Chemistry 1st Paper Topics:▼

Chapter:03 (Periodic Properties of Elements  Classification of elements according to their

and Chemical Bonding) electronic configuration.  Common properties of
Lecture: 3/1 – 3/6 s, p, d and f block elements  Selected Questions
 Exam No. 3/1 and answers on s, p, d and f block elements

Modern Periodic Table:

 1. Classification of elements according to their electronic configuration.
Ans: On the basis of electronic configuration of elements, they are classified into four blocks:
i. s-block elements ii. p-block elements, iii. d-block elements and iv. f-block elements.
Features s-block p-block elements d-block elements f-block elements
elements
Definition The elements in The elements in The elements in The elements in
which last which last electron which last electron which last electron
electron enters enters into p- enters into enters into f-
into s- orbital, orbital, are known d- orbital, are known orbital, are known
are known as as as d-block elements. as f-block
s-block p-block elements. elements.
elements.
1 2 1 2 6 2 2
Example 11Na [Ne] 3s 13Al[Ne] 3s 3p 26Fe[Ar] 4s 3d 58Ce[Xe] 6s 4f
Position in left hand side right hand side middle bottom
periodic table
Included Group 1 and 2 Group Group 3 Group3 (except
groups and He 13,14,15,16,17 and (only Sc, Y, La, Ac, Sc, Y, La, Ac, Th)
18 (except He) Th)4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11
and 12
Total Number 14 36 41 27
1-2 2 1- 6 1-10 2
General ns ns np (n-1) d ns (n-2)f (n-1)d0-2
1-14

electronic Here. n=1, 2, 3, Here, n=2, 3, 4, 5, Here, n=4, 5, 6 &7 ns2

configuration 4, 5, 6 & 7 6&7 here, n=6 & 7
Nature Metal (except H Metal, non-metal All are metals All are metals
and He) and metalloids
(Bi, Si, Ge, As, Sb,
Te)
Other name Alkali and Representative Some are transitional Some are inner-
alkaline earth element metal transitional metal
metal
Group Total electron 10 + electrons in (n-1)d + ns electron Group -3
determination number in valence shell in valence shell
valence shell (ns+np)
Q-2: Discuss the physical properties of s-block metals.
Ans: s-block metals are two types: i. Alkali metal (group-1) ii. Alkaline earth metal (group-2)
Physical properties of alkali metals and alkali earth metals:
■ s-block elements are low melting point and low boiling point metals.
For example, Li metal of this group has highest melting point 180.50C and Cs metal has lowest melting
point 28.40C. On the other hand group-2 element like Be has melting point 12780C, the melting point of
Ra is 7000C.
■ s-block metals are soft. For example, sodium metal can be cut with knife.
■ Group-1 metals form unipositive ion (M+) donating their ns1 valence electron.
Group-2 metals form double positive ion (M2+) donating their ns2 valence electrons.
■ Group-1 and Group-2 metal ions have no unpaired electron, so their compounds are colorless.
■ s-block metal cations, having no unpaired electron, are diamagnetic, that is they are repelled by
magnetic field.
■ The atomic and ionic radii of Group-1 elements increase regularly with increase of their atomic
numbers. Because new electron orbital is added with increase of atomic number in every element in a
group.
■ The ionization energy of group-1 metals are lowest and comparatively metals of group-2 have higher
ionization energy.
■ s-block metals are most electropositive and their reactivity increases from upwards to downwards in a
group. For example, Cs is the most reactive metal. Fr is a radioactive unstable metal.
■ Except Be and Mg, other s-block metals form characteristic color in Bunsen flame.
■ s-block metals act as most powerful reducing agent.
■ Except Be, other s-block metals can form ionic compounds with non-metals.
Remember !
Due to smaller size Be2+ ion never forms. Although Li atom forms, Li+ ion, yet due to more
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒏𝒐
charge density (= ) its ionic compounds are converted into covalent compounds with
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒐𝒏
polarization (distortion of anion by cation in ionic compound) . For this, Li salts are less soluble in water.
LiCl, LiBr, LiI etc. are more soluble in organic solvent like polar liquid alcohol and acetone for same
reason.
Q-3: Discuss the chemical properties of s-block metals.
Chemical properties of Alkali Metals:
■ Reaction with hydrogen:
Alkali metals are powerful reducing agent. At elevated temperature they reduce H atom to form metallic
hydrides. In these compounds hydride ion (H-) is present.

2M(s) + H2(g)  2MH (s) : [M  Li, Na , K, Rb, Cs]
■ Reaction with halogen:
Alkali metals react vigorously with chlorine to form metal chlorides with evolution of so much heat
energy that they catch fire.
2M(s)+X2(g) →2MX(s); [M=Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs]
■Reaction with water:
Alkali metals react vigorously with water to produce metal hydroxides and H2 gas.
Lithium reacts with water slowly but other elements from top to bottom react progressively with higher
intensity.
2M(s) + 2H2O (l) →2MOH(aq) + H2(g); [M=Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs]
■Reaction with Oxygen:
Lithium reacts with oxygen slowly, but other alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen.
Alkali metals form three different types of oxides-(i) simple oxide (Na2O) (ii) peroxide( Na2O2) and
(iii) superoxide (KO2). Lithium forms only simple oxide. Sodium forms both simple oxide & peroxide,
while other alkali metals form simple oxide, peroxide and superoxides. At the same time they produce
simple oxide, the amount of which increases with short supply of oxygen.
4Li (s)+ 2O2(g) →2Li2O(s) 4K(s) + O2(g) →2K2O(s)
4Na(s)+2O2(g)→2Na2O(s) 2K(s)+O2(g) →K2O2(s)
2Na(s)+O2(g)→Na2O2(s) K(s) + O2(g) →KO2(s)
2
Divalent oxide (O2-) ion is present in simple oxides, divalent peroxide O2 ion is present in peroxides

and monovalent superoxide O2 ion is present in superoxide.
■Reaction with nitrogen:
Among elements of group-1, Li reacts with nitrogen in hot condition and produce lithium nitride (Li3N).
This nitride reacts with water and produce base and ammonia. It is hydrolysis process.
∆
6Li+N2 → 2Li3N; 2Li3N + 6H2O → 6LiOH + 2NH3
■Reaction with carbon:
Alkali metal (only Li and Na) reacts with carbon with hot condition produce metal carbide; hydrolyzed
in hot water and produce metal hydroxide and ethyne gas( C2H2).
∆
2M(s) + 2C(s)→ 2M2C2 (s) ; [here, M= Li, Na]
M2C2 (s) +2H2O→2MOH(aq) + C2H2(g)
Chemical properties of Alkaline earth metals:
■ Reaction with Hydrogen:
At elevated temperature group-2 elements react with H2 gas to produce metal hydrides. These hydrides
react with water to produce metal hydroxides and H2 gas.

M(s) + H2(g)  MH2(s) [M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba]
MH2(s) + 2H2O (l) →M(OH)2 (s) + 2H2(g)
■ Reaction with Halogens:
The group-2 elements react with halogen to form metal halides. The reactions are vigorous with fluorine;
less vigorous with chlorine and even less vigorous with bromine and iodine.
M(s) + X2(g) →MX2(s) [M=Be,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba]
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) →CaCl2(s) [X=F,Cl,Br,I]
■ Reaction with water:
Calcium, Strontium and Barium react directly with cold water to produce metal hydroxides and
hydrogen. M(s)+2H2O(l)→M(OH)2(aq)+H2(g); [M=Ca, Sr, Ba]
But Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with boiling water.

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l)  Mg(OH)2 (s)+H2(g)
100 C

Again Beryllium does not react with water even at 1000C.

■ Reaction with Oxygen:
At room temperature, Beryllium remains unaffected by air. Magnesium reacts very slowly with air. Other
metals are oxidized easily by air. At high temperature all group-2 elements burn in air.

2M(s)+O2(g)  2MO(s); [M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba]
■ Reaction with Nitrogen:
The group-2 elements react with N2 to produce metal nitrides at elevated temperature. Their tendency to
react with N2 increases with increase of atomic number. These nitrides react with water to produce
ammonia gas and metal hydroxide.

3M(s) + N2 (g)  M3N2(s) [M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba]
M3N2(s) + 6H2O (l) 
 3M(OH)2 (s) + 2NH3(s)
 
3Mg (s) + N2 (g)  Mg3N2 (s) ;Mg3N2 (s) + 6H2O (l)  3Mg (OH)2 (s) + 2NH3 (g)
■Reaction with carbon:
Alkaline earth metal reacts with carbon with hot condition produce metal carbide; hydrolyzed in hot
water and produce metal hydroxide and ethyne gas.
∆
M(s) + 2C(s)→ 2MC2 (s) ; MC2 (s) +2H2O (l) →M(OH)2 (aq) + C2H2(g)
Q: 04 Discuss thermal stability of nitrates & carbonates of group-1 and group-2 elements
Ans: i. Thermal stability of nitrates:
All other nitrates except lithium nitrate (LiNO3) of group-1 elements is decomposed on heating to nitrite
and oxygen.
But on heating lithium nitrate is decomposed to lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. Because, as
the size of Li+ is small its density of positive charge is greater so it has greater covalent in nature.

On the other hand, all the metallic nitrate of group-2 on heating decomposed to metallic oxide, nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen. Two ions of positive charge of metals of group-2 occurs polarization of (NO3-) ion.
That’s why it decomposed easily.

4M(NO3)2 (s)  2MO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) [M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba]

4Mg(NO3)2(s)  2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
The reason of this differentiation is the nitrates on heating decomposed to nitrite salt first and oxygen.

2MNO3(s)  2MNO2(s) + O2(s)
If nitrate salt is stable that is they are not polarized by cation then reaction stopped there. For example,
other basic metal of nitrate salt occurs except lithium. On the other side, if nitrate salt is not stable that
is, more polarized by cation then it is converted to metallic oxide and nitrogen dioxide. As a result the
reaction is-

4M(NO3)2(s)  2MO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g); Here M=divalent cation
ii. Thermal stability of carbonates:
Except lithium carbonate, all other metals of Group-1 carbonate are not decomposed easily on heating. But,
lithium carbonate is decomposed to lithium oxide and carbon dioxide. As the shape of Li+ ion is small so density
of positive charge more. So, polarization of CO32- occurs more by it. As a result thermal stability of Li2CO3
decreases and easily decomposed.

