ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

Topic – Railway Transportation and its development

 Discuss the organizational structure of Indian Railways.

How are the duties distributed in a typical zonal railway
headquarter?
 Give the complete classification of a railway lines as
adopted by Indian Railways
 Railway Engineering
2. Traction
• Definition
• Different types of Traction
• Tractive Resistance and types
• Hauling Capacity
• Tractive Effort of Locomotive
 DEFINITION
 Traction- The source through which locomotive derives its power
is called as traction
 Electric Locomotive – Electricity (AC/DC)
 Diesel Locomotive- Diesel
 Steam Locomotive- Steam (Burning of Coal)

Train – A combination of coach or wagons with single or

combination of locomotives.
Traction has influence on following components of train
 Load Carrying Capacity
 Speed
 Economy
 Efficiency of Service
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRACTION

Characteristic Steam Traction Diesel Traction Electric Traction

Source of Coal or Oil Diesel Electrical Energy

energy
Tractive effort Low Higher than Highest
Steam
Overload 10%–25% overload Only 6%–10% Over 50% overload
capacity capacity overload capacity capacity
Cost of About Rs 5 million About Rs 15 About Rs 18 million
locomotive million
Reversing Requires a turntable Reversing not Reversing not
arrangement required required
Life of 40 Years 30 years 30 years
locomotive
Utilization of Wastage of fuel No wastage No wastage
power
Suitability • Low Traffic density • Heavy traffic • Heavy loads on
gradients,
underground
• Coal available at low • Intermediate railways
cost • For High Speeds
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRACTION
Characteristic Steam Traction Diesel Traction Electric Traction

Requirement of staff One driver and two One Driver One Driver
firemen
Smoke and fire Both Present Only smoke Both absent

Promptness of Takes time for Service is readily Service is readily

service igniting coal available available

Normal working About 12 hours a day About 21 hours a day About 21 hours a day
hours
Speeds Only low speeds are Higher speeds can be Very high speeds
possible achieved
Rate of acceleration Very Slow Better Fast
Flexibility in haulage Can haul only a Can haul a greater Can haul only a large
limited number of number of coaches number of coaches
coaches

Condition of track Damaged due to No such Damage No Damage

hammer blow action
Fuelling points Required Required Not Required

Repairs and renewals Frequent Comparatively less Minimum

Future prospects Phased out of IR Brighter Prospects Brightest Prospects
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES

• Resistance to the movement of train on a track may be a result of the

movement of the various parts of the locomotives as well as the
friction between them, the irregularities in the track profile, or the
atmospheric resistance to a train moving at great speed.
• Following are various tractive resistances
• Resistance Due to Friction
• Resistance Due to Wave Action
• Resistance Due to Wind
• Resistance Due to Gradient
• Resistance Due to Curvature
• Resistance Due to Starting and Accelerating

The tractive power of a locomotive should be adequate enough to

overcome these resistances and haul the train at a specified speed
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO FRICTION

 Definition- Friction between the internal parts of locomotives and

wagons as well as between metal surface of the rail and wheel of
a train moving at constant speed.
 The three types of resistances due to friction are:
• Journal Friction – Dependent upon the type bearing, lubricant
used, temperature and condition of bearing.
• For roll bearings – 0.5 to 1kg per tonne
• Internal resistance- Movement of various parts of locomotives
and wagons
• Rolling resistance – Movement of steel wheels on steel rail

 Empirical formula : R1= 0.0016w

Where ‘w’ is the weight of train in tonnes
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO WAVE ACTION
 When a train moves with speed, a certain resistance develops
due to the wave action of the train (Vertical movement of wheels
and rails)
 Similarly, track irregularities such as longitudinal unevenness
and differences in cross levels also offer resistance to a moving
train.
 Such resistances are different for different speeds

 Empirical Formula: R2= 0.00008.w.v

Where ‘w’ is the weight of train in tonnes
v is the speed of train in kmph
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO WIND
 Wind resistance consists of side resistance, head resistance, and
tail resistance
 Its exact magnitude depends upon the size and shape of the
vehicle (the exposed area of the vehicle), its speed, and wind
direction as well as velocity.
 Wind resistance can be obtained by the following formula:
R3 = 0.000017AV2
where A is the exposed area of vehicle (m2) and V is the velocity of
wind (km/h)

Empirical formula:
R3= 0.0000006.w.v2
Where ‘w’ is the weight of
train in tonnes
v is the speed of train in
kmph
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO GRADIENT

 When a train moves on a rising gradient, it requires extra effort in

order to move against gravity
 R= W * sinθ
 R= W * AB/OA
 In actual practice, the gradients are very small
 OA is approximately equal to OB
 R= W * AB/OB
 R= W * Slope(Gradient)
 R= W * % Slope / 100
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO CURVATURE

 When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required

to overcome the resistance offered by the curvature of the track

Curve resistance is caused because of following reasons

 Rigid wheel base- The frame takes up a tangential position as
vehicle tries to move in a longitudinal direction along the curve.
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO CURVATURE

