INTRODUCTION TO MYTHOLOGY

I. ETYMOLOGY AND ITS MEANING

Mythology (from the Greek word (mythos), meaning a narrative, and logos, meaning

speech or argument) refers to a body of stories that attempt to explain the origins and
fundamental values of a given culture and the nature of the universe and humanity.

II. EVOLUTION OF THE TERM

The term mythology, meaning "the study of myths," has been in use since at least the
fifteenth century. The additional meaning of "body of myths" dates to 1781 Oxford English
Dictionary (OED). The latest edition of the OED defines myth as "A traditional story, typically
involving supernatural beings or forces or creatures , which embodies and provides an
explanation, etiology, or justification for something such as the early history of a society, a
religious belief or ritual, or a natural phenomenon." 

III. MEANINGS OF MYTHOLOGY

 Mythology refers to a set of legends, stories or beliefs, especially ones that illustrate a
religious or cultural tradition. 
 Mythology is defined as a set of legends, stories or beliefs, especially ones that have a
religious or cultural tradition.
 A body or collection of myths belonging to a people and addressing their origin, history,
deities, ancestors, and heroes.
 A traditional story of unknown authorship, ostensibly with a historical basis, but serving
usually to explain some phenomenon of nature, the origin of man, or the customs,
institutions, religious rites, etc. of a people: myths usually involve the exploits of gods
and heroes.
 A traditional, typically ancient story dealing with supernatural beings, ancestors, or
heroes that serves as a fundamental type in the worldview of a people, as by explaining
aspects of the natural world or delineating the psychology, customs, or ideals of society.
 Mythology reflects humankind's quest for meaning. Most myths are in narrative form,
and stories such as Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, or Enkidu and Shiva reveal deep
spiritual insights that endure for millenniums and speak to different ages through the
filter of different cultures. Anthropologists also speak of the myths of modern society,
enduring beliefs that re-present traditional myth in modern dress.

IV. MEANINGS OF MYTH

 A popular belief or story that has become associated with a person, institution, or
occurrence, especially one considered to illustrate a cultural ideal.
 A myth is defined as a story without an author that is passed along and is usually
intended to teach a lesson, or something that is untrue.
 A traditional story which embodies a belief regarding some fact or phenomenon of
experience, and in which often the forces of nature and of the soul are personified; a
sacred narrative regarding a god, a hero, the origin of the world or of a people, etc.
V.REASONS FOR MYTHS

These reasons include explaining the unknown, natural events and forces, to show the
duality and pureness of human nature and the human mind, and to help societies maintain
order and remain stable.
In nearly every civilization, creation and nature myths began to emerge, and some of the
Earth's natural phenomena were explained in a way that made sense to the people of that
time.

VI. IMPORTANCE OF MYTH

The importance of myth is immeasurable—in literature, philosophy, history and many

other parts of human life. They have been a huge part of oral, written, and visual story telling
for literally thousands of years; in fact, they have been a part of mankind’s entire history.
Humans have always used myths to explain natural phenomena and life’s mysteries; for
instance, Greek and Roman mythology served as both science and religion in both cultures for
centuries. To this day myths have a very large and relevant place in cultural studies and
scholarship, and are represented across studies in literature, religion, philosophy, and many
other disciplines. Part of the allure of myths is that the exact process and purpose of their
development is unclear. For instance, some scholars believe that myths are inaccurate accounts
of real historical events, while others argue that the gods and goddesses
were personifications of objects and things in nature that ancient men worshiped.

VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF MYTHS

A myth, at its most basic level, is a story that aims to explain a specific culture's beliefs,
origin, or purpose. While the content of myths will vary from culture to culture, there are some
defining characteristics common to all myths. Most myths contain some or all of the following
characteristics:

 Deities: In almost every culture/religion, there is some type of ruling force or group of
forces that are in control of everything from human behavior to the weather. These
deities could be gods, goddesses, or supernatural animals. For example, in Egyptian,
Greek, and Roman mythology, there was a pantheon, or family of gods, that ruled over
specific areas and people. Sometimes the deities were helpful, and other times, they
caused significant mischief and hardship. Similar divine families exist in Native American,
Japanese, Irish, and other cultures' myths, as well.
 Heroes: There are various tales that center around a hero, who is lower in status than a
god but sometimes has supernatural powers. They could be a relative to a god, like in
the case of Percy Jackson or Odysseus, blessed with a divine skill, or simply a
superhuman trait of some kind. In most cases, a hero must embark on a quest to obtain
an object, or get to an important location to prove themselves worthy to the gods.
 Explanations of natural phenomena: Many myths aim to explain natural occurrences,
such as the color of the sky, weather patterns, and agriculture; also the Chinese myths
 about Ba, the drought goddess, were used to help people pray for rain, and many more.
The explanations can also extend to societal norms and values.
 Oral tradition: Since ancient myths were created during a time when language was
limited and there were little to no writing systems, most myths were passed down
through spoken word. These stories became a rite of passage for many young folks,
learning everything from their religious beliefs and correct worship practices, to
historical information regarding their land, their people, and the world around them.

VIII. MYTHS HAVE FOUR BASIC ATTRIBUTES IN COMMON

 They are cultural—they reflect the beliefs and values of a group of people.

 They are sacred—they concern the spiritual or divine aspects of existence that human
beings cannot understand.
 They are didactic—they seek to explain the unexplainable, and they teach humans how
to behave, live, and relate to each other and the gods.
 They are foundational—they provide basic rules, beliefs, and rituals for a culture to
establish shared beliefs and practices.

IX. THE FOUR THEORIES OF MYTH

There are four basic theories of myth. Those theories are: the rational myth theory, functional
myth theory, structural myth theory, and the psychological myth theory. The rational myth
theory states that myths were created to explain natural events and forces. Functional myths
are what you call the kinds of myths that were created as a type of social control. The third
myth theory is the structural myth theory. This theory says that myths were patterned after
human mind and human nature. The psychological myth theory is the fourth myth theory,
which states that myths are based on human emotion.1

A. Rational Myth
The rational myth theory states that myths were made to better understand
natural events and forces that occurred in the everyday lives of people. This theory also
explains that the gods and goddesses controlled all of these happenings of nature.
Examples of this type of myth are creation myths from different cultures. Creation
myths explain how man was created and explain what the gods and goddesses used and
what actions they took to create humans. These myths also tell what substances were
used (if any) in order for man to exist. The existence of man is a natural event but
creation myths give other explanations.2

B. Functional Myth
The functional myth theory talks about how myths were used to teach morality
and social behavior. It states that myths told about what types of things should and
shouldn’t be done, and the consequences for those wrong doings. The functional myth
theory also states that myths were created for social control and served the function of

1
Joseph Plagiarist, “Ramblings of an Illiterate,” Popular Press, 3 (1996): 19.
2
Joseph Plagiarist, “Ramblings of an Illiterate,” Popular Press, 3 (1996): 19.
 insuring stability in a society. A story about a tribe who rebelled against the great
serpent, Degei, is a good example of a functional myth3. This story is about a tribe who
learned many skills from their great serpent god, Degei, and then became Degei’s
workers and servants. Two chiefs of this tribe were sick of working for him and tried to
defeat him; they were too weak for Degei. Instead of winning their freedom, they were
killed in a great flood caused by Degei. This myth is trying to say that you should not be
lazy because if you are, then you will regret it.

C. Structural Myth
Structural myths are said to be myths based on human emotion. These types of myths
show the two sides of the human mind; the good side and the bad side. They show the divided
self and the duality of human nature. Myths about Hercules show how the human mind can be
both good and bad. Hercules did both good and bad things. One of the bad things he did was
(in “Jason and the Argonauts”) he stole a broach pin from the treasure chamber of the god
Talos. This sin caused his friend to be killed. Hercules knew that his friend was killed because
of his sin, so to make up for it; he vowed to stay on the island until his friend was found.

