Mechanical Properties and testing of Materials.

1.) Introduction:
2.) Classification of Materials:
3.) Elastic Materials:
4.) Plastic Materials:
5.) Ductile Materials:
6.) Brittle Materials:
7.) Classification of Tests:
8.) Actual test for the mechanical properties of Materials:
9.) Tensile Test of a Mild Steel Specimen:
10.) Working Stress:
11.) Factor of Safety:
12.) Barba’s Law and Unwin’s Formula:
13.) Compression Test:
14.) Impact Test:
15.) Fatigue Test:

1) Introduction:
The mechanical properties of a material are defined as the components of that
material that reacts when a load is applied on them. The most significant
characteristic defined by the mechanical property of the material is the ability of
that material to resist deformation. The mechanical properties of the material are
also useful in the determination of the usefulness of the material and it also
determines the life expectancy of the material. But it must be noted that the
mechanical properties of a material don’t remain constant and it changes with
certain conditions like when the material is heated at a high temperature, or the
material has been subjected to a high load, some of them may even change when
exposed to atmosphere. In the case of metal alloys when it is kept below the room
temperature, it leads to the increase in strength of metallic alloys, whereas if the
temperature is high above the room temperature it leads to decrease in the strength
of the metallic alloys. Similarly, many other factors leads to the change in the
mechanical properties of the metal.

List of mechanical properties of materials are as follows:

(1) Strength
(2) Elasticity
(3) Plasticity
(4) Hardness
(5) Toughness
(6) Brittleness
(7) Stiffness
(8) Ductility
(9) Malleability
(10) Cohesion
 (11) Impact Strength
(12) Fatigue
(13) Creep

2.) Classification of Materials:

Materials are mainly classified into four groups. They are:
(i) Metals: The basic properties of metals are that, they have good electrical
and thermal conductivity and are malleable. Some of the examples of metals
are: Steel, Iron, Copper, Zinc etc.

(ii) Polymers: Polymers are defined as a class of natural or synthetic materials

which are prepared using multiples of simpler chemical units called as
monomers. Its examples are: Nylon, Polyethylene, Polyester etc.

(iii) Ceramics: The ceramics are inorganic non-metallic solids which are made-up
of metal and non-metal compounds which are shaped and then are
hardened by heating at high temperatures. Some of its examples are: Clay,
bricks, tiles etc.

(iv) Composites: The composite materials are materials which are prepared from
the constituents of two or more materials. And these materials in general
have dissimilar physical and chemical properties and hence are merged to
create properties, unlike from the individual elements. Its examples are:
Fiberglass, Pykrete, Kevlar etc.

3.) Elastic Materials:

Elasticity is defined as the tendency of a material to get back to the original
shape after the external forces applied to the material are stopped. And
hence elastic materials are such kind of materials which return to their
original shape after the forces are removed. These materials have the ability
to resist distortion, which would have otherwise been caused due to the
external forces. The elasticity of a particular material is shown using a stress
vs strain graph. The stress-strain curve in general is non-linear but for very
small deformations it could be considered as a linear curve. Young’s
modulus and Shear modulus are useful in the measurement of the inherent
elastic properties of the solid materials, whereas the Bulk modulus is helpful
for the derivation of elastic properties of all the three states of matter, viz.
solid, liquid and gaseous. The most accurate method used for the
measurement of modulus of elasticity are based on the techniques of
measurement of supported rod’s vibrational frequency and also on the
measured value of the speed of sound inside the material.
4.) Plastic Materials: Plastic materials are synthetically produced compounds (i.e., human made)
and are prepared from repetition of small pieces(monomers) to form a long chain known as
polymers. The spaces that are left in the chains after the formation are filled with atoms
such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and hydrogen. As the evolution of the plastic materials
took place, it became one of the marvellous discoveries due to its properties such as,
pliability, malleability and durability. Plastic materials are used in the preparation of various
products such as medical stents, eyewear, sportswear etc.

5.) Ductile Materials: In the domain of material science, ductility is defined as the ability of a
material to undergo large deformations linked to plastic materials before it leads to failure
of the material. The ductile nature of the material allows it to survive extremely high loads,
such as which are caused due to huge loads applied onto it or large pressure changes. High
ductility of a material also helps in preventing brittle fractures.

The above diagram depicts the stress-strain curve for the brittle and ductile materials.

