Madhvendra Jhala

AU2040162
Mechanical Properties and testing of Materials.
MRB Report.

Table of Contents:
1.) Introduction
2.) Classification of Materials
3.) Elastic Materials
4.) Plastic Materials
5.) Ductile Materials
6.) Brittle Materials
7.) Classification of Tests
8.) Actual test for the mechanical properties of Materials
9.) Tensile Test of a Mild Steel Specimen
10.) Working Stress
11.) Factor of Safety
12.) Barba’s Law and Unwin’s Formula
13.) Compression Test
14.) Impact Test
15.) Fatigue Test

1) Introduction:
The mechanical properties of a material are defined as the components of that
material that reacts when a load is applied on them. The most significant
characteristic defined by the mechanical property of the material is the ability
of that material to resist deformation. The mechanical properties of the
material are also useful in the determination of the usefulness of the material
and it also determines the life expectancy of the material. But it must be noted
that the mechanical properties of a material don’t remain constant and it
changes with certain conditions like when the material is heated at a high
temperature, or the material has been subjected to a high load, some of them
may even change when exposed to atmosphere. In the case of metal alloys
when it is kept below the room temperature, it leads to the increase in strength
of metallic alloys, whereas if the temperature is high above the room
temperature it leads to decrease in the strength of the metallic alloys.
 Similarly, many other factors leads to the change in the mechanical properties
of the metal.

List of mechanical properties of materials are as follows:

(1) Strength
(2) Elasticity
(3) Plasticity
(4) Hardness
(5) Toughness
(6) Brittleness
(7) Stiffness
(8) Ductility
(9) Malleability
(10) Cohesion
(11) Impact Strength
(12) Fatigue
(13) Creep

2.) Classification of Materials:

Materials are mainly classified into four groups. They are:
(i) Metals: The basic properties of metals are that, they have good
electrical and thermal conductivity and are malleable. Some of the
examples of metals are: Steel, Iron, Copper, Zinc etc.

(ii) Polymers: Polymers are defined as a class of natural or synthetic

materials which are prepared using multiples of simpler chemical units
called as monomers. Its examples are: Nylon, Polyethylene, Polyester
etc.
 (iii) Ceramics: Ceramics are non-metallic solids which are made-up of
metallic and non-metallic compounds and are also inorganic in nature,
which are given a particular shape and are then hardened by heating it
at a high temperature. So, that the ceramics become hard and their
application purpose could be served. dSome of its examples are: Clay,
bricks, tiles etc.

(iv) Composites: The composite materials are materials which are

prepared from the constituents of two or more materials. And these
materials in general have dissimilar physical and chemical properties
and hence are merged to create properties, unlike from the individual
elements. Its examples are: Fiberglass, Pykrete, Kevlar etc.

3.) Elastic Materials:

Elasticity is defined as the tendency of a material to get back to the
original shape after the external forces applied to the material are
stopped. And hence elastic materials are such kind of materials which
 return to their original shape after the forces are removed. These
materials have the ability to resist distortion, which would have
otherwise been caused due to the external forces. The elasticity of a
particular material is shown using a stress vs strain graph. The stress-
strain curve in general is non-linear but for very small deformations it
could be considered as a linear curve. Young’s modulus and Shear
modulus are useful in the measurement of the inherent elastic
properties of the solid materials, whereas the Bulk modulus is helpful
for the derivation of elastic properties of all the three states of matter,
viz. solid, liquid and gaseous. The most accurate method used for the
measurement of modulus of elasticity are based on the techniques of
measurement of supported rod’s vibrational frequency and also on the
measured value of the speed of sound inside the material.

4.) Plastic Materials: Plastic materials are synthetically produced

compounds (i.e., human made) and are prepared from repetition of small
pieces(monomers) to form a long chain known as polymers. The spaces that
are left in the chains after the formation are filled with atoms such as
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and hydrogen. As the evolution of the plastic
materials took place, it became one of the marvellous discoveries due to its
properties such as, pliability, malleability and durability. Plastic materials
are used in the preparation of various products such as medical stents,
eyewear, sportswear etc.

