STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY AND
ROCK MECHANICS
Structural Geology – the branch of
geology that deals with the form,
arrangement, and internal structure of
rocks, and especially with the description
representation, and analysis of structures,
chiefly on a moderate scale
Structural geology is very important
in the field of civil engineering since it is the
basis of construction projects for buildings,
bridges, dams, roads, etc. and It serves as a
tool for prevention and mitigation in the
control of geological risks.
Important terms:
1. Bed
A layer of sediments or rock, such as
coal, that extends under a large area and
has a distinct set of characteristics that
distinguish it from other layers below and
above it. The bottom of a body of water,
such as a lake, stream, or ocean.
2. Strata
In geology and related fields,
a stratum (plural: strata) is a layer
of rock or sediment characterized by
certain lithologic properties or attributes
that distinguish it from adjacent layers from
which it is separated by visible surfaces
known as either bedding
surfaces or bedding planes.
 4.   Outcrop 
An outcrop is simply defined as an
exposure of a solid rock on the surface of
the earth.

3. 5. Azimuth
S  a compass direction of the line
measured in degrees (0° -360° ¿
clockwise from north with north = 0°
,east = 90° ,south = 180° , and west =
270°
 Expressed in three digits (000° )

tratigraphy
is the classification of different layers
or layering of sedimentary deposits, and in
sedimentary or layered volcanic rocks. This
field is important to understanding the
geological history and forms the basis for
classifications of rocks into distinct units
that can be easily mapped.

Stratigraphy is a branch of geology 6. Quadrant

concerned with the study of rock layers and  a compass direction measured 0 ° – 90°
layering. It is primarily used in the study of from north or south.
sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy has three related subfields:
lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and
Views
chrono stratigraphy. 2 types of views

 Map View
 Cross–Sectional View
 - This system is used to describe the
orientation of inclined bedding which is
named after the two important principal
components in describing 3D spatial
orientation: Strike and dip.

Strike – The azimuth direction line formed

by the intersection of horizontal plane and
the plane of interest
 Measured in map view
 Utilizes azimuth direction

1. Map View Dip – The Dip of a bed is the angle

Also known as the top view, it is the bird’s between the bedding plane and horizontal
eye point of view of the earth's surface plane
 Dip values are always in the range of
2. Cross–Sectional View 0 to 90° . A dip angle of 0° defines
Representation of geometry on a plane horizontal plane while 90° defines a
perpendicular to the earth’s surface. vertical plane.
 0 – 20° shallow
 20 – 50° moderate
 50 – 90° steep
ATTITUDE OF BEDS  Measured in cross sectional view
 Utilizes Quadrant Convention
Attitude – A general term for the
orientation of a line or plane. Attitude refers Dip Direction - is the direction along
to the three-dimensional orientation of which a bed dips and is perpendicular to the
planar and linear features such as a bed, a strike line.
joint, a hornblende needle or a fold.
 Attitude of beds can be classified
into two: Planar and Linear attitude

Planar Attitude
- Attitude of planar structure is defined by
the strike and dip, strike and dip describe
the orientation of a plane in space.

Strike and Dip Method

 Sample format for determining the attitude
of bed using the strike and dip method. TOOLS FOR MEASURING
ANGLES AND DIRECTION
300, 50NE OF GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

BRUNTON COMPASS
Dip Direction
Strike in azimuth - a specialized instrument used widely
convention by those needing to make an accurate
Dip
degree and angle measurements in the
field. It is properly known as the Brunton
Pocket Transit. David W. Brunton, a
Canadian Geologist invented it in 1894.

Linear Attitude
- The attitude of linear structures is
defined by the Trend and Plunge (together
they define a vector)

Methods in
determining the
Linear Attitude
TREND - a general descriptive term for
the direction in which certain structures lie. CLINOMETER
PLUNGE - refers to the downward angle - a
and direction of a linear structure.
 simple device used to measure angles. It  Folds
can be used to measure the slope of a
specific terrain, the height of a building or
tree, or the declination of a celestial body. 1.Faults
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures
between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the
blocks to move relative to each other. This
Structures / Geologic movement may occur rapidly, in the form of
an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the
Structures form of creep.
Geologic Structures are usually the result of
the powerful tectonic forces that occur
within the earth. These forces fold and
break rocks. From deep faults, and build
mountains.

