
e = 0.6 cm ; ( use the value of V in km/hr , R in cm )
𝑅
➢ e(max) ranges from ( 1/10 to 1/12 ) of gauge => the maximum permissible
superelevation of Indian Railways is about ( 1/10 to 1/12 ) of gauge
𝐺 1.676
➢ For B.G ; e(max) = = = 0.1676m = 16.76 cm = 16.5 cm
10 10
𝐺 1.000
➢ For M.G ; e(max) = = = 0.1 m = 10 cm
10 10
𝐺 0.762
➢ For N.G ; e(max) = = = 0.076 m = 7.6 cm
10 10
➢ e ( U.K ) = 19 cm
➢ e ( U.S.A) = 15.2 cm
➢ According to the IRB , the superelevation as given in the above formula is
based on average speed called “ weighted average speed “
𝑉1 𝑛1 +𝑉2 𝑛2 +𝑉3 𝑛3 + …..
➢ V= ; n = number of trains with different speed
𝑛1 +𝑛2 +𝑛3 + …..
Derive :
𝑉 2𝐺
𝑒=
𝑔𝑅
𝑉2
𝑒= 1.315
𝑅
𝑉 2𝐺
𝑒= m --------------( 4 )
127𝑅
𝑉 2𝐺
𝑒= cm -------------( 5 )
1.27𝑅
 The cant or superelevation obtained from equation ( 4) and ( 5 ) is known
as equilibrium cant . When the lateral forces and wheel loads are almost
equal , the cant is said to be in equilibrium .
Cant deficiency : D or Cd ( limits of super-elevation )
➢ It is the difference between the equilibrium cant required for maximum
permissible speed on the curve track and the actual cant provided based
on the weighted average speed on the curve track .
➢ Generally the super-elevation provided on a curve track is based on the
weighted average speed which is not adequate for running on the
maximum permissible speed , it means the super-elevation required for a
curve track where a train is running on the maximum speed is not
available and hence the shortage of super-elevation based on maximum
speed is known as “ cant deficiency “.
There are certain limits on the cant deficiency due to the following reasons:
➢ Due to higher cant deficiency , passengers may feel discomfort .
➢ Due to higher cant deficiency , the outer rail experiences heavy lateral
thrust due to which the rail may be damaged .
➢ The outer rail experiences heavy pressure .
➢ The fastening must be of high quality to connect rail with the sleepers .
Sl no Type of gauge Cant deficiency upto Cant deficiency > 100 kmph
100kmph