D. Psychological Myth
The psychological myth theory states how myths are based on human emotion and that
they come from the human subconscious mind. Cultures all around the world had similar fears,
questions, and wishes which, to them, were unexplainable. That is the reason that
psychological myths were made; and that is why there are archetypes shared between cultures.
Archetypes are general forms and characters used by all cultures. Some archetypes found
between cultures are having a sky god (Zeus and Oleron),a sea god (Poseidon and Olokun), and
an agricultural god (Orisha-Oko and Demeter). These archetypes are examples of how people
think alike when it comes to things that are to them mysteries and fears.

X. INDIVIDUAL MYTHS OR "MYTHEMES" MAY BE CLASSIFIED IN VARIOUS CATEGORIES:

 Ritual myths explain the performance of certain religious practices or patterns and
associated with temples or centers of worship.
 Origin myths (aetiologies) describe the beginnings of a custom, name, or object.
 Creation myths, which describes how the world or universe came into being.
 Cult myths are often seen as explanations for elaborate festivals that magnify the power
of the deity.
 Prestige myths are usually associated with a divinely chosen king, hero, city, or people.
 Eschatological myths are all stories which describe catastrophic ends to the present
world order of the writers. These extend beyond any potential historical scope, and thus
can only be described in mythic terms. Apocalyptic literature such as the New
Testament Book of Revelation is an example of a set of eschatological myths.
 Social myths reinforce or defend current social values or practices.
 The Trickster myth concerns itself with the pranks or tricks played by gods or heroes.
Heroes do not have to be in a story to be considered a myth.

3
Joseph Plagiarist, “Ramblings of an Illiterate,” Popular Press, 3 (1996): 19.
XI. THE FOUR FUNCTIONS OF MYTH (Refer to the printed copy of the lecture)

XII. MYTHOLOGY AND LITERATURE

Myths are not the same as fables, legends, folktales, fairy tales, anecdotes,

or fiction, but the concepts may overlap. Notably, during the nineteenth century period
of Romanticism, folktales and fairy tales were perceived as eroded fragments of earlier
mythology. Mythological themes are also very often consciously employed in literature,
beginning with Homer. Euhemerism refers to the process of rationalization of myths,
putting themes formerly imbued with mythological qualities into pragmatic contexts, for
example following a cultural or religious paradigm shift (notably the re-interpretation of
pagan mythology following Christianization).

RELATION OF MYTHS TO OTHER NARRATIVE FORMS

Fables
The word fable derives from the Latin word fabula, which originally meant about the
same as the Greek mythos. Like mythos, it came to mean a fictitious or untrue story. Myths, in
contrast, are not presented as fictitious or untrue.
Fables, like some myths, feature personified animals or natural objects as characters.
Unlike myths, however, fables almost always end with an explicit moral message, and this
highlights the characteristic feature of fables—namely, that they are helpful tales that
teach morals about human social behaviour. Myths, by contrast, tend to lack this
directly moralistic aspect, and the sacred narratives that they embody are often hard to
translate into direct prescriptions for action in everyday human terms. Another difference
between fables and myths relates to a feature of the narratives that they present.
The context of a typical fable will be unspecific as to time and space—e.g., “A fox and a goose
met at a pool.” A typical myth, on the other hand, will be likely to identify by name the god
or hero concerned in a given exploit and to specify details of geography and genealogy—e.g.,
“Oedipus was the son of Laius, the king of Thebes.”

Fairy tales
The term fairy tale, if taken literally, should refer only to stories about fairies, a class of
supernatural and sometimes wicked beings—often believed to be of little size—who were
thought by people in medieval and postmedieval Europe to inhabit a kingdom of their own; a
literary expression of this belief can be found in William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s
Dream. The term fairy tale, however, is normally used to refer to a much wider class of
narrative, namely stories (directed above all at an audience of children) about an individual,
almost always young, who confronts strange or magical events; examples are “Jack and the
Beanstalk,” “Cinderella,” and “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.”
Like myths, fairy tales present extraordinary beings and events. Unlike myths—but like fables—
fairy tales tend to be placed in a setting that is geographically and temporally vague and might
begin with the words “Once upon a time there was a handsome prince….” A myth about a
prince, by contrast, would be likely to name him and to specify his ancestry, since such details
might be of collective importance (for example, with reference to issues of property inheritance
or the relative status of different families) to the social group among which the myth was told.

