Aadison Wesley Longman Aura Pry Utes Se Coveney see South Malone 5205 Augvalia (ies in Syne, Trisbane and Pech and assocated companis heooghoxt Devons Copyright ©1998 Aadioon Wee Langan Austaa Py Limited Fontaine 1998 epee 199 oo ‘Alig sesrve. Bact undo he constons dese inthe Copyright fet eb of Asnais nd subsequent amends ro pat of Ts “ent and cover design by Lydall Board ‘lusuatone by Glew Wilk Per Karp | | Page makeup by Per Rapids 7 Setin 10/12 pePaain Prin Slay, VP ee ational Library of Anes sence Spon aca senate Conca Sera eS Inelaes index ; ‘sen osezenaer¢ {Reinforced comet. 2 Pitted concrete, Reinforce concrete ‘onetrtion 1 Wares RF bert Elen) cow SeChapter Properties ofsel reinforcement and Chapter Design and analysis of concrete traces Part 2 Beams in bending Chapter5 Reinforced concrete Deamsin bending Chapters Floaueln beams with prestres Clupter? Moment capacity of reinforced and restesced beams Chapters Beam deletions Chapter? Cracking in flexural members Chapter 10. Loss of presse Pare3.Non-flexural behaviour of beams Suepierd Suatanate modeling Chupter12. Shear ‘Chapter 13° Torsion Chapter 14 Bond, stress development and anchorage Part 4 Design of beams (Chapter 15 Design of satcally detenninate beams Chapuzr 16 Design of continaocs beams ® ae well mPartS Slabs and floor systems 515 Tnzoduetion to labs and flor systems Ghapteri7 Chapters Chapter 9 ‘Chapter 20 Chapter ‘Methods of analysis fr slabs and floor systems sig of eiforcedconezete slabs an floor systems, Design of prestressed concrete slab systems (Collapse load methods of analysis and design ofalabe Pare6 Columns and walls Chapter22 a me 661 g ‘Strength and design of short columns Chapter 23 Chapter 26 Pare7 Buildings Slenderes effets in solated columns and balling frames Design of walls and deep beams a3 3 Chapter 35 Chapter 26 Chapter” Chapter 28 Chapters Chapter 30 Chapter 31 Parc® Appendixes “Appropriate analysis and preliminary ‘aecgn ofbaldings Guidelines for dealing ‘Movement joins in building ‘Foundations footings and retaining walls Design for durabiity ‘Design for fre resistance Design for earthquake resistance goseeaa “Appendix A Constative relations for concrete Appendix B Hastic analysis of unrached prestsstod ‘sxctions allowing forthe ste reinforcement “Appendix C Analyses of presreseed sections for rep andehsnkage “Appendix D Fatigue resitance of presuessed members [Appendix Structural safety and reliability Index gee 8 §Pepsin ew-o-undetandugrted anc comprehensive ign of reinforced con bending momenta service loads or (Chapter 14 spalling moment > slkinate strength inbending = clioate strength in bending at balanced fire = maxim ultimate strength in bending Mage line strength in bending boat the mor and minor es Me has pectl of coun ne design Caco) cal ree N™ = sys moment per unit length of ylld line (Chapter 1) te yield moment per urtlength ofa yield line running in the y direction ERRRAREREE (Geapterm) ty = yield moment perurtlengih ofa yield ine runing in the x direction (Chapter 21) ing ~ yield moment per unit length for yl Tne inclined at angle 10 hex decor (Chapter 21) N= axistforce N= desig (factored) axial force N, = bedding lad used in columa design Ny = ultimate strength in compression of an ecentzicaly loaded ‘ompresion mearber Nay ullate strongts in compression at balance flture Mig = uldnate compressive stuength ofan axially loaded cross-section, ‘without axenic k= modular rato, E/E> prestessing force > effective prestresing force afterall loses) * lnk praseesing fore ut after trnsier) = tendon force prior to tanefer = vertical component of prestesting force 1 ten eagorcement rao, Ay/bd = balanced steel proporon ‘= compressive reinforcement ratio, An/bd = maximum steel proportion = vertical reinforcement rasio in wall (Chapter 24) 1 minimum reinforcement ratio sree = Wwelcad = lve load per unt length or area = maximum bearing pressure * deen valoe of tendon relation eso dfaton malting * soos relation after 100 burs constant strain ~ busicrelasson ous fr tendons ~ rads of gyration of conection ~ snimum tress level nde by sept oading ~ minimum ses vel induced by repaid lading srs eng Ses~Shp 7 contmtocentre spacing of shear or torsional reinforcement, ‘Eeasured paral tothelngidil ms fa tnemiber or Spacing of arll tothe ongi spacing. 1 tera force: oF tora moment = sign actor torsional monet = tere sess in prestresing steel = imate torsonal sength = kent torsional strength ofa beam without torsicnalreinforeement ~ ulate torsional strength of a beam with torsonal reinforcement ~ ultimate torsional strength ofa beam Hite ny we crashing faire = flange thickiss of Tor Lsectionay sickness ofa eber used in determining eeep ad Sheage een a5 24y/¢ = wall ckness = engi ofthe teal shots perimeter (Chapter 19) es permet ofa meer rose sectn usa se pre: rod pee ee hens wean > porter of the polygon dened for = sear fore “+ design (factored) shear force shear force at the dacompresion moment 1s shear force at principal tensile coc = mate shear song w hmate shes strength ited by web eushingfstre chumate hear stength ofa beam provided with minissn shear ‘inforeament ulate shear strength ecluding shear riaforcmet imate shear strength ofa sab with no roment tansiee 7 Conuation by shea enforcers othe utiate sess tens f bees vs itance from evel of tensile steel plastic centroid = wind loo for serviceability desig s+ wine Toad for atength design 1 uniformly distributed load or erack width design (factored) ulate ond = average crack width 7 cunformy dsrbted oad tobe Balanced by Presress mazar width of primary tense cock > equivalent load exerted by presesing cable “= sustained uniformly tributed oad ae eral densi of rectangular cross-section Sate distance between comer basin setargula cross-section (Geaprer13) «- atanee trom conti sof etions or lrger overall dimension 1 distance from centrobal ds top Sbre 1 litance from cetroidal asst botom Slee©, = stessin concrete op bre Cin = stresdve to preston concrete top ne ©; © stein concrete bottom sbre iy» stress deo prostresin concrete bottom fre oy * average tres due to eective prestesin slab = tensile stress in prestesing eee y+ tendon stress at stance yg om jcking point Ope = tensile stress in pests see ater loses On © tendon sree at jacking end > stesein pestresing sel at My ~ compressive ses in compressive sts enforcement 6, = tena eres in tensile tel reinforcement Og = strosin enforcing ste at My 0 = stressat bottom of compressive dange fy + branswere stress in anchorage zone + transverse stress in anchorage 7one 6, > top Bie concrete sees = principal tension stress Zo = sumof perimetrs of enforcement or tendons F = shear sts or age of concrete when astreseinerement is plied 6 = strength seduction factor, o rep funtion Gey = Desic creep factor 8, value cep function at ie inity Ve lived combination factor fr strength design Wi © longterm iv foad factor use in astasng the sign loa for services| | % _stress in prestressing steel just after transfer = shortterm ve oad used in stening the desiga lod fr ServceaigyIntroduction Concrete structures 3 Properties of coneste 0 Propertios of reinforcement and pressing sndon ry Design and analysis of concrae stuctsres 2Concrete structures ‘Tis chapter invasions some basic concep of rforeed conerte ang presente: coreen, an expire tame ven wl be vend throughout evbeeguert capers. Nas (Greta ef revew of he neta’ deveonment of renarcad concrete ed wesressed ‘ore teres andin Sus Chapter outine 1A Conor 4 12. Reinforced concrete 4 13 Prestressed concrete 4 114 Structural concrete, and level of prestess 13 115, Construction methods 1“ 119 Historica! backaround 15 117 Reterenoes and turter reading 19am 2 Concrete Concrete it one of the most widely used constracton matorals in the world today. It is made by mining small pieces of natural stone (called agregst) together witha mortar of sand, water, portld coment and possibly other cement- tious materials The porland cements manifacrared by fring 2 mntice of lay and limestone at high temperature and then grinding it to a Sve powder All of the ingredients of concrete rein abundant supply in mast pars ofthe word. Properly designed and constrcte, conezetestracrurs compare four with regard f9 economy, durability and funesonality with strcres rade fron other stractral materials, such as ste! and timber. One ofthe advantages of concrete is that it is realy moulded Sto virtually any requzed shape, Concrete the Pee {ered construction material fora wide range of ouldinge orgs and cl erg peering sacra “The compresive strength of concrete unuallyfllsin the range from 301050 MPa, although high performance concrete, with stengths extending up to 100 MPa, [re being incresingly sed in bullding contruction, The tne strength how ‘ever i very low; Inthe order of to 5 MPa, In most load bearing socal ‘ents, such as beams, slabs and even columns, local intemal Tene have 10 ‘amy large tense forces asa result of bot the external applied lands and various load-independent effet sich ae omperine change an foundation movement, “This prcindes the use of plain concrete im structural membygrs. Even inthe cave ‘of nonestrctural members which theoretically cary no Tond, such es acing, elements anc nor-load beeing wall, the forces which mevitaly act ating hate «ling and constraction and inservice are large enough to make te wee of Pain ‘concrete inappropriate, ‘The elastic moduls of conazote subjected to compressive srs of short duration Jin the order of 30,00 to 35,000 MPa. However, concrete undergocsimge ada ‘Sonal inelastic deformations over time asa result of phenomena Knows cep ‘and siriage, and long-term deformations and deflesSons are usualy several ‘mes a large asthe inital values. In effec, herefore, concrete nat a Wary Sa ‘construction materi) 85 interesting to compare the properties of concrete with those of ste and tim ber Tharange a compresive engi or concrete about the sane as for any timbers used in structural engineering and is about» fifth ofthe strength of suc tural ee Is elastic modulus for shor-ten loading is elso about the tne a for timber, bt about a seventh ofthat for ste. Both timber and concrete undergo lbrgeaalitional d‘ormations over tie, as the rel of creep and shrinkage: Reinforced concrete “The widespread us of concrete n engineering consesction stems fom ts aval! stiity and fom its cheapness compared with other materials Ite most seriousee defiency, lack of tensile strength, can be overcome by incorporating ste eine ovement, usally in the form of thin bars, inthe regions where teste forts haveto be cared, The concrete an ste reaforcemen! bond wel iogether anda ‘composite structural material is achieved which can be used fo construct + wide ‘variety of elements and stucturs {in eenforoed concrete the structural properties ofthe component materials are put wn effcint se the concrete cutee comprecsion, and the ste! rine ten: carries tension. Fig 11 shows the stracaral action ofa supe reinforced conete beam. The load induces tension inthe lower pat ofthe beat, snd che conazete cracks, However the stel im the ceckad region carries the tensile {ores 20 that in the szction shown in Fig.l (the stel tense fone Tand the ‘concrete compressive force C form a couple to resist the moment M, Although the sel i efesive in carrying the internal tensile fore, doesnot prevent the cracks from forming. That isnot ts purpose, At fll working loud, «reinforced concrete beam normally displays » pattern of very fine tease cucke (fen ‘refered to as hair each) which, on clase inspection, ate found to extend Well Into ‘fe conerete section, leaving aa intact compressive Sock of concrete above thetp