 DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

 2.1 TERMINOLOGIES
 Aggregate sub-base and base courses – are individual stabilizing
layers of selected material and designed thickness placed on top of
the subgrade to distribute the load transmitted from surface course.
 Arterial – functional classification of roadway that is between an
interstate highway and local collector.
 Asphalt concrete – Asphalt concrete normally known simply as
asphalt, is a composite material commonly used for construction of
pavement, highways and parking lots.
 Average daily traffic (ADT) – the average daily traffic on a
roadway. Most designers will label the current year ADT and the
forecasted design year (usually 20 years from the construction
year) ADT on a set of roadway plans.

 Average speed of a traffic stream – computed as the length of a

highway segment divided by the average travel time of vehicles
traversing the segment, in kilometer per hour.
 Backslope – where the roadway is in cut, the slope between the
ditch and the natural ground away from the road is referred to as a
backslope.
 Bypass – A road or highway that avoids or “bypasses” a built-up
area, town or village, to let through traffic flow without
interference from local traffic, to reduce congestion in the built- up
area, and to improve road safety.
 Bank – Natural land along the edge of the road.
 Base – series of layers above the embankment reducing stress
exerted by the traffic and preventing the bed from deforming.
 Base course – top foundation layer, made up of fine compacted
material, the driving surface lies on it.
 Bed – composed of the embankment and the earth foundation; base
rests on it.
 Binder course – Synonym: intermediate course. Pavement layer
between the surface layer and the base course layer.
 Borrow pit – Also known as a sand box, is a term use in
construction and civil engineering. It describes an area where
material (usually soil, gravel or sand) has been dug for use at
another location.
 Broken line – line demarcating the two lanes of the roadway and
showing that passing is permitted.
 Collector lane of a road – is used for slowing moving traffic and
has more access to exits/off ramps.
 Deceleration lane – A paved or semi-paved lane adjacent to the
primary road or street.
 Ditch – parallel to the roadway; surface water drains on it.
 Drainage structures – Are located beneath alongside the roadway
use in collecting, transporting and disposing of surface water
originating in or near the road right of way.
 Driving Lane – An area in a parking lot/car park in between
parking spaces so that vehicles can drive into and out of the spaces.
 Earth Foundation – Part of the ground that was not excavated
during the roads construction.
 Embankment – Layer of material used to build up or level the route
the road is to take.
 Erosion and Sediment Controls – Are constructed to prevent
detrimental effects.
 Grade Intersection – It is a junction at which two or more transport
axes cross at the same level (or grade).
 Grade Separation - The process of alignment a junction of two or
more transport axes at different heights (grades) so that they will
not disrupt the traffic flow on other transit routes when they cross
each other.
 Intersection – A road junction where two or more roads either meet
or cross are grade (they are at the same level) such a junction may
also be called a cross roads.
 Interchange - A road junction that typically uses grade separation,
and one or more ramps, to permit traffic on at least one road to
pass through the junction without crossing any other traffic stream.
 Median - The portion of a divided highway separating the traveled
way for traffic in opposing directions.
 Merge Lane – A lane or on ramps use to merge two flows of traffic
in to one, with the merge lane being the lane that disappears at the
end of the merging areas.
 Passing Lane – Is often provided on steep mountain grades, in
order to allow smaller vehicles to pass larger, slower ones this is
sometimes called a climbing lane in of the uphill side.
 Retaining Walls – Are constructed along the side of the roadway if
there are space constriction.
 Roadway – Surface upon which vehicles drive.
 Slope – Steeply sloped ground between the ditch and the bank and
between the ditch and the shoulder.
 Slope Protection Structures – Are constructed along the side of the
roadway to stabilize the slope.
 Sub base - Base of a roadway, made up of coarse impacted travel,
making the roadway solid and stable.
 Sub Grade – Is the upper layer of natural soil which maybe the
undisturbed local materials, or soil excavated elsewhere placed as
fill. In either cases it is compacted during construction for road
stability. It is also the layer supporting the two base courses and the
sub base and providing drainage.
 Surface Course – Roadway’s driving surface it is smooth,
impermeable and provides good grip for vehicles, is the upper most
structural component of the roadway, which provides resistance to
wear and shearing stress due to traffic load.
 Solid Line - In demarcating the edge of the roadway or, when in
the center of the roadway indicating the passing is prohibited.
 2.2 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY DESIGN
 DESIGN CONSISTENCY
- The goal of transportation is generally stated as the safe and
efficient movement of people and goods. To achieve this goal, designers
use many tools and techniques. One technique used to improve safety on
roadways is to examine the consistency of the design.
 -refers to highway geometry’s conformance with driver
expectancy. Generally, driver make fewer errors at geometric features
that conform with their expectations. An inconsistency in design can be
described as a geometric feature or combination of features that has such
a high driver workload requirement that drivers may drive in an unsafe
manner. This situation could lead to inappropriate driving.
 IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY CONSISTENCY
- Achieving highway geometric design consistency is an important
issue in the design and evaluation of rural highways to attain smooth and
safe traffic operation.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSISTENCY IS CATEGORIZED
INTO THREE MAIN AREAS;
 SPEED CONSIDERATIONS address the effects of geometric
parameters on the prediction of operating speed. Based on
operating speed, design consistency of highway elements can be
evaluated.
 SAFETY CONSIDERATION explain the different relationships
between highway safety and highway/traffic elements, vehicle
stability, and low-cost improvement.
 PERDORMANCE CONSIDERATION address the different effects
on driver workload, driver anticipation, highway aesthetics, and
interchange design.
 DESIGN SPEED
- Lowering injuries and fatalities remains a crucial goal for our
cities. In 2011, 4,432 pedestrians were killed and 69,000 injured in
motor vehicle crashes, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA). Of the fatalities, 73% occurred in a urban
areas. This equates to 146 people killed or injured in cities everyday.
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DESIGN SPEED
- The functional classification of the highway
- The character of the terrain
- the density and character of adjacent land uses
- The traffic volumes expected to use the highway
- The economic and environmental considerations.
 ROAD SHOULDER
- A shoulder or hard shoulder is an emergency stopping lane by the
verge of a road or motorway.