1 BG 76 mm 100 mm

2 MG 51 mm NIL

3 NG 38 mm NIL
Negative superelevation :

F
C

B A
Negative superelevation :
➢ Whenever a main-line and a branch-line diverges from a common track in
contrary flexure ( opposite direction ) then it is very difficult to provide
super-elevation at the diverging junction to satisfy both tracks layout .
➢ In the given figure , the point A and point B are the common points of
both diverging out tracks .
➢ For the branch line , point B should be higher than the point A i.e the
outer rail BF must have superelevation , higher than the inner rail AE .
➢ For the main line , point A should be higher than the point B i.e the outer
AC must have superelevation , higher than the inner rail BD . It is
impossible to maintain ( satisfy ) both the conditions at the same time . i.e
point A should be higher than the point B for the main line and at the
same time point B should be higher than the point A for the branch line
and hence a contradictory condition develops .
➢ In such a condition , the weightage should be given to the main line only
but at the same time the branch line cannot be neglected totally .
➢ The final conclusion is that the point A shall be higher than the point B . It
means the point B is lower than the point A for the branch line and hence
the branch line is provided with “negative superelevation” , only because
B is not higher than point A . The speed on both tracks must be restricted
particularly on branch line.
➢ For Main line :
 emain (max) − eactual (avg) = D
 emain (max) −D = eactual (avg)
➢ For branch line :
 ebranch(max) − eactual (avg) = D
 D − ebranch (max) = − eactual (avg)
❑ Therefore :
➢ 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ,𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(avg) = − 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ,𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ (avg) = negative superelevation
➢ 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 (max) −𝐷 = 𝐷 − 𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ (max)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 2 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 2
➢ 1.315 -D=D- 1.315 ( for B.G )
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 2 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 2
➢ 0.8 -D=D- 0.8 ( for B.G )
𝑅 𝑅
TYPES OF GRADIENT ON RAILWAY TRACK :
1) Ruling gradient .
2) Momentum gradient .
3) Pusher or helper gradient .
4) Gradient at station and yards .
Ruling gradient :
It is the maximum permissible gradient on a railway track where the design
speed of the train is maintained i.e on a particular route of a railway track no
gradient shall be higher than the ruling gradient ( otherwise speed will come
down .
In plain terrain , ruling gradient is ( 1 in 150 to 1 in 200 )
In hilly terrain ( 1 in 100 to 1 in 150 )
Momentum gradient :
Incase of valley zone of a railway track , there is always a falling gradient and a
rising gradient . During downward motion of the train , the train gains
momentum under gravity and this momentum helps the train to climb up on
the rising gradient , this rising gradient is called momentum gradient .
Pusher gradient or Helper gradient :
▪ If the railway track lies on a steeper gradient like in hilly zone then the
speed of the train and the hauling capacity gets reduced due to additional
resistance developed by steeper gradient having value = Wg ( W = weight
of the train ; g = gradient = 1 in x )
▪ To maintain the design speed and design load , an additional engine called
Pusher ( Helper ) engine is provided and hence such steeper gradient is
called pusher gradient.
▪ On western Ghats with B.G track , pusher gradient of 1 in 37 is used
▪ In Darjeeling , 1 in 25
▪ A helper gradient is required if the gradient available at the site of the
railway track is 1 in 75 to 1 in 100
Gradient at station and yards :
The gradient at station and yards have to be sufficiently low due to the
following reasons ;
i. To prevent the movement of standing vehicles on the track due to the
effect of gravity combined with a strong wind and/or a gentle push
which may obstruct movement of main trains.
ii. To prevent additional resistance due to grade on the starting vehicles
which is about twice at the start than vehicles in motion . However a
certain minimum gradient is required to be provided for drainage .
iii. Maximum gradient in station and yards is 1 in 400 ;
iv. Minimum gradient in station and yards is 1 in 1000 from drainage point
of view.
Grade compensation :
➢ The ruling gradient is the maximum gradient on a particular section but if
a curve lies on a ruling gradient , the resistance due to the gradient is
increased by that due to curvature( ( W g = W (1/x)) and this further
increases the resistance beyond the ruling gradient .
➢ In order to avoid resistances beyond the allowable limits , the gradients
are reduced on the curves and this reduction in gradients is known as
grade compensation for curves
➢ The curve resistance is expressed as a percentage per degree of the curve.
The curve resistance is greater at lower speeds .
➢ In India the grade compensation is taken as
For B.G = 0.04 % per degree of the curvature
For M.G = 0.03 % per degree of the curvature
For N.G = 0.02 % per degree of the curvature
➢ The final gradient along with the curvature is equal to = rising gradient –
grade compensation
Relation between degree of curvature θ and radius of curvature R
Now ,
For 360 degree , circumference = 2 𝜋 R
2𝜋R
For 1 degree , circumference = -------- (1)
360
and
If θ = θ , circumference = 30 m
30
If θ = 1 , circumference = ------------( 2 )
θ
Thererfore , from ( 1) and ( 2 )
2 𝜋 R 30
 =
360 θ
1718.87 1720
 R= =
θ θ θ
𝟏𝟕𝟐𝟎
 θ= ( Circumference = 30 m )
𝐑
𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
 θ= ( Circumference = 50 m )
𝐑
According to IRB , the degree of curvature shall not exceed
1) B.G = 10 degree
2) M.G = 16 degree
3) N.G = 40 degree
Expression for versine ( relation between R and versine V of curve )

A B

O
Applying pythagorus theorem in triangle AOB , we get
 𝑅2 = (𝐶/2)2 +𝑌 2
𝐶2
 𝑅2 = + ( 𝑅 − 𝑉 )2
4
𝐶2
 𝑅2 = + 𝑅2 + 𝑉 2 - 2 R V ; 𝑉 2 is neglected since it is very small
4
𝐶2
 2RV=
4
𝑪𝟐
 V= = Versine
𝟖𝑹
𝑪𝟐 (𝐶×1000𝑚𝑚)2 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑪𝟐
 Versine = = = mm
𝟖 𝑹 8 (𝑅×1000𝑚𝑚) 𝑹
 C in m ; R in m ; versine in mm
𝑪𝟐 (𝐶×100𝑐𝑚)2 𝟏𝟐.𝟓𝑪𝟐
 Versine = = = cm
𝟖 𝑹 8 (𝑅×100𝑐𝑚) 𝑹
 C in m ; R in m ; versine in cm