1.1.

INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS
Learning Objectives:
 To define a function from a set into another set and to view functions as
relations
 To define a function and its domain and range
 To determine the domain and range of real valued functions of a real variable.
 To define the Sums, Differences, Products and Quotients of functions and
determine their domains.
 To learn the concepts of composite functions, even and odd functions and
piecewise defined functions.
AND
 To solve the related problems

The terms map, mapping, transformation are also used as alternative names for the
function. The choice of which word is used in a given situation is usually determined
by tradition.
Suppose that to each element of a set we assign a unique element of a set ; the
collection of such assignments is called a function from to . The set is called
the domain of the function, and the set is called the co-domain. Let denote a
function from to . Then we write
: →
which is read: is a function from into , or maps into .
Suppose : → and . Then ( ), read “ of ”, will denote the unique
element of which assigns to . This element ( ) in is called the image of
under or the value of at . We also say that sends or maps into ( ). The
set of all such image values is called the range or image of , and it is denoted
by ( ), ( ) or ( ). That is, ( ) = { ( )| } , Clearly, ( )⊆ .
Example:
The figure below defines a function from = { , , , } into = { , , , }

From the figure,

 ( )= , ( )= , ( )= , ( )=
The image of is the set { , , }. We note that does not belong to the image of
because is not the image of any element of under .

Functions as Relations
Definition: A function : → is a relation from (i.e., a subset of × )
such that each belongs to a unique ordered pair ( , ) in .
The defining condition of a function, that each belongs to a unique pair ( , )
in , is equivalent to the geometrical condition of each vertical line intersecting the
graph in exactly one point.
Example: Consider the relation from = { , , , } to = { , , } :
= {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}. Ascertain whether this is a function.
Solution:
The given relation is a function : → with the domain = { , , , } and the
range = { , , }, since each member of appears as the first coordinate in exactly
one ordered pair in .
Example: Consider the following relations on the set = { , , }.
= {( , ), ( , ), ( , )},
= {( , ), ( , )},
= {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
Ascertain whether each relation is a function.
Solution:
The relation is a function from , since each member of appears as the
first coordinate in exactly one ordered pair in ; here (1) = 3, (2) = 3, (3) = 1.
The relation is not a function from since 2 is not the first coordinate
of any pair in and so does not assign any image to 2.
The relation ℎ is not a function from since 1 appears as the first
coordinate of two distinct ordered pairs in ℎ, (1,3) and (1,2). If ℎ is to be a function
it cannot assign both 3 and 2 to the element 1 .
Example: Which of the following relations = { , , , , } to = { , , , } are
functions? Give reasons. If it is a function, determine its domain and range.
= {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
= {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
= {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
Solution: We have, = {( , 2), ( , 4), ( , 1), ( , 3), ( , 4), ( , 1)}.
is not a function from into , since ∈ appears as the first coordinate of two
distinct ordered pairs in i.e., ( , 3), ( , 1) ∈ .
We have, = {( , 4), ( , 2), ( , 3), ( , 1)}.
 is not a function from into , since ∈ is not the first coordinate of any
ordered pair in .
We have, = {( , 3), ( , 2), ( , 4), ( , 1), ( , 2)}.
is a function from into since, each element of appears as the first
coordinate in exactly one ordered pair in .
The domain and range of respectively are { , , , , } and {1,2,3,4}.

Functions are used to describe the relationships between variable quantities and
hence play a central role in applications. For example, an engineer may need to
know how the illumination from a light source on an object is related to the distance
between the object and the source.
Frequently, a function can be expressed by means of a mathematical formula.
Suppose the value of one variable quantity, called , depends on the value of
another variable quantity, called . If the value of is completely determined by the
value of , then we say that is a function of .
If is the area and is the radius of a circle then we have = . Thus is a
function of . Now, the equation = is a rule that tells how to calculate a
unique output value of for each possible input value of the radius .
The set of all possible input values for is the Domain of the function. The set of all
output values of is the Range of the function.
Since the circles cannot have negative radii or areas, the domain and the range of
these are both in the interval [0, ∞), consisting of all nonnegative real numbers.
We often refer to a generic function without having any particular formula in mind.
Euler, a Swiss mathematician, gave a symbolic way to say “ is a function of ” by
writing y  f ( x) (" y equals f of x ")
In this notation, the symbol represents the function. The letter , called the
Independent variable, represents an input value from the domain of , and , the
dependent variable, represents the corresponding output value of ( ) in the range
of .
Thus, a function is usually expressed in one of two ways:
1. By giving formula such as y  x 2 that uses a dependent variable to denote
the value of the function, or
2. By giving a formula such as f(x)  x 2 that defines a function symbol to
name the function.
We use the symbol ( ) both for representing the function and denoting the value
of the function at the point . It is also convenient to use a single letter to denote
both a function and its dependent variable. For instance, we might say that the area
2
of a circle of radius is given by the function A(r )   r .
Example 1:
The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius is given by the function
4
V (r )   r 3
3
The volume of a ball of radius 3 m is
4
V(3)   (3)3  36 m3
3
Example 2:
Suppose that the function f is defined for all real numbers by the formula
f (t )  2(t  1)  3
Evaluate f at the input values 0, 2, + 2, and (2).
Solution
f (0)  2(0  1)  3  1
f (2)  2(2  1)  3  5
f ( x  2)  2( x  2  1)  3  2 x  5
f ( f (2))  f (5)  2(5  1)  3  11

Functions, whose domains and ranges are sets of real numbers, are called real-
valued functions of a real variable.
To fully describe a function we not only specify the rule that relates the inputs and
outputs, but we also specify the domain, that is, the set of allowable inputs.
The domains and ranges of real-valued functions of a real variable are sets of real
numbers. We evaluate such functions by substituting particular values from the
domain into the function’s defining rule to calculate the corresponding values in the
range.
Example 3: Consider the function f ( x)  x3
. ., f assigns to each real number its cube. Then the image of 2 is 8, and so we
may write f (2)  8

Similarly, f (3)  27 f (0)  0

If the domain is not stated explicitly, it is assumed to be the largest set of -values
for which the formula of the function gives the real
- values. This is called the Natural domain of the function. If we want the domain
to be restricted in some way, we must say so.
The domain of the function y  x2 is understood to be the entire set of real
numbers. The formula gives a real -value for every real number . If we want to
restrict the domain to values of ≥ 2, we must write y  x2 , x  2 . Changing
the domain to which we apply a formula usually changes the range as well. The
range of y  x 2 is [0, ∞).
The range of y  x2 , x  2 , is the set of all numbers obtained by squaring
numbers greater than or equal to 2. That is, the range is [4, ∞).
Most of the functions will have domains that are either intervals or unions of
intervals. The domain and range of several functions is as follows:
Function Domain (x) Range (y )
y  1  x2 [ 1,1] [0,1]
1
y ( ,0)  (0, ) ( ,0)  (0, )
x
y x [0, ) [0, )
y  4x ( ,4] [0, )