Folktales
There is much disagreement among scholars as to how to define the folktale;
consequently, there is disagreement about the relation between folktale and myth. One view of
the problem is that of the American folklorist Stith Thompson, who regarded myths as one type
of folktale; according to this approach, the particular characteristic of myth is that its narratives
deal with sacred events that happened “in the beginning.” Other scholars either consider
folktale a subdivision of myth or regard the two categories as distinct but overlapping. The
latter view is taken by the British Classicist Geoffrey S. Kirk, who in Myth: Its Meaning and
Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures (1970) uses the term myth to denote stories with an
underlying purpose beyond that of simple story-telling and the term folktale to denote stories
that reflect simple social situations and play on ordinary fears and desires. Examples of folktale
motifs are encounters between ordinary, often humble, human beings and supernatural
adversaries such as witches, giants, or ogres; contests to win a bride; and attempts to overcome
a wicked stepmother or jealous sisters. But these typical folktale themes occur also in stories
normally classified as myths, and there must always be a strong element of arbitrariness in
assigning a motif to a particular category.

Sagas  and  epics

The word saga is often used in a generalized and loose way to refer to any extended
narrative re-creation of historical events. A distinction is thus sometimes drawn between myths
(set in a semidivine world) and sagas (more realistic and more firmly grounded in a specific
historical setting). This rather vague use of saga is best avoided, however, since the word can
more usefully retain the precise connotation of its original context. The word saga is Old
Norse and means “what is said.” The sagas are a group of medieval Icelandic prose narratives;
the principal sagas date from the 13th century and relate the deeds of Icelandic heroes who
lived during the 10th and 11th centuries. If the word saga is restricted to this Icelandic context,
at least one of the possible terminological confusions over words for traditional tales is avoided.
While saga in its original sense is a narrative type confined to a particular time and
place, epics are found worldwide. Examples can be found in the ancient world
(the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer), in medieval Europe (the Nibelungenlied), and in modern
times (the Serbo-Croatian epic poetry recorded in the 1930s). Among the many non-European
examples are the Indian Mahabharata and the Tibetan Gesar epic. Epic is similar to saga in that
both narrative forms look back to an age of heroic endeavour, but it differs from saga in that
epics are almost always composed in poetry (with a few exceptions such as Kazak epic and the
Turkish Book of Dede Korkut). The relation between epic and myth is not easy to pin down, but
it is in general true that epics characteristically incorporate mythical events and persons. An
example is the ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, which includes, among many mythical
episodes, an account of the meeting between the hero Gilgamesh and Utnapishtim, the
only human being to have attained immortality and sole survivor (with his wife) of the flood
sent by the gods. Myth is thus a prime source of the material on which epic draws.

Legends
In common usage the word legend usually characterizes a traditional tale thought to
have a historical basis, as in the legends of King Arthur or Robin Hood. In this view, a distinction
may be drawn between myth (which refers to the supernatural and the sacred)
and legend (which is grounded in historical fact). Thus, some writers on the Iliad would
distinguish between the legendary aspects (e.g., heroes performing actions possible for
ordinary humans) and the mythical aspects (e.g., episodes involving the gods). But the
distinction between myth and legend must be used with care. In particular, because of the
assumed link between legend and historical fact, there may be a tendency to refer to narratives
that correspond to one’s own beliefs as legends, while exactly comparable stories from other
traditions may be classified as myths; hence a Christian might refer to stories about the
miraculous deeds of a saint as legends, while similar stories about a pagan healer might be
called myths. As in other cases, it must be remembered that the boundaries between terms for
traditional narratives are fluid, and that different writers employ them in quite different ways.

Parables
The term myth is not normally applied to narratives that have as their explicit purpose
the illustration of a doctrine or standard of conduct. Instead, the term parable, or illustrative
tale, is used. Familiar examples of such narratives are the parables of the New Testament.
Parables have a considerable role also in Sufism (Islamic mysticism), rabbinic (Jewish biblical
interpretive) literature, Hasidism (Jewish pietism), and Zen Buddhism. That parables are
essentially non-mythological is clear because the point made by the parable is known or
supposed to be known from another source. Parables have a more subservient function than
myths. They may clarify something to an individual or a group but do not take on the revelatory
character of myth.