 FUNCTIONS OF ROAD SHOULDER

- An unpaved strip of land at the side of a road. (this type of
shoulder is covered only using an aggregate)
 HARD SHOULDER RULE
- The highway code (rule 270) states that you must not stop on the
carriageway, hard shoulder, slip road, central reservation or verge except
in an emergency, or when told to do by the police, Highways Agency
traffic officers in uniform, an emergency sign or by flashing red lights
signals.
 HIGHWAY MEDIAN
- Highway Median or Central reservation is the reserved area that
separates opposing lanes of traffic on divided roadways, such as divided
highways, dual carriageways, freeways and motorways.
 RIGHT OF WAY
- A right of way is a strip of land that is granted, through an
easement or other mechanism, for transportation purposes, such as for a
trail, driveway, rail line or highway. A right of way is reserved for the
purposes of maintenance or expansion of existing services with the right
of way. In the case of easement, it may revert to its original owners if the
facility is abandoned. The right of way ha three basic categories
distinguished by the degree of separation from other traffic.
 THREE (3) CATEGORIES OF RIGHT OF WAY:
1. CATEGORY A:
- “A grade separated” or “exclusive”. It is fully controlled
roadway without grade crossings or any legal access by other vehicles.
In some ways, this categories resembles a freeway system.
2. CATEGORY B:
- Includes roadway types that are longitudinally physically
separated from other traffic, but with grade crossing for vehicles and
pedestrians, including regular street intersections. A light rail system that
crosses few streets at a surface falls into this category.
3. CATEGORY C:
- Surface streets with mixed traffics. Most bus system and street
car system fall on this category.