The formula y  1  x 2 gives a real y-value for every n the closed interval
2
from −1 to 1. Beyond this domain, 1  x is negative and its square root is not a
1
real number. The formula y gives a real
x
 -value for every except = 0. We cannot divide any number by zero. The
formula y x gives a real -value only if ≥ 0. In y  4 x ,4– ≥ 0
or ≤ 4. The formula gives real values for all ≤ 4.
Sums, Differences, Products and Quotients
Functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided to produce new
functions. If f and g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the domains of
both f and g, we define the functions f + g, f – g, and fg by the formulas
( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
( fg )( x)  f ( x) g ( x)

At any point of ( ) ∩ ( ) at which ( ) ≠ 0, we can also define

( )
the function by the formula ( )=
( )
Functions can also be multiplied by constants: if is a real number, then the
function is defined for all in the domain of by
( )( ) = ( )

The domains of the following combined functions may be noted:

Function Formula Domain
f f ( x)  x [0,  )
g g ( x)  1  x (  ,1]
3g 3 g ( x)  3 1  x (  ,1]
f  g ( f  g )( x )  x  1 x [0,1]  D ( f )  D ( g )
f  g ( f  g )( x )  x  1  x [0,1]
g f ( g  f )( x )  1  x  x [0,1]
f  g ( f  g )( x)  f ( x) g ( x)  x(1  x) [0,1]
f f f ( x) x
( x)   [0,1) ( x  1 excluded)
g g g (x) 1 x
g g g (x) 1 x
( x)   (0,1] ( x  0 excluded)
f f f ( x) x
Composite Functions
Composition is another method for combining functions.
If and are functions, the composite function f g (“ circle ”) is defined by
f  g )( ) = ( ( ))
(
The domain of f  g consists of the numbers in the domain of for which
( ) lies in the domain of
The definition says that two functions can be composed when the range of the first
lies in the domain of the second.

To evaluate the composite function ( f  g )( x) , we first find ( ) and second find

( ( )). To evaluate the composite function ( g  f ) , we reverse the order, finding
( ) first and then ( ( )). The domain of ( g  f ) is the set of numbers in the
domain of f such that ( ) lies in the domain of g.
The functions f g, g f are usually quite different.

Example 4: If f ( x)  x and g ( x)  x  1, find

A. ( f  g )( x )
B. ( g  f )( x )
C. ( f  f )( x )
D. ( g  g )( x )
Solution
C omposite Domain
A. f ( g ( x ))  g ( x)  x 1 [  1,  )
B. g ( f ( x ))  f ( x )  1  x 1 [0,  )
1
C. f ( f ( x ))  f (x)  x  x4 [0,  )
D. g ( g ( x ))  g ( x )  1  ( x  1)  1  x  2 (  ,  )
Even and Odd Functions
A function = ( ) is even if (− ) = ( ) for every number in the domain of
f. The function ( ) = is even because f ( x)  ( x) 2  x 2  f ( x)
The graph of an even function = ( ) is symmetric about the -axis.
Both ( , ) and (− , ) are points on the graph. Once we know the graph on one
side of the -axis, we automatically know it on the other side.

A function = ( ) is odd if (− ) = − ( ) for every number in the domain

of . The function ( ) = is odd because
f ( x)  ( x)3   x3   f ( x)
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. Both the points ( , )
and (− , − ) lie on the graph. Here again, once we know the graph of f on one side
of the −axis, we know it on both sides.
Piecewise Defined Functions
A function may be defined using different formulas on different parts of its domain.
Such functions are called piecewise defined functions. One example is the absolute
 x , x0
value function. x 
 x , x  0
The graph of the absolute value function is shown below
Example 5: The function
− , <0
( )= , ≤ ≤
, >1
is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas
depending on the position of .

PROBLEM SET:
IP1: If the function : → defined by ( )= ,
then show that ( − )= − ( ).
Solution:
Step : Given function : → defined by
( )=

Step : Now (1 − ) =
.( )
=
.( )
.
= .( )( )

=
=
= 1−
=1− ( )
∴ (1 − ) = 1 − ( )
Hence be proved.
P1. If the function : → defined by ( )= , and
( + )+ ( − ) = ( ) ( ) Then = ______
A. 1
 B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Answer: B
Solution: Given that the function : → is defined by
( )=
Now,
( + )+ ( − )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= +
= [ 3 .3 + 3 .3 + 3 .3 +3 .3 ]
= [ 3 (3 + 3 )+3 (3 + 3 )]
= [ (3 + 3 )(3 + 3 )]

= . 2.
=2 .
= 2. ( ) . ( ) = ( ) ( )
∴ =2

IP2: If ( )=√ − , ( )= then the domain of ( + ) is

Solution:
Step : Given that ( )=√ −1 ; ( )=
√
Step : Domain of is ( ) = { ∈ : − 1 ≥ 0}
= { ∈ : ( − 1)( + 1) ≥ 0}
We have
If ( − )( − ) ≥ 0, < then ∈ (−∞, ] ∪ [ , ∞)
( ) = { ∈ : ( − (−1))( − 1) ≥ 0}
= (−∞, −1] ∪ [ 1, ∞ ) = − (−1, 1 )
Step :
Domain of is ( ) = { ∈ : − 3 + 2 > 0}
(∴ − 3 + 2 ≠ 0)
= { ∈ : ( − 1)( − 2) > 0}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ ( 2, ∞ ) = − [1, 2]
Step : Domain of ( + ) is
( + ) = ( )∩ ( )
= { − (−1, 1)} ∩ { − [ 1, 2 ]}
= − {(−1, 1) ∪ [ 1, 2 ]}
 = − (−1, 2]
∴ ( + ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ (2, ∞) = − (−1, 2] .
P2: If ( ) = √ − and ( ) = √ + then the domain of ( + ) is
A. ( −1, 2 ]
B. ( −1, 2 )
C. [ −1, 2 )
D. [ −1, 2 ]
Answer: D
Solution: Given that ( ) = √2 − , ( ) = √1 + .
Domain of is ( ) = { ∈ : 2 − ≥ 0 }
= { ∈ : ≤ 2}
= ( −∞, 2]
Domain of is ( ) = { ∈ : 1 + ≥ 0}
= { ∈ :1 ≤ − }
= { ∈ : ≥ −1}
= [−1, ∞)
∴ Domain of ( + ) is ( + ) = ( ) ∩ ( )
= (−∞, 2] ∩ [−1, ∞)
= [−1 , 2]
IP3. Let : ⟶ and : ⟶ are two functions defined by
+ , ≤−
( )= ,− ≤ < 1
− , ≥
+ , < −4
( )= + , − ≤ <4
− , ≥
Then find the values of (− ) (− )
Solution:
Step1: Given that
Let : → and : → are two functions defined by
+2 , ≤ −1
( )= , −1 < < 1
2− , ≥1
+4 , < −4
( ) = 3 + 2 , −4 ≤ < 4
−4 , ≥4
Step2:
Now, (−1) = ( (−1))
= (3(−1) + 2)
= (−1) = −1 + 2 = 1
P3. Let us consider the functions
+ , >1
( )= , − ≤ ≤
− , − < <−
− , >3
( )= − , − ≤ ≤
+ , ≤−
Then the value of (− ) =
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
Answer: C
Solution: Given functions are
+2 >1
( )= 2 −1≤ ≤1
−1 − 3 < < −1
3 −2 >3
( )= −2 −2≤ ≤ 2
2 +1 ≤ −3
Now,
(−1) = ( (−1))
= ((−1) − 2)
= (−1) = 2
(−1) = 2

P4: If ( )= , ≠ , then find ( ∘ )( ).