Li2CO3(s)   Li2O+ CO2(g)
Correspondingly, carbonate ion being polarized more by divalent charged cation and thermal stability decreases
so, metals of group-2 are decomposed to metallic oxide and CO2 on heating.

MCO3(s) 
 MO(s) +CO2(g) [M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba]
 
BeCO3(s)   BeO+ CO2(g) MgCO3(s)  MgO+CO2(g)
Remember!
Size of cation: Be2+< Mg2+ <Ca2+ <Sr2+ < Ba2+
Oder of Polarization: Be2+>Mg2+>Ca2+>Sr2+>Ba2+
Covalent Character: Be2+>Mg2+>Ca2+>Sr2+>Ba2+
Thermal stability: Be2+< Mg2+ <Ca2+ <Sr2+ < Ba2+
Q-05: Discuss the solubility trends of sulphates and hydroxides of group-2 elements.
Ans: Lattice Enthalpy:
The amount of energy released when one mole of a compound is produced by the association of the
required positive and negative ions from their infinite distance, is called lattice enthalpy of that
compound.
Hydration Enthalpy:
The amount of energy released when the ions (remaining infinite distance from each other) of one mole
of compound is dissolved in sufficient amount of water to make dilute solution is called hydration
enthalpy of that compound.
Hydration enthalpy > Lattice enthalpy: Soluble in water
Hydration enthalpy < Lattice enthalpy: Insoluble in water
In the case of sulphate of group-2 metals, both lattice enthalpy and hydration enthalpy are increased
due to increasing of size of cation. But the increasing rate of lattice enthalpy is more than hydration
enthalpy. Therefore solubility decreases with increasing size of cation.
BeSO4 > MgSO4> CaSO4> SrSO4 > BaSO4
BeSO4 &MgSO4 are highly soluble.CaSO4 is sparingly soluble. SrSO4 &BaSO4 is almost insoluble in
water.
In the case of hydroxide of group-2 metals, both lattice enthalpy and hydration enthalpy are increased
due to increasing of size of cation. But the increasing rate of hydration enthalpy is more than lattice
enthalpy. Therefore solubility increase with increasing size of cation.
Be(OH)2 < Mg(OH)2 < Ca(OH)2 < Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2
Ba(OH)2 & Sr(OH)2 are highly soluble. Mg(OH)2 & Ca(OH)2 is sparingly soluble. Be(OH)2 is almost
insoluble in water.
 Selected Questions on s-block elements (Group-1 & 2)
Q-3: What are alkali metals?
Ans: Metals of group-1(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are very reactive metals and they react with water to
produce strong alkalis. Hence they are called alkali metals. e.g.
2Na+2H2O→2NaOH+H2
Q-4: What is alkaline earth metal?
Ans: Oxides of group-2 elements are present in the earth crust and these elements react with water to
produce weak alkalis. Hence group-2 elements are called alkaline earth metals, e.g.
CaO+H2O→ Ca(OH)2
Q-5: Why Na+ is possible but not Na2+ at normal condition?
Ans: The electronic configurations of Na, Na+, Na2+ are as follows:
11Na → 1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 1

11Na → 1s 2s 2p (electron configuration of Ne) 11Na →1s 2s 2p

+ 2 2 6 2+ 2 2 5

Na atom has one unpaired electron in its 3s orbital. So it can easily lose the electron to have the nearest
inert gas (Ne) electron configuration. This inert gas configuration is very stable. Because, it’s outermost
level contains eight electrons (octet fulfilled). So, it cannot easily donate another electron therefore Na+
ion is easily formed but Na2+ ion is not formed, because second ionization energy is very high due to its
stable configuration.
Another reason for this, Na atom contains 11 protons & 11 electrons. After donating one electron from
3s orbital it has 11 protons & 10 electrons. In this state, the atom has one energy level less than the
previous state for this, the atomic radius decreases and the attraction between the nucleus & outermost
level becomes higher than before. So, Na+ can be formed but Na2+ cannot be formed.
Na (g) → Na+ (g) + e- ; H1 = 496 kJ mol-1
Na+ (g) → Na2+ (g) + e- ; H2 = 4564 kJ mol-1
Q-6: Why is sodium preserved in kerosene / petrol/ paraffin oil?
Ans: Sodium is a highly reactive s-block metal. When sodium comes in contact with air, it reacts with
oxygen of the air to form sodium oxide. Then sodium oxide reacts with moisture of the air to form sodium
hydroxide which reacts with CO2 of the air to form sodium carbonate.
4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)
Na2O (s) + H2O (vap) →2NaOH (s)
2NaOH (s) + CO2 (g) →Na2CO3 (s) +H2O (l)
In order to protect from atmospheric effect, metallic sodium is stored in inactive liquid paraffin oil like
kerosene or petrol.

Q-7: Why do compounds of Li show covalent character?

Ans: Lithium atom can form ionic compounds with non-metal elements by using Li+ ion. Li+ ion is
smaller in size and its charge density is more than other alkali metals. Due to more charge density its
ionic compounds are converted into covalent compounds with polarization. For this, Li salts are less
soluble in water. Similarly, compounds of Be show covalent character
Q-8: Be & Mg do not show colored flame in Bunsen burner flame-Why?
Ans. The atomic size Be is comparatively smaller and its ionization energy is very high. The available
heat energy of Bunsen burner cannot excite its valence electron. So Be cannot form colored flame in
Bunsen burner flame.
In the case of Mg, the wave length of radiated energy is out of visible range. So Mg does not any visible
color in flame test.
Q-9: Na2CO3 aqueous solution is alkaline in nature-explain.
Ans: When Na2CO3 is put into water the following reaction takes place:
Na2CO3 + 2H2O → H2CO3 + 2NaOH
Or, Na2CO3 + H2O → H2CO3 + Na+ + OH-
As H2CO3 is weak acid, it does not ionize completely and so less number of H+ ions is formed. On the
other hand, NaOH is a strong base. So, it dissociate completely in water solution giving more number of
OH- ions. In solution even after neutralizing all the H+ ions much number of extra OH- remain. Therefore
the water solution of Na2CO3 behaves as alkali. Therefore the solution is alkaline.
Q-10: Formation of Mg2+ ion is possible but not Mg+ ion. Explain.
Ans: The electronic configurations of Mg and Mg2+ are as follows:
12Mg → 1s2 2s22p6 3s2
12Mg
2+
→ 1s2 2s22p6 (electronic configuration like Ne)
Mg atom has one paired electron in its 3s orbital. So it can easily lose the electron to gain electronic
configuration of nearest inert gas Ne. This inert gas configuration is very stable. Because, it’s outermost
level contains eight electrons, (octet fulfilled). So, it can easily donate two electrons therefore Mg2+ ion
is easily formed but Mg+ ion is not formed, because the outermost electronic configuration of Mg is 3s2
which is stable due to complete filling of orbital with paired electrons. More energy is needed to break
this electron paired configuration (opposite spin). So at normal condition Mg+ ion formation is not
possible.
Q-11: What is diagonal relationship of the elements?
Ans: Properties of the elements of different groups of second period in periodic table is similar to the
properties of the elements of third period which are placed diagonally. Similarities due to similar charge
density between the two elements placed diagonally are known as diagonal relationship.

Q-12: In between MgCO3 and CaCO3 ; which one is more thermal stable?
Ans: Calcium Carbonate is more stable in between magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate. The
elements of Group-2 have +2 charges each as cations and so, they can react to or polarize enough with
carbonate ion. This is why their carbonates dissociate in heat. As the size of the cation increases, it reacts
to, or polarizes the anion less. As we proceed from top to bottom in a group, the cation increases in size.
As a result, the sizes of cations in group 2 increases from to bottom and their ability to polarize carbonate
ion decreases respectively. In other words, the polarization power of Mg2+ is more than that of Ca2+. As
a result, CaCO3 is more stable than MgCO3. The dissociating temperature of MgCO3 is 350 oC and CaCO3
is 597oC.

Q-11: Discuss the general properties of p-block metals.

Ans:■ Most of the p-block elements are non-metals, some are metals and a few others are metalloids and
inert gases.
■ Elements of this block are non-conductors of heat and electricity, except metals and graphite.
■ Elements of this block are mostly electronegative nonmetals in nature.
■ They exhibit variable oxidation states- may be both negative and positive.
■ On moving from left to right across a period, reducing power decreases with the simultaneous increase
in oxidation power. Again from top to bottom in the same group, reducing power gradually increases
while oxidizing power gradually decreases.
■ p-block elements form covalent bonds among themselves and form ionic bonds with different elements.

Selected Questions on p-block elements (Group-13, 14,15,16,17 & 18)

Q-12: Why does AlCl3 form dimer (Al2Cl6) at lower temperature?

Ans: Usually AlCl3 is formed by ionic bond; but the charge density of Al3+ ion is very high. Due to high
charge density of Al3+ ion, polarization of the anion takes place in AlCl3 molecule and it gets partially
covalent character. During polarization electron cloud of negative chloride ion comes in between the
nuclei of Al atom and Cl atoms. As a result sharing of electrons occurs among the atoms and Al atom
gets three pair of electrons (i.e. sextet) instead of octet set.
To make up this shortage of electron pair in the outermost level of Al atom, two Al atoms of two AlCl 3
molecules make coordinate covalent bonds with lone pair of two Cl-atoms of two AlCl3 molecules as
follows:
 Thus two molecules of AlCl3 combine together to
form the dimer Al2Cl6. The solid dimer has a
tetrahedral structure and remains in layers of
sheets attracted by weak van der Waal’s force.
But above 1800C dimer breaks down and exists as
AlCl3.

Q-13: Why does AlCl3 show sublimation?

