EASTERN SAMAR SATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
2nd Semester, S. Y. 2021-2022

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS,

INCLUDING CROSS SECTIONS, HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS, SUPER-ELEVATION AND
EARTHWORKS

BS in CIVIL ENGINEERING 2A
GROUP 4

Alegre, Hyacinth Cyrene G.

Alota, Arliz V.
Anos, Trixie Anne C.
Apura, Lyra May A.
Ato, Jessa Mae
Limbauan, Anival

Submitted to:
ENGR. ROEL SUYOT
 Geometric Design for Highway and
COURSE
OUTLINE 4 Railways including Cross-Sections,
Horizontal and Vertical Alignments,
Super-Elevation and Earthworks

INTRODUCTION
Geometric design of highways talks about the design of its visible dimensions of
components like horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections, junctions or intersections,
super elevations, and earthworks. These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such
as roadways, railways. The primary goal of geometric design is to create a roadway that is safe,
efficient, and cost-effective to operate while maintaining a high level of aesthetic and
environmental quality. Vehicle, driver, and traffic factors all have an impact on geometric
design. The geometric design is a dynamic discipline where design rules are changed on a
regular basis to produce better results for a reason that these characteristics changes overtime.

Geometric design of Railways refers to the importance of tracks to have a proper

geometric design in order to maximize the safety and smooth running of trains at maximum
allowable speed carrying the heaviest load of the axle. The speed and axle load of the train is
important and sometimes included as parameters to be considered while arriving at the
geometric design of railway. This chapter focuses on the fundamentals of geometric design of
highways and railways, and presents standards and examples from different modes. The order
of presentation of material in this chapter is to consider geometric design of highway first, then
geometric design of railway, cross-sections, vertical alignment, horizontal alignment, super-
elevation, earthworks, and other design details. Design guidelines take into account speed,
vehicle type, road grade (slope), view obstructions, and stopping distance. With proper
application of guidelines, along with good engineering judgement, an engineer can design a
roadway that is comfortable, safe, and appealing to the eye.
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with
the positioning of physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints.
The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while
minimizing cost and environmental damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth
objective called ‘livability,’ which is defined as designing roads to foster broader community
goals, including providing access to employment, schools, businesses and residences,
accommodate a range of travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and
minimizing fuel use, emissions and environmental damage. Geometric roadway design can be
broken into three main parts: alignment, profile, and cross-section. Combined, they provide a
three-dimensional layout for a roadway
 The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal
tangents and curves.
 The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves,
and the straight grade lines connecting them.
 The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle
lanes and sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections
also show drainage features, pavement structure and other items outside the
category of geometric design.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
To meet the objective of fitting the highway to site topography and yet satisfy the
safety, service and performance standards, the following considerations have to be properly
addressed in the design process.
 Design Speed
 Design traffic volume
 Number of lanes
 Level of service (LOS)
 Sight distance
 Alignment, super-elevation and grades
 Cross section
 Lane width
 Horizontal and vertical clearance
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Design Speed

The design speed is defined as a selected rate of travel used to determine the various
geometric features of the roadway. The basic purpose in using the design speed concept is to
achieve consistency in the various design elements that influence vehicle operations. Since
many critical design features are predicated upon design speed, the selection of the proper value
is essential to allow for the safe design of a safe street or highway. The selection of an
appropriate design speed is dependent on the predicted driver behavior and is, therefore, rather
complex. This selection of design speed should receive considerable preliminary investigation
and thought so safety will be realized from the design. The primary basis for selecting the
design speed should be a rational prediction of the probable maximum operating speed (by
approximately 90 percent of the vehicles) on the street or highway. The "average running
speed" is not acceptable as a design speed.
In selecting design speeds, consideration should also be given to pedestrians and
bicycle usage and to the present and future adjacent land use. Recommended minimum values
for design speed are given in the table below. These values should be considered as general
guidelines only
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED (MPH)
URBAN RURAL
TYPE OF ROADWAY *SPEED RESTRICTIONS *SPEED RESTRICTIONS
WITH WITHOUT WITH WITHOUT
Freeway or Expressway 50 60 --- 70
Arterial (major) 40 55 55 70
Arterial (minor) 35 50 55 70
Collector (major) 35 45 50 65
Collector (minor) 30 40 40 60
local 20 30 30 50