Etiologic tales
Etiologic tales are very close to myth, and some scholars regard them as a particular
type of myth rather than as a separate category. In modern usage the term etiology is used to
refer to the description or assignment of causes (Greek aitia). Accordingly, an etiologic tale
explains the origin of a custom, state of affairs, or natural feature in the human or divine world.
Many tales explain the origin of a particular rock or mountain. Others explain iconographic
features, such as the Hindu narrative attributing the blue neck of the god Shiva to a poison he
drank in ancient times. The etiologic theme often seems to be added to a mythical narrative as
a reflection. In other words, the etiology is not the distinctive characteristic of myth.

XIII. MYTHOLOGY AND HISTORY

Some myths are based on historical events. These myths can over time become imbued
with symbolic meaning, transformed, shifted in time or place, or even reversed. Over time, such
"myths" make the transition from "legendary occurrence" to "mythical status," as the event
takes on progressively greater symbolic resonance while the facts become less important. By
the time it reaches the status of myth, the story has taken on a life of its own and the facts of
the original event have become almost irrelevant. A classical example of this process is the
Trojan War, an historical event that is now a part of Greek mythology. This process occurs in
part because the events described become detached from their original context and new
context is substituted, often through analogy with current or recent events. Some Greek myths
originated in Classical times to provide explanations for inexplicable features of local cult
practices, to account for the local epithet of one of the Olympian gods, to interpret depictions
of half-remembered figures, events, or to account for the deities' attributes or entheogens, the
origins of which have become arcane with the passing of time.

XIV. MYTHOLOGY AND CULTURE

Myth has existed in every society. Indeed, it would seem to be a basic constituent of

human culture. Because the variety is so great, it is difficult to generalize about the nature of
myths. But it is clear that in their general characteristics and in their details a people’s myths
reflect, express, and explore the people’s self-image. The study of myth is thus of central
importance in the study both of individual societies and of human culture as a whole.

XV. MYTHOLOGY AND RITUAL (Refer to the printed copy of the lecture)

XVI. TYPES OF MYTHOLOGY (Refer to the printed copy of the lecture)

What is Mythology?
CTTO: ANDY GUREVICH

“Myths symbolize human experience and embody the spiritual values of a culture.” (Rosenberg
XIII)

The problem with this definition is the phrase “symbolize human experience.” Just what does
that mean?  It is what myths do, but it doesn’t really give us much in the way of definition.

Joseph Campbell, another somewhat famous scholar and mythologist who we’ll be using often
this term, defined myth as follows,

“A whole mythology is an organization of symbolic images and narratives, metaphorical of the

possibilities of human experience and the fulfillment of a given culture at a given time.”

Psychoanalyst Rollo May, in his book “The Cry for Myth” suggests,
“A myth is a way of making sense in a senseless world. Myths are the narrative patterns that
give significance to our existence. Myths are like the beams in a house: not exposed to outside
view, they are the structure which holds the house together so people can live in it.”

You will soon see that although most scholars of mythology agree that it is a foundational
component of how any society, culture, and individual define themselves, none can agree
absolutely on how to define it. But this isn’t really a problem. They may all be right, given the
aspects of myth they are emphasizing in their different definitions.

From the many definitions of myth in books and on the web, we can see that myths have four
basic attributes in common:

 They are cultural—they reflect the beliefs and values of a group of people.

 They are sacred—they concern the spiritual or divine aspects of existence that human
beings cannot understand.
 They are didactic—they seek to explain the unexplainable, and they teach humans how
to behave, live, and relate to each other and the gods.
 They are foundational—they provide basic rules, beliefs, and rituals for a culture to
establish shared beliefs and practices.