Ans: The compound AlCl3 is a partially covalent compound due to polarization of Cl- ions by Al3+ ions.
So there is no strong lattice enthalpy between the deformed ions. Also the compound AlCl3 forms a dimer
at ordinary temperature by co-ordinate covalent bonds and remains in layers of sheets with weak van der
Wall’s force.
Above 1800C the dimer overcomes the van der Waal’s force and turns into monomer vapor. The vapor
creates a pressure more than the atmospheric pressure (1 atm). So AlCl3 vaporizes directly without
passing through the liquid state, although its melting point is 4230C. The process of converting a solid
into its vapor directly without passing through the liquid state below its melting point is called
sublimation and AlCl3 sublimes at 1800C.
Q-14: Aqueous solution of AlCl3 is acidic in nature. Explain.
Ans: Anhydrous AlCl3 is more covalent. But in aqueous solution AlCl3 is hydrolyzed to form Al3+ ion.
The cause of transformation from covalent to more ionic character in solution by AlCl3 is due to high
hydration energy of Al3+ ion and it helps to ionize AlCl3. Due to high charge, small ionic radius and
presence of vacant 3d orbitals in Al3+ ion, it is hydrated extensively with six water molecules to form
hexaaqua aluminium (III) ion [Al(H2O6)]3+. Electron configuration of Al3+ ion is as follows for hydration:
Al3+ (13) →1s22s22p6 3s0 3p0x 3p0y 3p0z 3d0xy 3d0yz

Al3+ ion can form coordinate bond with lone pair of electrons of oxygen atom in water molecule (
). Hence bond pair electron of O-H is attracted towards oxygen atom and weakens the O-H bond.
As O-H bond weakens, in aqueous medium a proton (H+) is released from complex hexaaqua aluminium
(III) ion. The proton combines with water to form hydronium ion (H3O+)
AlCl3(s) + aq→ Al3+(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)

Hexaaqua aluminium (iii) ion

Due to the formation of hydronium ion (H3O+) in solution the pH value of the solution becomes lower
than 7 i.e. the aqueous solution of AlCl3 becomes acidic.

Q-15a: What is dry ice?

Ans: Carbon dioxide (CO2) remains as solid state like ice at low temperature below 00C and at high
pressure like 30 atm pressure. This solid state of CO2 is known as dry ice. Because solid CO2 looks like
an ice but it does not moisten clothes. Moreover, it is not melted at normal temperature but vaporized.
On the other hand ice is melted at normal temperature and moistens clothes.

Q-15b: Why CO is called silent killer?

Ans: Since CO gas is tasteless, colorless and odorless, it can be drawn into the human body undetected
while breathing and absorbed into the blood stream. It then forms complex compound with iron found in
hemoglobin in blood, upon which hemoglobin cannot act as a carrier of oxygen any more. As a result the
human dies for the deficiency of oxygen. This is why CO is called silent killer.

Q-16a: CO2 is gas but SiO2 is solid –explain

Ans. CO2 is a linear covalent molecule. In CO2 each of the oxygen atoms are bonded with a carbon atom
by sharing two pairs of electrons. Structure of CO2 is as follows: O = C = O
Size of CO2 molecule is very small, so strong intermolecular van der Waals attractive force is not present
among them. So at normal temperature CO2 is gaseous.
Silica (SiO2)n has a three dimensional network structure in which
each silicon (Si) is bonded to four oxygen atoms which are
tetrahedrally disposed around silicon atom as shown in figure.
Each oxygen atom is shared by two silicon atoms. It may be noted
that while CO2 is gas, SiO2 is a hard solid with very high melting
point. This is due to the reason that the size and energy of 2p-
orbitals of carbon and oxygen are nearly same. Therefore, they
can overlap effectively to form   bonds between C and O atoms
resulting in O=C=O molecule. On the other hand, the size of 2p-
orbital of O atom and 3p-orbital of Si are different and therefore,
they cannot overlap effectively to form   bonds between Si and
O atoms. Thus, the Si=O bonds are not formed in SiO2 molecule.
Therefore, silicon satisfies its tetra valency by forming covalent bonds with four O atoms resulting in a
three dimensional network structure. Huge amount of energy is needed to break down these bonds. So
melting and boiling point of SiO2 is more than CO2.

Q-16b: What is inert pair effect?

Ans: Inert pair effect is defined as the inability of the s orbital electrons to participate in bond formation.
It occurs due to the reason that when we move down the group in p block then the d and f orbitals are added and
thus due to poor shielding effect of these orbitals the s orbital electrons cannot involve in bond formation. Thus
the elements down the group generally show less oxidation state.
For example: For group-14, Carbon has oxidation number of +4 and Lead shows oxidation number of +2.
Remember! "More the inert pair effect less the oxidation number. If an element has less oxidation number it will
form more stable compounds".
Q-17: SiCl4 is hydrolysed; but CCl4 is not hydrolyzed-explain.
Ans: During the hydrolysis of SiCl4, an unstable intermediate compound is formed by a coordinate bond
between Si atom and lone pair electron of oxygen atom of water molecule; then a HCl molecule is formed
and is detached from the intermediate compound. Hence a Cl atom is replaced by –OH group.

In this intermediate compound there are ten electrons in the outermost orbit of Si atom in which four
pairs are from four Si-Cl bonds and a pair from Si←:OH2 coordinate bond. Since silicon is an element
of 3rd period, it has empty 3d orbitals, which can accommodate the electron pair donated by H2O molecule
with expansion of octet-set. This process continues till all four Cl atoms are replaced by –OH group
forming Si(OH)4.

SiCl4+4H2O→Si(OH)4+4HCl

But carbon is an element of 2nd period. There is no 2d orbitals in carbon atom; hence carbon cannot
expand its octet. Hence water molecule cannot form coordinate bond to CCl4 and therefore it cannot be
hydrolyzed.

Q-18a: What are Pnictogen elements?

Ans: The elements of group -15 (N, P, As, Sb, Bi, Mc) are called pnictogen element. The word
‘pnictogen’ means ‘to choke’. The first element of this group is nitrogen (N) which is choker gas that is
why the elements of this group are familiar to such type of name.
Q-18: Phosphorous is more reactive than nitrogen-Why?
Ans: From the electronic configuration of the nitrogen atom [N(7)- 1s 2 2s 2 2p1x p1y p1z ] it is seen that it
contains three half-filled p-orbitals in valence shell, which are more uniform and stable. Again, since
there is a valence layer in the second energy level, the N atoms are smaller in size. The dissociation
energy for (N  N) triple bond is 945 kJ mol-1 and their bond distance is 0.1098 nm. That is why N2
molecules are chemically inert after the noble gases. But at high temperatures (such as at 3000 0C), the
three bonds are broken step by step at a time, resulting in the formation of atomic nitrogen which is only
then reactive.
In that case, each P atom forms three single   bonds with three other P atoms. In the same way, in a
white P molecule, each of the three P atoms forms three single covalent bonds with the other three P
atoms in order to form a tetrahedral P4 molecule. Then the bond angle becomes 600. Since the bond angle
is very small, a lot of strain is exerted on the bonds of the P4 molecule.
As a result, P4 molecules have very unstable structures and are highly reactive.
Q-19: In between NH3 (ammonia) and PH3 (phosphin), which one is more basic? Explain.
Ans: According to Lewis concept, the substance which can donate electron is a base.
According to Bronsted concept, the substance which can accept proton is a base. According to both
concepts, NH3 and PH3 are bases because both have a lone pair of electrons.
 N≡N

(Nitrogen molecule)
( Phosphorous molecule)

Bond angle: 1800 Bond angle: 600

But NH3 is more basic in character than PH3. This because:-

1. Nitrogen (3.0) is more electronegative than phosphorus (2.2)
and
2. Size of nitrogen (70 pm) atom is smaller than phosphorus
(110 pm) atom. Due to the high electronegativity of N-atom,
the electron cloud of N-H bond shift towards the N-atom more
than that of P-H bond pair electrons.
Due to small size, the electron density on nitrogen atom becomes much high. So, the N-atom becomes
more capable of donating electrons. That’s why; NH3 is more basic than PH3.

Q-20: In between NF3 and NCl3, which one will be hydrolyzed? Explain.
Ans: NF3 does not react with water. But NCl3 forms ammonia and HOCl when it reacts with water.
NCl3+3H2O→NH3+3HOCl
During hydrolysis, the lone pair electrons of oxygen atom of water forms coordinate bond with vacant d
orbital of halide molecule. That’s why halides of nitrogen which have vacant d-orbital can be hydrolyzed
in dilute solution. In NF3, no atom has vacant d subshell. So it is not hydrolyzed in water.
But in NCl3, chlorine atom has vacant d-subshell. As a result it is hydrolyzed.

Q-21: PCl3 is hydrolyzed quite quickly than NCl3-explain.

Ans: Both NCl3 and PCl3 is hydrolyzed. PCl3 is hydrolyzed quite quickly than NCl3. In water, the
dissociation of P-Cl bond occurs more quickly than N-Cl. This is because the chlorine atom is more
electronegative causing polarity in phosphorus-chlorine bond (P   Cl  ) . Due to polarity the rate of
hydrolysis increases. PCl3 hydrolyzes to produce H3PO3 and HCl.
PCl3+3H2O →H3PO3+3HCl
Both P and Cl atom have vacant d-subshell which is used during hydrolysis. It hydrolyzes according to
the following mechanism.
PCl5 hydrolyses to produce H3PO4 and HCl. It is carried out in two steps. At first it produces phosphorous
oxychloride (POCl3) and HCl. In second step, POCl3 hydrolyzes producing H3PO3 and HCl.
PCl5(s) +H2O (l) →POCl3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
POCl3(aq)+3H2O(l)→H3PO4(aq) + 3HCl(aq)

Q-22: The valency of nitrogen is fixed but phosphorous shows variable valency-why?Ans: We know,
in the case of nonmetals atom the number of unpaired electrons in the outermost energy level indicates
the valency. The electronic configuration of N is 7N → 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1 From the electronic
configuration of N atom, we observed that there are 5 electrons are in outer most 2nd shell. But there are
3 unpaired electrons are in outer most shell of N atom. There is no d sub-shell present in 2nd shell. So it
is not possible to shift 1 electron from 2s2 to 2d. So the valency of nitrogen is only 3.
On the other hand, the number of unpaired electron changes due to the electronic rearrangement in the
subshell of the outermost energy level of the element. These elements show the variable valency or more
than one valency. The electronic configuration of P is
15P (Ground state) →1s 2s 2p 3s 3px 3py 3pz
2 2 6 2 1 1 1