Solution:
We have, ( ) = , ≠1
∴ ( ∘ )( ) = [ ( )] = ∵ ( )=

= = =

IP4: If ( )= , ( )= , then show that ∘ = ∘ .

Solution: Given, ( ) = √ and ( ) = √
( ∘ )( ) = [ ( )] = ∵ ( )=√
√
 = = = = =

( ∘ )( ) = [ ( )] = ∵ ( )=
√ √

= = = = =

∴ ∘ = ∘
IP5: If ( ) = √ and ( ) = − , then find the domain of
∘ .
Solution:
Given, ( ) = √ and ( ) = −1
( ∘ )( ) = [ ( )] = (√ ) ∵ ( )=√
∵ ( )= −1
= −1
√ = √ −1= −1
∴ ( ∘ )( ) = − 1
Domain of ( ∘ )( ) is [0, ∞) .
P5: If ( ) = and ( ) = √ , then find the domain of .
Solution:
Given, ( ) = and ( )=√
( )( ) = [ ( )] = ∵ ( )=
∵ ( )=√
=
=

∴( )( ) =
√
Domain of ( )( ) > 0 . ., (0, ∞)

IP6: If ( )= . and ( )= then show

that is an even function and is an odd function.
Solution:
Step : Given ( )= .

Now, (− ) = (− )
( )
= (− )
( )

=− . ( )
 = . = ( )
∴ (− ) = ( )
Hence is an even function.
Step :
Given ( )=
[ ( )] [ ( )]
Now, (− ) = =
( ) ( )

(− ) = − =− ( )
∴ (− ) = − ( )
Hence is an odd function.
P6: If ( ) = + then ( ) is
A. Even
B. Odd
C. Neither even nor odd
D. None of the above
Answer: C
Solution: Given that
( ) = sin + cos
(− ) = sin(− ) + cos(− )
= −sin + cos
Here neither (− ) = − ( ) nor (− ) = ( )
∴ is neither even nor odd.

Exercises
x 2  3x  1 1
1. If f ( x)  find f ( 2)  f 
x 1 3
2. Given f ( x)  x2  5 x  4 , find

f (0), f (2), f (3), f (a), f ( x),

f ( x  a )  f ( x)
f (b  1), f (3x), f ( x  a),
a
3. Given f ( x  1)  3 x  5 evaluate
a. (−2)
b. (2 )
 x
4. Let be defined by f ( x)  , x  R . Find
2x  1
a. (2)
b. ( )
c. (2) ( )
d. ℎ ( )=
5. Find the domain of

a. f ( x)  a 2  x 2
1
b. f ( x) 
3x  2
c. f ( x)  x  2 x  1
6. Find the domain and range of the following functions:
x
a. f ( x) 
x 2  3x  2
3
b. f ( x) 
2  x2
c. f ( x)  x  3
x
d. f ( x) 
1  x2
e. f ( x)  16  x2
1
f. f ( x) 
x 5
7. Find the domain for the given functions
(2 x  1)( x  3)
a. f ( x) 
x3
4
b. f ( x) 
5  cos x
8. A function f on the set of real numbers is defined
 2 x  1, 0 x2
f ( x)  
 x  2, 2 x5
Find
 a. The range of .
b. The value of for which ( ) =
c. Whether the function is many-one or one-one.
 x  1, 1 x  2

9. A function f is defined f ( x)   2 x  1, 2 x4
3 x  10, 4  x  6

Find
a. The range of f.
b. (4)
c. Whether the function is many-one or one-one.
10. Let f : R  R and g : R  R be defined by

f ( x)  x 2 g ( x)  x  3
Then, find ( g  f )(2) and ( f  g )(2) .
11. Let the functions f and g be defined by

f ( x)  2 x  1 and g ( x)  x 2  2 . Find the formula defining the

composition functions: ( a ) g  f (b ) f  g .

12. f : R  R be defined by f ( x)  x2  2 x .
a) Find ( f  f )(2) and ( f  f )(3) .
b) Find a formula for f  f .
13. If ( ) = 3 , ( )= then the range of .
14. Determine which of the graphs below are functions from into .

15. Determine whether the following functions are even or odd

a. ( )=
b. ( ) = log +√ +1
1.2. Types of Functions
Learning Objectives:
 To define a one-one function, an onto function and the inverse of a function
 To study geometrical characterization of one-one and onto functions : →
AND
 To practice the related problems
One-to-One, Onto, and Invertible Functions
A function : → is said to be one-to-one if distinct elements in the domain
have distinct images. In other words,
ʹ
is one-to-one if ( ) = ⇒ = ʹ

Example: If = {4,5,6}, = { , , , } and if : → such that =

{(4, ), (5, ), (6, )} then is one-to-one.

Example: The mapping : → such that ( ) = is not a one-to-one function,

since (−2) = 4 and (2) = 4, that is, two distinct elements −2 and 2 have the
same image 4.

If a function : → is such that two or more elements of have the same -

image in , then the mapping is called many-to-one mapping or many-to-one
function.
Example: If = { , , , , }, = {1,2,3}, and if : → is such that
= {( , 1), ( , 1), ( , 1), ( , 2), ( , 2)}
then the function is many-to-one.

A function : → is called an onto function if every element of is the image of

at least one element of . That is, for every ∈ there exist at least one element
such that ( ) = . That is,
is onto if ∀ ∈ , ∃ such that ( ) =
In such a case, we say that maps onto (Here the symbol ∀ means for every, and
∃ means there exist).
If : → is not an onto function, that is, some of the elements of remain
unused, then is called an into function.
Example: The function : → defined by ( ) = | | is not onto since the
negative numbers in the co-domain are not used. Similarly, ( ) = is also not
onto.
If : → is both one-to-one and onto, then is called a one-to-one
correspondence between and . This terminology comes from the fact that each
element of will correspond to a unique element of and vice versa.

We also use the term injective for a one-to-one function, surjective for an onto
function, and bijective for a one-to-one correspondence.
Example: For the function : → defined by
( )= , which of the following is true.
(a) onto (b) many- to-one (c) one-to-one and into
(d) many-to- one and onto
Solution: Let , ,
( )= ( )⇒ = ⇒ = ;
Therefore, is one - one. Notice that is always positive, i.e., the negative real
numbers and zero have no preimages. Therefore, is into.
Answer is (c).

A function : → is said to be invertible if its inverse relation is a function

from to . Equivalently, : → is invertible if there exists a function : →
, called the inverse of , such that
∘ = and ∘ =

In general, an inverse function need not exist or, equivalently, the inverse
relation may not be a function.

Theorem: A function : → is invertible if and only if is both one-to-one and

onto.
Example: Consider functions : → , : → ,
: → , : → defined in the figure below.
The function is one-to-one since no element of is the image of more than one
element of . It is not onto since 3 is not the image of any element of under
.
The function, is one-to-one and is onto, since every element of is the image
of some element under . Further, is not one-to-one but onto and is neither
one-to-one nor onto.