of the crack WUCUUUU UU ERLE TEESE 00 27 Led LLU a Fe Ib Figure 1.1 Aeloforces concrete beam in benaing ‘The function of the reinforcing ste! is actually two-fold to reset the internal eae fin he meme prev se ae anc mh one ‘rombecoming too wide. Reinforcements provided inal plone of potential cracking. For example, in che continous beam it Fig 1.2 ongitudinal bre fare placed near the tensile fees, Le the bottom face in the pastive moment ‘mid'span regions and the top face in the negative moment regions around the Interior support.HEE EE i aaa a Figure 12. Flexural reinforcement in continuous beam ‘sa result of high shear fore inclined cracks are prone to occur in reinforced concrete beams, particularly near she support Fig 13) pee dbd dtd dada a» Figure 13 nctined shear cracking and wansverse trup reinfroement ts therefore usual to include regulely spaced verscl ste bars, in addition to the mpi ala nrc Tae ald rag and hey arom ‘ced co ny pln inined ack Frm of craracon he img inal renforeing bars and the transverse stivups are often preassembled into rectangular cages (Fig 14 (a). In oor slabs, which ae suspended atthe comers or along the edges, simultaneous Bencng sinh to tin pn dno org a ae pad tight anges to resist he tense ores induced in both directions For ease of com ructn, welded mesh produced forte in slab constrvetion Fig 13 0). i used primarily to cary the internal tensile forces Although sto reinforcement ‘reel by exeal odin, # ala han other es el much renga ion, it can be sed to boost the resistance of some of the Tater ‘pied to wal oa, Aga thereon sefor clue can be preane etn font xr ot riya vl of externa apd ad bala ‘ocauseoftempersture changes forced deformations and restrained shrinkage of Se cones, ght sic winfoement sual provided Sacretost eylazge concrete region to contol sack forms of cracking, Escesively wide cracks, which might otherwise form ae unsightly and can esuse unease forthe public, ‘They can also allow corosion ofthe reinforcement to develop, 13__ Prestressed concrete Prestressed concrete, ike enforced concrete, i composite material. tis made from concrete, usualy af reasvely high stength, with small amornts of very high soengeh tel tendon and some ordinary wenioring steel. During consis, tim the tendons ae tensioned against she hardened concree which f thus put ‘nto. Sate of permanent precompression, ‘The main eason for prestresing flexural member sto improve its service load behaviour This is achieved by precompresing the concree with an eecentee force which produces an internal moment opposite in sia tothe moments which are induced by velfweight and lveload. The resus in reduced defections an reduced cracking, ‘The eet of prestressng is iustrstd in Fig 15, where a high-smength ste! ten: on placed in a duct previously at inthe concrete is seed By eking agai! ‘he ends ofthe concrete and is then permanently anchored at each end Met re SSSSSSs==s} Figure 15 Posttensione, pesteesed concrete beam“The eccentricity of the tendon fore induces a negative moment in the beam, Uwhich detects epovarde. This inal embers sally auicien to offset the downward deflection due tothe selfreight loads rior to the application of ‘he external Jad, thee is hus a sina net camber shown i Fig 5 (0. ‘The extemal Ive lad ty (N/m) produces postive bending moment inthe tem and ste downwrte deficton. The eect ofthe presoes ethos Yo ‘he the deecton under the falliad ie +) a eaten enon (2) el fre Pan ecu comprosare erent ip neon Gesinaonante soar ‘atom tutto soars Figure 1 Force end moment in conerete section, due te prestess “To tute appreciate the behaviour indicted in Fig 15, we consider the internal foreas and testes induced by the pretessing operation. At a ypial cose ‘sect in the beam the eeani tendon fore P produces an equal compressive fone in the concrete at ecsenticty «which is equrvalen to an aa compressive fons Papd s negative sone of Mp = Ps a8 ented in Pig 1. Metta See Meese OT Fignro 1.7 Stresses in concrete section “ogther, P and Mp produce compressive stress tn the concrete secon, varying linesiy Rom a madznum a the bottom fbve 9 3 minis (possibly tension at thetop Sire. This indicated in Fig 1.7 (b) Asa result of he sleight moment [Mey the compressive stress inthe botiom fies of the section are deceased, wile those at the top are increased (Fig 17 (2. The eect ofthe lvedoat Tmoment Mi siiae and with fl load aetng the boro Abr stress usually tenale ig 17Atths age cracking may well have occured inte high moment region of he Seam nets apn’ howe tne peconpresin she bonoa eae sigan reas the wh fay crack and Hos the region ear Bad apo rer hich ey once ‘After cracking, the pretessng tendon acts in a similar manner to the tensile ‘einforcement and so assis in resisting the moment nthe sueton. Usual some & ov tnsining In post tensioned construction he tendo cat be bonded 1 the concrete atthe tne of presmesing, andi heeore placed opera cs hich pas i straight or curved paths through the meter Upon compo of the prsiressng operation the duce and tendon may te precoe gasted ‘ero provide provcon the ablar an fo noodice soe Beacon ‘rete and be pressing elon Provided suliientondinary reinforcing ste hasbeen includ inthe coneret to nintain presoess nts ember ithe prestressed beam in Fig 19 contained no ordinary reinforcement it would have eirualy no strength reserve and would colapas under its own sleight following las of prostress, with extasophie result, In hw casa of mexiber prestressed by means of internal tendons (ig LS), the situation is quite citferent, ‘The tendon serves an important secondary role the post-ersckng range fn at itcamactas tensile reinforcement and hence provide ductile overload behaviour spd rabeantl load sserying caput of the member Figure 1.10. Precressing wih exarna cables‘Another form of eternal presuessing can be achieved by prestreting th exter tails, as dented in Fig 110. The atuation here i quite atferent to that in Fig 15, because the prestresting force in the tendon, and ence in the concrete, is permanent, In recent mes increasing use has been made of exeral unducte {ables for post-tensioning members such as bridge girders. Although the cables sre unbondied and net protected fom corosion by the concrete, hey are easy ‘nspected and are move easly replaced, i and when this hoomee necessary Ober forms of ovebeen roped an investigate, For exazple i i pombe produs exons constr lc cre tome ss oreeio the chem posts of sting and hardening” Such concrete havea lh stressing scion i appropiate se! reinforcement i provided. While consider ‘beef has gone lato the development of elf-sonng eyes, pesto Is France andthe former USSR thay have not yet foun sige ee and ae cll ‘xperanetal At present, mith tesenh ted. dewelopipent work dneced tcwards he producdon of non-neslicpresresing tendons aod the paca) he of new mater canbe expected inthe ent atore In the rest of this book our discussions of prestressed concrete will concentrate a systems of post-tensioning and pretnsoning in whick high-strength tendons a ‘bed to produce a sel-equiibrating system consltng of resulant compressive force inthe concrete (aed any reinforcing steel which may be present) nd 29 equal tension inthe tendon. 1.33. Loss of prestress Both during and after the presiessing operation, various factors come into play = “hich reduce the magnitude of the prestessing forces the concrete. Ts ssf reste canbe very significant. The decrease ix prasressng fore i the tenon ‘would exceed 20 per cent in most situations. The various causes therefore have to be Sdensifed, evaluated and allowed for by the designer Losses are weated in two groups: iii losses, which occur during the preseessing operation, and deferens, which develop gradually after the pressing Option bas ‘completed “The iii! losses ae caused primarily by ftion between the inner duct surface and the presttessing tendon, sip inthe mechanical devices used fo anchor the tendon, and by elastic contraction of the concrete. The deferred losses ave the ‘esl ofthe inelastic tune dependent behaviour ofboth the conerete and the pre: stresing tendon, Ina prestresed member, the stel tendon s held in a condition of netr-constant ‘gah and ata consequence the sss esto diminish with ne Thi phenom enon i known as sta elation In cnerete subjected to sustained compressive sees the inital compressive strain inresue in ime atthe result of ee. Afar {her merase in compressive strain occur in concrete with ime as the ret of the phenomenon of srinkge. Creep and shrinkage ofthe concee, snd sess = relation ofthe prestressing tendon enue in a continuing desease inthe pre stressing force with time, fein Uh difered lses,‘Structural concrete, and level of prestress ‘When prestressed concrete was fist used inthe late 1980 in Europe, an then ‘worldwide in the postwar years the design concep was to provide sulicient pre Ss een ny cng der ll orig ind snd, Te metas ‘Sevloped for analysts and design were therefore mt © ‘Siniowed concrete whieh allow and indood rly on. cracking f the conereta. Diecacs in degn concepts and notation ido the eater of ranvorced concrete and presrened concrete a4 cstnct an different material, with sepa {ite design cotes ana standards Since the ary 1960s the emphasts i reinforved ‘conerte design has been on ultimate strength design and tre neeasing use of SSesign eaten based om the required performance of the atucture at WOH However i isnot logical to prevent any cracking in presened concrete wile Uowing it in reinforced concrete, andthe arifiality of parsing the vo mate Seely the ast sno design solitons ave ben aired by sing i ‘eich does not prevent caclang under ful design working ita bur wis une tw cone defector nd ack wide and hence achieve good service Joad behaviour. Tis led othe use ofthe ers ll pss ing an partial prcresng, to distinguish berweon prstessed concrete SEuctses ‘ohich respectively sre designed ot fo crack, and allowed to undergo lnuted ‘racking under fll design working load ‘With the recent widespread adoption of performancebased criteria for structural ‘paces suparate codes for prestrewed ond reinforced concrete. With the empho- {is in AS 3600 now on periormance criteria for design, with separa requze- tients covering minimum srengeh, ad conte of cack width, and deflections linda workang condifons, the tendency is for hall prestressed stractures to Be ‘toed rnely, except where epoca performance quirements, suchas watertight test lead foa ad to prevent ercking unser working conditions. ‘The term structural comer has bean incrensingy used in recent years to denote ‘ay composite material made fom concrete and steel, with or without press ing and used ia the constuction of buding structures CABSE, 1991) 741.5 Construction methods “The method adopted for the construction of building stricture uswally has a decisive effect onthe structural eonceps used for the design. Many methods of onstruction have been devised for reinforced concree sind prestressed com ‘cree structures. ‘Tradisionaly-t construction has been used for reinforced concrete structures ‘The formwork for each clement i st assembled inthe reqlted location on shored support, the reisforcement is placed i the formmark, an the concrete is placed and llowed to set and harden. After he requized curing period, the shor lng and formwork are removed. Wh continnally increasing labour costs and also with the elativaly high cass of on-site pronestes such as formwork assem biyand steel fixing attempts have been made over many years to bring more eo romcel approaches and greater mocharisaion and automation to tee comete conetrocon industry. ‘There are considerable advantages to