 ROAD ALIGNMENTS
There are at least 2 alignments to every stretch of road:
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment

- when designing a roadway, you need to decide exactly where to

place that roadway. We use an alignment to show where that the road
will be placed.
- The alignment is defined by stationing, which refers to the
distance horizontally between the defining points . The beginning
stationing of an alignment is defined by previous designs, or by the
designer. The designer tries to make the stationing different for each
alignment so that it doesn’t confuse the builder.
 CIRCULAR CURVES
- used to join intersecting straight lines (or tangents). Circular
curves are assumed to be concave. Horizontal circular curves are used to
transition the change in alignment at angle points in the tangent
(straight) portions of alignments. An angle point is called a poiny of
intersection or PI station; and the change in alignment is defined by a
deflection angle,
 FIVE TYPES OF HIGHWAY CURVES
 Simple curve
 Compound curve
 Reverse curve
 Spiral curve
 SURFACE RUNOFF
 - Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water
that occurs when excess storm water, melt water, or other sources flows
over the earth’s surface. This might occur because soil is saturated to full
capacity, because rain arrives more quickly than soil can absorb it, or
because impervious areas (roofs and pavement) send their runoff to
surrounding soil that cannot absorb all of it. Surface runoff is a major
component of the water cycle. It is the primary agent in soil erosion by
water.
 ISLAND
- An Island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of
vehicle movements. Within an intersection area, a median or an outer
separation is considered to be an island. It may range from an area
delineated by barrier curbs to a pavement area marked by paint.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ISLANDS
- Islands usually serve more that one function, but may be
generally classified in three separate types:

 CHANNELIZING ISLANDS – these are designed to control and

direct traffic movement, usually turning.
 DIVISIONAL ISLANDS – These are designed to divide opposing
or same direction traffic streams, usually through movements.
 REFUGE ISLANDS – Pedestrian islands are provided to serve as
safety zones for the aid and protection of persons on foot. If a
divisional island is located in an urban area where pedestrians are
present, portions of each island can be considered a refuge island.
 INTERCHANGE
- An interchange is a grade-separated intersection (one road passes
over another) with ramps to connect them. Factors such as safety, cost,
capacity, environment, development and politics can vary at every site;
consequently, there are hundreds of unique, one-of-a-kind interchanges
worldwide. Interchanges are designed to fit specific local conditions and
meet driver expectations.
 THREE TYPES OF INTERCHANGES
1. DIAMOND INTERCHANGES – The most common type and are
suitable in both rural and urban areas. They can become congested,
though, by a high volume of left turning movements on the crossroad,
and they often include signals that control ramp access to and from the
crossroad. Spacing between the ramps is critical for efficient movement
of traffic through the interchange.
2. DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGE – Accommodate high-volume
turning movements where two freeways intersect. Direct ramp
movement reduce travel distance, increase speed and capacity, eliminate
weaving and avoid the need for “out-of-direction” travel on a loop.
These interchanges are costly to construct due to the increased number
and length of ramps and the number of bridge crossings.
3. CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGES – Can be use where two high
volume freeways intersect. Loop ramps are used to accommodate left-
turning movements. However, this configuration provides short weaving
areas for traffic entering or leaving the interchange. A cloverleaf
Interchange occupies a relatively large area of right of way.
 INTERSECTION
- An intersection is the junction at grade of two or more roads
either meeting or crossing. An intersection may be three-way, four-way
(often in the form of a crossroads), or have five or more arms. Busy
intersections are often controlled by traffic light or a round about.

 Figure 2.1 BASIC FORMS OF INTERSECTION

 INTERSECTION DESIGN OBJECTIVES

 Reduce/eliminate conflict points generated by “vehicles” and
“vehicles”, and “vehicles” and “pedestrians”
 Adequate maneuvering space for design vehicles
 Safe and convenient operations for all road users
 Positive guidance for drivers
 Cost effective
 Minimize adverse environmental effects
 INTERSECTION DESIGN PROCEDURE
1. TRAFFIC DATA
o Classified intersection turning movement counts summary
o Pedestrian Movement Counts Summary
o Travel time data