15P (Excited state) →1s 2s 2p 3s 3px 3py 3pz 3d

* 2 2 6 1 1 1 1 1

From the electronic configuration of P, we observed that 3 unpaired electrons are present in outer most
shell of P atom at normal state. So normally the valency of P is 3.The outer most shell of P is 3rd shell
having d sub-shell. So it is possible to shift 1 electron from 3s2 to 3d1 and create 5 unpaired electrons.
For this reason the valency of P is variable i.e. 3 and 5.
Q-23: NCl5 is not possible but compound N2O5 is possible-explain.
Ans: We know, in the case of nonmetals atom the number of unpaired electrons in the outermost energy
level indicates the valency. The electronic configuration of N is 7N → 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
From the electronic configuration of N atom, we observed that there are 5 electrons are in outer most 2nd
shell. But there are 3 unpaired electrons are in outer most shell of N atom. There is no d sub-shell present
in 2nd shell. So it is not possible to shift 1 electron from 2s2 to 2d. So the valency of nitrogen is only 3.
So it is not possible for N to form compound NCl5.
But we know that both O and N have lone pair electron. Here O is more electronegative than N. So each
N can donate its one lone pair electron to O and form coordinate bond between N and O. In this way,
formation of compound N2O5 is possible.
Explain the oxidizing, reducing and bleaching action of SO2.
Ans: Oxidizing properties of SO2:
SO2 with HI solution: SO2 oxidizes the aqueous solution of HI (which has a reducing tendency), so that
iodine is releases from HI, & water is evolved. The SO2 is reduced to form yellow sulphur powder.

SO2(g) +4HI(aq) 2H2O(l) +2I2(aq) + S(s)

SO2 with H2S solution: If SO2 gas is passed through the aqueous solution of H2S (a reducing agent), the H2S
becomes oxidized, forming water & yellow sulphur powder. On the other hand SO2 becomes reduced & forms
S.
SO2(g) + 2H2S(aq) 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)

Reducing properties of SO2:

If SO2 is passed into water containing a halogen like chlorine, bromine, iodine the solution is reduced by the SO2
in order to form solution of colorless hydracids, such as HCl, HBr, HI etc, HI etc. while the SO2 becomes oxidized
to form H2SO4.

SO2(g) +2H2O(l)+I2(g)  2HI(aq) + H2SO4(aq)

Bleaching action of SO2:

SO2 is capable of bleaching colorful objects, as well as plant originated colored objects. SO2 reacts with water to
produce nascent hydrogen, which can turn colored objects colorless through reaction.
SO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2[H]
Colored compounds + 2[H]  reduced colorless compounds
Q-27b:
Describe dehydrating properties of concentrated H2SO4.
Ans: i. Concentrated H2SO4 has great affinity toward water. If organic compounds containing hydrogen &
hydroxyl radicals [such as sugar or sucrose, C12H22O11] are added to conc. H2SO4 separates 11 molecules of
water from the sugar molecule, producing black carbon. The water thus released is absorbed by the
concentrated H2SO4 behind.
C12H22O11 (s) +11H2SO4 (conc.)  12 C(s) + H2SO4 . 11H2O(l)
Sugar Hydrated H2SO4
ii. Ethyl alcohol is dried by concentrated H2SO4 to produce ethene (C2H4)
C2H5OH(l) +H2SO4(conc.)  C2H4(g) +H2SO4 . H2O
Ethyl alcohol ethene mono hydrate H2SO4
Q-23 c: Why HNO3 acid or conc. H2SO4 is not used for the production of H2S gas from FeS instead of dilute
H2SO4 or HCl acid?
Ans: In the laboratory H2S can be produced by reacting H2SO4 or HCl with FeS, but it cannot be produced using
FeS & HNO3. This is because the while H2S is produced in the reaction between FeS & HNO3, the H2S gas (which
has a reducing tendency) to be oxidized by the HNO3 (which has an oxidizing tendency) in order to produce
sulphur & water. The HNO3 becomes reduced to form water & nitric oxide, NO. On the other hand, diluted H2SO4
or HCl has no oxidizing properties.
FeS(s) + 2HNO3 (l)  Fe(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(g)
3H2S(g) + 2HNO3  4H2O(l) + 2NO(g) + 3S(s)
Reductant Oxidant
Q-24: What is Halogen?
Ans: The elements of group-17 in periodic table F, Cl, Br and I, At and Ts are these six elements together
are called halogen. The meaning of the word halogen is salt maker.
The main source of halogens is the sea salt. They themselves form di-atomic molecules by sharing
electrons.
Q-24a: What do you mean by pseudohalogen?
Ans: Two or more than two electronegative element connect each other to form a unique negative organic
group which behaves as halide ion. For example-Cyanide ion (CN-),Thiocyanite ion (SCN-),
Selenacyanate ion( SeCN-), Cyanate ion( OCN-) etc. Again some ions among these are available as
dimeric. These are Cyanogen [(CN)2], Thiocyanogen [(SCN)2], Selenocyanogen [Se(CN)2],
Azidocarbon disulphide [(SCSN3)2] behave as like as halogen molecule and hence these are
pseudohalogens.
Explain the Reaction of halogen with alkalis(Disproportion reaction)
Ans:
2NaOH+ Cl2 = NaCl + NaOCl + H2O (at 15C)
6NaOH + 3Cl2 = 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O (at 70C)

These reactions, where simultaneous oxidation and reduction of the same element takes place,
are called disproportion reaction.

Explain the bleaching action of chlorine.

Ans: Chlorine is an excellent bleaching agent. It bleaches by oxidation process. Chlorine reacts with
water forming nascent oxygen,[O] which can bleach the color of colorful objects, causing them to
become colorless. The reaction of chlorine and water occurs in two steps.

Cl2 + H2O = HCl+HOCl

HOCl = HCl + [O]
Cl2 + H2O  2HCl + [O]
Colored object + [O]  colorless objec

Q-24 d: What are inter halogen compound?

Ans: When odd number of lighter halogen connects with heavier halogen at necessary temperature and pressure,
di-elemental compound of inner halogen compound is formed.
If A is heavier halogen and B is lighter halogen, they form four types di-elemental compound such as –AB, AB3,
AB5 and AB7 connecting each other.
For example: BrF, BrCl, ClF, ClF3, ICl3, BrF3, BrF5, ClF5, IF5, IF7 etc. are inter halogen compound.
Due to the difference of electronegativity in halogens, such types of elemental compound is formed. Compound
formed by F and I is maximum due to maximum difference of electronegativity. All compounds are covalent,
volatile and explosive in nature.
Q-25: What is inert gas? Or, What is rare gas?
Ans: The elements of group-18 (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Ra & Og) in periodic table are called inert gas. As
their outermost energy level is filled with sufficient electrons, they do not show normally any tendency
to form compound by accepting, donating or by sharing electrons. That means, they remain inactive to
form bonds or to take part in chemical reactions.
Q-26: Why are the inert gases chemically inert? / Why the inert gases are mono atomic?
Ans: The reason for the inertness of the inert gasses is their electronic configuration. The electronic
configurations of the inert gases are given below.
He (2) : 1s2
Ne (10) : 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ar (18) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Kr (36) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Xe (54) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6
Rn (86) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 6p6
Og(118) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14 6s2 6p6 6d10 7s2 7p6
It is seen from the above electronic configurations that all inert elements except helium have eight
electrons at their valence shell. Atomic number of He is 2. Due to the existence of one sublevel (s) at the
1st principal energy level, its valence shell is filled with two electrons, which is the stable configuration
for He. The two 2 electrons of He and 8 electrons of the other inert gases at the valence shell provide the
stable conditions. Because of such stable arrangement of electrons the inert gases not show any tendency
to form bond by accepting (due to zero electron affinity), donating (due to highly ionization potential)
or by sharing electrons (due to stable electronic configuration). That is why inert gases are chemically
inert and they are mono atomic.

Q-26 a: What is Clatherate compound?

iii. Clatherate compound formation:

In 1950 H.M. Powel showed that certain organic and
inorganic compounds have a lattice structure with gaps,
in which compounds of inert gases get trapped. These
are clatherate. For instance, when quinol / dihydroxy
benzene in water or alcohol is crystallized in the
presence of large molecule of argon, krypton and xeon,
at 10-40 atm form clatherate compounds. One of such
clatherate compounds, argon triquinol, has the formula
Ar [C6H4(OH)2]3. The diameter of the circular area of
the gap in quinol lattic is 0.4 nm. Clatherates of water,
methanol etc. have same shape.
 HW-3.1: 1. Explain the reason for the similarities in property between Li and Mg.
2. Al2O3 is an amphoteric oxide-explain.
3. Why CO2 is more stable than CO? Explain.
4. Why Cu2O is more stable than CuO in aqueous solution? Explain.
5. Compound PCl5 is possible but NCl5 is not possible- explain.
6. Explain the nature of oxides of nitrogen.
7. What will happen when P2O5 reacts with cold water & hot water separately?
8. Explain the dehydrating property of P2O5
9. Interconvert in between white & red phosphorus.
10. The valency of O is fixed (2) but the valency of S is variable (2,4, 6)- explain.
11. Compound OF6 is not possible but SF6 is possible-explain.
12. SF6 is possible but SCl6 is not possible-explain.
13. Cu does not react with dil. H2SO4 but it reacts with conc. H2SO4-why?
14. H2S can reduce only but SO2 can both oxidize and reduce-explain.
15. Valency of F is fixed but valency of Cl is variable-explain.
16. Normally chlorine is gaseous but iodine is solid-explain why?
17. IF7 is possible but ICl7 is not possible-explain.
18. Arrange according to strength of acid: HF, HCl, HBr, HI
19. Inert gases react with only F and O; explain with example.
20. Mention the molecular structures of xenon fluorides.
Q-27: Mention the general properties of d-block elements.
Ans:
■All the d-block elements are heavy metals.
■Except group-12 elements, other d-block elements have partially filled d-orbital and most of them have
variable oxidation number.
■d-block metals have high melting point and high boiling point.
For example tungsten (W) has the highest m.p. (34100C) in 5d-block and highest for Mo (26170C) in 4
d-block and for V (18900C) in 3d-block.
■These d-block metals are hard and strong (except liquid mercury, Hg (melting point is -38.840C)
■d-block elements are good conductors of heat and electricity.
■The ionization energy of d-block element is higher than that of s-block element; but lower than that of
p-block element.
■d-block metals are less electropositive than s-block metals.
■Most of the d-block metals are paramagnetic, that is they are attracted by magnetic field; the reason is
that they contain unpaired electron is d-orbital. Iron and cobalt can be magnetized; hence they are called
ferromagnetic metals. [Exception: Sc3+, Ti4+, Zn2+, Cu+ ions]
■Most of the d-block metals can form good metals alloys.
 Selected Questions on d-block & Transitional metal