The maximum normal operating speed is dependent on many variables including

topography, general roadway geometry, frequency of traffic signals or other traffic control
devices, posted speed limit and the degree of enforcement and others.
Design Vehicles
A ‘design vehicle’ is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate vehicles of a
designated dimensions and minimum turning radii larger than those of almost all vehicles in
its class. The decision as to which of the design vehicles (or other special vehicles) should be
used as a control is complex and requires careful study. Each situation must be evaluated
individually to arrive at a reasonable estimate of the type and volume of expected traffic.
Design criteria significantly affected by the type of vehicle include:
 Horizontal and vertical clearances
 Alignment
 Lane widening on curves
 Shoulder width requirements
 Turning roadway and intersection radii
 Intersection sight distance
Sight Distance
Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight distance
criteria exist in highway geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient warning of
potential obstacle or conflict ahead. Future obstruction to sight distance that may develop or be
constructed should be taken into consideration in the initial design. Areas outside of the
highway right of way that are not under the highway agency’s jurisdiction should be considered
as points of obstruction.
Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is the distance ahead that a motorist should be able to see so
that the vehicle can be brought safely to stop short of an obstruction or foreign object on the
road. This distance will include the driver’s reaction or perception distance and the distance
traveled while the brakes are being applied. The total distance traveled varies with the initial
speed, the brake reaction time, and the coefficient of friction for wet pavements and average
tires. Safe stopping sight distance shall be provided continuously on all streets and highways.
The factors, which determine the minimum distance required to stop, include:
 Vehicle speed
 Driver’s total reaction time
 Characteristics and conditions of the vehicle
 Friction capabilities between the tires and the roadway surface
 Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway
RAILWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric Design of the Railway Track should be such as such as to provide maximum
efficiency in the traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Necessity for Geometric Design:

 To ensure the smooth and safe

running of trains
 To achieve maximum speeds
 To carry heavy axle loads
 To avoid accidents and
derailments due to a defective
permanent way
 To ensure that the track requires
least maintenance
 For good aesthetics
GRADIENT

Any departure of track from the level is known as grades or gradient. The purpose of
providing gradient is provide uniform rate of rise or fall, to reduce cost of earthwork, to reach
different stations at different level.

Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives:

 To reach various stations at different elevations
 To follow natural contours of the ground to extent possible
 To reduce the cost of earth work

Types of Gradients

 Ruling Gradient

The steepest gradient allowed

on the track section. It
determines the max load that
the locomotive can haul that
section. The steep gradient
needs more powerful
locomotives, smaller train
loads, lower speed, resulting
in costly hauling
-in plains 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
-in hilly regions 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
 Momentum Gradient

The gradient on a section which are

steeper than the ruling gradient
acquire sufficient momentum to
negotiate them are known as
momentum gradient.

 Pusher Gradient

As stated above a ruling gradient limits

the maximum weight of a train which
can be hauled over the section by a
locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so
severe on a section that it needs the help
of extra engine to pull the same load
than this gradient is known as pusher of
helper gradient. In Darjeeling Railways
1 in 37 pusher gradient is used on
western Ghats BG Track
  Gradient at Stations

At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following reason:

o To prevent movement of standing vehicle
o To prevent additional resistance due to grade
o On indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards

 Grade Compensation on Curves

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track
will be increased this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond allowable
limits, the gradients are reduced on curves. The reduction in gradient is known
as grade compensation for curves.

 BG Track: 0.04% per degree of curve

 MG Track: 0.03% per degree of curve
 NG Track: 0.02% per degree of curve

Example:
Find the steepest gradient on a 2° curve for BG line with a ruling gradient of 1 in 200.