5.) Ductile Materials: In the domain of material science, ductility is defined

as the ability of a material to undergo large deformations linked to plastic
materials before it leads to failure of the material. The ductile nature of the
material allows it to survive extremely high loads, such as which are caused
 due to huge loads applied onto it or large pressure changes. High ductility of
a material also helps in preventing brittle fractures.

The above diagram depicts the stress-strain curve for the brittle and ductile materials.

6.) Brittle Materials: Brittle materials are materials which breaks when
even very little amount of energy is applied to it. And fracture is caused into
the material while no plastic deformation occurs. Few properties of the
brittle materials are that, they have a very high compressive strength and a
very low tensile strength. Also, the brittle materials are unable to resist
against the resistive and vibratory load. Some of the common examples of
the brittle materials are glass, ceramics, concrete, rubber etc.
Ductility and brittleness both are highly temperature-dependent. Just by changing the
temperature, ductile material can be converted into brittle material. Similarly, brittle
material can be converted into ductile material. Both the properties i.e. ductility and
brittleness also depend on inbuilt stress level. If there is a high pressure, then ductile
material will fail without any plastic elongation.

Along with similarities, there are many differences between brittle and ductile
materials. Ductile materials when fails, they form a neck formation because of the
tensile load while the brittle material fails directly without any sign of warning.
Ductile materials have a longer life than brittle materials when subjected to fatigue
loading. The energy absorbed by ductile materials is much more than brittle materials
before fracture. Also, the operations like forging, drawing, bending, etc. can be
performed easily on ductile materials while it is difficult to perform on brittle
materials.

7.) Classification of Tests:

Bend Testing:
Bend testing, also known as flexure testing or transverse beam testing, gauges how
materials react to straightforward beam loading. It is frequently carried out on
somewhat flexible materials such composites, wood, and polymers. A bend test is
carried out on a universal testing machine at its most basic level by mounting a
specimen on two support anvils and bending it using applied force on one or two
loading anvils in order to measure its qualities.
When performing bend or flex tests, force is applied using either a single higher anvil
at the middle for a 3-point bend test or two upper anvils evenly spaced apart for a 4-
point bend test. In a 3-point test, the uniform stress area is quite condensed and
narrow beneath the main loading point. There is an area of uniform stress in a 4-point
test between the inner span loading points (typically half the length of the outer span).
Numerous different flex fixtures may be suitable, depending on the kind of material
being tested.

Elongation Testing:
Elongation is the increase in a sample's gauge length calculated following a rupture or
break divided by the sample's initial gauge length. The ductility or elasticity of the
substance increases with elongation.

The behaviour of materials subjected to abrupt or repetitive loads cannot be predicted

using elongation testing. Rubber and various polymers, for example, have very high
elongations before breaking. It is possible to measure elongation of specimens with
homogeneous width dimensions using cross-head travel. It will be necessary to use an
extensometer to measure elongation inside the gauge length region if the specimen is
in the form of a dog-bone or dumbbell with a condensed cross-sectional region known
as gauge length.

Break Strength Testing:

For brittle materials, breaking strength calculations are most frequently performed.
Alloys, composite materials, ceramics, polymers, and wood are examples of materials
that are regarded as brittle. These materials would benefit from having a high tensile
strength because they are easily bent or broken. Although tensile strength can also be
employed for materials that are regarded as ductile, this is rarely the case because
such materials often tend to be less brittle and it is less crucial to know the force that
will harm them.
It is quite simple to conduct tests to determine a material's breaking strength. A
sample of the substance is taken, and it is then put into a device that grips the
substance. The material is then gradually pulled in one direction by the machine,
which continues tugging the material until it breaks or the machine stops applying
force altogether. The breaking strength of a certain type of material is defined as the
point just before breakage or irreversible deformation.