6.) Brittle Materials: Brittle materials are materials which breaks when even very little amount
of energy is applied to it. And fracture is caused into the material while no plastic
deformation occurs. Few properties of the brittle materials are that, they have a very high
compressive strength and a very low tensile strength. Also, the brittle materials are unable
to resist against the resistive and vibratory load. Some of the common examples of the
brittle materials are glass, ceramics, concrete, rubber etc.
 Ductility and brittleness both are highly temperature-dependent. Just by changing the
temperature, ductile material can be converted into brittle material. Similarly, brittle
material can be converted into ductile material. Both the properties i.e. ductility and
brittleness also depend on inbuilt stress level. If there is a high pressure, then ductile
material will fail without any plastic elongation.

Along with similarities, there are many differences between brittle and ductile materials.
Ductile materials when fails, they form a neck formation because of the tensile load while
the brittle material fails directly without any sign of warning. Ductile materials have a longer
life than brittle materials when subjected to fatigue loading. The energy absorbed by ductile
materials is much more than brittle materials before fracture. Also, the operations like
forging, drawing, bending, etc. can be performed easily on ductile materials while it is
difficult to perform on brittle materials.

7.) Classification of Tests:

Bend Testing:
Bend testing, also known as flexure testing or transverse beam testing, gauges how
materials react to straightforward beam loading. It is frequently carried out on somewhat
flexible materials such composites, wood, and polymers. A bend test is carried out on a
universal testing machine at its most basic level by mounting a specimen on two support
anvils and bending it using applied force on one or two loading anvils in order to measure its
qualities.

When performing bend or flex tests, force is applied using either a single higher anvil at the
middle for a 3-point bend test or two upper anvils evenly spaced apart for a 4-point bend
test. In a 3-point test, the uniform stress area is quite condensed and narrow beneath the
main loading point. There is an area of uniform stress in a 4-point test between the inner
span loading points (typically half the length of the outer span). Numerous different flex
fixtures may be suitable, depending on the kind of material being tested.

Elongation Testing:
Elongation is the increase in a sample's gauge length calculated following a rupture or break
divided by the sample's initial gauge length. The ductility or elasticity of the substance
increases with elongation.
The behaviour of materials subjected to abrupt or repetitive loads cannot be predicted using
elongation testing. Rubber and various polymers, for example, have very high elongations
before breaking. It is possible to measure elongation of specimens with homogeneous width
dimensions using cross-head travel. It will be necessary to use an extensometer to measure
elongation inside the gauge length region if the specimen is in the form of a dog-bone or
dumbbell with a condensed cross-sectional region known as gauge length.

Break Strength Testing:

For brittle materials, breaking strength calculations are most frequently performed. Alloys,
composite materials, ceramics, polymers, and wood are examples of materials that are
regarded as brittle. These materials would benefit from having a high tensile strength
because they are easily bent or broken. Although tensile strength can also be employed for
materials that are regarded as ductile, this is rarely the case because such materials often
tend to be less brittle and it is less crucial to know the force that will harm them.

It is quite simple to conduct tests to determine a material's breaking strength. A sample of

the substance is taken, and it is then put into a device that grips the substance. The material
is then gradually pulled in one direction by the machine, which continues tugging the
material until it breaks or the machine stops applying force altogether. The breaking
strength of a certain type of material is defined as the point just before breakage or
irreversible deformation.

Bond Strength Testing:

Choosing the bond to test and the temperature at which the plastic will be evaluated are the
first two steps. Is the plastic adhering to a material with an adhesive or serving as a covering
over a different kind of material? Is the bond to be examined at high temperatures or at
extremely low temperatures? This will make it easier to choose the machine and its
accessories. The next step is to choose the kind of test to run. This will help in the decision-
making process for the testing fixtures since each type of test calls for a fixture that will
enable the sample to be oriented correctly and subject the bond to the precise stress called
for by the test.

Actual test for the mechanical properties of Materials: There are various tests which are
useful in determining the actual mechanical properties of materials. Some of them
being Shore durometer hardness test, Barcol Hardness test, Rockwell Hardness test,
Vickers Hardness test, Brinell Hardness test, Knoop Hardness test, Janka Hardness
Test etc.

1. Shore Durometer Hardness Test:

A material's resistance to penetration by a spring-loaded, needle-like indenter is
measured by its shore hardness. Shore scales are commonly used to evaluate
the hardness of polymers, such as rubber and plastic. Soft Elastomers (rubbers)
 and other soft polymers are tested using the Shore A scale. Shore D scale is used
to gauge the hardness of hard elastomers and the majority of other polymer
materials (thermoplastics, thermosets). The Durometer is a device used to
measure shore hardness. The indenter in a durometer is loaded by a calibrated
spring. The indenter's depth of penetration while being loaded determines the
measured hardness. Two distinct spring loads and two different indenter shapes
are utilised for two Shore scales (A and D). The range of shore hardness values is
0 to 100. Each scale's maximum penetration ranges from 0.097 to 0.1 inch (2.5-
2.54 mm). This value is equivalent to a Shore hardness of zero. Zero penetration
is corresponding to the maximum hardness value of 100.