be gained from the factory production of ‘complete elements with their assembly or erection on it, With earfaly con = ‘woled, mepested operations in factory conditions, it is posible not only 19 achieve significant cost reductions but also sauch better qualty contol Tas has led tothe increased use of pra! construction. Precasting nds a wide range of ses, especially where standardised uns can be produced in Inge pension “Appitcalions include cadding panels for buildings smaller sized Beams and eo ‘ums for prefabricated buildings, precast oor unite, wall uit, beige planks, and th like. Precastng of smaller szod units canbe very effectively undertaben ~ ‘o centralised factories wth he unis transported to ste Procasting techniques can also be cost-effective when applied to larger elements whieh ae prefabricated in specilly prepared areas on ste and than fed in Position. Various preasting techniques have heen develope, such stp com ruin of ond bearing wall, and if slab onstrate of loot slabs, which av some of the the disadvantages of n-sieu constriction and can lead fo owe rapid sand more economic constuction. Pen i mo cis sh en i oe ‘allway sleepers (cross ties), small span bridge planks, and floor units. The pro- Sy a ene gave ace eet plement reac g amon oe Saker teas beens eo Dagmar ehanees Moneta Siclomeess ence eee ipacineecaeanay maaan dpe ko by stressing against sper ee - ig stein pi fhe ction Soares ang tes oto ng heplace zd connected through edition prestessing cables. The balanced cantle JFe contruction of brigges i cariea ot in this way. Posttensioning also pro- “ices the bass for the neemtenta Inanching or pask-out method of eanstrucion (fbridge girders. The bridge geder is constructed in incament, say of 3 me, {hance factory located at one endo the proposed bridge As each increment [Deas ts temporarily presented and pushed towards ifs eventual postion (© take way for the next neremene CGiventhe versatility and cost advantages of prestressed and reinforced concrete, they both find wide we in many form of construction, including buldings and ‘padew, power plants towers, water and sewerage plans, dams, pavement, ‘ter nis and other waterrtaning and watercostaining structures, yogi tanks, nuclear reactors and offshore oiling platforms Historical background 1.6 “The concept of composite steel concrete steutural action, in which the ses! pro ‘ier sree reinforcing scton forthe conte, was not Well understood a hare {od yen ago when the pioneering development work was being unceraken ‘ch popularised the use of reinforced consrete a a sractral material On the ‘ther hand, methods of making concrete have boon Known for thousunds of ‘yrs, hile the idea of fying pleces of stone or concrete together with meta ‘Eamps has bee used foram equally long period. “Lime mortar was known to the Minoan civilisation of Crete around 2000 9¢ and ‘vas wed extensively tough the later cultures of the Mediterancan, inckding ‘any Rome, About the third censary 8c the Romans discovered hata sandy vol" ‘nic ash ohh they found near Patell and which they cll pus puttans, ‘when mixed with line mortar prodced « much harder substance. This was & {te rds cent enpervions to the action of water when set. The embed {ent of rock pieces led 10 the development of concrete, which in later Roman {nes foun sophisticated sppctions: Several examples of Roman concrete sl “survive The concrete dome ofthe Panthoon in Rome has a span of around $4, ‘which was not surpassed unite nietmenth century. “The we of metal lamps to tie masonry blocks together was common in ancient ‘Gvilstions sale in the construction of stone sractars. Inthe Middle Eas bronze damps were dred in te old ngoms ofthe Americas slver and some. ‘es gold were preferred, These wer ll corrsion resistant. The substation of Linn ia Meal nas proved Ins onistntory ‘The Roman expertise with concrete was largely lost during the Middle Ages. ‘Ater move han 1000 years twas rediscovered us before 1800 by John Seaton ‘Noting similarity berween concrete and portnd stone, he gave cement the ‘hamneby oehich thas become commonly Inova. ‘The combination ofthe iying-ogether prinelple with the casting of etic stone ecm to have developed in th 1850s, possibly asa result of the experiments by‘Mare Isambard Branel with reinforced brickwork betwean the years 1890 and 1850, He exited a reinforced brickwork beam atthe Greet Eaton of 15 ‘The ides of reinforced concrete occarred 16 a number of peaple at around the ‘ame time Wilkinson, of Neweasle-upon ‘Tyne in England, seems to have been ‘the fist ro have taken out 2 patent in 1854, Ho described the vlnforcing of com crete with at bars and with wie rope. At this time, Lambot, Monier, Coiget and others in Europe were experimenting ‘with he incision of tal bars and meshes within concrete Patents were taken Oat ‘by Lamborn 185, by Caignetin ist and 1867, and then by many others Tete ‘cal studies of the behaviour of infor concrete were cured out in ance by CCoignet and Tedesco, ant Conse, a in Germany by Wayss and Keenen, and lnterby Neuman, Mela, van Emperger Bauschinger, Bach and Mech. By 1800 many rival thoores had been advanced to explain the behaviour of en- {reed conerete bears in bending In 1887 a course of struction was given athe Ecole des Ponts et Chases In Brian carly reinforced concrete structures were ereced sing the Hensbique system, whlch was patented in both England and France. ln 190, Coiget stared | tval rm in England. Many patents ware taken out the early 190, the main ference between them being in the shape of dhe see] bar and the manner i ‘Which i was bent to form the reinforcement. Reinforced concrete made is appeaance i ve USA i te 1570, probably start Jing n California under the infuence of Arthur Ransome, ho took ont a patent Jn 1884 He erected a concete-framed bullding in Penneyvania in 108. Easy in ‘hemew century reinforced concrete slab systems wore developed in the USA sad ‘ed extensively inthe constrection of moti-torey bling. {tn Asstrali, mass concrete was used in house footings a5 carly as 1670 in Arma ale,» sub of Sydney and again for walls inthe Lands Department balding in Sydney in 186. 1885 two penforced concrete arch spans were constructed a Forest Lodge, Syaney as tet structures fora permanent bridge st White Crock ‘The arches, at White Creek had spans of 23, 18 1896a concrete ridge was constructed near Maryborough in Queensiand and in 1985 the Morel brig was bul with tue spans over the Yarre Rive in Mel Youre. Reinforced concrete buildings were constraied in various cities fn the ‘eisly years of the twentieth century: One multtorey building designed by ‘Monash is sil in use in Adelaide. in 1912 the dome of the Melboume Public ‘brary was constroced with pan of 35m, whch at that tie was the langest ‘infor eoncete dome in the Wot, Inthe fat decade ofthe twentieth century many hooks on reinforced concrete ‘were wtf and a numberof the concep to be fund inthis txt had alveady been developed. However, thre was also very much tha! ws net known about {he behaviour and theory of senforced concrete Reseateh and testing contned | $n many countries notably inthe USA, Societies snd comsnittece were also set Sp fm many counties to regulate and standardise the use of the new building ‘medium and safeguard the public interest. In Brin. the Royal Inte of‘tien Architects formed reinforced concrete commits in 1907, which was fol foved in 1908 by 8 concrete Insitute, In 1911 these bodies tued joint ‘Commitee report which i eet was avery early code of practice “The American Society of Civl Engineers established a joint comumitiee on rein {orcad concrete in 1904 and this comes produced is First code in 1916, Since 198 te building ulations for concrete ave been conzoled in the United ‘Sates the Amesian Concrete inte In Ausbalia, the Eis conezete code of the Sudan Associaton vas sted in 1936, “The growth in knowledge of reinforced concrete was rpid folowing the Second ‘World Noe In Australias asin other cous, uccesive codes of practice have ‘eles this grovtl, A change fom an allowable sress basis for design to ul- {te szength ocrurred i the postwar period and was reflected by the ielusion ‘Galdiate strength calculation methods inthe Appendix tothe 1963 SAA code {Be aentnced concrete design Inthe 1974 revision ofthe code, AS 1450-1974, the ‘working chess method of design was phased out The preferred method reoogn- [iat te swin design objectives of adequate strength under overload conditions find acequate perforsance (eervceabity! under normal working loeds. This ‘move toward Catonal design eiteria based on perfonnance has been taken @ ‘Jap futher in the latest Avotelian Concrete Structures Sandar, AS 3600 imued fobs, wich considers the requirements of snength, servieebilisy, durabity ff resistance within @ Lunt states context. Lint states concepts ae consic- red in Chapter dof thisbook. ‘Even inthe exist days ofthe development of reinforced concrete asa construc ‘Son material designers realised that the service load behaviour might be [Enpeoved By inducing esate of precompression inthe concrete, hs extending {he unseched, elastic range of behaviour The fist attempts at prestessing, By {nitally prensioning ordinary realoreing bars, proved to be unsuccessful Datie the creep and Shrinkage strains in the concrete were 0 iage that a.com plot let of prastrossoccued within a short period of me. One othe eavist suggestions to ntoduceprestress nt structural cone was ‘Suck >y PH Jacksons 158 in San Franakco A patent taken oat by Doetring in ‘Bastin anipoted the idea of precast pretrsioned construction i a pressing ‘be Varous proposals and teats flowed, but these cory developments were houses becuse of exceative loss of the prises, Ths was due #9 low [eng ofthe eld-stel reinforcing bar use, and hence low presuessing tel ‘stv coupled ith the ange compressive suaine which gradually develop the ‘Sonante om eeep and shrinkage. tu tye19205, RD in de UEAA recognized that Ngh-srength wire cout prow [Nigh tnital prestrain and hence produce a sesictory preesed member rowever the fst practal and succesful designs in prestressed! concrete Were ‘Rnletalen n Earope by Eugene Ereysint in te 19005, after the imetependent ‘Seep and svinlage behaviour of concrete was better understood. Freysinet hag Sceurbuted signal to acklving this improved understading. Inchetirited States, presteeseed concrete was fist used in the constuction of Grew, [ir water ak In the 198 the Preloed Corporation developed techniques of) vinding wines around castzvplae circular concrete walls This technique is © ‘eration on the ageold coopering technique of pressing wine bares By hes lng men tension funds and forcing them over wooden slaves, The prcompres ‘ion achieved when the bands cool prevents leaking, Fortunately in the case a the bore the prestessd material (he wood) tnd o expand in the presence of oi fe so thin contrast with conerete the prestrese may even inceace with tne ‘Shorty after the Sesond World War, Freytsinet designed a mamber of sucess land highly acclaimed bridges in France, wich led to wide acceptance of pre sees concrete. The first use of prestressed conezete in bricge consttion in ‘the United States ocurred in te ltn T9408 An upourge in interes in ‘onerete atthe time can be attributed to the searcity and high eat of see) and other structural materials he postwar yess. ‘The ist prestressed conretestructuresin Australia were constructed in the early 1850s. An experimental post ‘ensoned famed strecare was constructed at ‘Warragamba Dam ste to serve as an le tower for use inthe production of com xe, In 1955 a prestressed concrete bridge wae constructed to