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Topic No. 7: Highway Design

Intro:
Consistency
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by
making every element of the roadway conforms to the expectation of every
driver.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.
Definitions:
Roads and Highways - is defined as strips of land that have been cleared
and further improved for the movement of people and goods.
Expressway - is a divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial
control or access and generally provided with grade separation at major
intersections.
Freeway - is an expressway with full control of access.
Parkway - is an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial
control of access usually located within a park or ribbon park-like
development.
Arterial Street - is an arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access
point or through traffic. It often serves as the most advantageous routes for
relatively long distance travel. Most arterial streets are existing highways of
considerable length along which cross traffic is regulated by signals or stop
signs. In addition, arterials provide access to adjacent property but often with
restrictions on entry and exit points. Arterial street is considered as a "make
do" substitute for controlled access facilities when traffic volume exceeds
about 20,000 vehicles per day.
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways
1. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometer in length.
 8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about 600 to 900
meters apart.
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify
arterial road is 300 vehicles per average hour during the day, and 450
vehicles hourly during peak periods.
Design Speed
The design speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed.
AASHTO recommend that:
"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs
of nearly all drivers bath today and throughout the road anticipated life."
Cross Section of Typical Highway
The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider
such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver

Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness

from end to end of the improvement. This is acceptable on high volume traffic
road facilities. For a low volume traffic facilities, modification of the features
like the shoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs.

For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide surface is required for
safe clearance between commercial vehicles and is recornmended for main
highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low
volume traffic including few trucks traveling thereon.

For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a
30 km / hr. design speed.

For Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00
meters is allowed where space is limited.

Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars and trucks, air
disturbances sometimes cause side collision between passing vehicles when
swerved within or out of their lanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes.
Road Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the
edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope.
AASHTO requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong enough to
support vehicles.
Importance of Road Shoulder
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or
for some other purposes. Road shoulder considerably reduces road
accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity increases if
the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the roadway. It
also adds structural strength to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It reduces
accident potential when vehicle stop during emergencies.

Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide
if truck volume is more than 250 in the design hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40
meters with at least 1.20 meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters
wide or 3.60 meters if truck volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder width is fixed
at 1.20 meters minimum, although 2.40 meters wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum
shoulder width is 2"40 meters although 3.60 meters is recommended.
6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested
unless needed for proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at
90 centimeters as minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is
recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide graded shoulder is
required for ADT's less than 400.
10. For ADT's over 2000. 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.
Considering the above recommendations, Width is defined as "extending from
the edge of the surfacing to the point where shoulder slope intersect the side
slope." The Urban collector road usually has no shoulder, instead, parking
lanes of 2.40 meters or preferably 3.00 meters wide with gutters are specified.

The Cross Slope

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope
usually falls in both directions from the centreline of the two lane highway
except where super elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside.
For high type pavement the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However,
steeper slopes are strongly recommended because rain water, flow away
more rapidly reducing the water thickness on the road pavement. A cross
slope in one direction of multilane highways makes driving comfortable, but
with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadway.

The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3% to 6% although 4% is

the most common. For a gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is
satisfactory and 7% slope is effective drainage for turf (grass) surfaces.

These types of cross sections allow the inner lane to accommodate

high speed traffic because it is flatter than the outer lanes.
On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface makes the
centerline almost flat unless gutters are sufficiently deep enough to
 convey water. A combination of uniform slope with parabolic curve is
used instead of the parabolic sections.

Cut or Fill Slope

Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios. Meaning, the first
number represents the horizontal distance while the second number is the
vertical distance.
Recommended Policy on Geometric Design
1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on embankment less than 1.20
meters high, and 4:1 ratio on a higher fill.
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or
special kind of soil.
The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes intersect the
original ground surface, cross section must be rounded to blend the slope with
the natural ground surface. When the side slope requires embankment with
suitable retaining wall, any of the following materials could be used depending
upon the natural conditions.
1. Hand placed stones.
2. Cement rubbles masonry.
3. Concrete blocks.
4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. T or counter forted designs.
6. Cribs assembled from timber.
 7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal elements.
9. Tied back piling.
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands.

Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the
estimated traffic volume for the design year (AADT) and highway lane
capacity at expected level of service. AASHTO policies accept a dually
divided 16 lanes roadway with four lanes in each direction for an inner
freeway and four more lanes in each direction on the outside. There are some
instances where a reversible lane is located at the center of freeways with
unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
Highway Median
l. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts, and accident
between opposing streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of cross traffic,
and pedestrian could traverse each stream at separate manoeuvres.
3. Median provides available space for left tum lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is highly recommended. For
rural sections of freeway, the 18 to 27 meters wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that, 3.00 to 9.00 meters median
width is appropriate in suburban or mountainous situations.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or wider is preferred
because it allows the use of independent profiles and at the same time
minimizes cross over accident. 46 Designing the Highway
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross each roadway
separately. A 4.20 to 6.60 meters median width provides protection for turning
vehicles'
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as partition -
separation of opposite traffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent
vehicles running out of control from reaching the opposite traffic.
I l. The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is favored, but
specific value is not-stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably
10:1.
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as safety crash barriers.