Q-28: What is transition element? All transition elements are d- block but all d-block elements are not
transition element-explain
Ans: Those d-block elements which have at least one stable ion with partial filled d-orbital
(like d1-9) are called transition metals.
For example iron, Fe (26) is both d-block element and transition metal. Firstly the last electron of Fe
atom enters into d-orbital; secondly its stable Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions contain partially filled d-orbitals.
Their electronic configurations are as follows:
Fe (26)→1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d6 4s2 [d-block element]
Fe2+ (26) →1s22s22p63s23p63d6 [Transition metal ions with partially filled d-orbitals]
Fe3+ (26) →1s22s22p63s23p63d5 [Transition metal ions with partially filled d-orbitals]
Zn (30)→ 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s2 [d-block element]
Zn2+(30)→ 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 [ Not a transition ion because fully filled d- orbital]
Sc(21)→ 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d1 4s2 [d-block element]
Sc 3+(21)→ 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 [not transitional ]
Cu (29)→ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s [d-block element]
2 2 6 2 6 10 1

Cu+(29)→ 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 [Not Transition metal ion]

Cu2+(29)→ 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d9 [Transition metal ion]
It can be said that all transition elements are d- block but all d-block elements are not transition element-
explain
Q-29: Mention the characteristic properties of transition elements.
Ans : Transition elements have the following characteristic properties:
1) Show variable oxidation states
2) Formation of colored ion/colored compound
3) Formation of complex ion/ complex compound
4) Have catalytic action
5) Have paramagnetic property.

Q-30: Why the transition elements are called transition?

Ans: Transition metal are called transition because they are capable of exhibiting stable variable
oxidation states, since the nd-sub shell of ions of these elements are partially filled. Thus they can change
their states i.e. colors. The colors of the compounds change as their oxidation numbers changes. For
example,
Fe2+ (Green) Fe3+ (Brownish yellow)
Mn4+ (Black) Mn6+ (Dark green) Mn7+ (Pink)
Q-31: Transitional metals show variable valency/ oxidation number. Explain.
Ans: The general electronic structure of 3d-block elements is [18Ar] 3d1-10 4s1-2. The energy difference
between 4s and 3d orbital electrons is very small and it is much less than that between 3s and 3p orbital
electrons. So transition elements can form bond using 4s as well as 3d-orbital electrons. Thus these
elements show variable valency and oxidation states.
For example: Chromium shows +2, +3 and +6 oxidation number in different compounds. Manganese
shows +2, +3, +4, +6 and +7 oxidation number. Iron shows +2 and +3 oxidation number in its
compounds.
Compounds of Cr : Cr+2Cl2 Cr+3Cl3 K2Cr+6O4 K2Cr2+6O7
Compounds of Mn : Mn+2Cl2 Mn2+3O3 Mn+4O2 K2Mn+6O4 KMn+7O4
Compounds of Fe : Fe+2Cl2 Fe+3Cl3
The transition elements form different ions by the removal of 4s-orbital electrons first, then by removal
of 3d orbital’s electrons.

Q-32a: Transition metals show colored compound-explain why?

Ans: Transition metal atom or ion contains five d-orbitals of equal energy. This is called degenerate state
of d-orbitals. But during the formation of complex ion, when the ligands with their lone pair electrons
come closer to these d-orbitals of metal ion then ligand’s lone pair electrons forcibly compel the unpaired
electrons in 3d-orbitals to be paired up by rearranging them. This repulsive force causes five d-orbitals
to be divided into two groups with a little energy difference (ΔE). This is called non-degenerate state of
d-orbitals.

Thus there is a change in energy (ΔE). If this required energy change equals to particular band of visible
light then the unpaired electron or electrons absorb that band of light with same wave lengths. The
complementary color of visible light reflects to our eyes. Thus that transition metal ion gets color
complementary to absorbed color. When prime green color is absorbed then the solution of transition
metal ions becomes purple (mixture of red and blue). If prime blue color is absorbed then color of solution
of transition ions becomes orange (mixture of red and green).

Q-32b: Define Complex ion, Ligand, Spectrochemical series, Oxidation number, Coordination
number & Chelation
Ans: Complex ion: The ion (cation or anion) which is formed by ligand and transition metal atoms or
ions is called complex ion. For example: Tetra ammine copper (II) ion, [Cu(NH3)4]2+, Hexacyano ferrate
(II) ion. [Fe(CN)6]4- etc. are complex ion.
Ligand:The negative ions and neutral molecules which supply lone pair electrons to transitional metal
or metal ion during the formation of complex ion or compound is called ligand. For example, in
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ ion, NH3 acts as ligand.
Types of ligand: Based on no. of electron donating capacity ligands are three types:
i) Monodentrate ligand: Donate only one lone pair electron. Ex. NH3, H2O, NO, CO, OH-, NO2-,
CN-, SCN- etc.
ii. Bidentrate ligand: Donate two lone pair electron. Ex. NH2-CH2-CH2-NH2, NH2-CH2-CH2-COO-,
-
OOC-CH2-CH2-COO- etc.
iii. Polydentrate ligand: Donate more than two lone pair. Ex. EDTA (Ethelenediamine tetraacetate ion)
Based on charge ligands are two types:
i) Neutral ligand: NH3, H2O, NO, CO, C6H5N, NH2-CH2-CH2-NH2 etc.
ii) Negative charged ligand: Cl-,OH-, NO2-,CN-, SCN- ,-OOC-CH2-CH2-COO- etc.
Based on energy ligands are two types:
i) Strong field ligand: NH3,CO, NC-, CN-, EDTA, ethelene diamine etc.
ii) Weak field ligand: OH-, F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, C2O4 2-, H2O, SO42-, SCN- etc.
Spectrochemical series: The list of ligand which is prepared by increasing order of energy is called
spectrochemical series.
I-<Br-<SCN-<Cl-<S2-<F-<OH-<C2O42-<H2O<EDTA4-<NH3<en<CN-<CO
Oxidation number: Oxidation number of an atom may be defined as number of positive or negative
charge developed in atoms due to the displaced the electrons in a compound. For example, Oxidation
number of Na in NaCl is + 1 and oxidation number of Cl in NaCl is -1. Oxidation number may be positive,
negative, fractional and even zero.
Coordination number: In complex compound or ion, the total numbers of lone pair electrons by
which ligand are coordinated to the central metal atom or ion are called the coordination number of that
ligand in that ion or compound. For example: Coordination number of NH3 ligand in [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is 4.
Coordination number of CN- ligand in [Fe(CN)6]4- is 6.

Chelation: Chelation is a type of bonding of ions and molecules to metal ions. It involves the
formation or presence of two or more separate coordinate bonds between a bidentrate (two bonded) or
polydentrate (multiple bonded) ligand and a single central atom.

Q-33: Transition metal can form complex ion-explain.

Ans: The transition metal atoms or ions form coordinate bonds with their vacant d-orbitals and lone pairs
of electrons supplied by neutral molecules or negative ions known as ligand forming compounds or ions
with complex structures. These coordinated metal-ligand ions are called complex ions. The compound
containing complex ion is called complex compound. Common ligands are neutral molecules:
and negative ions etc.
 H can form coordinate bonds with Cu2+ ion to form a
■Neutral molecule with lone pair electrons like N 3

positive complex in called tetraammine copper (II) ion, [Cu(NH3)4]2+.

■Again negative cyanide ion (CN-) can form coordinate bonds with Fe2+ ion to form a negative complex
ion called hexacyano ferrate (II) ion. [Fe(CN)6]4-.

Q-33: Formation of [Ni(CN)4]2- and [Cu(NH3)4]2-

Ans: Hybridization of [Ni(CN)4]2- is dsp2 and its shape is square planar.
Ni2+ (28) → 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s04p0

[Cu(NH3)4]2+ ion is paramagnetic that means Cu2+ ion has unpaired electron and according to X-ray
experiment its shape is square planar which can be understood by the following electronic configuration.

Note: Both dsp2 and sp2d hybridization form the same shape which is square planar. [Cu(NH3)4]2+ ion
undergoes sp2d hybridization but not dsp2 hybridization. It can be explained as follow:

If the unpaired electron of 3d-sub-shell is promoted to 4p sub-shell it may undergo dsp2 hybridization.
But 4p sub shell is less stable than that of 3d-sub-shell. As a result electron from 4p-sub-shell can be
released easily. So Cu2+ ion should be converted to Cu3+ ion. But actually there is no existence of Cu3+
ion. So, the unpaired electron from 3d sub shell is not transferred to 4p that means dsp2 is not possible in
[Cu(NH3)4]2+.

Q-34: Transition metal is used as catalyst- explain with taking an example.

Ans: Transition metals and their compounds act as catalyst. There are two theories for explanation of
catalytic activity of transitional metals:
 i. Catalysis through adsorption and ii. Catalysis with intermediate compound formation.
Catalysis through adsorption:
The production of alkane from alkene, Ni is used as catalyst. Here adsorption catalysis is occurred.
Ni
CH 2  CH 2  H 2 H 3C  CH3
200  C
The catalytic activity of transition elements is connected with incomplete d-orbital. The reactants (H2)
are adsorbed on the surface of the metal. Due to adsorption hydrogen atoms become loose and the loose
H atom (H+) becomes attached to carbon atom of the alkene and the other part (H-) finally attaches to the
other carbon resulting the product formation at accelerated rate.

Q-35: Transition metals have magnetic property. Explain.