Since is both one-to-one and onto, it is a one-to-one correspondence between

and . Hence is invertible and is a function from to .
Geometrical Characterization
Consider a real-valued function : → . It may be identified with its graph which is
plotted in the Cartesian plane . The concepts of being one-to-one and onto have
the following geometrical meaning.

One-to-one means that there are no two distinct pairs ( , )and ( , ) in ; hence
each horizontal line in can intersect the graph of in at most one point
(Horizontal line test).
Onto means that for every there is at least one point such that ( , )
belongs to the graph of ; hence each horizontal line in must intersect the graph
of at least once.

Accordingly, the function : → is one-to-one and onto (and therefore invertible)

if and only if each horizontal line in will intersect the graph of in exactly one
point.

Example: Consider the following four functions from into whose graphs are
shown below.
( )= , ( )= 2 , ( )= − 2 − 5 + 6, ( ) =
There are horizontal lines which intersect the graph of twice and there are
horizontal lines which do not intersect the graph of at all; hence is neither one-
to-one nor onto.
Similarly, is one-to-one but not onto, is onto but not one-to-one, and is both
one-to-one and onto.
The inverse of is the cube root function, that is,
( )= √

NOTE:
Sometimes, we restrict the domain and co-domain of a function in order to obtain
an inverse function . For example, suppose we restrict the domain and co-
domain of the function ( ) = to be the set of nonnegative real numbers.
Then is one-to-one and onto and its inverse is the square root function, that is,
( )= √

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Discuss the injection (one-one) and surjection (onto) of the function : ⟶
defined by ( ) = + for all ∈ .
Solution:
We have, ( ) = + for all ∈
Notice that (1) = (−2) = 2. Thus maps two distinct elements into an element
and hence is not a one-to-one function.
The function is not onto, since 1 ∈ (co-domain) has no pre-image in (domain).
±√
(If 1 has a pre-image say , then ( ) = 1 this implies + = 1 i.e., = .
±√
Notice that = ∉ )
Therefore, is neither one-one nor onto.

P1: Discuss the injection (one-one) and surjection (onto) of the function
: ⟶ defined by ( ) = + for all ∈ .
Solution:
We have, ( ) = + 2 for all ∈
Notice that (1) = (−1) = 3. Thus maps two distinct elements into an element
and hence is not a one – one function.
The function is not onto, since 1 ∈ (co-domain) has no pre-image in (domain).
(If 1 has a pre-image say , then ( ) = 1 this implies + 2 = 1 i.e., = −1 and
this is not possible for any ∈ .
(The above result can also be seen as follows: ( )= +2≥ 2∀ ∈ .
So, negative real numbers in (co-domain) do not have their pre-images in
(domain). Hence, is not an onto function).
Therefore, is neither one-one nor onto.

IP2: Discuss the injection (one-one) and surjection (onto) of the function
: ⟶ defined by ( ) = + , ≠ ,± ; , ∈ .
Solution:
We have, ( ) = + , ≠ 0, ±1; , ∈
( )= ( )⇒ + = + ⇒ = ⇒ =
∴ is a one – one function.
Let be an element of (co-domain). Then
( )= ⇒ + = ⇒ =
Clearly, + 1 ∈ ; if = + 1, then = = ∉ .
Thus, = + 1 ∈ does not have its pre-image in (domain).
∴ is not an onto function.
Hence, is one – one but not onto.
Note:
The functions , : → defined by
( )= + , ( )=− +
are one – one and onto.

P2: Discuss the injection (one-one) and surjection (onto) of the function
: ⟶ defined by ( ) = + for all ∈ .
Solution:
We have, ( ) = 3 + 2 ∀ ∈
( )= ( )⇒3 +2 =3 +2 ⇒3 =3 ⇒ =
∴ is a one – one function.
Let be an element of (co-domain).
Then ( ) = ⇒3 +2 = ⇒ = .
Clearly, if = 3, then = = ∉ .
Thus, = 3 ∈ does not have its pre-image in (domain).
∴ is not an onto function.
Hence, is one – one but not onto.
IP3: Prove that the function : ⟶ given by ( ) = − for all ∈ is a
bijection (one-one and onto).
Solution:
Injectivity(one-to-one):
Let , be two elements in (domain).
Then, ( ) = ( ) ⇒ 2 − 3 = 2 − 3 ⇒ 2 = 2 ⇒ =
Thus, ( ) = ( ) ⇒ = ∀ , ∈ .
So, is a one-to-one function.
Surjectivity(onto):
Let be an element of (co-domain).
Then, ( ) = ⇒2 −3 = ⇒ =
Clearly, for all ∈ , = ∈ .
Thus for all ∈ (co-domain) there exists ∈ (domain) given by =
such that ( )= =2 −3 [∵ ( ) = 2 − 3]
= +3−3 =
Thus, every element in the co-domain has its pre-image in .
So, is an onto function.
Hence, is a bijection (one – one and onto).
P3: Show that the function : ⟶ defined by ( ) = + for all ∈ is
a bijection (one-one and onto).
Solution:
Injectivity(one-one):
Let , be two elements in (domain).
Then, ( ) = ( ) ⇒ 3 + 5 = 3 + 5
⇒ = ⇒ =
Thus, ( ) = ( ) ⇒ = ∀ , ∈ .
So, is an one – one function.
Surjectivity(onto):
Let be an element of (co-domain).

Then, ( ) = ⇒3 +5= ⇒ = ⇒ =

Thus, we find that for all ∈ (co-domain), there exists = ∈ (domain)

such that

( )= =3 + 5 [∵ ( ) = 3 + 5]

= −5+5=
This shows that every element in the co-domain has its pre-image in the domain.
So, is an onto function.
Hence, is a bijection (one – one and onto).

IP4: Show that the function : − {− } ⟶ − { } given by ( )= is

invertible. Also, find .
Solution:
In order to prove the invertibility of ( ), it is sufficient to show that it is a bijection.
For any , ∈ − {−1},
we have ( ) = ( ) ⇒ = ⇒ + = + ⇒ =
∴ is one – one.
Let ∈ − {1}. Then, ( ) = ⇒ = ⇒ =
Clearly, ∈ for all ∈ − {1}. Also ≠ −1. Because, if = −1 ⇒ =
−1 ⇒ = −1 + , which is not possible.
Thus, for each ∈ − {1} there exists = ∈ − {−1} such that

( )= = =

∴ is onto.
Thus, is both one – one and onto. Consequently it is invertible.
Now, ( )= ∀ ∈ − {1}
( )
⇒ [ ( )] = ⇒ ( )
= ∵ ( )=
⇒ ( )= ( )+ ⇒ ( )(1 − ) =
⇒ ( )= ∀ ∈ − {1}

P4: Show that the function : −{ }⟶ − { } given by ( )= is invertible

and it is inverse of itself.
Solution:
In order to prove that is invertible, it is sufficient to show that it is a bijection.
For any , ∈ − {0}, we have
( )= ( )⇒ = ⇒ =
∴ is one – one.
Let ∈ − {0}. Then, ( )= ⇒ = ⇒ =

Thus, for each ∈ − {0} there exists = ∈ − {0 }

such that ( )= = =

∴ is onto.
Thus, is both one – one and onto. Consequently it is invertible.
Let, ( ) = . Then,
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ ( )=

Thus, is given by ( ) = for all ∈ − {0}.