Grade Line
The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a
series of straight lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straight
grades are tangent.
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sight distances in
relation to grade line, economy is one main consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered balanced
excavation against embankments to get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat area the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but
sufficiently above the ground for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the
expected level of water flood.
All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established minimum over
crests. This is governed by the sight distance requirements but sometimes a
case of riding, may demand longer curves than the sight distance. Some
designers prefer no vertical curve to be shorter than 300 meters. AASHTO
suggested that the minimum curve length varies with the design speed in
meters distance equals to 8 times the velocity in kilometers per hour.
Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest distance that a driver
could see the top of an object 15 centimeters (6") above the road surface
where the design height of the driver's eye above the pavement is 105
centimeters.
Stopping Sight Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
1. The

distance travelled after the obstruction or object is seen and before the driver
applies the brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes for the
vehicle to stop.
The distance covered could be expressed by the following formula:
d = tm / s
Breaking Distance: (assumes that the highway level is flat)

( m/s )2
d=
2 gmf

( m/s )2
d=
19.6 f
Where :
m/s - Initial speed, in meter per second
t = Detection, recognition, decision and response initiation ( brake reaction
time )
gm = Acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters per second squared
f = Coefficient of friction between the tire and pavement.

The braking distance on slope is expressed by the following formula:

Breaking Distance (m)

( m/s )2
d=
19.8( f ± g)

Where:
g = Longitudinal slope of the roadway or % Grade / 100
Uphill grade is positive ( + )
Downhill grade is negative ( - )

The Passing Sight Distance

The passing sight distance is the longest distance that a driver can see the
top of an oncoming vehicle where the driver's eye level is 1.05 meters above
the pavement surface. The relationship between the passing sight distance,
the algebraic difference in grades, and the length of vertical curve is
represented by the following equations:
943
L=2 S−
A
Where S is greater than L

AS 2
L=
943

Where S is less than L, L is length in meters

L = length required of vertical curve
S = specified sight distance
A = algebraic difference in grades expressed in percent

The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is generally practical
only on flat grades because the longer vertical curves are required to provide
passing sight than stopping sight distance.

( m/ s 2 )−Se
F=
9.8 R
Where:
(m / s) = Meters per second
R = Radius in meters
Se = Super elevation (slope ratio) rise per second
The maximum coefficient of side friction on dry pavement as determined by
curve tests ranges between 0.4 and 0.5 value with normal pavement and
smooth tires is about 0.35 at 75 kilometers per hour.
Road Alignment
Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change from flat to sharp
curve and long tangents followed by sharp curve should be avoided because
it will only create hazard and invite accident. Similarly, designing circular
curves of different radius from end to end or compounded curve is not a good
practice, unless suitable transitions between them are provided.
To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor practice. A long
flat curve is acceptable at all times. It is pleasing to look at, with less
probability of future obsolescence. Alignment should be provided with tangent
because there are drivers who hesitate to pass on curves. A short curve
appears like kinks. A long flat curve is preferred for small changes in direction.
Circular Curves
A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to centrifugal force. This force is
balanced by equal and opposite forces developed through the super elevation
and side frictions. However, neither the side friction on the super elevation,
could overcome nor exceed the maximum control and limit on the sharpness
of the curves with a prescribed design speed. The sharpness of a curve is
dependent on its radius. Sharpness is expressed in terms of the curve
degrees, and the degrees of curve is inversely proportional with the radius.
Formula:
5729.58
D=
Radius
5729.58
Radius=
D

Where:
D = degree of curve and the radius
Degree of curve SI = 0.328 D

1. For design speed of 50 kilometers per hour, the normal cross slope is
1°- 21' or even flatter curves.
2. For a 120 kilometers per hour design speed road, the normal cross
slope is 0°- 15' or flatter curves without super elevation.
In each of this solution, the total side friction is less than 0.04 for an adverse
cross slope of 0.02.
Super Elevation – Runoff
Curved sections of roadways are usually super elevated. Provisions for
gradual changes from one point to the other should be considered. The
centerline of each individual roadway at profile grade is maintained while
raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to attain the desired super
elevation. It is done by raising-up the outside edge of the pavement with
relation to the centerline until the outer half of the cross section is flat. Then,
the outer edge is raised until the cross section is straight. Finally, the entire

cross section is rotated as a whole until full super elevation is reached.

For wider roadway, the length given on Table 2-9 should be increased as
follows:
1. Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%
2. Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%
Widening of Curves
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lanes
pavement under the following reasons:
To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge.
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-tracking of front
and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the front wheel to the
roadway center line.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional width of 30 centimeters is
necessary on an open curve highway.

Island
An island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle
movement and for pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection, median is
considered an island. This definition makes evident that an island is no single
physical type.
Island is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular flows.
2. Separation of conflicts.
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas.
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections.
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement.
6. Location of traffic control devices.

Types of Interchange
Directional, trumpet, cloverleaf and diamond.
The types and form of freeway interchange requires selection of the
conformation that is best suited to a particular situation and demand. The
functions of freeway interchanges are:
1. To provide separation between two or more traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to the other or
between local roadway and the freeway.
Bicycle Lane
Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy crises and traffic
problems. It requires separate road for the riders that is entirely separate from
the vehicular traffic. The design speed is 20 to 30 kilometers per hour for flat
section. The width is 2.00 meters minimum for a 2-way travel. The grade of
the lane is 5% maximum on short distances.