Bond Strength Testing:

Choosing the bond to test and the temperature at which the plastic will be evaluated
are the first two steps. Is the plastic adhering to a material with an adhesive or serving
as a covering over a different kind of material? Is the bond to be examined at high
temperatures or at extremely low temperatures? This will make it easier to choose the
machine and its accessories. The next step is to choose the kind of test to run. This
will help in the decision-making process for the testing fixtures since each type of test
calls for a fixture that will enable the sample to be oriented correctly and subject the
bond to the precise stress called for by the test.

Actual test for the mechanical properties of Materials:

There are various tests which are useful in determining the actual mechanical
properties of materials. Some of them being Shore durometer hardness test,
Barcol Hardness test, Rockwell Hardness test, Vickers Hardness test, Brinell
Hardness test, Knoop Hardness test, Janka Hardness Test etc.

1. Shore Durometer Hardness Test:

A material's resistance to penetration by a spring-loaded, needle-like
indenter is measured by its shore hardness. Shore scales are commonly
used to evaluate the hardness of polymers, such as rubber and plastic. Soft
Elastomers (rubbers) and other soft polymers are tested using the Shore A
scale. Shore D scale is used to gauge the hardness of hard elastomers and
the majority of other polymer materials (thermoplastics, thermosets). The
 Durometer is a device used to measure shore hardness. The indenter in a
durometer is loaded by a calibrated spring. The indenter's depth of
penetration while being loaded determines the measured hardness. Two
distinct spring loads and two different indenter shapes are utilised for two
Shore scales (A and D). The range of shore hardness values is 0 to 100.
Each scale's maximum penetration ranges from 0.097 to 0.1 inch (2.5-2.54
mm). This value is equivalent to a Shore hardness of zero. Zero
penetration is corresponding to the maximum hardness value of 100.

2. Barcol Hardness Test: Using an indentor loaded on a material sample

and compared to the depth of penetration in a reference material, the
Barcol hardness test determines the indentation hardness of materials. The
technique is most frequently used to assess how much a resin or plastic has
cured or for composite materials such reinforced thermosetting resins. The
test serves as a supplement to the indirect measurement of a composite's
degree of cure—glass transition temperature. It is quick, cheap, and offers
comprehensive information on the treatment. The Barcol hardness test is
typically applied to flexible plastics and other soft materials. Based on the
indentation of a pointy object with a flat tip, hardness is measured. The
procedure and indentation tool are the same as those used to determine
Shore D hardness, however the indentor for Shore D has a circular tip.
Barcol hardness cannot be used to determine the hardness of curved
surfaces.
3. Rockwell Hardness Test: The Rockwell scale measures a material's
resistance to indentation as a measure of hardness. The Rockwell test
gauges how deeply an indenter penetrates a material under a heavy load
(major load) in comparison to how deeply a preload penetrates (minor
load). Different scales that employ various loads or indenters are
identified by a single letter. The outcome is a dimensionless number
denoted by the letters HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter stands
for the appropriate Rockwell scale. Indentation hardness and tensile
strength are linearly correlated when testing metals.

4. Vickers Hardness Test: Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at

Vickers Ltd created the Vickers hardness test in 1921 as an alternative to
 the Brinell method for determining the hardness of materials. Since the
necessary calculations are independent of the indenter's size and the
indenter may be used for any materials regardless of hardness, the Vickers
test is frequently simpler to apply than other hardness tests. The
fundamental idea, as with all conventional hardness measurements, is to
look at a material's resistance to plastic deformation coming from a known
source. All metals can be tested with the Vickers test, which also has one
of the broadest scales of any hardness test. The Vickers Pyramid Number
(HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness is the term for the hardness
measurement provided by the test (DPH). Pressure is not used to describe
the hardness number since it is defined by the load applied to the
indentation's surface area rather than the area normal to the force.