2 Types of structures / Geologic Structures

1. Primary Structures
2. Secondary Structures
TYPES OF FAULTS
Primary Structures
Are structures that developed during normal fault - a dip-slip fault in which
the formation of the rock. (example: the block above the fault has moved
Bedding, ripple mark or cross bedding in downward relative to the block below. This
sedimentary rocks). Primary structures type of faulting occurs in response to
represent the local condition of the extension and is often observed in the
environment within which the rocks form. Western United States Basin and Range
Province and along oceanic ridge systems.
Secondary Structures
Are Structures that developed in
sedimentary or igneous rocks after reverse (thrust) fault - a dip-slip
lithification, and in metamorphic rocks fault in which the upper block, above the
during or after their formation. fault plane, moves up and over the lower
Fundamentals secondary structures are block. This type of faulting is common in
joints and shear fractures; faults, folds, areas of compression, such as regions
Cleavage, foliations, lineation, shear zones. where one plate is being subducted under
another as in Japan. When the dip angle is
shallow, a reverse fault is often described as
Classifications of Secondary a thrust fault.
Structure
 Faults
 Joints
strike-slip fault - a fault on which the
two blocks slide past one another. The San
Andreas Fault is an example of a right
lateral fault.

Oblique fault - This is caused by a

combination of shearing and tension or
compressional forces. Nearly all faults will
have some component of both dip-slip
(normal or reverse) and strike-slip, so
defining a fault as oblique requires both dip
and strike components to
be measurable and significant.
Causes of Faulting
Faults are generally caused under
the influence of stresses acting upon the
rocks of the crust of the earth from within.
Any rock on or below the crust may
withstand all the operating stresses up to a
limit, which depends upon its cohesive
strength and internal friction.
2. Joints
 Any Fracture, without any movement
 Cracks or fractures present in the body of
a rock
 A joint is a break (fracture) of the natural
origin in the continuity of either a layer or
a body of rock that lacks any visible or
measurable movement parallel to the
surface (plane) of the fracture.

Faults are classified by how they

move and there are three main types of
stress that cause the movement along
faults. The stress occurs because the plates
fit together really well but also float around
on the mantle and rub against each other.
Types of Stresses acting upon the
movement of faults:

 Tensional Stress- when slabs of rock

are pulled apart.
 Compressional Stress- when slabs of
rock are pushed together. They are
literally being compressed into one
another.
 Shear Stress- when slabs of rock slide CLASSIFICATION OF
past each other horizontally in opposite JOINTS
directions.
1. Geometrical Classification
Joints can be classified into three groups
depending on their geometrical relationship
with the country rock.

a. STRIKE JOINTS – Strike joints are

those in which the strike of the joints is
parallel to the strike of the beds.
b. DIP JOINTS – Dip joints are those in are dominant, joints may be related to the
which the strike of the joints is compressive force.
perpendicular to the strike of the beds.

c. OBLIQUE JOINTS – Oblique joints

are those in which the strike of the joints
is neither parallel nor perpendicular to
the strike of the joints.

c. Shear Joints:

These are commonly observed in the

vicinity of fault planes and shear zones
where the relationship with shearing forces
is clearly established. In folded rocks, these
are located in axial regions.
2. Genetic Classification
a. Tension Joints:
Tension joints are those, which have
developed due to the tensile forces acting
on the rocks. The most common location of
such joints in folded sequence is on the
outer margins of crests and troughs. They
are also produced in igneous rocks during
their cooling. Joints produced in many rocks
during the weathering of overlying strata
and subsequent release of stresses by
expansion is also thought to be due to the
tensile forces

b. Compression Joints:
Rocks may be compressed to crushing and
numerous joints may result due to the
compressive forces in this case. In the core
regions of folds where compressive forces
3. Folds
FOLDS - One of the most common
geological structures found in rocks. When
a set of horizontal layers are subjected to
compressive forces, they bend either
upward or downward. The bend noticed in
rocks are called folds.