carry the Bobbin “Head Road across Cocde Crek in Sydney's northern area. ~ Interesting historia information en the development of prestressed concrete, on personalities involved in its development, and on the range of stuctures cor ssructed in prestressed concrete isto be found inthe TY Lin Symposia on Pre= ssieset Comsete, ported i the Prstested! Concrete Usatitite (PCD Journal of 1976 (Lin, 1976. information on ear concrete and prestressed concrete ae ‘es can be found in references provided tthe end ofthis chapter ~ ‘has previously been note thatthe theory and practice ofthe design of enforced onerste and prensa concrete tended fo follow parallel but distinc pote uring the postwar period. By the 1970s the design txtern, notation and code requizements for rinoreed conerete and presirmced concrete in Ateralia, were sSgalGcaily diferent. Separate codes had been witen-AS 148 for reinreed concrete and AS 1481 for presuesond concrte—and designers were mote of lest force to consider reinforced and presrested concrete ss two distin! and diferent ‘atrial, ith diffrent design criteria. However, im 1965 anew Australian Sane dard AS 3601, wasintroduced which amalgamated the codes and provided on fed treatment 0 cover he spectrum oF possiblities rangi from spleens ‘mensper, through the normal caves of prestassed members with rivorcemest 9 the extreme of Nghly prestnased mombers which contain no reinforcement, The second edition of AS 3400 the current dasign standard in Aisa, ‘a Integrated approsch to the analysis and design of concrete structures is ‘mphassed in the present text. In order to apply the philosophy of design for ‘eros are dstrbuted in the vations members, in both the preeracking and post ccking stages of behaviour The way crack pattems develop with inenengload, and etic «redistribution of the intemal forces and szsse, with a al development of allure mechanism, al ned to be understood thoroughly ‘This betavioural approach to design is followed in the present text. Wherever posible a qualitative account of sacral behaviour is Gevsloped to intoace {he quanstative analysis enc hence the design methods References and further reading ‘Anon. S77, The Motes of Invention, 5th Anniversay Elton, Conta Rei ‘lao. Bren JF 15, "Why secur once neductey Ror ABSE ints Cal ‘sti on Sracal Conc Seatare Unive Intron Aseocato for Belge SheSkcurl Engoesing Zach Cowan, 1). 194 “Aistory fsructrl concrete and is adoption n Austabe wamajor ‘balding steal, Trsaclins, Initon of Eger, Ausra, Mae Dscisnay Engines, WLGES,No2 pp ae7e lite KS. 196, Mal tomy pee comet fama! rcs Blick Sen, London. TABSE 1991, Screen, Repor of Statgart Clloqu, LABSE Repo, Val verona Asociton for Bdge and Stuttral Engieer9p. rs ies (158, Tanda yes ofr Asari Concrete nett of Ae ‘Tabs Spesal Rsienton {Yet a (978, TY Lin Speci on Pressed Conte Pas Present Fase, "8 our Yok 21, No.neisenice behav and te opend onthe detormatonal proaries end avength of | Properties of concrete of conrote stunt component ninbers (emponent materi, t= eater, reiforong ses en renesning enaon. The rtm proved #2 {hese on the sysctl popere of concrete ute utaaeuert prs of I Bone Tne properties of reinforcing tel ard presreesing enon ae dea wih in Chapter 3 ‘Chopter outtine 2a 22 23 25 28 2 28 29 210 an a 2a3 Normal conereta, high-strength concrete ana high pettormance concrete Concrete rechaoiogy Concrete in shor-erm nial compression Elst constants Tensile svengtn of carer Concrete under combined stresses “Tme-dependent defrmatons of eoneste Chose under constant stress Design dita fr shrinkage of normal coneretes Design deta for creep of normal concretes ‘Cresp and shvinkage of high-strength concrete References and further easing Desion data fr concrete a a 25 2 2 a 8 ef 8 0 a a LoNormal concrete, high-strength conerete and high performance concrete 2.1 “Theoughout the present century the strength of structural concrete has increas inavkedly. In the 1950 the strength of concreles was typlaly 15 20 MPa, “heres inthe at 19906 concotes sed in rnonced concrete construction ws ‘Tiphave strengths inthe range of 25 40 MPs The strength of concrete wed in prostessod construction tend to be smewha higher, ond ranges typically fom [D'MFa to 0 MPa, and even higher Use is often made of sdctives and of low Dressre ate curing, expecially in the production of procit,pretensionad Droducts, to produce high concrete strengths at eatly ages, and ence allow eely Enasferof proses tothe conerte CConcrtes with snuch higher compressive strengths are beng incaingly wed ‘mn spedal applications For example, suengths as high ac 100 MPs are being used In highriseconstrcion in colums and core walls, ‘Unforsanaely, the information provided in the curent design standards has not | ‘always kept pace with the developments im the constucton industry. This i rscely the nae wth the testment of cacrere properties in the second edition i Ef the Australian Concrete Structures Standard, AS 360, which i 1997 stil does ‘ot have provisions for concrete ith strengths in exces of MPa. lle convenient inthis book to use the terms normal coneret and ighstregdh ‘Conere foe conctes with strengths Up '6,and beyond, 50 MP's, respectively. The ‘Gotintion is arbitrary Bu convenient, Because ‘ormal concretes ae those cov ted ty the excond edison of AS 3600. Amendments to AS 2600 are expected at the end of 1997 which should provide the designer with information on the bighstzength conerstes now in common use In oner to produce concrete with very high strengths, special additives have to ‘be wad in the coneree mies, and thase can improve other properties such 25 ‘until and the overall peformance of the concrete. The tern igh perforce ‘avcrde Ras scone into use as well 3 high-strength conde, to describe these fev concreten Tae term tery igh ge donc Is used here to dane con= (seteswith strengths above 70 MPs. ____ Concrete technology 2.2 “Tadtionally, concrete has been produced by mixing portland cement, water, ‘andy at iver gravel or crushed stone, in approprate proportions CConciete« cement = water) + Gand + gavel cement paste + aggregate) “The erm aggregate refers to the combination of san (fine aggregets) aid gravel ‘stone conse aggregate).“The cement and water combine cherally to form a poste which binds the Too, “aoully ines peves of aggeegate together and afar several hour esto ceste # Unified as, Once se, the poate dos, and a the concrete matures ther is 3 progressive gain in stuength over time “The chemical rection betwen cement and waters known as hydation During ‘he inital stages of hydration, the surface of cement particle reacts chemically ‘with water fo form a cement gland this produces sigificant heat of hydration. [Rurher hydration of the cement depends on the avalability of moisture and on {he consol of the heat of hydration. “The proper of hardened caneete depend on the degre of hydration of the {omnnt and so is very important to keep the concrete ois as lang as possible “The proces of keeping the concrete at datired levels of amid is ealled caring. Curing may be achieved by spaying the Eesh concrete surface with water, By covering it with damp burlap, or hy applying membrane compounds tothe flow wich mininise the ecape of moisture. Temperature contol may also be employed during caring ‘Whe portion? coment is produced from limestone and clay tt has become csommen practice to blend in other materials suchas ground blast farmace slag fd fy ach to produce blmda!comons order to reduce costs and irprove the [properties of the concrete Cement, whether pocland or blended, a nely round cemetitions powder {Inthe presence of cmt and its hydration products, ney ground blast furnace slag acts as a ydzeulc cement, Fy ach isa by prosiac rom coab red power St Sons I sno! in ial? cementtions, but racs with caleium hydrowde fo gve ~ ‘cementtions products. Sach materials ar called postin. 1s alo common practic to use chal adios to modify and improve the properties of the concrete in bth the fesh and hardened states. 2.2.1. Cements 1m Australi, the standard for portland and blended cements, AS 3572, als with ‘wo ganeral purpose cement denoted as types GP and GB, and twospecak- pu pose cements, LH and HE Type GP is porland cement, while Gb isa blend of pordand cement with lag or By ash. Type LH is a low-hest cements HE isa high ‘ary stengeh cement. [IE cement is used when concrete is raquzed to cay significant stes shorty after casting, LH cement is sed tzpcelly im masive structures such a5 dams, ‘where itis smportant to reduce te het of hyeration during the gradual aren {ng ofthe conerote In spacial stustons soher the cere e subject to suiphate attack, sulphate risting cements can be used, while spacial cements Gan aso be “sed when a very rapia development of strength sree. Care must be azn In theuse of specal-purpose cements, Speci iterate on concrete technology provides further information (jan & Samatin, 1992, ‘Tae strength ofthe hardened concrete depends pemerly on the ratio of wate 10 cement in the mix: Generally, the less water the higher the strength, However,suliclent water mast always be sed to allow thorough mixing, hydration and ropercompucion ofthe concrete 2.22 Aggregates “The aggregates basically act ae le, occupying about three-quarters of the total ‘olan of concrete, in normal cancretes che strength of the aggregate is higher ‘an tat ofthe hardened paste but poor quality aggregates can severely eeduce Smengin Aggregates shouta therefore have gawd soci and durablity and Shovle be fee rom impurities. “The workability of fresh concrete ie afecnd by the shape and size of the agere- {gates nd by the ratio of fine aggregate to couse aggregate. The mixture of ‘ementpacte (cement ad Wate) an she sands refered to os rot. 2.23 Admixtures “Through the use of wetting agents or plas, the workability ofa mix can be ener ‘mona improved Th concrete isten enserto anspor. purp, place and compact. _Superlatcises ate able to reduce the water content even mare sigicanty than ‘Olnary wetting agents. They can be ased to reduce the total quay of water in Tinie wlile maintining wovtabiity, and Sus are used in the production of ‘ery high-otrengeh conerets, Ac nraining ego are wed fo introduce microscopic bubbles ofa inthe con- ‘Gus Tis leas fo improved restance to adverse environmental conditions, och asfrezing and thawing cyls, are hence improves the durability of the sasue concret= Warious other ative are avaiable for special purposes such as rtanding oF ccceratng the setting time ofthe fesh concrete, or for decressing permeabihty Ofte arened concrete. 