2. Barcol Hardness Test: Using an indentor loaded on a material sample and

compared to the depth of penetration in a reference material, the Barcol
hardness test determines the indentation hardness of materials. The technique
is most frequently used to assess how much a resin or plastic has cured or for
composite materials such reinforced thermosetting resins. The test serves as a
supplement to the indirect measurement of a composite's degree of cure—glass
transition temperature. It is quick, cheap, and offers comprehensive information
on the treatment. The Barcol hardness test is typically applied to flexible plastics
and other soft materials. Based on the indentation of a pointy object with a flat
tip, hardness is measured. The procedure and indentation tool are the same as
those used to determine Shore D hardness, however the indentor for Shore D
has a circular tip. Barcol hardness cannot be used to determine the hardness of
curved surfaces.
3. Rockwell Hardness Test: The Rockwell scale measures a material's resistance to
indentation as a measure of hardness. The Rockwell test gauges how deeply an
indenter penetrates a material under a heavy load (major load) in comparison to
how deeply a preload penetrates (minor load). Different scales that employ
various loads or indenters are identified by a single letter. The outcome is a
dimensionless number denoted by the letters HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the
last letter stands for the appropriate Rockwell scale. Indentation hardness and
tensile strength are linearly correlated when testing metals.

4. Vickers Hardness Test: Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd
created the Vickers hardness test in 1921 as an alternative to the Brinell method
for determining the hardness of materials. Since the necessary calculations are
independent of the indenter's size and the indenter may be used for any
materials regardless of hardness, the Vickers test is frequently simpler to apply
than other hardness tests. The fundamental idea, as with all conventional
hardness measurements, is to look at a material's resistance to plastic
deformation coming from a known source. All metals can be tested with the
Vickers test, which also has one of the broadest scales of any hardness test. The
Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness is the term for the
hardness measurement provided by the test (DPH). Pressure is not used to
 describe the hardness number since it is defined by the load applied to the
indentation's surface area rather than the area normal to the force.

8.) Tensile Test of a Mild Steel Specimen:

To measure qualities like Young's modulus, ultimate strength, and % elongation, tension
tests are carried out on mild steel, tor steel, and high tensile steel. With the use of a
universal testing equipment, a steel rod is put through a tension test (UTM). The specimen is
put under a steady tension load, and the steel rod's extension against the load inside the
elastic limit is documented. It is important to properly record the load values at the yield
point, breaking point, and ultimate point. The calculated stress and strain are presented in a
graph using the values that were obtained. Data from the data yields:

E = Stress/Strain, where E gives Modulus of Elasticity

Within the elastic limit, [this is calculated. The elastic modulus is determined by the slope of
the stress-strain curve.
Load at Yield Point/Original C/s Area = Yield Stress
Ultimate Load/Original C/s Area = Ultimate Stress
 Breaking Load/Nominal Breaking Stress = Nominal Breaking Stress
Breaking load x Neck Area = Actual Breaking Stress
% elongation = (Length Change/Original Length)/100.
Area reduction = (Length change/Original Area)/100.

Elastic and plastic behaviours, including yielding, strain hardening, and necking
Elastic deformation is the first stage of stress-strain deformation in this instance. Material
stretches during the first phase, which is referred to as proportionate deformation. The
maximal elastic elongation occurs at the proportionate limit. Greater elongation occurs with
the applied force if the elastic deformation continues past the proportionate limit.
A proportionate limit can be exceeded with a slight increase in stress. The amount of tension
needed to stretch the material decreases until it is at its lowest point after the proportional
limit is exceeded. The material loses its ability to regain its original qualities after these
points are passed.The material becomes more brittle if the stress in the crystal lattice is
continuously raised (also known as Strain Hardening). However, this process of material
hardening cannot go on indefinitely since each material has a limit on the maximum force it
can withstand. When the maximum force is reached, the material starts to neck, signalling
that there has been a dislocation in its crystal structure. In addition to the necking, voids are
also produced, which reduces the material's cross-section.