1.)Axis of fold - this is the median

line about which the strata have
folded. The axis of a fold may be
horizontal, inclined or vertical. If the
axis of the fold is horizontal then it is
parallel to the strike of the fold.

2.)Axial plane - This is a plane

dividing the fold into two somewhat
symmetrical parts. The axial plane
may be vertical, incline or
PARTS OF FOLD horizontal. The line of intersection of
the axial plane with any bedding
plane is called the fold axis or the
axial line

3.)Limbs of a fold - Two sides of a

fold (either side of the axial plane)
are called the limbs of the fold.

4.)Crest and through

CREST OF A FOLD (This is the upper
portion of an up-fold)
TROUGH OF A FOLD (This is the
lower portion of a down-fold)
 5.)Wavelength of a fold - This is
the distance between successive
crests or troughs of the fold.

CLASSIFICATION OF
5. Chevron Fold
FOLDS This is a fold having a sharp crest or
through.
1. Symmetrical Fold
The axial plane is vertical and the
limbs dip equally

2. Asymmetrical Fold
Have no mirror plane in symmetry
and the limbs are unequal in length.
In an asymmetrical fold, the axial
plane is inclined

3. Overturned Fold TYPES OF FOLDS

It is an asymmetrical fold with an
inclined axial plane in which both
planes in the same general direction
usually at different angles.
4. Recumbent Fold
This fold whose limbs are bent back
on themselves almost horizontally
1.Anticline
 is a fold that is convex up and has its
oldest beds at its core. The term is not to be
confused with anti form, which is a purely
descriptive term for any fold that is convex
up. Therefore, if age relationships between
various strata are unknown, the term anti
form should be used.
2. Syncline 
is a fold with younger layers closer to
the center of the structure. Synclines are
typically a downward fold, termed a
synformal syncline (i.e. a trough); but
synclines that point upwards, or perched,
can be found when strata have been
overturned and folded (an antiformal
syncline).
3. Monocline
folds are formed by rock beds lying at
two level separated by steep inclined limbs.
It is form by vertical movement and
generally found fault below monocline. a
step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a
zone of steeper dip within an otherwise
horizontal or gently-dipping sequence.
4. Domes and Basins
We also have domes, which are like
anticlines but instead of an arch, the fold is
in a dome shape, like an inverted bowl.
Similarly, there are also basins, which are
like synclines but again, instead of a sinking
arch, the fold is in a shape of a bowl sinking
down into the ground. Dome: nonlinear,
strata dip away from center in all directions,
oldest strata in center. Basin: nonlinear,
strata dip toward center in all directions,
youngest strata in center.
GEOLOGICAL MAP
- A geological map is the representation,
about a topographic map, of the different
types of rocks that outcrop in the terrestrial
area and the types of contacts among them.
For distinguishing the rocks colors are used.
In a geological map the tectonic structures
(folds and faults), fossil beds, fountains,
mineral resources, etc.
 Three Types of
GEOLOGICAL SYMBOLS
Geological Map

1. Topographic Maps
It is a map that gives information about the
form of the earth‘s surface which is shaded,
or colored to show (contour lines of equal
height),where different rock units occur at
or just below the ground surface.