2.2.4 Properties of fresh concrete "Tae properties ofthe fehly mixed concrete ant of pre importance i regard the ceratrusion proces. slapleoositereasure ofthe workability of the concrete [Backcved Gough sop es, When igh dosages of pasties and ober ami: {onssebeing used cae must beaker in interpreting sump est data. The matod for carrying ot shusp ests is spested inthe Australian Standard AB 1012 225 Properties of hardened concrete ‘The main propartoe of the hantoned concrete of interest to the structural {reigner are the compressive stengt the elastic motive i compresion, and Geigy. Other propria: sock ae tense streng also become important i some aspects of design. According to AS 2600 (Clause 191.6) concrete must be specie’ as either normal ass or special ss. Normal class concrete is designated bythe folowing sa (Gard grades: NOD, N25, NSD, N40 and NSO. The grade number correspond othe Gharaorsic szength ,” is MPa, which deine in Section 23.1 below:For normal-class concrete itis also necessary to specify the slump (40, 6, 80 or | 100mm), the nominal size of aggregate (10, 1.0 20 mm the amount if ay) of \ntrained alr and the intended method of placement. The chore on contents limited by Clause 19.17 in ocder to ensure adequate durability, Problems of \esigning for durability are considered further in his book in Chapter 29. “The category of special ass concrete was introduced into AS 3600 to allow the designer to have control over properties apar rom compressive strength I «pe ‘Gallas concrete ito be use, the designer specie the required performance ‘itera, such a ensilestength, mits on shrinkage stain and the lke. 2.2.6 Normal-weight and lightweight concrete Nonna} concretes have a density of around 2300 to 250 kg/m For calcula ‘ead loads, the weight of stracural concrete soften taken 9 e 21 oF ISHN ‘which eludes an allowance forthe presence of ta enforcement. Lightweight concrete canbe used to reduce the selfweight and hence dead load con large structures, Lightweight concrete produced using special lightweight aggregates. The strength and stiffness of igh weight concrtes tend to be lower than for normal conerte and thie needs tobe considered inthe design AS 3600 allows for concetes witha density a ow as 1800 kg/m, alshough the previous ‘code considered denatee as love 251250 ki" In some spacial design stations highend concttee may be regula, for ‘example fo provide radiation tieldng, or addtional load in counterweight Information on this special topicis provided by Ryan & Samarin (992), 2.27 Mix design ‘When a concrete mix is chosen for norm srctural work, the fllowing proper- ‘ies usally mood >be considered 1 compressive strength, at determined from standard 28 day tests; ‘workability of rsh eonerete measured rypeally bythe sump fet; ‘+ maximum sis of gszesate, + nit weight of cone, + shrinkage: and + durably, 1m special cumstances additional properties such ae tensile strength or wear resistance may nood tobe consiered ‘Mic design ste proportioning ofthe ingredients to produce a concrete with the sesired proper. The eatve quantises of fine and cone segrepele affect ‘workability while te ratio of water fo cements the prime factor deterstinng the strength ofthe hardened concrete ‘The physical properties of the loa! aggregates and cement should always be taken ito eosount in mix design Tals mane that a tial ix approach bs nonded ~ Jwhena nev mii tobe designed. Various ables and chirts are vellable to ass se the choice ofmlative proportions of aggregate, coment and water Publicationsby ACI Comntn 21 (1970) and the Cement snd Conezee Assocation of Aus ‘ella undated) contain such dasign sds. For derailed information on mix design the eader refered 20 ents such as Day (1985, 2.2.8 Production of high-strength concrete ‘Wile traditional methods can be used to produce concrete strengths in excess of 50 Ma, very hgh stenathe in the onerof 100 MP can only be achieved by the ‘uefa ose of hgh quay aggregates, ad saperplasticsers, The superplisticir ‘Sten for high sent, Unie ph ony asa ith igh Se TET cake ee cthecote ny bliniaty espa Mises for very high strength concets increasingly contain condense ses fae, Thiet i an ecremely Se pozzlani by-product from silicon and ferr-sicon (he fumaces When ssed in assodation with superpasticiers, it results in [reared strength. For the succesful application of high-strength concrete at the uoper end of the szengeh range @ grst deal of cooperation is required {ete the desler the contractor, the concrete supplier and th cent Concrete in short-term uniaxial compressi 2.3.1 Compressive strength ‘The strength of concrete in nial compression ic the property most fre ‘quenlly sed in sructoral design calculations. Because it can be determined in ‘Rictec by simple et procedures, other properties such a tensile strength and Elaste modulus are usually evaleated appresimatly from the concrete com pressive strenge “There is no single, ‘comet’ value for the strength in uniaxial compression of 3 ‘pardnular inc Concrete ss heterogeneous mixture of materials, and is com pressive strength is influenced by is age, by the bie and shape of the test Specinen. by the rate of application of lod, by the previous curing history and ip the ambient condicons st Uhe Sine ofthe tet Is thaofore necessary £0 fst lonind specimens under standard condoms. The resulting compressive strength is newessuly 4 omina valve In Australia and in North America a standard {yur of 150 cae diameter ane 300 aun height i sed as the test specisnen, ‘hough for highrstrength coneretes a smaller eyinder of 100 min diameter eo won, langtn 200 mn. In many European and Asian countries & 250 mn tbe used, The standact procedure for caryang out compressive sength {estsis described in Austrian Standard, AS 1072, Far 9. Similar specications Spl in other counties. “The sompressve strength of standard test specimens from a batch of con ‘ute may show considerable variability, even though the test conditions are ineat identical. Statistical methods are therefore used to define standard oergth values 232.3.1.1 Mean comoressive Strength fom “The mesn compressive strength of concrete et any particular age Ss denoted by ‘the term fy. The subserist mean be replaced ta ideniy a epuctic ager eat and fu ndicate tha maan strengths a¢ 28nd 15) days. 23.12 Characteristic strength F, 1 AS 3600, the characteristic strong of concrete in compression, fs defined as the strength attained at 28 days by 95 per cent of the concrete, a6 acess by ste ard test. In other words, the characterise strength isthe 5 per cent Race value: Details of the standard teas incuding methods of sarpling, making, ‘ring and testing, ee given in AS TO12 Further requirements oa sampling an testing are contained in Section 20 of AS 3600, Figure21. Compressive erangth: variability Statistical strength calculations assume that epinder test results constitute Site sample drawn from a naraully distibuted infinite population Fig 21), For ‘ean strength fy and standard deviations the characteristic strength f with & probability level Pof being excsded i. fe= fem Be en ‘where Bisa coufcient depending on. For the particular case of {.', with P= 0.95, the valu of 8 given in Clause 61.1.1 AS i 148th sigh highest tne toa rue he following value is used: a Feay 1B 2 ‘The mean strength fps ls referred to asthe age ctregth The use of charsc- ‘erst strengths in structural design is discased farther in Chapter2.32 Gainin compressive strength with time ‘The compressive strngth of normal concretes increases progressively with ‘age The rte af increae is rapid inthe daye immediately afer hardening, Di Wely- decreases. Test indicate that the ratio of the mean 2ay, [Frength to the Jay strength depends onthe chemical composition aad Sine hess ofthe cement, a5 swell as 09 ambient temperature and curing details A ‘road indication of strength gain with ume under average condone is shown for general purpose (GP) end Aigh-arly srengeh (HE) cements in Fig 22. ‘her fs the mean strength of concrete at age T after casting, and fag "HE mec eee i BL i Pa prem as Figure22 Gain in compressive strength with time A rapid earty gin in srengh of concrete with te i of advantage in pre Sesto an peat work snd Ecos i nonnaly ese fortes ono (Methods for further inzeasng the rte of strength gain to speed up factory ‘urmatound or Bld construction inlade the introduction of accelerators into the ‘onete mix and the wie of stam curing Some care is needed in the use of ce - ferstox, because other material properies say be adversely affected. For ‘ample, calcium chloride can have an extremely adverse effect onthe shrinkage ‘Rimsterinies ofthe comcrate ar wll ns onthe rte of cocronion ofthe steal Ba ‘ommendations are given in Appendix A ofthe previous Austaian prestressed ‘cones code, AS 181-1975, for low-pressure steam curing of concrete Uniori- ‘ately this information is not ineluded in AS 360. “The compressive strength of vory-high-trength concrete also increases with age, but ene ofthe elfects of siica fume it produce e moce rapid ila! gain In srength, vith uch less guia afer 28 days. Ths isto be een inthe indiatve curvesin Fig 23 (Guinguls, 1992),3 —_— ww 5 é al be * al siies Fawre23. Svensth inn high strength oncetes ~ 2.33 Compressive stress-strain relation for normal concretes. For normal coneretes in unlavel compression, the relation between stress and min ¢ is almost Lear at small values of o but at suesses higher San sbout ‘Oper cent ofthe compressive concrete strength the srese-strain relation beoomes ~ Increasingly afected by the formation sn development of microcracks at the Interfaces between the mortar (coment paste and Ane aggregate) and coarse ‘aggregate. This results in less than proportional increase ino with ftrsn. The shape of the o-e curve depends on the compresive strength ofthe concrete and the type of aggregate as well ab the rte at which strain s applied For this reason, experimental ata should he used wherever possible asthe basis for precise calculation of tractural deformations. ‘Typical caves are shove in Fig 24, for concrete strengths up to 50 MPa. The _man compressive strength a the concrete, ys Obtained fom astandard ts in ‘which strain sapped ata rate of 0.0 per ent per mainte Taig 24 (the ofc of cone strength canbe sen Ata given stress lve in the stcunding branches of ie curves, De slope is Seperfor concen wih ‘ighersuengh, However for normal corte ln fy the peak Se for {sheny independent of jo andiapprovitely D002. The descending branches ofthe carves are ater fr weaker ones ‘The inuence of rate of loading onthe o-t curve fora specific concrete strengths shown in Pig 26 (The ate elas or shower rates of ondng, Tus ec is indicate of time-dependent deformations in the concrete. The descending - ‘ranch ofthe one curve clearly posible ony when deformation, rather than ‘oad sapped to the test specimen Infig 2S -erelton are shown fon peal| ‘min | | (escent (aoe otra otsng Figure 24. Suess stain relations, normal coneretes Figuro 25" Load.zontol versus deformation control testing test conditions in which sll increments of either load (Fig 25 (a) or deforma ton Gig 25 (are rapidly applied, followed by short rest periods. ‘Various expressions have beon suggested to describe empically the shape ofthe strosestrsin curve. For example, Hogrested (951) used a parabola for the Secunding port he curve ea Hore fg isthe strength in compression and cy & the strain when the szest reaches fn. Desay de Krishnan 1960) have described both te ascending and the escent branches of the strese-tain relation bythe expression:{A disadvantage ofboth ofthese expressions is that the inital slope, Eis ved a 2 foul y Test data may indicate values significantly diferent from this Equations for the o-¢ relation nee to allow for variations in the slope ofthe ascending and descending parts of the curve. General expressions for the ‘erecta relation for concrete in both compression and tension have been Pro posed by Popovics (1973) which have heen used in modeling the behaviour off Eonazete structures (Mander et al, 1988). However, in computer caleulatons Cubic splines can be used to give an accurate fi to any experimental Stesstain ‘curve (Craveley etal, 1987 2.3.4 Compressive stress-strain relations for high-strength concretes: ‘The o-¢ rations for high-suength concrtes are steeper than for normal can- ‘ceie, and the ascending branch also lends to remain neszly liter for much ‘igher stresses, The vale of the strain ga the maximum stress fy an be sg ‘candy higher than 0002, the value for normal concrete, and increases with Increasing fy. The descending branch n the postumate range becomes very sep and at vary hgh stongtha become versel. This means Unt vey high ‘Stengih