Solution:
Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.5%

Compensation for 2° curve = 0.04 x 2 = 0.08%

Compensated gradient = 0.5 – 0.08

= 0.42 %
=1 in 238
Therefore the steepest gradient on the curved track is 1 in 238
 4.1 CROSS SECTION

Cross Section is a vertical section of the ground and roadway at right angles to the
centre line of the roadway, including elements of a highway or street from right of way line.

It shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and sidewalks, along with
their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage features, pavement structure
and other items outside the category of geometric design.

The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulder, and
medians for some multiline high.

4.1.1 Travel Lane

Travel Lane is the portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicle, exclusive of
shoulders and bicycle lanes. There are usually contains two or more lanes for roadway traffic.

Lane Width is he selection of a roadway lane width can affect its cost and performance.

Lane Width Influences:

 Driver comfort
 Operational
 Characteristics
 Crash probability
 Level of service
 Drivers typically increase their speeds with wider traffic lanes. Therefore, it may be
appropriate to use narrower lane widths that are compatible with the alignment and intended
speed at locations with low design speeds and restricted alignments. Using a typical lane width
of 12 feet reduces maintenance costs and provides adequate clearance between heavy vehicles
on two-lane, two-way rural highways with high commercial vehicle traffic.

Facility Type Typical Lane Widths

Range: 9 to 12 feet

High speed, high volume highways: 12 feet (predominant)

Urban areas with lane width controls: 11 feet

Low-speed facilities: 10 feet (acceptable)

Rural low-volume roads & residential 9 feet (acceptable)

areas:

4.1.2 Shoulders

Roadway shoulders are defined by AASHTO as “the portion of the roadway contiguous
with the traveled way that accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support
of subbase, base, and surface courses”. These are one of the most important safety features for
roadways.
 Type of Roadway Shoulder Width

Minor rural roads (with or without surface) 2 feet

Major roads (with stabilized or paved shoulder)

12 feet

The limits of graded shoulders are from the edge of a traveled way to the intersection
of the shoulder slope and foreslopes.

The usable shoulder width is the actual shoulder for parking and emergencies. This
width is equal to the graded shoulder for sideslopes of 1V:4H or flatter.

Shoulder Width

Design guidelines for roadway shoulder widths vary by design speed, functional class,
and traffic volume. AASHTO recommends a minimum lateral clearance of 1 foot (preferably
2 feet) between a stopped vehicle on a roadway shoulder and the edge of the traveled way.

Facility Shoulder Width

High speed, high volume roadways 10 feet, normal width

Low volume highways 2 feet, 6 to 8 feet preferable

High speed, high volume roadways with trucks 10 feet, 12 feet preferable

Bicycles and pedestrians 4 feet, no rumble strips

For roadsides with barriers, walls, or vertical elements, the graded shoulder should have
a minimum offset of 2 feet (measured from the outer shoulder edge to the vertical element).
Vertical elements on low-volume roads can be used on the outer edge of the shoulder with a
minimum clearance of 4 feet (traveled way to barrier).
4.1.3 Median

Roadway medians separate opposing lanes of traffic and are suitable for multilane
arterials. This area is located between the edges of opposing traveled ways (including any left
shoulders). Median width and design characteristics are among the most important safety
features of high-speed highways in both urban and rural areas.

Principal Median Functions

 Separate opposing traffic

 Provide clear recovery area (errant vehicles)
 Provide emergency stopping areas
 Allow space for speed changes
 Provide storage for left-turns and U-turns
 Lessen headlight glare
 Provide space for future widths

Median design may require tradeoffs by the engineer. For locations with restricted
rightof-way, a wide median may not be possible if it requires reducing areas adjacent to the
traveled way. A reasonable border width serves as a buffer between private development and
the roadway, plus space may be needed for sidewalks, highway signs, utilities, parking,
drainage channels/structures, slopes, clear zones, and native plants.
 For median widths of 40 feet or wider, drivers are separated from opposing traffic with
greater ease of operation, less noise, and reduced headlight glare at night.
 4.2 ALIGNMENT
The layout of a highway is comprised of two components: A horizontal component
which is viewed from above and the vertical component which is viewed from the side.
The horizontal alignment dictates the left and right turning required to remain on the
roadway, while the vertical alignment exerts forces on the vehicle as the grade along the
roadway changes.