3. PRELIMINARY DESIGNS
A. ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS/SCHEMES
• Prepare rough sketches of several possible design/solutions to the
problem.
• Examine several possible schemes broadly as regards to design
features, operational characteristics (safety, capacity, delay),
probable cost, overall suitability to site and any local factors which
may affect the decision.
• Select two or three schemes from the options worthy of more
detailed study.
• Prepare more detailed plans of selected alternatives.
4. FUNCTIONAL PLANS
• Advantages vs Disadvantage
• Most suitable alternative is chosen from the preliminary design
procedure
• Development of the functional plan as the basis for final detailed
design procedures
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INTERSECTION DESIGN
1. LANE WIDTH
 Through lanes 3.20m – 3.50m (desirable through lane width for
urban and rural areas)
2. LEFT TURN/RIGHT TURN LANES
 LT or RT greater than 3.00m (desirable)
3. CAPACITY
 The design should provide adequate traffic capacity throughout.
4. CHANNELIZATION
 Design of channelized layout depends on the traffic pattern, traffic
volumes, available area for improvement, topography and
pedestrian movement.
5. TRAFFIC CONTROL
 Intersection with no control
 Intersection controlled with traffic sign
 Intersection controlled with traffic signals
6. DESIGN SPEED
 Alignment
 Environment
 Traffic volume and composition
 Extent and type of traffic control devices
7. DISTANCES BETWEEN INTERSECTION
- 350m to 550m apart
Factors:
 Length of weaving section
 Queue length
 Length of turn lane or deceleration lane
 Limit of driver’s concentration
 2.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
- BASIC CONSIDERATION IN THE DESIGN OF A NEW
HIGHWAY OR REDESIGN OF AN OLD HIGHWAY
 A. SIGHT DISTANCE

 TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE:

• Stopping (Non-Passing) Sight Distance
- Available distance on a roadway to enable a vehicle travelling at
the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object.
-It is the sum of the break reaction and braking distances.
• Passing Sight Distance
- Distance required for a driver to see a sufficient object to
complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle in
advance of meeting an opposing vehicle appearing during maneuver.
• Decision Sight Distance
- Distance required for a driver to initiate, safely and efficiently
and completely maneuver the unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-
perceive information source or hazard. The decision sight distance is
substantially greater that the stopping sight distance.
 B. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Major Design Considerations:
 Safety
 Grade Profile
 Type of Facility
 Design Speed
 Topography
 Construction cost
 Radius of Curve
 Length of curve
 Super Elevation
 Widening
 GENERAL CONTROLS
 Alignment should be as directional as possible but should be
consistent with the topography and with preserving developed
properties.
 Alignment should be consistent and sharp curves should not be
introduced at the end of long tangents.
 For small deflection angle, curves should be sufficiently long to
avoid the appearance of kink.
 Tangents or flat curvature should be used on high long fills.
 Caution should be exercised in the used of compound curve.
Where topography or RROW restrictions make their use necessary,
the radius of the flatter curve should not be more than 50% greater
than the radius of the sharper curve.
 Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided. The reversion
length of tangent between reversed curves should be 50m and in no
case should be less than 30m
 The ‘’broken-back” or “flat-back arrangement of curve (having a
short tangent between two curves in the same direction) should be
avoid except when very unusual topographical or R-O-W dictate
otherwise.
 To avoid the appearance of inconsistent distortion, the horizontal
alignment should be coordinate carefully with the profile design.
 Ending a curve on a bridge is undesirable, unsightly and adds
needless complications to design and construction.

 C. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Level Terrain
-is that condition of the highway sight distances on generally long or
could be
made to be so without major expense.
 Rolling Terrain
-is that condition when the natural slope consistently rise above or
fall below the road grade.
 Mountainous Terrain
-is that condition when longitudinal and tranverse changes in the
elevation of the ground with respect to the road.

 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
 GRADIENT

 CRITICAL LENGTH OF UPGRADES

- The following critical length of upgrades when approached by a
level section should not be used as a control but should be referred to as
a guide:
 VERTICAL CURVES
 All intersection of grade tangents shall be converted by parabolic
vertical curve either symmetrical or un symmetrical, where the
latter should be avoid whenever possible.
 Crest vertical curves should be long enough to permit sight
distance.
 Headlight sight distance controls the length of sag vertical curve.
 A smooth grade line with with gradual changes should be sought
for in preference to a line with numerous breaks/short length of
grades.
 The ‘roller coaster’ or the hidden-dip type of profile should be
avoided.
 Undulating grade line involving substantial length of momentum
grades should be evaluated for their effect on traffic operation.
 A broke-back grade line should be avoided.
 On long grades, it may preferable to place the steepest grades at the
bottom and flatter the grades near the top of the ascent.
 Where at-grade intersections occur on roadway sectors with
moderate to steep grades, it is desirable to reduce the grades
through the intersection.
 Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless adequate
drainage can be provided.
 D. PAVEMENT
 SURFACE TYPE SELECTION IS BASED ON:

 Traffic volume and composition

 Soil characteristic
 Weather
 Performance of existing pavements
 Availability of materials
 Energy conservation
 Initial cost, and
 Overall annual maintenance cost
 CROSS SLOPE
- For multilane highway, the two lanes adjacent to the crown line
should be pitched at the normal minimum slope, and on each successive
pair of lanes or portion thereof outward, the rate may be increased by
about 0.50 to 1%.