Hence, is inverse of itself.
Exercises:
1. Let the functions : → , : → and ℎ: → , be defined by the figure
below.

a) Determine if each function is one-to-one.

b) Determine if each function is onto.
c) Determine if each function is invertible.
d) Find the composition ℎ

2. Prove that : → , given by ( ) = 2 , is one-one and onto.

3. Show that the function : → be defined as ( ) = , is a bijection.
4. Show that the function : → given by ( ) = + , is a bijection.
5. Show that the function : → be defined as ( ) = , is neither one-one
nor onto.
6. Let : → be defined by ( ) = 2 − 3. The function is one-to-one and
onto; hence has an inverse function . Find a formula for .
7. If : → is defined by ( ) = 2 + 7. Prove that is a bijection. Also, find
the inverse of .
8. Find a formula for the inverse of ( ) =
9.
1.3. Inverse functions
Learning objectives:

 To define a one-to-one function and its inverse

 To state the Horizontal Line Test for a one-to-one function.
 To find the inverse of a given one-to-one function.
AND

 To practice the related problems.

One-to-One Functions
A function is a rule that assigns a value from its range to each point in its domain.
Some functions assign the same value to more than one point. The squares of −1
and 1 are both 1; The sines of /3 and 2 /3 are both√3⁄2. There are functions
which never assume a given value more than once. The square roots and cubes of
different numbers are always different. A function that has distinct values at distinct
points is called one-to-one.
Definition
A function ( ) is one-to-one on a domain if ( ) ≠ ( ) whenever ≠ in .
Example 1:
The function ( ) = √ is one-to-one on any domain of nonnegative numbers
because √ ≠ √ whenever ≠ .
Example 2:
The function ( ) = is not one-to-one on the interval [0, ] because
= . The sine is one-to-one on [0, /2], however, because sines of
angles in the first quadrant are distinct.
The graph of a one-to-one function = ( ) can intersect a given horizontal line at
most once. If it intersects the line more than once it assumes the same −value
more than once, and is therefore not one-to-one.
The Horizontal Line Test
A function = ( ) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects each horizontal
line at most once.
Inverses
Since each output of a one-to-one function comes from just one input, a one-to-one
function can be reversed to send the outputs back to the inputs from which they
came. The function defined by reversing a one-to-one function is called the
inverse of . The symbol for the inverse of is , read “ inverse”.
The result of composing and in either order is the identity function, the
function that assigns each number to itself.

This gives a way to test whether two functions and are inverses of one another.
Compute f g and g f . If  f  g  x    g  f  x   x , then f and g
are inverse of one another; otherwise they are not.
Functions and are an inverse pair if and only if
f  g  x    x and g  f  x    x .
1 1
In this case, g f and f g .
A function has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one. This means, for example, that
increasing functions have inverses, and decreasing functions have inverses.
Functions with positive derivatives have inverses because they increase throughout
their domains. Similarly, functions with negative derivatives have inverses because
they decrease throughout their domains.
Finding Inverses
If the function is increasing, its graph rises from left to right, like the graph in figure
(a) below.

To read the graph, we start at the point on the −axis, go up to the graph, and
then move over to the −axis to read the value of . If we start with and want to
find from which it came, we reverse the process (figure b).
The graph of is the graph of with the input-output pairs reversed. To display
the graph in the usual way, we have to reverse the pairs by reflecting the graph in
the 45° line = (figure (c)) and interchanging the letters and (figure (d)). This
puts the independent variable, now called , on the horizontal axis and the
dependent variable, now called , on the vertical axis. The graphs of ( ) and
( ) are symmetric about the line =
The procedure for expressing as a function of is given below.
Solve the equation = ( ) for in terms of .
Interchange and . The resulting formula will be = ( ).
Example 3
Find the inverse of = + 1 expressed as a function of .
Solution
We solve for in terms of .
1
y  x 1 2y  x  2  x  2y  2
2
Interchange and : = 2 −2
1
The inverse of the function f  x   x  1 is the function f 1  x   2 x  2 .
2
We verify that both composites give the identity function.
1 
f 1  f  x    2  x  1  2  x  2  2  x
2 
1
 
f f 1  x    2 x  2   1  x  1  1  x
2

Example 4: Find the inverse of the function y  x 2 , x  0 , expressed as a

function of .
Solution: Solve for in terms of :
2
yx

 y  x 2  x  x, x  x because x  0
Interchange and : y x
The inverse of the function y  x 2 , x  0 , is the function y  x .

We note that, unlike the restricted function y  x 2 , x  0 , the unrestricted

function y  x 2 is not one-to-one and therefore has no inverse.

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Verify the graph given below is one to one or not.

Solution:

Notice that a horizontal line, for example = 1 intersects the given graph at two
points. Therefore, by the Horizontal Line Test the function = ( ) = 2| | is not a
one-to-one function.
Note:
For = 1 , = −1 we have ( ) = ( ) = 2 i.e., distinct elements in the
domain of are mapped to the same element in the range. Thus, is not one-to-
one.
P1. Verify the graph given below is one to one or not.

Solution:
Notice that the graph intersects each horizontal line at most once. Therefore, by the
Horizontal Line Test the function = ( )= , ≠ 0 is a one-to-one function.
IP2. Let ( ) = − then find a formula for .
Solution:
Given = ( ) = −1
Notice that
≠ ⟹ ≠ ⟹ −1≠ −1 ⟹ ( )≠ ( )
Therefore, ( ) is one-to-one and its inverse exists.
Now, solve for in terms of :
i.e., = −1⟹ = +1⟹ = +1
Interchange and : = √ +1
Therefore, the inverse of the function ( ) = − 1 is the function = ( )=
√ + 1.
The related graphs of and are shown below.

P2. Let ( ) = + , ≥ then find a formula for .

Solution:
Given = ( ) = + 1, ≥ 0
Notice that
 ≠ ⟹ ≠ ⟹ +1≠ +1 ⟹ ( )≠ ( )
Thus, ( ) is a one-to-one function and its inverse exists.
Now, solve for in terms of :
i.e., = +1⟹ =1− ⟹ = −1
Interchange and : = √ − 1
Therefore, the inverse of the function ( ) = + 1 is the function = ( )=
√ − 1.
The related graphs of and are shown below.