concrets i gute bute and the faluze is explosive when load contol testing is employed. The newly staight ascending branch indiater that mierowwacking i as developed than in ormal comeretes, andthe bite, explo- = sive cushing fale may’ alo be due to a lesedeveloped patter of smicroracking, wth lew ability for stress rdisefbution w oowur Some Spica ‘curves are shown in Fig 26, Cabiceplins alow any desired shape of curve fo Be sccuratelyrepresentd for Vary high strength concrete 24 Elastic constants ‘Since coneee is not an elastic material, any values assigned to the elastic con- stant must ‘be somewhat arttrary Young's modulis, E,, ls delerined ‘experimentally asthe secant modilus measured ata stess lve] equal to 35 per ‘centof theultimate strength of the concrete For desig, approximate valves of, {ue determined from the conerete compressive strength. in Clause 61.2 of AS 3600 the meas value of the elastic modulus of concrete, Eis given bythe expr ‘alegression B= 00889" Fa, os where 9 isthe density of concrete, as assumed inthe design, in g/m, and E sand fog are expressed in MPa. Cnasee lifes: increases with ncteasng ageFigure 26. Strese-stsin relation, verhigh-strength conerets ‘Values of for various age can be estimated by using the appropriate value of fy EDS. The parameter pin Ea 25 elects the inence of aiserent pes OF Aggregates (ightveght and normal) on, For normal-weight concrete i a Aly taken as 2400 kg/m? and hence = 5050 Fo, 26) (015, although in many calculations itis taken as zur. Clause 615 of AS 3500 givers value of 02 inliew of experimental dam obtained in accordance with Pst Yrorastor, Expermental data suggest that Eas 25 and 26 do not apply without modiention shan ft signicany in excess of 50 MPa, A suitable expression which apples toll feng has boon ecommended by ACI Committee 3531952): an Although the available information isnot extensive, reports suggest that Poisson's ratio of high-strength concrete inthe elastic range of behaviour is not sigicanty diffrent fo normal strength concrete. On the other hand, Kaplan (1959) has suggested that the type of aggregete can have & major fnffuenoe. In the high overlong range, i has been suggested that Polson’s ratio ese than for normal coneretes, probably becaure of less microcracke Ing (aegis, 1992),2 ‘Tensile strength of concrete ‘The tensile siremgth of concrete is moc lower than compressive strength, and it assumed tobe zero in some simple design calculations such 8s fo the exe tra strength ofa beam. Nevertheless there are cocsions when the tele stress has tobe taken into account. An example inthe tentment of beam dedecions, ‘whore dhe ens stresies conte signiseanyt0 che overall Beam ifs, Like compressive strength, the tensile strength i nominal value. tan be deter ‘mined by + acto tension test, 2olinder split test and + locere modulus oF rupee) test “The fist is seldom used as there is no standard procedure; however there are standards forthe two othe ets See AS 1012, Parts 10 nd 1) Inthe dexure test method, the tensile strengh is alclated onthe assumption of linear elastic distribution of tess at fare. This ignores nowlinear Plate ato in the conereteatevercad, and the apparent tensile exuralstength therefore tends tobe somewhat higher than the tendle tength ae measured in he sping est, For design calculations it o wou to eatimate the tense strength fc de ou resive strength In Cause 6.1.3 of AS 3600 an approximate expression forthe ‘haters prncpl fons tren at 23 days given a= 142 08 es ‘where both strengths ae in MPa. An estimate ofthe characteristic Seni tne Stengh fan be made according t Clause 61.1.2 a8 fy = 08.F 29) ‘The quay fiend in dscns ode wth cal caching roma is propane of im stators where racing conoe Boe refs nel wan orb ees tnd es Besed on limited loca! data avalable on the fleural tensile strength of veryhigh-strength concrtes (Setunge e aly 1983, 1990), Guirguis (198) ug- gests that Eq2.9 might be used as safe ower bound forthe enlle strength, and that an upper bound i given by am equation ‘ACT Commitee 364 ESL cope bods given by am escaton propor by fy = 094 JF 210) ‘With mgand tothe principal tensllesrength it seems that the value for {in Eq ‘2.8 is an undar-estimate, according to available data, and that a igure of 03 or ‘even On the equation may be more appropiate (Cini 192)2.8.1 Stress-strain relation for concrete in tension Forconerete in tersin the post-peak pat ofthe o-e curve i assumed iaily to descend very sharply but then to fal of slowly as ln Fig 27, Carel defocaa orcontol tess of concrete in tension have i f= procuced this shape of carve (Beinhardt 6 Comal, 189), Concrete under combined stresses__2.6 2.6.1 Biaxial compression ‘The compressive strength of concrete increased Uf «smal tere comspresive stem is applied. The gain In strength depends on the magnitude ofthe lateral em. This is shown in the ure enolps for concrete in bisa compression [ig 28, where the siesses cand oy ating in two dictions at right angies ere nor-limnsionalced by dividing by Test data Indicate thet the masta ain In strength is achieved when the rato of sess is about 06. Under blaxal compression, the stres-ctrain curve is similar in shape to thet ‘obtained under unndal compression, but the stain a ue In the direction of the Inger principal stress i increased bythe presence ofthe iateral compressive stees Ck 1969) 2.6.2. Biaxial compression-tension Ata ypical point inthe compressive one of beam subjected o combined bende ing moment and shoar force a state of sexe is produced which consists ofa ‘normal compressive stess 6 and complementary shear stresses a8 shown int ig29 (@. Ths ives vse to principal sueses (Fg 29 (b)) in when os tenale and qcomprive This rfered to ars tts of banal eomprossion tnwion ‘The compressive strength of concrete and the failure strain inthe dinetion ofthe compressive stress are alvays oduod by the presence ofa lneal tensile tres. Varies expressions are avilable for the stengeh of conerere in biasal compres Sionension. Frquently those are given in tans of @ and + (Fig 29 (a) rather ‘hang; and oy, Walther (957) has proposed the following: for ofc 025:t, i XS etaon Figure 28 Folue envelope taxa sess - “ * ov Figure29_ Siaclal compression tension (fF -g)-1=0 am foros (-(BGF-o am ‘hot guts hw ply nig 210 preset spre ate fniurendercontincdconprenion ends 2.6.3. Biaxial tension ‘Thestrength of conerete under bial tension I approximately ual to ts nian ia tensile siength (Kupfer eal, 1949), 0 that he aa tent region ofthe {allure envelope in Fig 28s approximately squareear eT TY @ Figure2.10_ Swength ofconeretein combined shear and comoression (Walther, on) ‘Time-dependent deformations of concrete ‘When concrete & subjected fe sustained compressive ses, deformations com tinue 0 ineresse with tine hat isto sy, material erp. Even when te concres not subjected to ay exermaly appli ores, compescive sage Stain develop. The cep an shrinkage deformsons in concrete sutra egy get see sch ge, hn alderman fred whan the ectereal oad are ft thus havea sigan pri mera fo opp. They scan (Carel measurements of ceep and shvinlage sain in concrete show thatthe eee frst applied atage Tes shown n Fig 2.1. Atany time T> T the total sain the Towing sums 27an sy(T) 28) + 27.7) as ‘The sbvinkage strain gq 7) depends on the age T of the concrete, as measured from the ume of esting o completion of caving. Te instantaneous stain esa ally taken to be elastic nd ence to depend on the stess 6, and the elastic ‘rodulu Et me of loading ki) = ples ow "gerne ne tag heute PAIR yates SARS eer Sun anger SSE 27.4 Shrinkage Shuinlage is related to the drying process which involves the evaporation of| absorbed water from the capiary pores of the cement paste. Ambien! conditions = ‘of temperature and humaitydhusatfece the rate and extent of shrinkage, Other relevant factor include the type and content of aggregate, the water conden ia ‘the mix, and the sie and shape ofthe structural ember ‘Under conta amiiot conditions, the rate of inerease ofthe shrinkage decreases ‘with Sime, with most of the shrinkage occuring inthe et year. The nal shen ‘age strain, &'y, whichis acympoucally approached, can vary fiom Zero tp t0 - values as high 5 ©0012 Its also possible for negative stinky Le ell, to ‘occur when dry concot is expose toa moist atnorphere. ‘The shrinkage strain tage T after sting canbe expressed ast BAD # ea fT) ca ‘where 1 is zero at T= 0, and increases to unity 26 T becomes large. The rate of ‘nerease in shrinkage sain depends on the surface area expooed fo the stne- sphere Le. on the shape of the member F215 ignores the eliact of variations in mbient conditions, which are ikely tp occur in any practical condition, 2.8 Creep under constant stress ‘The phenomenon of cep is rated to mosture movement and to the slow ‘growth of microcracks in the concrete. If the susalned sire is suddenly Femoved at sometime J (ig 211) the mediate ease recovery is followed Hy 8 farther tmevdependent recovery of stain, known as ceepresoery ordeal - lt cer. The erm ening ey sapped tothe notecoverabe Porton ep strain. i{how by an io ne est YT seenoneny | matinee ei rw won oadig. hy Fgure2.11 Croop and shrinkage atrains, constant custined cress Fora cndiion of constant! sustained uniaal compressive stress acting ona partic ‘lar onerete, the cep sain increases wath the me fmengured om steading: teT-1, a0 sod gadualy approaches a Lining value as ¢ approaches infinity. This value Alpands om the age T, when te srs as sapped and 0 is eqessed a 7). 28.1 Creep function (7, To) Wits the anal working sess ange, rep sins approximately proporonl {theses g-The nt ese soain (7) also proportional to tess Ode ing ceep sais at time T by the intl susie therefore obtain Pesci’ quant, TT) which refered toa the oy ao _sttoninfity the creep function taints mando value, which is writen 8 yp 2 awIn this expression, he str ndicater a vale a ie infty while the ero spt reminder atthe valoe depends on the age at Bist long Te The ‘ate being Independent of opin wae mensure ofthe eeep pote! of the condete The main factors allecing are te age T, of the concrete at St loeding he ambient condition, and the sze ad shape of the mest Typ ‘ales for wary om abost 05, for aged coneree int mou environment up 1030 ort for smal specimens ina dy atoephere and loaded at an envi oe For consant ambient conditions the cep son. and hence the eeepfuneson, incuue progesivey with ume fom ladlng. The tme-aroton ofthe wep ‘Sinton can thus be expressed a flows 7.7) = sate) ew “The term g(t) is a Sime function which increases monotonealy fom zero 10 approach uty 28“ approaches ings. 2.82. Specific creep CIT. To) Another algebra method of treating the Linear relation between creep stain and “sees is with the specie creep, CUT, Ths the creep strain produced By 0H ‘sre, Its obtained by dividing the creep strain 6.1 by the stesso 220) “The specific emep and the cep function are thus related Hough the elatic modules cents = ghoet9 em ‘The cep strain produced by a constant stress st applied a age Ty can thus Decalelated using ether af the ellowing equations: ET.) = GIT ATT) en ABT) = CTT) 223) ‘tmast be emphasised that these equations can only be sed to ealelate creep strain the sues remains constant significant varatons crus in stes levels & rite relation i needed to express the time-dependent relation between ‘res and stren. This topic dealt with im Append 2.9 Design data for shrinkage of normal concretes “Approximate data forthe calclation of ereep and shrinkage strains axe given in Section Sof AS 36002.9.1 Basic shrinkage strain 5. Design values for shrinkage stains are obtained from Clause 6.1.7 by modifying [base bbe strain Gg This quay i effet, the best avalable estirate of the shrinkage which wil ake place in standard specimen of the concrete under ‘consideration, when exposed to speciic environmental conditions for Period of ‘Sight weeks. Values for (a ae best obtained from shrinkage tests conde in [scordance with AS 1012, Part 13, but Clause 617.1 (alo allows forthe use of {est dat obtained fom fst on similar concrete. In the absence of any exper ‘mental ata, Clause 6.17%) suggests a median value of 700 micostaln alihough ‘fis empharised tha the value may well tary fm 50 to 1000 macrotis 2.9.2. Design shrinkage strain g5 ‘Tena the ‘design’ shrinkage strain for us in design calculations, a factor is apple to the basi sheinkage stan & on ‘The facor fy allows for three effets + theage ofthe concrete when the shrinkage stain sto be evaluated; + the arvironmental conditions; and + thesieand shape of he member shorn pp ie i 8 sete ure pets oom za ant eee eae ere eee Seaister 2.9.3 Hypothetical thickness ty Tn Fig 212, the hypothe! hes of he member: ee os where up is that part of the perimeter ofthe member cross-section which txposed tothe atmosphere, L¢ that portion ofthe perimerar which allows the passage of moisture. ‘The tenn Ay isthe area ofthe cross-section. Fora rectangular section of dimen- sons band D exposed onal sides, the hypothetical thickens i PD/@ + D). Fora ‘aborwall, where D>> b, thehypothota tikes becomes. ‘Frequently in design its only necessary to consider the final maximum values of shrinkage tala, fy, Values of design sheinkage stains afer thity years are (Guen b Table 6.7 20fAS 3600, These value are reproduced in Table 212.10 Design data for creep of normal coneretes Design dats for ceep are dealt within Clause 41.8 of AS 3600, where the cep ‘metion oT, Ti refere tos. crop ator As inthe case of shinkage stains a {esgy eer aria eerie ran Sl cee AI" ey 2.10.1 Basic creep factor geo “The basic creep factor is defined as the ratio ofthe ultimate Jong. term) creep strain fo the inital elastic stain fora specimen ioe at 28 days too stress of sisgused im Sesion 28, Accurate values ford. re obtained from tes of the parscoar conerete (AS 1012.16) However, waives can also be extrapoited from {ests on simlar local concrete, and appronimate values can be obtained from ata gen in Table 6.1.81 of AS 3600, which are reproduced here as Table 22 ‘An important warning given ia AS 3600 concerns the considerable variability ‘which mast be expected in eroep dats. The coggeston i that ranges of 30 percent ncoeep dats mast bo oxpaced 2.10.2 Design creep factor dc “The dacgn crop facto i end tnt the cmap train fo he ed inthe design calculations. It canbe evaluated for anytime after the application of oa. “Twoactors, ky and hy ste weed to obtain the design coup fst 6. oma du a = Kkates e206) “The factor fi comparable with the factor h 5 sod in shrinkage eakaations. I allows forthe ime of sistninaé losing, os well as the hypothetical thickness of ‘he member andthe envzonment Vas are given graphically im Clue 6182 | land aze reproduced here in Fig 213, ‘The factor ky llows indivcly for she age ofthe concrete a the time of oad app ‘ation 7, Valus of fy are given in AS 3600 Fig 63.52 (B) interme of he 730 fof maan concrete strengeh fm time of loading and the characteristic stength at 2B days, f-In ths gure is mpl that fyi abou 12 times fe. The AS 3600 figures reproduced here a5 Fig 214 (Often only the Snal cep strain after prolonged loading is of significance in ‘siructural design, Classe 6.1.8.2 allows the fral value of g(t time infinity) tobe ‘obtained, Table 6.1.8.2 in AS 3600 Geproduced here as Table 23) gives values of 6, for one spacic value ofthe basic rep facto, gp = 25. Fo other wales of ‘the valves obtained from Table 2.3 have tobe icrestd by the ratio dia/25. 1 should be noted hat the values of the creep factor (or excep fanetion) so ‘obtained are used withthe 28 day modulus of dastcy to determine the creep strain, respective of when de sree isapplled, We thus useat) « tag, azn (Chase 1.82 limits the ue ofthis information to concretes made of cement with ‘Spite G0) confers ta he range of 20 and 3 percent and for temperatures Sotexcendng 25 over long periods. and 0 <05.f eee Creep and shrinkage of high-strength concrete 2.77 Wich vey ite information availabe on reép and shsiniage in very-high-stangth ‘Ghawee only some general comments on ends are at present warranted, From (eda qvalabie appears that silage and creep it very-highesrength con Eiko und t be lower than in normal cneretes and tend decease with (Gores srengeh. The redaction in aeep and shrinkage is more pronounced hae High stengi hasbeen achieved Srough the we of sca fume [hes been suggested that the decease in shenkage in mines with superpastics- Esaandaiien Rave is cirecly attribute fo the ier vatercement rao, i 12 ‘hee being less moisture inially avaiable in the concrete. Preliminary figures fave beet escembed by Guinguis (992) which show the range of slrinkoge inlas br consetes from various states in Australia fo strength in the range 6 {150 MPa. Thee ave shown in Fig 2.15, ‘rom the very limited data available it appears that values given by AS 3600 fo the Sup factor’ could overestimate ceep i verj-ughstrength concrete, Creep ‘Sins ported by Pano (1968) show a marked Geesse with increasing compre [Sve suengih Typical eep carves proved by Burnett or commensal concri=s flor Vatora are reproduced in Fig 16, Uforunately,nsuicient information valle even for indktive gues to be quoted forthe rep factor eee References and further reading 2.12 ACE Comets 2111970, Recommended Pract fo Selecting Proprio fo Normal eight “Conse ACL Publication 31-7, Arar Core stu, DeeoR ES 19, Sie of the rt pet am Mgherengt conte, ACT Publtion ESRF “pecan Covert inte, Det e182, Pretcion of Crp Snag, Temperate Eft in Cone, Boe ea Reno S976 10, Amcosen Cone icin Det ‘baane 2 ceettnane BH 1982, Coy nd Stringer Cnc Strate ohn Wey snore, New York 'D.1973, The reicon of Ssnkags for Austin Concrete Cle Ess "Tov Da Engr Ae MCE 15, Nos Land Cement and Conerate Assocation of Asai nd}, sgn Canto an Characters of Corre, Syne. “CEP 1990, CEB 1 oa Cat fr Conte Sucre I, London.CEB-FP 190, ght cone eta ort Jane FF, London. (Cray, B.By Seed, G.& Warner, 1957, Strata design ape for very Nh ‘rengihcongeteJG11 Bera CIA Goer, shone Soson 6 Covert ase of fea “Conmnin, W 1980, Come ser ant pa force enpnmns 2nd edn, Baer “Chi whebaden (Garg Goan a, Londo. ay, K. W199, Conte irda uty conrad seit, PBN Spon, London, Desay P & Kenan, 106, Equation forthe Sees Sin Curve of Concrett ACT tl Proc 161, No. Gigs. 1880, Courts —TRs Marl, Constracton Na, Cesent an Camere Assoc say Ausra. 1984, Commte— Proprio Carats Techs Noe S, Cement Cone ‘eaten, sta 108, hig senate concentra, opr and ity, Chapter 3 Hl ‘emt Conca, Cement sad Conarwe Aserlaton of asst, Nock Syne prea. 9S, A Stal of Comb Reng and Ax Lad Reno mote Me rs Univ of incl, Eg Bet Station Bal No 2 api, M, F185, Uiuaoni pe velosy, dynam modulus of das, Poon’ Tato and Se stengih of concrete nade wih thinean erent coume age BILER Bullen No ppse75 aan, A. Warne RF 1985, Nonaniorn senha n concen’ Pocadings eh hasan Cones the Medaneea Sout mt Natasa pp 8. 1096, Mode! formulations fr numeral eeep eeation for cone ral of ‘Sacral Bogner, ASCE Wah T22 Nos yp 20-50 ‘ple HH, Hier, HC & Risch, 1969, Baaviour of Concrete Under Bia ‘Sree’ ACT rua Prva 6 NOS. | | i gee rig eyes: Ltt Taminlencwent mttzone | i i i i “Bed cance, owl of Stl Bann, ASCE Vl, NOS. Meyers, B 1. & Thomas, W196, ancy, Creep and Thera) Movement of Cam ‘etd Hof Srl Conve in Kang fe vane Plan, Landon. Mangan D.R.2974, The Ect of hema Admits on Crp tn Concrete Ege “rw, nt Erg Aut VCE 6, Nol [Net E.G. Balagury PN. I985, High Seng Concrete Ch nPiatenko Soca ‘Contin Kong Eran) Pitman [Neve AM 1970, Cn of Cone Pin Reon Press North Hoban Pb Thing Co, Arsen = 175, Propane of Hardened Concrete Ch 3 in Reo! Cont Enginaring, in Bor Bes (Job Wey Son, New Yorke 1581, Proprio Cont Pemsn Publishing. London. [Nevile M. Brooks, |) 1987, Cones clay Langman. Hao UK. i [iden E7180, Kathe und Redeation das Beton, Bon ud Sato NOLS, 2p {275 (Cocpand vation scone). i 19m, The improved Disenger metho grated to oer methods and praca ist, el Speen of Date i ap ond Snape Covet Shen | Rascal cate Nose OFPao L.A. 198, A Ulontre ee of high rng conte propery Bech Cement “ieonaton, Pat BJF Viih GB 186, ial Rag on Crp a Drag Shr of astro ‘Courts Cemers and ConenteAwonon asta, ‘Pike G. 1582, Tho fet of change n most carter on he cep of concrete under 2 eared io Act owl Yl, ps 39-58 regmin,A 9 "Ameen pron te compite sin cisco, oibanl, H.W. & Come 184, Post peak hekavour of concrein nia t= ‘Se aod ataratng trae sn coupe loadings Cont se Cn Ras Nel Te No2 ppse-70 Roper H. 197, Studies ofthe Deformations and Cracking Characists of Syne Con- "Goer Site Coton’, Cie Engg Tas nt Engrs Aut, VolCE1G Ro? sey LE, Rescurches Toward a General Hocual Thory for Suc] Cone "AC bara Pre ol 7 NO. Sen YG Sama A 19, Ati ry Longa Chi, Na Standards Aurea, AS 1012 Mata of ting concrete —ASISM, The spear nd manufacture afencee S972, Prada Bea comet. Gwonge S. Dara P Le Atad MM, 1988 Patni sly ofory gh metho ctr, Cl Engineering Resse Report No, Mosash Univers Serge S.Atard, MM. Daal P Le P1980, Sie malls of esti en Por’ hoof yg sath crt Cl Engineering Resear ReporeNo 1 Monash Ua x Sens, LF 1864, ‘Eqaton for dhe StesStin Curve for Cnerte—Dicusion, ACT ear Pre Wa No.9, Sept Water RE 1857, Te inate Seng of Prestressed at Comeoaly RenforeéCoeree st tieComiinat Action face Sr Lakh University Fre Eng Lab Report Nomen Zi.) 1996 rata workshop on high jomance cone ACI Spal Pub ‘onSP-i9, Amare Concent, Bess2.13 Design data for concrete Table21_ Madina erntape sais frem AS S600) pote ines) scone envionment » sept ranean 0 Tis ves er tng eas Ko te yas Forme ef eon rch rome sean cb ney egeeaeah Table22 we for basi een fro: gn IAS 98001 P0003) a tee 52 “Table 2. Fsalvases of rep fctor rm AS 3600) expose Conca oe atime of ‘Sommers ‘ost ao? boa 81028 xa Tenens ted 028 ow? “rol ané a oa {Sa eri ero me gn 28. Ftc a (& Melaie/oner meine sey Pee Ble ees 100 780 ne on a0 m0 o ® ap Design eee tao ts rca kes ye) Cr re) sae el ae So Sao ey el ae 2 7318 ee eal a5 : ime ape ye 2, Figure 213 Creep paremeter kyFew 2:4. Crepiatuy parte hy 1000 so upper boung 0 5 J rob Bom 0° $m 0 = wo 3 2 tower bound Boo 8 20/4 = a al oC oo 20a a0 56708 Drying time (days) Figure 215. Shrinkage in venshigh-strength concrete ator Guieguis)Figure216 Creep curves, veryhigh-crength concrete ater Burnet)Properties of steel reinforcement and prestressing tendon 3.4 Reinforcement and prestessing tendon so 32 Reinforcing stool so 33 Presressing see! C7 34 References ane furtnereacing 5 35 Design data for reinfrcng stool and presvessing tendon 55Reinforcement and prestressing tendon Reinforce concrete hasbeen ee as» constacton mister for snore ha 2 a ‘ed years, and pretesod concrete for more than ssty years. While materials 2¢| ddivese ae bamboo and glace bes have been invesigted for use a enforce ‘ment and prestressing tendon, steel is at present the one commercially viable ‘mater Yor use both a enforcement and prestesing tendon sn concrete trac tures On the other hend intensive research and development work presently Deingndersaken with he aim of producing viable aleratives For example, pe snasing tensions manufactured Sour carbon Ble are nov in experimental ae [evertheles, see] can be expected to continue for any years asthe basic tensile ‘component in sracrral concrete. Itis stl to early to be able to give deta of Viable alternatives, and the focus of hs chapter eon reinforcement and tendon sade from steel Development work is currently king place withthe als of improving the prop- erties ofreinforeng steal and tendon, and we can expect to scene sted produce ‘becoming avalabe in the near future. The Etnocode for concrete sacs, already provides for sel reinforcement with a charscteriate strength of 2MPa, and orth two levels of duc In Anetra oe can expect fo ee he ca ‘ent 400 MPa reinforcing steels replaces by S00 MPa sie! veinforement in 1998, also with two levels of duct. With iguscan changes taking place he infor ‘mation presented in this chapter needs 20 be supplemented with te atest data from the manufactures and suppliers of reinforcement an tendon. 