8.) Tensile Test of a Mild Steel Specimen:

To measure qualities like Young's modulus, ultimate strength, and % elongation,
tension tests are carried out on mild steel, tor steel, and high tensile steel. With the use
of a universal testing equipment, a steel rod is put through a tension test (UTM). The
specimen is put under a steady tension load, and the steel rod's extension against the
load inside the elastic limit is documented. It is important to properly record the load
values at the yield point, breaking point, and ultimate point. The calculated stress and
strain are presented in a graph using the values that were obtained. Data from the data
yields:
E = Stress/Strain, where E gives Modulus of Elasticity
Within the elastic limit, [this is calculated. The elastic modulus is determined by the
slope of the stress-strain curve.
Load at Yield Point/Original C/s Area = Yield Stress
Ultimate Load/Original C/s Area = Ultimate Stress
Breaking Load/Nominal Breaking Stress = Nominal Breaking Stress
Breaking load x Neck Area = Actual Breaking Stress
% elongation = (Length Change/Original Length)/100.
Area reduction = (Length change/Original Area)/100.

Elastic and plastic behaviours, including yielding, strain hardening, and necking
Elastic deformation is the first stage of stress-strain deformation in this instance.
Material stretches during the first phase, which is referred to as proportionate
deformation. The maximal elastic elongation occurs at the proportionate limit. Greater
elongation occurs with the applied force if the elastic deformation continues past the
proportionate limit.
A proportionate limit can be exceeded with a slight increase in stress. The amount of
tension needed to stretch the material decreases until it is at its lowest point after the
proportional limit is exceeded. The material loses its ability to regain its original
qualities after these points are passed.The material becomes more brittle if the stress
in the crystal lattice is continuously raised (also known as Strain Hardening).
However, this process of material hardening cannot go on indefinitely since each
material has a limit on the maximum force it can withstand. When the maximum force
is reached, the material starts to neck, signalling that there has been a dislocation in its
crystal structure. In addition to the necking, voids are also produced, which reduces
the material's cross-section.

9.) Working Stress: For the design of structural steel, wood, and reinforced
concrete, the working stress approach is a time-honored technique. The
stress is directly proportional to the strain up until the point of collapse
according to this approach, which abides by Hook's law. The fundamental
premise of this approach is that the structural material acts as a linear elastic
material, and that acceptable safety may be achieved by appropriately
limiting the stresses in the material brought on by the anticipated operating
load on the structure. Additionally, it is predicated that the steel
reinforcement and concrete will work in concert and will always be
completely elastic. The specified allowed stresses in this procedure are kept
below the material strength.

10.) Factor of Safety:

The ratio of the component material's ultimate stress to its working stress is known as
the factor of safety. It indicates that the component's strength is greater than what is
necessary to support that load. It reveals how much more robust a system is or must
be to handle an expected load. If a structure's factor of safety is 1, it will collapse
under its maximum load and won't be able to support any more weight. Components
whose factor of safety value is less than one is not functional. The factor of safety
must have a minimum value of one. When the load is double its maximum capacity, a
component with a factor of safety value of 2 will fail.

11.) Barba’s Law and Unwin’s Formula:

Barba established a rule that similar test pieces deform similarly under strain if their
values for l/A^0.5 are same. Gauge length and cross-sectional area are represented by
l and A, respectively. A little thought will reveal that the same material will result in
the same proportion of area reduction and elongation. While performing the
experiments, the following points were discovered by Unwin:
(i) The local extension (i.e., the extension from maximum load to the breaking
load) is proportional to the square root of the cross-sectional area
(ii) The general extension (i.e., up to the maximum load) is proportional to the
gauge length of the test piece.
Urwin’s Formula:

The rivet size is determined using Unwin's formula. The relationship between the
thickness of the connected plates and the rivet hole diameter. In formula,
d = 6.04√t, where d is diameter of rivet (in mm).
and t is thickness of the plate (in mm).