IP3. Let ( ) = , > 0 then find a formula for and identify the domain
and range of . As a check show that

f f 1

(x)  f 1
 f ( x)  x
Solution: Given = ( )= , >0
Notice that Domain of = (0, ∞) ; Range of = (0, ∞)
≠ ⟹ ≠ ⟹ ( )≠ ( )
Therefore, is one-to-one and its inverse exists.
Now, solve for in terms of :
i.e., = ⟹ = ⟹ =
√
Interchange and : =
√
Therefore, the inverse of the function ( ) = is the function = ( )= .
√
Domain of = Range of = (0, ∞)
Range of = Domain of = (0, ∞)
1  1
 f  f  1  ( x )  f  f  1 ( x )   f  
x 2
x

1 x 
 f  1  f  ( x )  f  1  f ( x )   f  1  x12   1
x
1 x  2
 Thus,  f  f 1  ( x)   f 1  f  ( x)  x
This checks that and are inverse to each to other.
P3. Let ( ) = then find a formula for and identify the domain and range

of . As a check show that  

f f 1 ( x )  f 1  f ( x )   x
Solution: Given = ( ) =
Notice that Domain of = ℝ ; Range of = ℝ
≠ ⟹ ≠ ⟹ ( )≠ ( )
Therefore, is one-to-one and its inverse exists.
Now, solve for in terms of :
i.e., = ⟹ =
Interchange and : =
Therefore, the inverse of the function ( ) = is the function = ( )= .
Domain of = range of = ℝ
Range of = Domain of = ℝ
15 5
 f  f  ( x)  f  f ( x )   f  x    x   x
1 1 15

5 15
 f 1
 f  ( x )  f 1
 f ( x )   f     x
1 5
x  x

Thus,  f  f 1  ( x)   f 1  f  ( x)  x
This checks that and are inverse to each to other.
IP4. If the functions and be defined by ( ) = − ,

( )= + for ∈
1
respectively then g  f  1
 (38) 
Solution:
Given ( ) = 3 − 4.Clearly is one-to-one.
Now, solve for in terms of
=3 −4⟹3 = +4 ⟹ =
Interchange and : =
The inverse of the function ( ) = 3 − 4 is the function = ( )=
Again, we have ( ) = 2 + 3 .Clearly is one-to-one.
Now, solve for in terms of
= 2+3 ⟹ 3 = −2⟹ =
Interchange and : =
The inverse of the function ( ) = 2 + 3 is the function = ( )=

 
 g 1  f 1 (38) = = [14] = =4

P4. Let the functions : → , : → be defined by ( ) = − and

( )= + . If ( ) = then find the value of .
Solution:
Given ( ) = 4 − 1.Clearly is one-to-one.
Now, solve for in terms of
=4 −1⟹4 = +1 ⟹ =
Interchange and : =
The inverse of the function ( ) = 4 − 1 is the function = ( )=

Now, ( ) = = = +2

= =
∴ ( ) = = 2 (By hypothesis)
+ 37 = 32 ⟹ = −5

EXERCISES

1. Which of the functions graphed below are one-to-one, and which are not?
a. b.
c. d.

2. Graph the function f  x   1  x 2 , 0  x  1. What symmetry does the

graph have? Show that f is its own inverse.

3. The formula for a function y  f ( x) and show the graphs of f and f 1 are
given below. Find a formula for f 1 in each case.
4. The formula for a function = ( ) is given below. In each case, find f 1  x 
and identify the domain and range of f 1. As a check, show that

 
f f 1  x   f 1  f  x    x .
a. ( )= , ≥0
b. ( )= +1
c. ( )= −
d. ( )= , ≠0

1.4. Exponential Functions

Learning Objectives
 To define an exponential function and to study its graph called exponential
curve
And
 To practice problems on compound interest and half life of a radioactive
substance.

From the theory of indices, we have the following relations

1
am  a  aa (m times), a0  1, am 
am
Where m is a positive integer.
Exponents are extended to include all rational numbers by defining
m
m
a  a 
n n m
 a n

m
for any rational number .
n
For example,
2
4 1 1
2  16, 2  4  , 125 3  52  25
4

2 16
2 3

5 4
Example: Evaluate 2 , 3 , 8 , 25 3 2

25  2  2  2  2  2  32
 1 1
34  
34 81
2
2
8 
3
 8
3
 22  4
3

2
1 1 1 1
25  3
 3
 
53 125
25 2  25 
As a further extension, the exponents can also be allowed to be real numbers. We
may define an exponential function as follows.

A function of the form ( ) = , where the base b is a positive constant, ≠ 1, is

called an exponential function. The domain and range of an exponential function
are (−∞, ∞) and (0, ∞) respectively. An exponential function never assumes the
value 0.
Each of the following is an exponential function:
x
1
f  x   2x , y  3x , f x   
4
Example The decay of radioactive iodine-131 is described by the exponential
function A  A0  2 t /8
where A and A0 are measured in g and t in days.
Find its half-life. (The half life of a decaying substance is defined as the time it takes
to decrease to half of its original amount).
Solution: Half life is given by
t
A0
 A0  2t / 8  21  2 8
2
t
 1  
8
 t  8 days
Exponential curve: The curve whose equation is
y  a x , where a is a positive constant, a  1, x  R.
Is called an exponential curve. The general properties of such curves are that the
curve passes through the point (0,1) and that the curve lies above the - axis -axis
is an asymptote of the curve.
Example: Sketch the graphs of y  2x , y  3x
The graphs are shown below.

The exponential equation appears frequently in the form

y  ce kx Where c and are nonzero constants and e  2.71828 .We can
solve equations that contain a variable as exponent if we can convert both sides of
the equation to an expression with the same base.
1
Example: Solve the equation 8x 
2
1 x 1
8x    23    23 x  21
2 2
Solution:
1
 3x  1 x
3
Compound Interest: If P rupees is deposited in an account with an annual interest
rate r , compounded n times per year, then the amount of money in the account
after t years is given by the exponential equation
nt
 r
A t   P  1  
 n
The number e , like π, is an irrational number. Like π, it can be approximated with a
decimal number. Whereas π is approximately 3.1416, e is approximately 2.7183.
The exponential function based on the number e is called the natural exponential
function.
One common application of natural exponential functions is with interest bearing
nt
 r
accounts. The formula A t   P  1  
 n
gives the amount of money in an account if P rupees are deposited for t years at
annual interest rate r , compounded n times per year. If we let the number of
compounding periods become indefinitely large (that is, we compound the interest
every moment), we have an account with an interest that is compounded
continuously. The amount of money in the account after t years is given by
nt
 r
A  t   lim P  1  
n
 n
 Pert

Example1:
Suppose you deposit Rs 500 in an account with interest rate of 8% compounded
continuously. Then find the amount of money in the account after 5 years.
Solution:
Since the interest is compounded continuously, we use the formula A  t   Pert .
A  t   500e 0.08t
After 5 years, this account will contain
0.08   5
A  5  500e  500e 0.4  Rs.745.91
Example2:
Suppose you deposit Rs 500 in an account with an annual interest rate of 8%
compounded monthly. Find the amount of money in the account after 5 years?
Solution: We have
( ) = (1 + )
where = . 500, = 0.08 , = 12, = 5
×
(5) = 500 1 +
×
= 500( )
= . 744.92
Remark: The effect of continuous compounding as compared with monthly
compounding is an addition of Rs 0.99.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Mahesh place . in a bank account that earns % interest
compounded continuously. What is the total amount (in rupees) in the account
after years?
Solution:
STEP1: = 4000, = 3, = 0.05 .
STEP2: Since interest is compounded continuously.
 ( )=
STEP3: Substituting in these values results in
(3) = 4000 . ×
(3) = 4000 .
STEP4: = 4000(1.161834) = 4647.33