4.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

In the horizontal perspective, a roadway is primarily comprised of tangent, or straight,
sections which are smoothly connected by curves.
The horizontal curves that are used to provide drivers with the transition from one
tangent to the next tangent are typically simple curves which are an arc of circle.
These curves have a single radius value which represents the sharpness or flatness of
the curve.

Types of Horizontal Curves:

1. Simple Circular Curve

2. Compound Curve

3. Reverse Curve

4. Transition Curve
1. Simple Circular Curve
The curve which consists of a single arc of a circle of which two straight tangents
further connects and brings about an angle ‘I’ is called as simple curve.
Simple curve is normally represented by the length of its radius or by the degree
of curve. This type of curve is provided at every change in alignment of the road or
railway track in a plain and in hilly areas.

Terminologies in Simple Curve:

 PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.

 PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
 PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
 T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent.
 R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
 L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint of L.
 Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the figure is the midpoint of Lc.
 E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
 m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
  I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is the
angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at O is
also equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from the above figure.
 x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
 θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
 D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to
one station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station
is equal to 20 m.

 Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.

Sharpness of Circular Curve

The smaller is the degree of curve, the flatter is the curve and vice versa. The
sharpness of simple curve is also determined by radius R. Large radius are flat whereas
small radius are sharp.

Formulas
Length of tangent, T
Length of tangent (also referred to as subtangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the
same distance from PI to PT. From the right triangle PI-PT-O,
External distance, E
External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve. From the same
right triangle PI-PT-O,

Middle ordinate, m
Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
chord. From right triangle O-Q-PT,

Length of long chord, L

Length of long chord or simply length of chord is the distance from PC to PT. Again,
from right triangle O-Q-PT,
Length of curve, Lc
Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve.
By ratio and proportion,

An alternate formula for the length of curve is by ratio and proportion with its degree of
curve.

If given the stationing of PC and PT

Degree of curve, D
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord
basis) of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1
station is equal to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that
100 ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m.
Arc Basis
In arc definition, the degree of curve is the central angle angle subtended by
one station of circular arc. This definition is used in highways. Using ratio and
proportion,
2. Compound Curve
A curve of having the series of two and more simple curves of different radii
curving in the same direction is called as compound curves.

In compound curves, the two adjacent curves will have a common tangent ‘BC’
as shown in above figure.

To avoid the cutting through hard rocks, heavy cutting or filling in the
alignment of road or track, compound curves are provided.
 Elements of compound curve
 PC = point of curvature
 PT = point of tangency
 PI = point of intersection
 PCC = point of compound curve
 T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
 T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
 V1 = vertex of the first curve
 V2 = vertex of the second curve
 I1 = central angle of the first curve
 I2 = central angle of the second curve
 I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
 Lc1 = length of first curve
 Lc2 = length of second curve
 L1 = length of first chord
 L2 = length of second chord
 L = length of long chord from PC to PT
 T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
 θ = 180° - I
 x and y can be found from triangle V1-V2-PI.
 L can be found from triangle PC-PCC-PT
3. Reverse Curve
The curve which consists of two simple curve having equal or different radii
turning in opposite direction is called as reverse curve. The two centers of curves are on
opposite sides of a common tangent ‘BD’.