 LANE WIDTH
 Width of pavement is determined by the lane width.
 Desirable lane width is 3.65m which allows large vehicles to pass
without either vehicle having to move sideways towards the edge
of pavement.
 Lane width as low as 2.75m may be used on grounds of economy.
 Roads with pavement widths less than 5.5m should be regarded as
single lane.
 Pavement width greater than 7.32m for 2 way movement is not
recommended for 2-lane roads as some drivers will attempt to
travel three vehicles abreast on wide pavement.
 SHOULDERS
 Shoulder on fill preferably should be wider than in cuts although
the present practice is make them equal.
 Regardless of the width, shoulders sould be continuous.
 Although, it is desirable that shoulder be wide enough for a vehicle
to be driven completely off the travel way, narrower shoulder are
better than none at all.
 Shoulder width of 0.60m may be considered on difficult terrain and
on low volume highway.
 If the shoulder is to be used by animal-drawn vehicles, pack
animals or pedestrians, even greater width should be considered.
 Preferably, shoulder width of 2.5m is recommended for high
speed/traffic volume.
 2.4: ROAD SIGN
- Is a device mounted on a fixed support (permanent signs) or
portable support (temporary signs) whereby a specific message is
conveyed by means of words or symbols placed or erected to
regulating, warning or guiding traffic.
To be effective, the ROAD SIGN should:
 Fulfill a need
 Command attention
 Convey a clear, simple message
 Command respect, and
 Give adequate time for proper response
 SIGNING PRINCIPLES
 CONSPICUOUS – The road sign has to be easily seen
 CLEAR – The road sign needs to be legible at an appropriate
distance (size and color of letters and symbols
 COMPREHENSIBLE – The road sign needs to be understood
(concise – too many words may prevent the whole message to be
read)
 CREDIBLE – The message has to be believable – otherwise
drivers will tend to ignore it.
 CONSISTENT – Similar traffic situations should be standard signs
that are consistent with the standards.
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF ROAD SIGN
 Fulfill a need
 Command attention
 Convey a clear, simple message,
 Command respect; and,
 Give adequate time for proper response

 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGN
 Regulatory Signs
 Warning Signs
 Guide signs or Informative signs
 Signs for Expressway
 Signs for special Purposes
 Hazard Markers
 REGULATORY SIGNS (TYPE R)
 Regulatory signs are those require drivers compliance. Most
regulatory signs are rectangular in shape, with either red or black
legend on a generally white background.
 CLASSIFICATION FOR REGULATORY SIGNS
 WARNING SIGNS (TYPE W)
 Warning signs are used to warm of potentially hazardous
conditions on or adjacent road. A warning signs should not be used
when driver can observe an appreciate the potential hazard ahead
under normal conditions. As warning signs are placed primarily for
protection of the driver who is not familiar with the road, it is very
important that their location and installation must be taken with
care.
 GUIDE SIGNS OR INFORMATIVE SIGNS (TYPE G)
 Inform road users about the direction and distances of destinations
on the route they are following or along other roads that intersect
their route, they also supply information to identify points of
geographical or historical intersection and give directions to rest
areas, camping or parking areas.
 SIGNS ON EXPRESSWAYS (TYPE GE)
 The following signs are to be installed in advance or at the nearest
intersection or interchange leading to expressways.
 TRAFFIC INSTRUCTION SIGNS (TYPE S)
 Special instruction signs are those used at location where ordinary
guide and regulatory signs do not achieve the desired result. These
signs instruct the motorist to follow a direction or to obey a course
of action.
 HAZARD MARKERS (TYPE HM)
 The hazard markers are used to emphasize to the approaching
driver a marked change in the direction of travel and the presence
of an obstruction.