P1: Rahul place . in a bank account that earns % interest compounded

quarterly. What is the total amount (in rupees) in the account after years?
A. 4643.02
B. 4463.02
C. 4346.02
D. 4643.20
Answer: A
Solution: = 4000, = 3, = 0.05 .
Since interest is compounded quarterly,
There are 4 compounding periods per year.
Substituting in these values results in
= (1 + )
. ×
= 4000(1 + )
= 4000(1.160754518)
= 4643.02
IP2: The decay of radioactive iodine-131 is described by the exponential function
A  A0  2 t /6
where A and A0 are measured in g and t in days.
Find it s half-life. (The half life of a decaying substance is defined as the time it
takes to decrease to half of its original amount.)
Solution:
STEP1: Given (The decay of radioactive substance.) A  A0  2 t /6
STEP2: Half life is given by
A0
 A0  2  t / 6
2
t
 1  
STEP3: 6 STEP4: =6
 t  6 days
P2: The decay of radioactive substance is described by the exponential function
A  A0  2 t /4
where A and A0 are measured in g and t in days.
Find its half-life. (The half life of a decaying substance is defined as the time it
takes to decrease to half of its original amount.)
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
Answer: B
Solution: Half life is given by

A0
 A0  2  t / 4  2 1  2 t / 4
2
t
 1 
4
 t  4 days
IP3: A plant’s mass initially increases exponentially at a rate of % per day. On the
initial day of recorded growth, the plant has mass of . What is the mass of the
plant after days from the initial day?
Solution:
STEP1: Plant will grow according to the formula
= . , where = 10, = 0.05, = 30
we get , = 10. . ×
STEP2: = 10. .
= 10 × 4.48
= 44.8
P3: A plant’s mass initially increases exponentially at a rate of % per day. On the
initial day of recorded growth, the plant has mass of . What is the mass of the
plant after days from the initial day?
Solution: Plant will grow according to the formula = .
Where = 10, = 0.05, = 4
We get
= 10. . ×
= 10. .
= 10 × 1.22
= 12.2
IP4: Suppose that a certain material has a half life of years, and there are
( ) = ( )/ grams remaining after t years. Find the amount after years.
Solution:
Step1: ( ) = ( )/ (Here is half life)
The initial amount is 18g, as we can read directly off of the formula for ( ).
1
( ) = 18( ) /
2
Step2: ( ) = 18( ) /
After 45 years, we have

Step3: (45 ) = 18 = 2.25 grams left.

P4: Suppose that a certain material has a half life of years, and there are
( ) = ( )/ grams remaining after t years. Find the amount after
years.
Solution: The initial amount is 10g, as we can read directly off of the formula for
( ).
( ) = ( ) / (Here is half life)
1
( ) = 10( ) /
2
after 80 years, we have
(80) = 10( ) / ≈ 1.088 grams left.

Exercises
5 4

3 2
1) Find 6 , 7 , 4 , 27 2 3

2) A patient is administered a 1200 dose of iodine-131, whose half life is 10

days. How much iodine-131 will be in the patient’s system after 20 days?
2
3) Sketch the graph of y  3 x y  e2 x y  e x
4) Suppose you deposit Rs 500 in an account with an annual interest rate of 8%
compounded quarterly. Find an equation that gives the amount of money in
the account after t years. Then find the amount of money in the account
after 5 years.
5) Suppose you deposit Rs 1000 in an account with an annual interest rate of
12% compounded monthly.
i) Find an equation that gives the amount of money in the account after t
years.
 ii) Find the amount of money in the account after 5 years.
iii) If the interest were compounded continuously, how much money
would the account contain after 5 years?
6) Compute the value of an account of $12,000 after four years if the interest rate is
7% and is compounded.
a. Monthly
b. quarterly
c. Semiannually
d. Weekly
e. continuously
7) Compute the interest earned on a CD of $1500 after 18 months if the interest
rate is 8% and is compounded monthly.
8) Compute the interest earned on an investment of $5000 after 18 months if
the interest rate is 8.25% and is compounded daily.
9) If you had $5,000 to invest for 4 years with the goal of greatest return on your
investment, would you rather invest in an account paying?
a. 7.2% Compounded quarterly,
b. 7.15% Compounded daily, or.
c. 7.1% Compounded hourly?

1.5. Logarithmic Functions

Learning objectives:
 About the logarithmic functions, common Logarithms, Natural Logarithms,
Binary Logarithms and Logarithmic Equations.
 The relationship between the Exponential and Logarithmic functions.
Solve the problems related to the above concepts.

Logarithmic Functions
Logarithms are related to exponents as follows.
Let be a positive number and ≠ 1 then the logarithm of any positive number to
the base , written log represents the exponent to which must be raised to
obtain . That is, If y  log b x then x  by
Accordingly,
 log2 8  3 since 23  8
log2 64  6 since 26  64
log10100  2 since 102  100
log10 0.001  3 since 103  0.001
Furthermore, for any base ,
logb1  0 since b0  1
logbb  1 since b1  b
The logarithm of a negative number and the logarithm of 0 are not defined.
Frequently, logarithms are expressed using approximate values. For example, using
tables or calculators, one obtains
log10 300  2.4771 loge 40  3.6889  e  2.718281
as approximate answers.

The integral part of the logarithm is called the characteristic. The fractional part is
called the mantissa.

Thus 2 and 3 above are the characteristic, while 0.4771 and 0.6889 are the
mantissa of the logarithms of the corresponding numbers.

Three classes of logarithms are of special importance: logarithms to base 10, called
common logarithms; logarithms to base , called natural logarithms; and
logarithms to base 2, called binary logarithms.
In the initial mathematical work, it is common to use to mean
and to mean .
In the advanced mathematical work, the term is used for .

There are two special identities each of which is a consequence of the definition of a
logarithm:

blog b x  x and logb b x  x

The first identity simply says that we take logarithm of first and then exponent ate;
whereas the second identity says that we take exponential first and then the
logarithm. Evidently, both should yield since exponential and logarithms are
inverse to each other. However, they can also be formally proved.
Logarithmic Curve
The curve whose equation is y  logb x, b 1
is called a logarithmic curve. The general properties of this curve are that the curve
passes through the point (1,0) and the curve lies to the right of the -axis and has
that axis as an asymptote.

Example 1: Sketch the graph of y  log2 x .

The graph is shown below.

Relationship between Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

The basic relationship between the exponential and the logarithmic functions

f ( x)  b x and g ( x)  logb x

is that they are inverses of each other; hence the graphs of these functions are
related geometrically. This relationship is illustrated below where the graphs of the
exponential function f ( x)  2 x , the logarithmic function g ( x)  log 2 x , and the
linear function h( x)  x appear on the same coordinate axis. Since f ( x)  2 x
and g ( x)  log 2 x are inverse functions, they are symmetric with respect to the
linear function h ( x )  x or, in other words, the line y  x .
From this figure, we notice an important property of the exponential and
logarithmic functions. For any positive c , we have
g ( c )  h (c )  f (c )
As c increases in value, the vertical distances h(c)  g (c) and f (c)  g (c)
increase in value. Also, the logarithmic function g ( x ) grows very slowly compared
with the linear function ℎ( ), and the exponential function f ( x ) grows very
quickly compared with ℎ( ).
Logarithmic Equation
When finding the logarithm of an expression, the expression is called the argument
of the logarithm. For example, in 3, 3 is the argument, and in log(2 x  4) , the
2 + 4 is the argument.
A logarithmic equation is one in which a variable appears in the argument of some
logarithm.
Some logarithmic equations can be solved by expressing the equation in exponential
form.
Example 2: Solve the equation log 2 ( x  1)3  4
Solution: Writing the equation in exponential form gives
3 4
( x  1)  2
( x  1)3  16, x  1  3 16, x  1  3 16

Several logarithmic equations can be solved by using the properties of the

logarithms.( ℎ ℎ ℎ ).
Example 3: Solve the equation log(3 x  2)  log 9  log( x  5)
Solution:
 log(3 x  2)  log 9  log( x  5)
 log 9(3x  2)  log( x  5)
 9(3x  2)  ( x  5)
 27 x  18  x  5
 26 x  13
1
x
2
The solution to a logarithmic equation should be checked since it is possible to
introduce extraneous solutions. In the present case, a check shows that the solution
is correct.
Example 4: Solve the equation log x  log( x  1)  log12
Solution:
log x  log( x  1)  log12
 log x( x  1)  log12
 x( x  1)  12
 x2  x  12  0
 ( x  4)( x  3)  0
 x  4 or x3

A check for x  3 shows that it is a correct solution.