Reverse curves are necessary on hill roads where frequently changes in the
direction of travel is required. Reverse curves are also necessary for cross-overs in station
yards and in the alignment of the railway tracks in hilly areas.
Elements of Reversed Curve
 PC = point of curvature
 PT = point of tangency
 PRC = point of reversed curvature
 T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
 T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
 V1 = vertex of the first curve
 V2 = vertex of the second curve
 I1 = central angle of the first curve
 I2 = central angle of the second curve
 Lc1 = length of first curve
 Lc2 = length of second curve
 L1 = length of first chord
 L2 = length of second chord
 T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
4. Transition Curve
A curve of varying radius is termed as transition curve. It is generally provided
on the sides of circular curve or between the tangent and circular curve and between two
curves of compound or reverse curve etc. Its radius varies from infinity to the radius of
provided for the circular curve.
Transition curve helps gradual introduction of centrifugal force by gradual
superelevation which provides comfort for the passengers in the vehicle without sudden
jerking.

Considerations in Transition Curves:

 Transition Length
Transition length is the distance that is required to transition the road from
normal to full superelevation. It consists of Runout Length and Runoff Length.
 Runoff Length is the distance that is required to transition from zero
(flat) superelevation to full superelevation.
 Runout Length is the distance that is required to transition from normal
crown to zero superelevation (flat).
 % of Runoff Length on Tangent is the percentage of runoff length located in the
tangent, and the remaining of the percentage will be in the curve region. Therefore, if
the percentage is changed, the transition length will be changed as well.
The equation used in transition length calculation can be referred as below,

w = Road Width
e = Percentage change in superelevation
n1bw = No of lane Adjustment Factor

= Maximum Relative Gradient

n1bw can be referred as table below;

 Maximum Relative Gradient depends on the speed of the design. The values can
be referred to the table below:

Example
Given:
Design Speed (kph) = 40
Maximum Relative Gradient (refer table above) = 0.7/100 = 0.007
Road Width (m) = 3.6
No of Lanes = 2
N1bw (refer table above) = 1
Full Superelevation (%) = 6
Normal Crown (%) = -2.5
Chainage at Full Superelevation = 124.258
% of Runoff Length on Tangent = 67
Calculation of Runoff Length (from zero to full superelevation)

= 3.6 x |-2.5-(0)/100| x 1/ 0.007

= 12.857 m

Start chainage of the transition length

Given the Percentage of the Runoff Length is 67%, therefore 67% of the runoff
length is located at the tangent area and the remaining 33% is located in the curve
region.
Since 67% of the runoff length is in the tangent, therefore the new runoff length
is calculated as following
= 67% x 30.857m
= 20.674 m

Since the runoff length at tangent is changed, therefore the transition length also
will be adjusted.
Transition Length = Runoff Length + Runout Length
= 20.674 m + 12.857 m
= 33.531 m

The transition will start at 33.531 m before the full superelevation starts.
Therefore, the start chainage of the transition starts at 90.727.
Start chainage of transition = Full superelevation chainage – New transition length
= 124.258 – 33.531
= 90.727 m
4.2.2 Vertical Alignment
Grades

Vertical alignment is the longitudinal profile along the centerline of the road. It is made
up of a series of grades and vertical curves. The profile is determined by a consideration of the
planning, access, topographic, geological, design controls, earthworks and other economic
aspects.

The maximum grades to be used on the national highway of the Philippines are detailed
in Table 16.1.

Flat Topography:

In flat topography, there are considerable lengths of national highway of two-lane two-way
roads. The volume of traffic using these roads varies from location to location. However, there
are sections of highway that could benefit from improved overtaking opportunity. The use of
overtaking lane geometry would give DPWH Region and District engineers and planners the
facility to improve safety and capacity of lengths of highway along which traffic has had a lack
of overtaking opportunities.

A strategy for the implementation of a series of overtaking lanes along lengths of national
highway would provide cost efficient road works to improve safety and overtaking
opportunities that are currently lacking on lengths of national highway.
Rolling Topography:

Rolling topography may present additional need for auxiliary lanes for two reasons:

 For the addition of overtaking lanes on flat to rolling grades, and

 The provision for climbing lanes on steeper extended grades along which trucks slow
down to an extent where vehicles may be impeded from passing due to lack of available
overtaking sight distance on the steeper grades. On steeper grades, AASHTO proposes
limiting the maximum length to that which will not exceed the critical length of grade
generally as follows. The critical length is that which will cause a typical loaded truck
(5.5 kW/tonne) to operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. A reduction of
15 kph is recommended due to the significant increase in accident involvement rate at
high-speed reductions.
The warrant for the design of climbing lanes is when truck speeds fall to 40 kph or less
and traffic volumes equal or exceed those in Table 17.1