9.) Working Stress: For the design of structural steel, wood, and reinforced concrete, the
working stress approach is a time-honored technique. The stress is directly proportional to
the strain up until the point of collapse according to this approach, which abides by Hook's
law. The fundamental premise of this approach is that the structural material acts as a linear
elastic material, and that acceptable safety may be achieved by appropriately limiting the
stresses in the material brought on by the anticipated operating load on the structure.
Additionally, it is predicated that the steel reinforcement and concrete will work in concert
and will always be completely elastic. The specified allowed stresses in this procedure are
kept below the material strength.

10.) Factor of Safety:

The ratio of the component material's ultimate stress to its working stress is known as the
factor of safety. It indicates that the component's strength is greater than what is necessary
to support that load. It reveals how much more robust a system is or must be to handle an
expected load. If a structure's factor of safety is 1, it will collapse under its maximum load
 and won't be able to support any more weight. Components whose factor of safety value is
less than one is not functional. The factor of safety must have a minimum value of one.
When the load is double its maximum capacity, a component with a factor of safety value of
2 will fail.

11.) Barba’s Law and Unwin’s Formula:

Barba established a rule that similar test pieces deform similarly under strain if their values
for l/A^0.5 are same. Gauge length and cross-sectional area are represented by l and A,
respectively. A little thought will reveal that the same material will result in the same
proportion of area reduction and elongation. In experiments, Unwin discovered that the
local extension (from the maximum load to the breaking load) is proportional to the square
root of the cross-sectional area and that the general extension (up to the maximum load) is
proportional to the gauge length of the test piece.

Urwin’s Formula:

The rivet size is determined using Unwin's formula. The relationship between the thickness
of the connected plates and the rivet hole diameter. In formula,
d = 6.04√t, where d is diameter of rivet (in mm).
and t is thickness of the plate (in mm).

12.) Compression Test: Along with tensile and flexion tests, compression testing is one of the
most fundamental kinds of mechanical testing. In order to assess how a material will behave
under crushing pressures, compression tests are normally performed by applying
compressive pressure to a test specimen, which is typically either cylindrical or cuboid in
shape, using platens or other specific fixtures on a universal testing machine. The material's
elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength, and, for some materials,
compressive strength are among the parameters that are computed during the test and
shown as a stress-strain diagram.

Throughout many stages of the manufacturing process, compression testing enables

producers to evaluate the reliability and security of materials, components, and products.
The potential uses can range from durability testing of construction-use concrete beams to
strength testing of vehicle windshields. High tensile strength materials typically have poor
compressive strength (though not necessarily!). In a similar vein, materials with great
compressive strength typically have low tensile strengths. Therefore, brittle materials
including concrete, metals, polymers, ceramics, composites, and corrugated materials like
cardboard are frequently subjected to compression testing. The stability of these materials
under compressive stresses is crucial since they are frequently utilised in load-bearing
applications. The engineer can adjust the balance between product strength and material
conservation with the aid of compression testing.
13.) Impact Test: Impact tests are performed to examine a material's tensile strength. The
capacity of a substance to absorb energy during plastic deformation determines its
toughness. Due to how little plastic deformation they can withstand, brittle materials have
low toughness. Temperature can also affect a material's impact value. In general, a
material's impact energy decreases as temperature drops. The Izod impact test's value may
also be influenced by the specimen's size since it may allow for a varied amount of material
flaws that could function as stress risers and reduce the impact energy.
(i) IZOD Impact Strength test:
Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard procedure for evaluating a material's
impact resistance. An arm that pivots is raised to a certain height (constant
potential energy), then let go. The sample is broken when the arm swings
downward and strikes a notched sample. The height the arm swings to after
striking the sample is used to compute the amount of energy that was absorbed
by it. To calculate impact energy and notch sensitivity, a sample with notches is
typically employed. Although the test uses a different configuration of the
specimen under test, it is similar to the Charpy impact test. The sample is
maintained in a cantilevered beam position during the Izod impact test as
opposed to a three-point bending arrangement during the Charpy impact test.

(ii) Charpy Impact test:

The material's notch toughness is evaluated in this test. This approach is typically
applied in industry. The fact that some outcomes from this method are just
comparative is one of its drawbacks. The energy absorbed is always measured in
Joules (J). Typically, this test is conducted at a higher temperature.

14.) Fatigue Test:

Cyclic loading is used in this test, which is a type of mechanical testing. To do the test, a
material is loaded into the apparatus under a predefined stress, and then it is released from
the apparatus with zero load. Up until the conclusion of the testing, this loading cycle is
repeated multiple times. The goal of this test is to ascertain how long a material will last
after being repeatedly subjected to cyclic loads. Nearly all materials may become worn out
in some form while they are being used. Due to their rigidity and ductility, materials like
metals and composites have a higher fatigue limit.