Ans: Paramagnetic substances are weakly attracted by a magnetic field. Any species with an unpaired
electron is paramagnetic because there is a magnetic moment associated with the spinning electron.
Transition metal ions that have unpaired d electrons are paramagnetic. The greater the number of
unpaired electrons, the more paramagnetic is the ion. The metals, iron, cobalt and nickel are
ferromagnetic, that is, they are strongly attracted to a magnetic field.
Electron has two kinds of motion. One is rotation motion around its own axis and anther one is spin
motion of electron. For this both motion, magnetic field is produced. Actually every electron has a
definite amount of magnetic moment. The magnetic moment of any substance is the summation of total
motion of electron.
Magnetic moment, µ = √𝑛 (𝑛 + 2) BM Here, n = the numbers of odd electrons (1BM = 1 Bohr
Megneton = 9.274 × 10–24 J/T)

Q-36: Mention the general properties of f- block elements.

Ans: Of the periodic table, f-block elements’ atoms have their fully filled up outermost ns2 orbital; but
their last electron enters into (n-2)f orbital, keeping unfilled (n-1)d orbital. The basic cause of this is the
very close up difference in energy levels between d-orbital and f-orbital.
f-block elements are divided into two series;
(i) Lanthanide series or Lanthanoids and (ii) Actinide series or Actinoids.
Properties of Lanthanoids:
1) Lanthanoids are heavy metals. These metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
2) These metals have higher density, higher melting points and boiling points.
3) The ionisation energy of each lanthanoid metal is lower than that of d-block element. So these metals
are more electropositive.
4) The f-block metals contain inner transition metals, these inner-transition metals have colored ions and
can form complex ions or compounds.
5) The prime and more stable oxidation state of the metals of lanthanide series is +3. Yet +2 and +4
oxidation numbers are also shown by some of the lanthanoids; For example, Eu2+ (4f7), Tb4+ (4f7)
6) The Lanthanide metals can resist UV-rays and IR-rays both. So different metal oxides of Lanthanoids
are used in making goggles used as sunglass or for welding works.
7) The size of the trivalent ion (M3+) of Lanthanide metal decreases gradually from La to Lu.
Properties of Actinide:
1) Actinide metals are radioactive elements.
2) Actinide metals have very much high density.
3) These metals have high melting points and high boiling points.
4) Actinide metals are more electropositive. They show +3, +4, +5, +6 oxidation numbers. The ionization
energy of each actinide metal is low.
5) Actinide metals become fade in color in contact with air and become less reactive.
6) As very fine particles, actinide metals become very active. They react with water and dilute acid to
produce H2 gas.
7) Alkalis have no effect on actinide metals. Their compounds are more basic in character.
8) Thoria (ThO2) and Ceria (CeO2), as fine particles, are used in car head-light and as search light of
marine ship and railway engine.
9) These metals show the formation of complex compound.
Selected Questions on f-block elements

Q-37a: What is Lanthanide Contraction? Describe the causes of Lanthanide Contraction.

Ans: ■The size of the trivalent ion (M3+) of Lanthanide metal decreases gradually from La to Lu, this
decreasing tendency of the Lanthanide metal ionic radii is known as ‘Lanthanide contraction’.

■ Lanthanoids common electron distribution is 4f2-14 5s2 5p6 5d0-1 6s2. With the increase of atomic number
of the elements, the additional electron enters the 4f-sub-shell but not into the valence shell namely sixth
shell. The shielding of one electron in 4f sub-shell by another in the same sub-shell (i.e. shielding effect
of 4f-electrons) is very little, being even smaller than that of d-electrons, because the shape of f-orbitals
is very much diffused. This causes a decrease in the size of the 4f- sub-shell from La to Lu-atoms due to
decreasing of shielding effect.
The tendency of electrons of the inner orbitals to shield the outermost electrons from nuclear charge
is called shielding effect. The order of shielding effect of inner orbitals electrons is
s >p>d>f. Shielding effect ↓ atomic size ↓

Q-37b: Mention some uses of compound of f-block element.

Ans: The Lanthanide metals can resist UV-rays and IR-rays both. So different metal oxides of
Lanthanoids are used in making goggles used as sunglass or for welding works.
Thoria (ThO2) and Ceria (CeO2), as fine particles, are used in car head-light and as search light of
marine ship and railway engine.
HW-3.2:
1. ‘All d-block elements are not transitional but all transitional elements are d-block’- explain.
2. Why the melting point of 3d series elements increases with the increase of atomic number but
suddenly decreases at Cr and Mn?
3. Explain the stability of Cu+ and Cu2+ ion in different condition.
4. Explain the formation of ion / compound and mention the magnetic property :
[Fe(CN)6]4-, [Fe(CN)6]3-,[FeF6]4-,[Co(NH3)6]3+, [CoF6]3-, [Ni(H2O)6]2+, [Ni(CN)4]2-, [Ni(CO)4]
5. What is the magnetic moment in BM of Fe2+, Fe3+, Cr3+ & Cu2+ ion.
 Chemistry 1st Paper  Periodic properties of elements: Melting and
Chapter: 03 (Periodic Properties of Elements boiling point, Atomic and ionic size, Ionization
and Chemical Bonding) potential, Electron affinity, Electronegtivity,
Lecture: 3/7 – 3/14 Acidic properties of oxides of period 2 & 3
 Exam No. 3/2 elements

Q-38: What is Periodic Properties of elements or periodicity? Mention some periodic properties.
Ans: ■Most of the physical properties and all chemical properties of elements depend on their outermost
electronic configurations or valence electrons. Since the electronic configurations of outermost orbits of elements
become similar after some definite intervals 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32 in the atomic umbers, hence properties of
elements similarly repeat themselves. So those similar properties of elements are called periodic properties and
the phenomenon is known as periodicity.
■Some periodic properties of the elements such as Melting point and boiling point, Atomic size ,Valency,
Ionization energy, Electron affinity, Electronegativity, Metallic property of the elements, Nature of oxide etc
Q-39: How does melting point and boiling point change along group and period in periodic table?
Ans: ■In a group, the atomic size of every element increases with the increase of atomic number and electron
density in valence-shell decreases. As a result, metallic bond attraction decreases. Hence the melting point of
alkali metal decreases gradually with increase of their atomic number. But the atomic size of Li atom is
comparatively smaller and its metallic bond is comparatively strong than others. For this reason, melting point
and boiling point of Li are higher than those of other alkali metals.
Melting Point and Boiling Point of Group-1 Metals:
Metal Li Na K Rb Cs
o
Melting Point, C 180.5 97.7 63.3 39.3 28.4
o
Boiling Point, C 1342 883 759 688 678.4
■In a same period, melting point and boiling point of different elements show no regular change. For example,
the melting and boiling points of the elements of 3rd period are as follows:
Melting Points and Boiling Points of the Elements of 3rd Period:
Element→ Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
o
Melting point, C 97.8 649 660 1410 44 112.8 -101 -189.2
o
Boiling point, C 883 1090 2519 2355 280 444.67 -34.6 -185.7
■From sodium to aluminum, metallic bond is present. In sodium crystal, Na+ ions are present, the size of sodium
ion is large and only one mobile electron attracts this Na+ ion with a weak binding. For this to melt the crystalline
structure needs only a small heat energy for sodium metal: hence melting point of Na is lower. In crystal of Mg
metal double charge Mg2+ ion has two mobile electrons and triple charge Al3+ ion has three mobile electrons.
These metal ions have much attraction on these mobile electrons. For this reason, strength of metallic bond
increases with the increase of melting point and boiling point of those metals.

■In silicon crystal, giant molecule is present, in which Si-Si bonds form three dimensional networks. Here much
heat energy is required to break those Si-Si bonds during the melting of silicon crystals. Hence melting point and
boiling point of silicon are very much higher.

■Next element is phosphorus which exists as white phosphorus allotrope, P4 molecule. This molecule is covalent
in nature. Van der Waals force exists as intermolecular force among these covalent molecules. So phosphorus has
low melting and low boiling points.

■Next element is sulphur which exists as octa-atomic molecule, S8. The nonmetal sulphur atoms form covalent
bonds among themselves. Here also weak Vander Waals force exists among the sulphur molecules. Hence melting
point and boiling point of sulphur are lower but higher than phosphorus molecule.

■Chlorine molecule is diatomic. These diatomic mlecules are purely covalent and nonpolar. So chlorine
molecules remain attracted by weak Vander Waals force. For this Cl 2 remains as gas and its melting point and
boiling point are lower than 0oC, having negative value like -101oC and -34.6oC.
Q-40: Define atomic radius. Classify atomic radius. How does atomic size change along group and period in
periodic table?
Ans: ■For the comparison of atomic size of different elements, generally atomic radius which is the distance
between the atomic nucleus and outer most electron shell, is considered. Practically determination of atomic
radius is very difficult; because the distance of outermost electron cloud from the atomic nucleus is uncertain.
■Depending on the nature of the different elements, their atomic sizes are expressed in two ways:
Covalent Radius: Half of the distance between the nuclei of two same atoms bonded together by a single covalent
bond is called covalent radius of the atom of that element, The covalent radius is considered as the atomic radius.
The sum of covalent radius of two atoms is considered as the bond length of molecule formed by the related two
atoms.

In diamond, inter nuclei distance of carbon atoms (C-C bond distance) is calculated as 0.154 nm or 154 pm by X-
ray diffraction expt. So covalent radius of C-atom is half of that bond distance=0.154/2 nm=0.077 nm or 77 pm
(picometre). In Cl2 molecule the distance between two nuclei of Cl atoms of Cl-Cl bond length is 198 pm. So
atomic radius of Cl-atom is half of it 1982=99 pm.
Metallic Radius: The metal atoms are supposed to touch one another in the crystals. The metallic radius or crystal
radius is defined as one-half of the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent metal atoms is the metallic closed
packed crystal lattice. Metallic radius is 10-12% more than covalent radius. So; metallic bond is somewhat weaker
than that of covalent bond.
The internuclear distance between two adjacent Na atoms in its crystal is 372 pm. So metallic radius of Na-atom
372
is pm = 186 pm.
2

To get comparative idea, covalent radii and metalli radii of group-1A elements are cited below:
Covalent radius (pm) Li 123 Na 157 K 203 Rb 216 Cs 235
Metallic radius (pm) Li 152 Na 186 K 227 Rb 248 Cs 263
■Periodic Relation: In a period, with the increase of atomic number, in each atom of every different elements
one electron is added one by one in different atoms without change of energy level. As a result effective nuclear
charge (Zeff) increases, and outermost valence electrons are attracted more by the nucleus. So atomic size decrease
in a period from left to right. We should remember that inner-shell electrons pushed away the outer most electrons
from the nucleus. That is outermost electrons are shielded from the nucleus by the inner electrons. The nuclear
charge actually felt by an electron is called effective nuclear charge, Zeff. Hence effective nuclear charge is
substantially lower than the actual nuclear charge, Z.
 Effective nuclear charge, Zeff = Zactual - Electron shielding.
The relative atomic radii of different elements in picometer (pm) are shown in table.