In addition, climbing lanes should be considered where:

 Extended grades over 8% occur,

 Accidents attributable to the effects of slow-moving trucks are significant;
 Heavy trucks from an adjacent industry enter the traffic stream on the upgrade; or
 The level of service E or F exist on the grade ‘E’.
 Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles per hour
 Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per hour
 A 15 km/hr. or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical heavy truck.
  A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced when moving from the
approach segment to the grade

The determination of the reduction of truck speeds on upgrades (deceleration) and for
the increase in speed (acceleration) are shown on Figure 16.5. These charts provide guidance
relating to the start and end locations of the climbing lane.
Mountainous Topography:

Although the speed of cars may be reduced slightly on steep upgrades, large differences
in speeds of light and heavy vehicles will occur and speeds of trucks will be quite slow. It is
important, therefore, to provide adequate sight distance to enable faster vehicle drivers to
recognize when they are catching up to a slower vehicle and to adjust their speed accordingly.
On steep down grades, it is desirable to increase the operating speed of the individual geometric
elements progressively towards the foot of the steep grade.

The topography in mountainous grades may not provide sufficient area for climbing
lanes to be provided. In these instances, turnouts may be used. Turnout is a short section of
paved shoulder or added lane that is provided to allow slow vehicles to pull aside and be
overtaken. They differ from climbing lanes in their short length and different signing. Turnouts
will be satisfactory to use on upgrades if traffic volumes are low or construction costs very
high.

In all the cases for consideration of auxiliary lane provision, it is necessary for the
designer to consider a strategy for the placement of these facilities rather than consider them in
isolation. The strategy should look at a staging of the construction over lengths of highway to
provide the most economical benefits and maximize the road safety gains.

Vertical Curves

The vertical alignment of a road consists of a series of straight grades joined by vertical
curves. A vertical curve is expressed as K value, which is the length of vertical curve in meters
for 1% change in grade. In the final design, the vertical alignment should fit into the natural
terrain considering earthworks balances, appearance and the maximum and minimum vertical
curvature allowed.

Large K value curves should be used where they are reasonably economical.

Minimum K value vertical curves should be selected on the basis of three controlling
factors:

 Sight distance is a requirement in all situations for driver safety;

 Appearance is generally required in low fill and flat topography situations; and
 Riding comfort is a general requirement with specific need on approaches to a floodway
where are length of depression needs to be minimized.
 Figure 16.6 provides details for the vertical curve theory and formulae. The adopted
driver eye height and object height for cars and trucks are detailed in Table 16.2. In summary,
most vertical curves can be designed using the following equations:
 For design purposes, the K value may be used to determine the equivalent radius of a
vertical curve using R (radius m) = 100K.

Values for stopping sight distance are shown in Table 16.3

Crest Curves

Minimum crest vertical lengths of different values of A to provide the minimum

stopping sight distance are shown in Figure 16.7. In this figure, the solid lines give minimum
vertical curve length, on the basis of rounded values of K (length of eye=1.08m; height of
object =0.60m) as determined from the following equations:
Sag Curves

At least four different criteria are used for establish of sag vertical curves. There are:
headlight sight distance, passenger comport, drainage control and general appearance.

DPWH sag vertical curves are designed using headlight sight distance criteria.
Headlight height is 0.6 m as shown in Table 16.2. A 1-degree upward divergence of the light
beam is used in computing the length of sag vertical curves.

The lengths of sag vertical curves are shown in Figure 16.8. For overall safety, a sag
vertical curve should be long enough that the light beam distance is nearly the same as the
stopping sight distance.
 The K values of crest and sag vertical curves for the corresponding design speed and
stopping sight distance are shown in table 16.4. The K values for passing sight distance are
also shown. The headlight sight distance for sags is equal to stopping sight distance.