2. Cross-section Map
GEOLOGICAL FAULT SYMBOL

A section line is a straight line drawn on a

topographic map. Altitudes along this line
are turned into a cross-section. Cross-
sectional map shows the cross-section from
the side.
Structural Map
A structural map shows the geologic
features of an area, including features such
as the type of rocks and geologic structures
that are in an area.
 GEOLOGY IN CIVIL
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF
These are taken from aircraft flying STRUCTURAL
at fixed heights above the ground. Adjacent
pairs of aerial photographs with about 60%  To understand a field and construct
overlap can be used under a stereoscope to an accurate geologic map.
provide a three-dimensional image of the  Measure and orientation of small
landscape, which is useful for structures
reconnaissance surveys.  Study the sequence of development
and superposition
Aerial photographers use both  Try to apply rock-mechanics data
vertical and oblique photographs  Try to compare structures in one
for planning land-use projects, movie area with that elsewhere that may
production, environmental studies, have formed by similar mechanism.
archaeology, power line inspection, oil and  Utilize geophysical data and other
gas surveying, surveillance, commercial geology disciplines.
advertising, and even artistic projects.
ROCK MECHANICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF ROCKS
- Rock Mechanics is the study of
the mechanical behavior of subsurface 1. Compressive Strength
sedimentary strata and rocks that are
formed. The basic principle is that rock
2. Tensile Strength
simply responds to stress by changing in 3. Shear Strength
volume or form. The change in the rock 4. Hardness
volume or form due to the applied stress is
called strain.
5. Elastic Properties
6. Inelastic Properties

1. Compressive strength is
measured on materials, components
and structures resistance for being
pushed together.

2. Tensile strength is the ability

of a material to support a maximum
load without fracture when being
stretched or pulled before breaking.
- Rocks are tested in the laboratory for
THREE TYPES OF TENSILE STRENGH
extensive data for engineers to determine
bearing capacities, shear strengths,  Yield Strength
permeability, and other concerns for  Ultimate Strength
designers, it is being acknowledged that  Breaking Strength
rock mechanics benefits most from testing
of the rock and observation of a. Yield Strength
0geological conditions that can affect the way a
The stress at which a rock starts to
rock behaves when subjected to loads and
deform plastically, this is also the point
stresses.
where the rocks stop to deforming
elastically and starts to deforming
plastically.

b. Ultimate Strength
Is the maximum stress that the rock can
take when a load is applied.

c. Breaking Strength
Refers to the point in stress and strain
curve where the material can no longer
withstand the stress of the of the tension The rock deforms as stress is applied and
and it breaks return to its original shape as stress is
relieved. In elastic deformation, the strain is
proportional to the stress.

Two manners of Tensile Failure

a. Ductile Failure - is one where
there is substantial distortion or plastic b. Plastic deformation
deformation of the failed part. It begins to exhibit when applied stress in
a rock reaches the elastic limit. In plastic
b. Brittle Failure - refers to the deformation, the rock partially return to its
breakage of a material due to a sudden original shape as stress is relieved.
fracture. 

3. Shear strength
- the materials ability to resist forces that
can cause the internal structure of the
material to slide against it.

4. Hardness
- is the resistance of a material to
deformation, indentation, penetration by c. Brittle deformation
means such as abrasion, drilling, impact, The permanent change that occurs in a
and scratching. solid material due to the growth of
fractures and/or due to sliding on fractures.
STAGES OF DEFORMATION Brittle deformation only occurs when
stresses exceed a critical value, and thus
a. Elastic deformation only after a rock has already undergone
some elastic and/or plastic behavior.
 GROUTING
- In civil engineering refers to the
injection of pumpable materials into a soil
or rock formation to change its physical
characteristics.

INJECTION METHODS
5. Elastic Properties
Elastic refers to the property of reversibility
of deformation when subjected to a load.
For small definition, the resulting strain is
proportional to the applied stress. Stress is
the force applied per unit area. Strain is the
fractional distortion that results because of
the acting force.

6. Inelastic properties
Plasticity
Deformation of rocks that does not
disappear on the removal of force that
produced it.
or
- Injection grouting is the process of
filling cracks, open joints, voids, or
honeycombs in concrete or masonry
structural members under pressure with a
material that cures in place to produce the
desired results such as structural
strengthening and water movement.
TYPES OF GROUT INJECTION  FRACTURE GROUTING
 PERMEATION GROUTING

A low viscosity grout is used that splits

The most popular and traditional grouting through the ground via hydraulic fracturing
method. Filling cracks, joints, and voids in and penetrates the fractures.
rock, concrete, soil, and other porous
materials.  JET GROUTING
-
 COMPACTION GROUTING

A high-pressure 'jet' of grout, water, air, or

a combination is used to erode soil while
Injection of low mobility grout is simultaneously injecting grout into the soil
accomplished through drill casings that are via a 'jet monitor'.
drilled/driven to predetermined depths.