Group Relation: In a group, from up to down with the increase of atomic number, new energy level or orbit is
added for accommodation of electrons. As a result, atomic radius of every atom increases. For example atomic
radius of Li=152 pm, that of Na = 186 pm, that of K = 227 pm, Rb= 248 pm and Cs = 265 pm.
Q-41: Valency of an Atom is a periodic property- explain.
Ans: The valency of an atom is its capacity to combine with other atoms for the formation of new compound.
Valency of an atom is expressed in to units such as H-scale valency and O-scale valency.
Combining capacity of an atom with H-atom is called H-valency of the element and combining capacity of an
atom with O-atom is called O-valency of that element. The outermost total electrons of the atoms of Group-1 to
Group-4 elements represents the valency of each element; hence outermost total electrons of an atom is called
Valence electron. Again from Group-5 to Group-7, the H-scale of valency of different elements decreases
gradually but O-scale valency of those elements increases. The valency of different elements of 3rd period to form
oxide and hydride are shown in Table.
 Valency of the elements of 3rd period as per O-scale and H-scale
Compounds Gr-1 Gr-2 Gr-3 Gr-4 Gr-5 Gr-6 Gr-7
(i) Oxide formation: Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
Valency of atom [O-scale based] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(ii) Hydride formation: Valency of NaH MgH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2 S HCl
atom [H. scale based] 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
Valence number = Valence number = [8-Total
Outermost electron valence electron]
number of an atom
Q-42: What is ionisation energy?What is 2nd ionisation energy? How does ionisation energy change along
group and period in periodic table?
Ans: ■The amount of energy necessary to remove one mole of electrons from outermost orbit from a mole of
gaseous atoms of an element in its ground state to form a mole of unipositive ions is called ionisatin energy of
that element, abbreviated by Ei.
Ionisation energies differ widely from a low value of 375.7 kJ / mol for Caesium to a high value of 2372.3 kJ/mol
for Helium.
Na (g)→ Na+(g)+e- Ei = + 496 kJ/mol
K (g) → K (g) + e
+ -
Ei = + 419 kJ/mol
Mg (g) → Mg (g) + e
+ -
Ei = + 738 kJ /mol
■The amount of energy necessary to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of unipositive gaseous ions
to from double positive one mole gaseous ions is called second ionisation energy of that element.
The second ionisation energy is always higher than that of the first ionisation energy.
For example:
Mg+ (g) → Mg2+ (g) + e- Ei2 = +1450 kJ / mol
■In a group, with the increase of atomic number of the elements, energy level of the electrons also increases and
outermost electron level gradually goes apart from nucleus decreasing the attraction of nucleus on electron level.
So ionisation energy decreases.
For example:
Li = 520 kJ; Na = 496 kJ; Rb = 403 kJ; Cs = 376 kJ
■In a period, with the increase of atomic number of the elements, energy level of the electrons remains same,
only sub-energy levels increase. As a result, the distance of outermost electrons does not increase but reduce a
little. Besides this, the attraction of nucleus, with more nuclear charge, also increases on outermost electrons.
That’s why, more energy is necessary to remove electron. It is clear that in any period, the element of group-1
has lowest ionisation energy and inert gas member has highest ionisatin energy.
Ionisation energies of elements of 2nd period.
2nd Period Li(3) Be(4) B(5) C(6) N(7) O(8) F(9) Ne(10)
Elements
Ionisation E1 520 899 800 1086 1402 1314 1681 2080
energy E2 7297 1757 2426 2352 2855 3388 3375 3963
-1
(kJmol ) E3 11,810 14,845 3659 4714 4576 5296 6045 6130

Q-43: Mention the factors that affect on ionisation energy.

Ans: Factors effecting on Ionisation energy:
i. Atomic Size: The size of an atom is mainly understood from the value of principal quantum number (n). The
sizes of the different atoms will be increased with the increase of the values of ‘n’. With the increasing values of
n the atomic nuclear attraction on the valence electrons is gradually decreased. As a result, the ionisation energy
of the atom decreases. Hence in a group grow up to down wards, the ionisation energies of the elements decrease
gradually. For example, in group-1, the ionisation energies of the alkali metals decrease gradually with the
increase of their atomic numbers as follows:
Li= 530 kJ, Na = 496 kJ, K= 418 kJ, Rb = 403 kJ, Cs = 376 kJ
ii. Magnitude of nuclear charge: Ionisation enthaply increases with increase in nuclear charge and vice-versa.
This is due to fact that the force of attraction between the valence electron (to be removed) and the nucleus
increases with increases in the nuclear charge provided that the outermost electronic shell remains the same.
iii. shielding effect or screening effect: The electrons in between the outermost shell and the nucleus i.e. the core
electrons have a shielding effect on the attraction between the nucleus and external electrons. This shielding effect
is just opposite of the attractive force. Higher is the shielding effect (more core electrons), lower will be the value
of ionization energy.
iv. Effect of Subshells on Ionization Energy: In a period for the electron distributions of the different atoms of
different elements, the value of principal quantum number or the orbit (n) remains same; but their valence
electrons remain distributed in different subshells (s,p,d,f). In a period with the increase of atomic number of the
elements position charge increases in the atomic nucleus. Then nuclear attraction on the p-orbital remains more
than s-orbital. Similarly nuclear attraction on d-orbital remains still more that p-orbital and s-orbital. In these
cases ionization energies of the elements with different subsells containing valence electrons are as follows: f-
subshell> d-subshell>p-subshell>s-subshell.
5. Effect of Electron Configurations on Ionization Energy: When the electron configuration of an atom
contains half- filled or fully filled degenerate orbitals (such as s2 , p3, d5 or p6, d10), then that atom gets more stable
electron configuration. In those cases, to remove one electron from valence shell needs more energy. So the values
of ionisation energies related to the different subshells are in the following gradational order. fully filled sub-
shell>half filled sub-shell>partially filled sub-shell.
Q-44: The I.P. of boron is less than that of beryllium-explain.
Ans: The reason behind these deviations is their electronic distributions. The half-filled and fully filled orbitals
of atoms are more stable. The electronic configurations of Be (4) and B (5) are as follows:
Be (4) → 1s22s2 IP =899 kJ / mol
B (5) → 1s22s2 2p1x 2p 0y 2p 0z IP =800 kJ/ mol
Here less energy is needed to remove one electron from boron atom, because after then a stable electronic
configuration like 1s22s2 is achieved. On the other hand the electronic configuration of beryllium is 1s22s2; which
is stable due to fully filled 2s orbital. To remove one electron from Be-atom more energy is needed, because then
the stable 2s2 configuration is broken down. For this reason, the ionisation energy of beryllium is more than
normally expected value and it is more than that of boron.
Q-45: The I.P of oxygen is l produce one mole uninegative gaseous ions, is called the electron affinity of that
element; abbreviated by Eea.
Electron affinities, however, are generally negative, because energy is usually released when a neutral atom adds
an electron.
F (g) + e- → F- (g) Eea= -328 kJ / mol
Cl (g) + e →Cl (g) Eea= -349 kJ/mol
- -

■Electron affinity of elements is periodic property:

Periodic relation: From left to right in a period as atomic number increases the electron affinity increases.
Because when the atomic number increases then nuclear charge increases. So the nucleus has more and more
attraction on the incoming electron. However this trend is not valid for the last member of the period which is an
inert gas.
Group relation: In a group from top to bottom the electron affinity of elements decreases gradually. Because
with the increase of atomic number in a group new electron orbit is added hence the atomic radius also increases.
So the attraction of the nucleus on the incoming electron decreases.
However there are a few deviations notably in the 2nd period. For example fluorine should have maximum electron
affinity among the halogens; but its electron affinity is less than that of chlorine. So order of electron affinity of
halogens is: Cl > F > Br > I
Q-48: Mention the factors that affect on electron affinity.
Ans: i. Effective Nuclear charge: As the effective nuclear charge (Z*) increases, the force of attraction between
the nucleus and the incoming electron increases and hence the numerical magnitude of electron affinity enthalpy
of carbon increases. Thus, the numerical magnitude of electron affinity enthalpy of carbon (Z=6, IE=-122 kJ. mol-
1
) is greater than that of boron (Z=5, IE=-27 kJ.mol-1).
ii. Atomic size: As the size of the atom increases, the distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell (which
receives the incoming electron) increases. If effective nuclear charge (Z*) per electron at the periphery be more
or less the same of different species (e.g., in a group of representative elements), the force of attraction towards
the nucleus experienced by the electrons at the periphery is less for the larger species. Consequently, the numerical
magnitude of electron-affinity enthalpy decreases as the atomic size increases. Thus for representative elements,
the numerical magnitude of electron-affinity enthalpy decreases as the atomic number increases on moving down
a group.
iii. Nature of the orbital into which the new electron gets accommodation: The orbitals which can better
penetrate towards the nucleus are more suitable to accommodate the incoming electron. Thus the ease of
accommodation of the incoming electron follows the sequence ns>np>nd>nf, because the penetration effect of
different orbitals follows this sequence. So the numerical magnitude of electron affinity enthalpy decreases in the
sequence ns>np>nd>nf.
iv. Nature of the outer electronic configuration: If the atoms of an element bear an extra stability due to either
the half-filled or full-filled sub-shell in their outermost level, then the newly added electron creates a half-filled
or full-filled sub-shell, then the process is favoured. Thus some of the elements of Gr-IIA(ns2), Gr-IIB(n-1)d10ns2,
Group-VA (Ns2np3) and all the noble gas elements (ns2np6) have positive electron-affinity enthalpies. On the
other hand, elements of Gr-VIIA have very high electron-affinity enthalpy with negative sign because they can
attain inert-gas configuration by accepting one electron.
Q-49: Electron affinity of fluorine is less than that of chlorine-explain
Ans:
F is an element of 2nd orbit; it has 2s22p5 valence electrons.
Cl is an element of 3rd orbit; it has 3s23p5 valence electrons.
The outermost orbit of fluorine atom is second orbit and that of chlorine is third orbit, In both cases seven valence
electrons are present.
The size of the 2nd orbit is small, hence the seven electrons cloud density in this orbit is high. The electrons of the
2nd orbit repel the incoming electron strongly. Hence the electron affinity of fluorine decreases.
On the other hand, the comparatively large third orbit of chlorine atom can accommodate its seven valence
electrons easily.
Hence electron cloud density in Cl atom is normal. So incoming electron is attracted by Cl nucleus is more. Hence
electron affinity of Cl atom is higher than that of F atom.