The following directions shows the relationship between S, L at A using S as the

distance between the vehicle and point where the 1-degree upward single of the light beam
intersects the surface of the roadway.
 4.3 SUPERELEVATION

What is Superelevation?
Superelevation is a method of infrastructure construction used in roadway curves
where the outer edge of the pavement is raised above the inner edge. An aspect of the vertical
alignment or “profile” of a road viewed in cross-section, it’s an important safety element in the
design criteria of any road with curves.

When a motorist drives through a curve, the roadway is often tilted or banked at an angle,
making it easier to navigate the curve at a safe speed without skidding or tipping. This
is superelevation at work.

Superelevation helps motorists maintain both safety and optimal speeds on curved
roads. Without superelevation, many vehicles would slide or skid through curves — or even
tip and roll over — especially in wet or icy conditions, or at high speeds. It also allows traffic
to maintain some speed on curves, preventing excessive slowdowns every time the road bends.
The design of a superelevated road must be exacting. Its construction requires an
investment of heavy equipment, extensive materials, and a sizable labor force. But if it’s done
correctly, most people barely even notice it’s there.
Superelevation is more commonly known as “banking,” as in the banked track of a
racing speedway.
How Does Superelevation Work?
Superelevation works with several interacting forces of physics to help drivers maintain
speed and stay safely on the road through a curve. A complex combination of centrifugal and
centripetal force, friction, inertia, weight, and velocity or speed all interplay to determine the
need for superelevation on a road or highway.

Forces That Act Upon Superelevation

That feeling of driving into a curve and being pulled to one side? That’s centripetal
force.
This is why drivers need to slow down before changing direction on a flat surface:
Centrifugal force can pull a car outward, off the road, on a curve. But superelevation changes
that equation.
 On a flat surface, the only thing acting against inertia if you’re driving straight is the
friction provided by your tires. A banked curve, however, uses centripetal force to redirect
some of that velocity toward the center and allow you to navigate the turn safely.

How to Calculate Superelevation?

The formula for calculating is given below :

Where as;
e = Super elevation
f =coefficient of friction
v = speed in kmph
R = Radius of the curve in metre

Example:

Calculate the super elevation required for road of 7 m wide on a curve of 250 m
radius for permissible speed of 80 kmph. Let the coefficient of friction be 0.15.

Putting all the values in the formula we get,

∴ e = 0.201 – 0.15 = 0.051 per meter of carriage way.

∴ Super elevation = 0.051 * 7 = 0.357 m or 35.7 cm above the inner edge of the road.
 4.4 EARTHWORKS
Earthworks are engineering works created through the moving and/or processing of
massive quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earthworks is done to reconfigure the topography
of a site to achieve the design levels. Earthworks involves cutting and filling to achieve the
required topography.

Cutting: Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a works location to achieve
the desired topography.

Filling: Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to
a work location to achieve the desired topography.

Application of Earthworks Typically, earthworks is done in the following project:

 Road works
 Railways
 Irrigation project such as canals and dams
 Other common earthworks applications are land grading to reconfigure the
topography of site, or stabilize slopes.
REFERENCES
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001
Cebu Institute of Technology: Civil Engineering
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/cebu-institute-of-technology/civil-
engineering/geometric-design-for-highways-and-railways-including-cross-sections-
horizontal-and-vertical-alignments-super-elevation-and-earthworks/17878405
Engineerdmath: Surveying https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLy8CVak7-
Br7mGx0S4Mh14CDI2QqBkBVI
MATHalino Engineering Mathematics: Surveying and Transportation Engineering
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/surveying-and-transportation-engineering/simple-curves-or-
circular-curves
MATHalino Engineering Mathematics: Surveying and Transportation Engineering
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/surveying-and-transportation-engineering/compound-and-
reversed-simple-curves
Railways and Airports and Harbour: Superelevation
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Railway-Engineering--Superelevation_4225/