3.2__ Reinforcing steel 1 Australis in 1997 trae types of reinforcing see are commenally availble, there are + reinforsing bar + Bard-dravn wie: and + wolded wire fabric 3.2.1 Reinforcing bar Reinforcing bar can be obtained in two grades, namely 4O0Y high ye, witha sinimum guaranteed yield strength of 400 MPa, and plan (se. sound, mde formed) bar witha minizvam guaranted yield strength of 250 Mio, nevertaess, the wse of plain bars ig resected to Stments such eclunn fies aed beam st ‘ups. Beenise oftheir much improved ductility and weldabiiy, the 400 bars Ihave replaced cold-worked deformed bar reinforcement ‘The strength grades for reinforcing sec are currently quoted in terms of a min ‘rum guaran yd stregth, evan shough modern aprons to desig eure the use ofa cacti sreugd, which is ueually the 5 percent facie wae ‘There hasbeen some rekucance on the part ofthe sel industry to mowe to stalesilly meaningful messures of strength, but i is expected that this will change ‘path te inrodtton ofthe new 500 MPa sees. “The cual yield stress of a particular samples usually considerably higher tha, the mint guaranteed value or the characteristic vl. In certain design cal- ‘tions, an upperlimt on Yield stess needs to be considered, as for eample, ‘ren the Guctiity mits on fexirl members ae checked. Upper limits, suchas the 3 per cent facile. are not provided by sue suppliers and unfortunately are rot mentioned in the concrete structures standard, AS 320, but again tis ay Change with te introduction ofthe 500 MPa steals AS 3600, the elastic modulus for both the 250R and 400Y grades oF bars ken 92200000 MPs. eis customary to indicate the main reinforcement by he umber of bars, the tgs and the dlameter, eg, 4-Y2 bars means four high-yield bars of 2 man {lazer with guarantoad minimum yield eres of y= 400 MPa. The mechan ‘al properties of reinforcing bar for we in Australia are specified in AS 1502 sell design data from AS 1902 are summarised in Table 1 atthe end of tis Chapter Typical streov-stain carves for various types of reinforcement aze shown {nig 31, which i also located at he end ofthis chapter It's interesting t0 note from Fig 91 thatthe yield stress of higheyled bar can be allected by cold works {ng suc. ascollng and subsaquentsaighteing. ‘The properties of reinforcing bar quoted in Cause 62 of AS 360 refer to the bars in temlon. The yield stese and otactie modulus for compresslon ae assumed in design calculations tobe the Same.as fr tension. 322 Hard-drawn Hlard-drawn wire is wied primarily inthe manufacture of welded wire mes, of fabri The ninimnum guaranteed yield stress 480 MPa. Ths suengihsachoved by cold-drawing mild ste! with limited carbon content. The material has good Vreldandty, The mechanical properties of handadrawn wire are spesiied i [AS ISIS, Design dats ar summarised in Table 32 below. Marfactarer alo pr ‘luce coid-oled deformed wie with a guscaniced yield stress of 00 MPs. 3.2.3 Welded wire fabric Weed wire fabric is manufactured from cold-reduced pin or deformed wire by weiding ens wires to the main longitudinal wire af spaced spacings The fcsh is produced with a ange of longitadinal and transverse crosesectonal frees, cbtained from various wire diameters and wire spacings. The mechanical ropes of the fries are spaced it AS 1304, wath reerence wb: which [Bnded to indicate the dlaater of the longitudinal and wansverse wires. Typical [Sereapts rb voousen and te riot coose and tancede indesign acusen, together withthe specie raqurerems of the Ausvalon aun execs Tor conte stucurs, AS Chapter outline ‘Ax Smvctul design o 42 Loads on svueures 6 43 Structural antsis and sructral modeling o ‘AA Strocurel design eter, coves and stances 45 Limitstates concopss n 48 Design according to AS 3600 ™ 147. References and further eading BInthe design of a concrete structure large number of comple and interrelated cisions haveto be mace regarcing layout and irc achn ayout its ok only to the over size, shape and location ofthe structure, but alo tothe Spee (of couponents and their elativeloatons and interconnections witha este ftw Structural! action i th way the evtemal lode are chanced tough tae Sructure into ts foundations. Suuctural setion and layout are eloscly intes reatec because the locations and interconnections ofthe component mrbes Getermine toa large extent the way the suctutal systecn caries the applied Toads Ts in a bulding which i designed to resist vertical and horizontal loads by fame action, the component beams, columns and flor slabs ety various combinations of ava fore, bending moment seat force ard torsion, In structural design, prcive details of each component member have oe deter ined, incuding the size and shape of crosesections, and the amount of ‘enforcement tobe provided. Careful atention must also be pat the ‘companent members are joined together, and tothe sires rerltants which have tobe vansfared safely shrough te connection. 4.1.1 Structural design as part of the planning process SScucteral design i self one of various inter-related activites which led ever tually 10 the creation of a bullding structure. The nee forthe siractre, ands proposed fenction are identied in the inital planning phase ofthe project. The equine fancon ofthe stractre, whether to rst he ange wind sd which Acton 3 tower or to house and protect peopte and equipment ina cy bung ‘while canying horizontal and vertical loads i define’ dung the planing pre es. The term farctonlty rer t the ably ofthe siracture te pero 1 Intended non-sructural ses. Functionality is a crucial design constrint which can att all tage of the structural design. In the design of «complex tracts such a iy fice building, te sect engineer ast work in cooperation with other profeeonals wv ace eporsible for equly amporant and intesclaed deigh work For example rokaees Uderake he artes pansing and desig wl the design ote mec ical and electra services the tak of machi and letra engineers The heres thatthe arousdesgn task interact wit each ce ad ‘ave tobe cordate Theis te ol oft peje manager 4.1.2. Structural design objectives ‘The speci objectives ofthe structural designer are to produces functional ste ture which, houghout its eful ie + performs adequately under normal day-toway service conditions, sithout beoaning unserviceable, for eample by excetive deleccon of unsightly endings + has adequate reserves of strength to resist rare overloads, accidental load, Jnuzards and environmental eremes which may cosa during is service ie, ‘Structural design* se easy to construc isdumble;and 1 sseconomicallycompettive eis convenient to use he flowing trms to describe these structural design objao ive seca afeuate strength ee of consrcton, drab, and crows. Servigesbilty and strength ae struct! performance reuremerts. They apply to the stracture not only when ss nevly commissioned, but throughout ts sft life Moder design standards therefore emphasise the need for durability, which may be thought of a rsatnce to deterioration wid ime, and hence resistance to progressive loss of service ane srength ‘zoom seta strcturl perfomance rgurenent. However provides acon ‘veniet means for compuring an Tanking stematve sign eich sxe he ‘main sacra reuremers of servcebty and sregeh Ease of eonsucton Sd durability ae both cosey rated to overel| economy. Seucturl design ck thusbergardedasan optistion proces wi the the mk ofthe designer being, to minimise toa eee coms Tse neo not merely the inital comer ‘cs bu the total costs over the prjeed uel of croc, wich nce the contnng cos of operston maintenance and fear Comcrvall 350, ‘Recent there ave ben instances of conte srcies which have been com> sSroced at gute fv fual cos, Sut which ave icked daabty and ave ‘Seterorted api, thas ncuringexremely high naintanancs an spa cost 4.13. The process of structural design Sructural design ia comple, erative, decson-maing process in which a at ‘Ssgn is cated and then chchd for adequacy with adjusments progres, being made tothe design deals unt an economic snd erscuraly adequate rest ig achieved. The way the design is undertaken vase from projet to Projet but tionally pose teeny Uvee main phases, wich ae ered {mere as cnc dig, rena desi ond dead sig. 41.3.1 Concept design Jn the initial concept design phase the am is cate 2 number of erative, Stractura concep whch re fnconal and fsb One sever of sost Promising of the concept are then deveeped to the sage where Very Sppren ute stroctaral deta and inate costings are cane In hs sya checks Znadeon whether he prot seuctural abd Dna fable Ror this reason {Be concep phases eso refered oa fest stay (Dandy & Warner 1989). ‘The structural problems are identified in thi arly phase ofthe design together with potential Solutions. I therefore daring the concept desien thatthe most general, farreaching, and fsancally most sigalfcant structural decisions are fen: Thence ie coe of scram ane stl yo aed he materials of construction. ‘The stating point for the srsctura concept design occurs during the project planning process when the purpose function and intended se of the strucire denied. Closely related to fincionaiey and layout is the ecient se of ay enclosed and adjacent spaces‘Tae oa’ which are Likely to act on the structure when tis in wie also have be ‘dented and considerstzon also has tobe given other factors which rflaenes she structural concept, such as method of construction, environunental infuence, snd even maintenance and repair procedures aver the ile ofthe projec. ‘The sructaralsjstom aivays interacts with ts sumoundings, and dls has be ‘entered carefully fom the beginning On the one mand che perfomance of te structe may be adversely affected by severe enronmantal iets sucha [perature extemes On the oer hand, the ste sould Bt wl and not Edverly afc, ts suroundings. As alwady noted, the sacral system mst ‘econgatbie withthe other related engineering system sachs Cond toning local and information services Ta acktee 9 succes seule the eral engineer has to recogrise thet the srctial design is tne pst of & Inge, complex projec: Only ints way can confit be recived Pebvoen the speci obpectives of structural dasign and ther projet rejaement Typical of Efe confit which aie and which have ob ested, a minimum Goro he strucral ster versus optioal se an fenconalty of the structs pti ‘us ofmatrals versus ease of constriction ad noha struc cest vets lumeousary excraachment onto ajacnt and: The overall design nos ly to be efectve and trouble fee Hf the relevane interactions ase ected at an cerlytagein the onset phase. 41.32. Preliminary design In thepreliiary design phase the most proms concept or concepts ros the fst pase are examine in geste etal cefined and compares nthe come perkons, stchal efieney, oot and nctonalsy ate al considered. The ences tay be scarded or improved or replaced. The bat of te competing Selutons is eventually chosen and developed further fo crate ‘pininay?

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