12.) Compression Test: Along with tensile and flexion tests,

compression testing is one of the most fundamental kinds of mechanical
testing. In order to assess how a material will behave under crushing
pressures, compression tests are normally performed by applying
compressive pressure to a test specimen, which is typically either cylindrical
or cuboid in shape, using platens or other specific fixtures on a universal
testing machine. The material's elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point,
yield strength, and, for some materials, compressive strength are among the
parameters that are computed during the test and shown as a stress-strain
diagram.
Throughout many stages of the manufacturing process, compression testing enables
producers to evaluate the reliability and security of materials, components, and
products. The potential uses can range from durability testing of construction-use
concrete beams to strength testing of vehicle windshields. High tensile strength
materials typically have poor compressive strength (though not necessarily!). In a
similar vein, materials with great compressive strength typically have low tensile
strengths. Therefore, brittle materials including concrete, metals, polymers, ceramics,
composites, and corrugated materials like cardboard are frequently subjected to
compression testing. The stability of these materials under compressive stresses is
crucial since they are frequently utilised in load-bearing applications. The engineer
can adjust the balance between product strength and material conservation with the
aid of compression testing.
 13.) Impact Test: Impact tests are performed to examine a material's
tensile strength. The capacity of a substance to absorb energy during plastic
deformation determines its toughness. Due to how little plastic deformation
they can withstand, brittle materials have low toughness. Temperature can
also affect a material's impact value. In general, a material's impact energy
decreases as temperature drops. The Izod impact test's value may also be
influenced by the specimen's size since it may allow for a varied amount of
material flaws that could function as stress risers and reduce the impact
energy.

(i) IZOD Impact Strength test:

The IZOD impact testing is used for the evaluation of the impact resistance
of the material and the technique is considered as standard ASTM
procedure. In this technique a pivot arm is raised to a particular height
(potential energy is constant), and then we let go it from that point. The
notched sample is kept at a position in the path pivoted arm would pass
through after swinging and when the pivot arm collides with the sample the
sample breaks down. And the height at which the pivoted arm was raised so
as to strike with the sample, is used for computation of energy which was
absorbed by it. A sample which has notches is used for the calculations of
impact energy and notch sensitivity. Though the test uses different
configuration for the specimen under test, but the nature if the test is similar
to that of Charpy Impact test. While in the Charpy Impact test the
arrangement is made like that of a three point bending arrangement, but the
Izod impact test sample is kept in a cantilever beam position.

(ii) Charpy Impact test:

The material's notch toughness is evaluated in this test. This approach is
typically applied in industry. The fact that some outcomes from this method
 are just comparative is one of its drawbacks. The energy absorbed is always
measured in Joules (J). Typically, this test is conducted at a higher
temperature.

14.) Fatigue Test:

Cyclic loading is used in this test, which is a type of mechanical testing. To do the
test, a material is loaded into the apparatus under a predefined stress, and then it is
released from the apparatus with zero load. Up until the conclusion of the testing, this
loading cycle is repeated multiple times. The goal of this test is to ascertain how long
a material will last after being repeatedly subjected to cyclic loads. Nearly all
materials may become worn out in some form while they are being used. Due to their
rigidity and ductility, materials like metals and composites have a higher fatigue limit.
References:

(1) Staff, C. (2021, March 17). 6 Tests to Measure a Material’s Strength.

Corrosionpedia. https://www.corrosionpedia.com/6-tests-to-measure-a-materials-

strength/2/6679

(2) M, A. (2018, January 20). Testing of Engineering Materials | Material Science.

Engineering Notes India.

https://www.engineeringenotes.com/engineering/materials-engineering/testing-of-

engineering-materials-material-science/34183

(3) Nondestructive Evaluation Physics : Materials. (n.d.). https://www.nde-

ed.org/Physics/Materials/Introduction/classifications.xhtml

(4) Research, I. (2022, May 16). Mechanical properties testing: Materials put to the

test. Infinitia Industrial Consulting.

https://www.infinitiaresearch.com/en/news/mechanical-properties-testing-

materials-put-to-the-test/

(5) Mecmesin. (2022, February 9). What is Compression Testing? The Theory and

Applications. AZoM.com. https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5550

(6) Pritchard, L. (2019, October 1). Advantages of Using Plastic in the Construction

Industry. Businessing Magazine.

https://businessingmag.com/9111/equipping/plastic-in-construction/