Joseph Campbell adds that all living myth must serve four primary functions:

 Cosmological—Its cosmological function is to describe the “shape” of the cosmos, the

universe, our total world, so that the cosmos and all contained within it become vivid
and alive for us, infused with meaning and significance; every corner, every rock, hill,
stone, and flower has its place and its meaning in the cosmological scheme which the
myth provides.

 Mystical—Its metaphysical function is to awaken us to the mystery and wonder of

creation, to open our minds and our senses to an awareness of the mystical “ground of
being.” Many would say that this is the primary function of myth-to find a way to
communicate whatever mystical insight has been gained on the journey: an
understanding of the mysteries that underlie the universe; an appreciation of its
wonders; the sense of awe or rapture experienced. Since this experience often can’t be
communicated directly, myth speaks in metaphors, symbols, and symbolic narratives
that aren’t always bound by objective reality.

 Sociological—Its sociological function is to pass down “the law,” the moral and ethical
codes for people of that culture to follow, and which help define that culture and its
social structure.

 Psychological—Its psychological (or pedagogical) function is to lead us through

particular rites of passage that define the various significant stages of our lives-from
dependency to maturity to old age, and finally, to our deaths, the final passage. These
rites of passage bring us into harmony with the “ground of being” (a term used by
Campbell to refer to an unnamed, unspecified universal mystical power) and allow us to
make the journey from one stage to another with a sense of comfort and purpose.

Today, in our culture, we often dismiss myth as a falsehood, or fanciful, untrue stories, like
urban myths or “false news.”. This is not the definition of myth we will concern ourselves
with. For each of the myths we read, the culture from which they arose believed them to be
true and foundational to their individual and collective identities. It was how they understood
the great mysteries of the universe and our place in it—How did the earth come to be? How
was mankind created? What is my purpose? Can I know god? Is there a life after death?

Today, we are still asking the same questions, and for many people, the answers are in their
religious beliefs, many of which have their roots in the myths. Campbell once said, “a
mythology is another person’s religion, and a religion is your own personal mythology.”

This first group of myths are Creation myths. They seek to explain “how it all started.”  There
are 8 basic motifs (a recurring pattern or object) for creation myths:

 Conjunction: mingling of waters or primal elements creates a first entity or a livable

surface
 Divine emission: blood or other body fluids create man or beings or other gods
 Sacrifice: a god sacrifices himself or is sacrificed to achieve creation of the earth or
humans
 Division/Consumption: marriage of earth and sky or separation of earth and sky creates
livable space for humans
 Cosmic egg: all humans, and the earth sometimes, are contained in a great egg to be
opened when the god wills it
 Emergence: first “people” emerge from an original cramped or hostile world into a new
world or a series of worlds
 Deus Faber: the god consciously crafts the world and humans out of a substance
necessary for the survival of mankind (like clay, mud, stone, corn)
 Ex Nihilo-out of nothing: creation by thought, breath, dream or word

These eight methods are creation are easy to see in the myths we read. What might each
method say to the people about their importance to the gods? Think about this question as
your read the myths.
As you read, you will see that myths are narratives; they tell a story. It is the culture’s way of
trying to explain the creation of the universe and mankind in a way everyone could understand.
These stories (myths) were passed down through generations orally because they existed long
before humans created writing.

The myths, although simple as narratives, are complex in trying to explain existence and the
gods. In some cases, you will find contradictions, missing pieces, and some just plain confusing
ideas. Remember, these are myths, not fact-based explanations. We need to read them
differently than we would a history or science book. But when we know how to read them as
intended, as metaphors for the journey of the soul back to the ground of its own being, then
they can reveal timeless truth to us, whether we “believe” in them or not.

So…A closer look:  It’s about time!

Legend is defined as a traditional story that may be based on historical facts but is not easily
proven to be historical (like the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table).
Folklore is more like myth in that it is stories about traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a
community passed down through word of mouth. This definition is very much like myth, but as
we will see, there is one attribute of myth that may be missing from folklore.

In conclusion, myths are legendary stories that have been a fundamental part of man’s culture,
history, and even religion for thousands of years. They have been utilized, adapted, and retold
by authors since the beginning of storytelling—in other words, for the majority of human
existence.