Q-50: Why does nitrogen have a less favorable (more positive) Eea than its neighbors on its left and right side,
C and O?
Ans:The electron configurations of C, N, O are as follows:
C (6) →1s22s2 2p1x 2p1y 2p0z

N(7) → 1s22s2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z

O(8) → 1s22s2 2p 2x 2p1y 2p1z

Carbon has only two electrons in its 2p subshell and can readily accept another in its vacant 2pz orbital. Nitrogen,
however, has a half-filled 2p subshell, so the additional electron must pair up in a 2p orbital wher it feels a
repulsion from the electron already present. Thus, the Eea of nitrogen is less favorable than that of carbon.
Oxygen also must add an electron to an orbital that already has one electron, but the additional stabilizing effect
of increases Zeff across the periodic table c counteracts the effect of electron repulsion, resulting in a more
favourable Eea for O than for N.

Q-51: First electron affinity is exothermic but second electron affinity is endothermic-explain.
Ans: The change of energy due to the addition of 1 mole negative charged ion of an element with 1 mole electron
is said to be the 2nd electron affinity of that element.
X- (g) + e- → X2- (g); H2 = 2nd electron affinity
Work has to be done to bring another electrons to a negative ion. Therefore 2nd, 3rd electron affinity of that element
will be positive.
O (g) +e-→ O-(g); H1= - 141 kJ mol-1
O-(g) +e-→O2- (g); H2= + 798 kJ mol-1

After addition, O (g) +2e- → O2- (g); H= + 657 kJ mol-1

Q-51: What is electronegativity? It is a Periodic properties-explain. Explain the effect of different factors on
electronegativity.
Ans: ■Electronegativity of an atom in a molecule is defined as its relative tendency (or ability or power) to attract
the shared electron pair towards itself in a covalent bond.
■Group wise relation of electronegativity: In the same group of a periodic table, if the atomic number increases,
then value of electronegativity decreases. The reason behind this is that, in every group, with the increase of
atomic number, new energy shell is added and the size of atom increases.
As a result, the shared electrons get gradually distracted from the nucleus and the affinity of nucleus over them
decreases. For example: in group 17 (VIIA) the electro negativity of the given atoms is as follows:
F = 4.0; Cl = 3.0; Br = 2.8; I = 2.2
Because of being in the extreme right of the 2nd period of periodic table and at the top of group 17 (VIIA), F is
the smallest and most reactive element. That is why, in molecules of covalent compounds, the affinity of nucleus
of Fluorine over the shared electrons is the highest. When means, the electro negativity of F is highest & according
to Pauling’s Scale, it’s value is 4.0.
■ In any period, if we move from left to right, the value of electronegativity increases. Because same period, if
atomic number of elements increases, no new energy shell is added, but the amount of negative charge of nucleus
increases and as a result, the attraction of nucleus towards outermost energy shell increases. So, the size of atom
gradually decreases. That is why in covalently bonded atoms, the attraction of nucleus over the shared electrons
gradually increases.
For example: the electronegativity of elements in the 2nd period (according to Allred and Rochow scale) is:
Li=1.0; Be= 1.5; B=2.0; C=2.5; N=3.0; O=3.5; F=4.0
■Effect of Different Factors on Electronegativity.
i. Size of atom: Electronegativity reduces if the size of atoms increases. Because, if the size of atoms increases,
the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electrons decreases. The force of attraction towards
the shared electrons in covalent bond also decreases. As a result, electronegativity decreases.
ii. Subshell: Electronegativity decreases if the number of subshells increases. Because, if the number of electrons
in subshells increases, the force of attraction of the nucleus with the outermost electrons, i.e. the electrons shared
in covalent bond reduces. This happens because the electrons located in the subshells prevent the nucleus from
attracting the outermost electrons. As a result, electronegativity is reduced.

Q-52: Describe the Acid-Base Properties of Oxides of 2nd & 3rd Period’s Elements.
Ans: ■ Li and Be of 2nd period, Na, Mg and Al of 3rd period are metals. With oxygen these elements form ionic
metal oxides by transfer of electrons. The metal oxides are basic in character. Again, from the left to right across
the period metallic properties decrease gradually and the last metal on the right side in a period metallic properties
of metal and nonmetal. These mixed properties of metal and nonmetal will be seen in oxide of Al-metal.
■ Again the nonmetals B, C, N of 2nd period have the values of electronegativity more than 2 and nonmetals Si,
P, S of 3rd period have the electronegativity values still more than those of 2nd period. So they form covalent
oxides by sharing of electrons.
Oxides of the elements of 2nd and 3rd periods with the increase of covalent character.
■Formation of Alkali and Acid by the Oxides of Elements of same Period with Water:
(1) By the reactions of oxides of different elements of a period with water proves the gradational change of basic
properties to acidic properties of those oxides. For example, Li2O of the metal of 2nd period, group-1, forms
soluble strong alkali lithium hydroxide (LiOH) with water and Na2O of the metal of 3rd period, group-1, forms
soluble strong alkali sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with water
Li2O(s) + H2O (l) →2LiOH(aq)→2Li+(aq)+2OH-(aq)
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)→2Na+(aq)+2OH-(aq)
(2) Beryllium oxide (BeO) of 2nd period and magnesium oxide of 3rd period of group-2 are water insoluble. They
do not react with water to form any alkali. But BeO reacts with acid and strong alkali solutions as an amphoteric
oxide to form salt and water. With strong NaOH solution BeO forms beryllate salt and water.
As base: BeO(s)+2HCl(aq)→BeCl2(aq) +H2O (l)
As acid: BeO(s)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2BeO2(aq)+H2O(l)
sodium beryllate
On the other hand; MgO of Mg metal of 3rd period is water insoluble and reacts with acid to form salt and water.
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq)→MgSO4(aq)+H2O (l)
(3) B2O3 and CO2 of elements of 2nd period are weak acidic; both the oxides react with water to form unstable
acids; and form salt and water with alkali. B2O3 form orthoboric acid with water and metaborate salt with alkali
like NaOH.
B2O3(s)+3H2O(l) → 2H3BO3(aq); H3BO3(aq) + NaOH(aq)→NaBO2(aq)+2H2O(l)
CO2(g)+H2O(l)→H2CO3(aq); H2CO3(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+2H2O(l)
(4) The two oxides, N2O3 and N2O5 of N element of 2nd period, are both acidic oxides. On reaction with water
N2O3 forms unstable nitrous acid (HNO2) but forms sodium nitrite (NaNO2) salt with NaOH solution. ON the
other hand, N2O5 reacts with water to form strong nitric acid (HNO3) and with NaOH it forms sodium nitrate salt
and water.
N2O3(g) +H2O(l) →2HNO2(aq)
HNO2(aq)+NaOH(aq) → NaNO2(aq)+H2O(l)
N2O5(s)+H2O(l) → 2HNO3(aq)
HNO3(aq)+NaOH(aq) →NaNO3(aq)+H2O(l)
(5) Al2O3 of metal Al, member of 3rd period, group-13, does not react with water; but it reacts separately with
acid and alkali to produce salt and water. Hence Al2O3 is an amphoteric oxide.
Al2O3 as a base: Al2O3 +6HCl→2AlCl3 + 3H2O
Al2O3 as an acid: Al2O3 + 2NaOH →2NaAlO2 + H2O
(6) Silicon dioxide (SiO2) does not react with water or acid; but it reacts with strong alkali to form silicate salt
and water.
SiO2(s)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2SiO3(aq)+H2O(l)
(7) Diphosphorus petaoxide (P2O5) reacts with water to form weak acid phosphoric acid (H3PO4). With an alkali
NaOH, it forms disodium phosphate and water. So P2O5 is an acidic oxide.
P2O5+3H2O→2H3PO4
P2O5+4NaOH→2Na2HPO4+H2O
Another oxide of phosphorus is P2O3 which reacts with water to form phosphorus acid (H3PO3)
P2O3+3H2O→2H3PO3
(8) Sulphur trioxide (SO3) reacts with water to form strong sulphuric acid (H2SO4). With alkali NaOH solution
SO3 reacts to form sulphate salt and water.
SO3+H2O →H2SO4
SO3+ 2NaOH→Na2SO4+H2O
Another oxide of sulphur is sulphur dioxide, (SO2) which reacts with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3).
With alkali (NaOH) solution, SO2 forms sodium sulphite salt and water.
SO2+H2O→H2SO3; SO2+2NaOH→Na2SO3+H2O
(9) Dichloroheptaoxide (Cl2O7) reacts with water to form perchloric acid (HClO4). With alkali Cl2O7 forms
perchlorate salt and water. Hence Cl2O7 is an acidic oxide.
Cl2O7+H2O→2HClO4; Cl2O7 + 2NaOH →2NaClO4+H2O
Note that metal oxide is basic; nonmetal oxide is acidic. It is the pH periodicity of the oxides of elements. So it is
established form the acid-base properties of the oxides of elements of 2nd and 3rd periods that going from left to
right across a period metallic property of the elements decreases gradually with the increases of non-metallic
property.

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