 Longitudinal slip- The outer wheel flange of the trailing axle remains clear
and tends to derail. The position worsens further if the wheel base is long
and the curve is sharp
 Transverse slip- increases the friction between the wheel flanges and the
rails.
 Inadequate super elevation increases the pressure on the outer rail and,
similarly, excess super elevation puts greater pressure on the inner rails,
 Poor track maintenance, particularly bad alignment, worn out rails, and
improper levels
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO CURVATURE
The value of curve resistance can be given as follows

Curve Resistance = CFG/R

Where, F is the force of sliding friction, G is the gauge of the track, R

is the mean radius of the curve, and C is the constant, which is
dependent on various factors

Empirical formulae have been worked out for curve resistance,

which are as
follows:
Curve resistance for BG (R5) = 0.0004WD
Curve resistance for MG (R5) = 0.0003WD
Curve resistance for NG (R5) = 0.0002WD

where W is the weight of the train in tonnes and D is the degree of

the curve
 TRACTIVE RESISTANCES DUE TO STARTING AND
ACCELERATION
Trains face resistances at stations when they start, accelerate, and
decelerate
Resistance on starting, R6 = 0.15W1 + 0.005W2

Resistance due to acceleration, R7 = 0.028aW

where W1 is the weight of the locomotive in tonnes,
W2 is the weight of the vehicles in tonnes,
W is the total weight of the locomotive and vehicle in tonnes,
a is the acceleration
 HAULING CAPACITY (POWER) OF LOCOMOTIVE

 The hauling capacity of a locomotive depends upon the weight

exerted on the driving wheels and the friction between the driving
wheel and the rail.

 Indicator of power available to locomotive.

 At minimum level, it is assumed to equal to traction resistances

 Coefficient of friction = 0.1 for higher speeds and 0.2 for lower
speeds

 Hauling capacity = number of pairs of driving wheels × weight

exerted on the driving wheels × coefficient of friction
 TRACTIVE EFFORT OF A LOCOMOTIVE

 The tractive effort of a locomotive is the force that the locomotive

can generate for hauling the load.

 The tractive effort of a locomotive should be enough for it to haul

a train at the maximum permissible speed.

 Tractive effort is generally equal to or a little greater than the

hauling capacity of the locomotive.

 If the tractive effort is much greater than what is required to haul

the train, the wheels of the locomotive may slip
TYPICAL SKETCH OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVE
 TRACTIVE EFFORT OF A STEAM LOCOMOTIVE
 The tractive effort of a steam locomotive can be calculated by
equating the total power generated by the steam engine to the
work done by the driving wheels

 Te = Pd2L / D

 P is the difference in steam pressure between the two sides of the

cylinder,

 A is the area of the piston of the engine,

 d is the diameter of the piston of the engine,

 L is the length of the stroke of the engine, D is the diameter of

the wheel of the locomotive,

 Te is the mean tractive effort of the locomotive

 TRACTIVE EFFORT OF A DIESEL and ELECTRIC
LOCOMOTIVES

Tractive effort of a diesel-elective locomotive can be assessed by the

following empirical formula
Te = 308 x RHP / V
Te is the tractive effort of a diesel-electric locomotive, RHP is the
rated horsepower of the engine, and V is the velocity in km/h

 The tractive effort of an electric locomotive varies inversely with

the speed.
 For an dc electric locomotive: Te = a/V3
 For an ac electric locomotive: Te = a/V5
where a is a constant depending upon the various characteristics of
the locomotive.
 NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
 Calculate the maximum permissible load that a BG locomotive with
three pairs of driving wheels bearing an axle load of 22 t each can
pull on a straight level track at a speed of 80 km/h. Also calculate the
reduction in speed if the train has to run on a rising gradient of 1 in
200. What would be the further reduction in speed if the train has to
negotiate a 4° curve on the rising gradient? Assume the coefficient of
friction to be 0.2.

 Calculate the maximum permissible train load that can be pulled by a

locomotive with four pairs of driving wheels with an axle load of
28.42 t each on a BG track with a ruling gradient of 1 in 200 and a
maximum curvature of 3°, travelling at a speed of 48.3 km/h. Take the
coefficient of friction to be 0.2.

 Compute the steepest gradient that a train of 20 wagons and a

locomotive can negotiate given the following data: weight of each
wagon = 20 t, weight of locomotive = 150 t, tractive effort of
locomotive = 15 t, rolling resistance of locomotive = 3 kg/t, rolling
resistance of wagon = 2.5 kg/t, speed of the train = 60 km/h.
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Topic – Traction

 Differentiate between the hauling capacity and the tractive effort

of a locomotive.

 What will be the gradient for a BG track when the gradient

resistance together with curve resistance due to a 3° curve is
equal to the resistance due to ruling gradient of 1 in 200? What
would be the resistance when an 8° curve is provided on an MG
line and a train with a total weight of 914.85 t is passing over it?

 Compare the various characteristics of steam, diesel and electric

traction