Checking for = −4 , we have

log(4)  log(3)  log12

Logarithm of negative numbers is not defined. Thus, −4 is an extraneous solution.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: If = = then . . =
Solution:
Step 1: Given that = = = ( )
⟹ ln = ( − ) , ln = ( − ), ln = ( − )
Step2: Now,
 ( ) ( ) ( )
= , = , =
Now,
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
. . = . .
( )
=
= =1
P1: If = = then . . =
Solution:
Given that = = = ( )
⟹ = ( − ), = ( − ), = ( − ),
Now,
+ +
= .[ − + − + − ]
= (0) = 0
. ., + + =0
⟹ + + =0⟹ =0
⟹ . . =
⟹ . . =1

IP2: √ √ =

Solution:

Step1: We have to compute the value of log √ √

Step2:

√ = . . .

= =

Step3: log √ √ = log √

= log √ √ = log √ √ =

Step4: Hence log √ √ =

P2: The value of √ √ =

Solution:

Given that √ 4 16 64√256

4 16 64√256 = 4 . (16) . (64 ) . (256)

= 2 .2 .2 .2

=2 = 2 = √2

Now, log √ 4 16 64√256 = log √ √2 =

IP3: − + − + − + ⋯+ − =
Solution:
log 1− + log 1− + log 1− + ⋯ + log 1−
= log + log + log + ⋯ + log
= log . . ………
= log = log = −1

P3: If + + + + + +⋯+ + =
then the value of =
Solution:
Given that
1 1 1 1
log 1 + + log 1++ log 1 + + ⋯ + log 1+ =4
3 4 5 242
⟹ log + log + log + ⋯ + log =4
⟹ log . . ……… =4
⟹ log =4
⟹ log 81 = 4
⟹ log 3 = 4
⟹ 4 log 3 = 4
⟹ log 3 = 1 ⟹ 3 = ⟹ =3
IP4: If ( + )= + ( + ) then the value of is
Solution:
Step1:
Given that log (3 + 7) = 2 + {log (3 + 1)}
⟹ log (3 + 7) = log 4 + {log (3 + 1)}
⟹ log (3 + 7) = log 4(3 + 1)
⟹ (3 ) + 7 = 4(3 + 1)
Step2:
Put 3 = then we have
⟹ + 7 = 4( + 1)
⟹ −4 +3 =0
⟹ ( − 3)( − 1) = 0
⟹ = 1, = 3
Step3:
. .,3 =1 3 =3
3 =3 3 =9=3
Hence = 1 =2

P4: If ( . + )+ = ( + ) then the value of is

Solution:
log (5. 2 + 1) + log 2 = log (2 + 1)
⟹ log (5. 2 + 1) 2 = log (2 + 1)
⟹ 2(5. 2 + 1) = 2 ( )

⟹ 10. 2 + 2 = (2 + 1) =2 +1
⟹ 10. 2 + 2 = +1
Put 2 =
⟹ 10 + 1 =
⟹ 10 + − 2 = 0
⟹ (5 − 2)(2 + 1) = 0
⟹ = ,−
⟹2 = (∵ 2 > 0)
⟹ = log
 EXERCISES
log b x x
1. Prove that b  x and log b b  x.
2. Solve the equation log(3 x  5)  log5 x  1.23
3
3. Solve the equation log(2 x  4)  .648
4. If log [1 + log {1 + log }] = 0 .
5. Find the value of + + +⋯+
6. Find the value of
7. log 1+ + log 1+ + ⋯ + log 1+
8. Find the value of if = =
9. If + =6
, Prove that
2 ( + )= + +3 2.
10. If ( + ) = 125 ℎ ℎ
2 log( + ) = 3 log 5 + log + log
11.If = = and = 1 find the value of p.
12.If =1+ , =1+ , =1+ then show
that = + + .
13.Solve 2 log 2 + log (2 − 6 + 5) = log (2 − 5)
14.If = then the value of is
15.Find the value of if ( + )− ( + 1) = 2
16.If 2 ( + )+ ( − )− ( − )=
Then find .
1.6. Graphs of Functions
Learning Objectives
 To learn the concepts of solution, solution set and the graph of an equation in
variables and

 To define and intercepts of a graph and to learn vertical line test for the
graph of a function
 To study the graphs of
i. Absolute value function
ii. Greatest and least integer functions
iii. Power functions and
iv. Circles and Parabolas

 To study the concept of shifting a graph

Graphs
The correspondence between points in a plane and ordered pairs of real numbers
will enable the visualization of algebraic equations as geometric curves, and,
conversely, to represent geometric curves by algebraic equations.
Suppose that we have a -coordinate system and an equation involving two
variables and , say 6 – 4 = 10. We define a solution of such an equation to
be any ordered pair of real numbers ( , ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation
when we substitute = and = . For example, the ordered pair (3, 2) is a
solution of the equation 6 – 4 = 10, since the equation is satisfied by = 3
and = 2. However, the ordered pair (2, 0) is not a solution of this equation, since
the equation is not satisfied by = 2 and = 0.
A solution of an equation involving two variables and is an ordered pair of real
numbers ( , ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation when a, b are substituted
for and respectively.
The set of all solutions of an equation in and is called the solution set of the
equation.
The graph of an equation or inequality involving the variables and is the set of
all points ( , ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation or inequality.
The above figure is the graph of the equation = . Some points whose
coordinates satisfy this equation are (0, 0), (1, 1), (−1, 1), (2, 4), and (−2, 4). These
points, and all others satisfying the equation, make up a smooth curve called a
parabola.
A graph intersects the -axis at a point which has the form ( , 0) and the -axis at a
point which has the form (0, ). The number a is called an -intercept of the graph
and the number b is called an -intercept.

The vertical line Test:

A function f can have only one value ( ) for each in its domain, so no vertical line
can intersect the graph of a function more than once. If a is in the domain of a
function f, then the vertical line = will intersect the graph of f in the single
point ( , ( )).
The graph of a function f is the graph of the equation = ( ). It consists of the
points in the plane whose coordinates ( , ) are input-output pairs for . The graph
of a function can be obtained by plotting several coordinate pairs that satisfy the
functional rule and joining them by a smooth curve.
Example 1:
Find intercepts of + =
Solution
To find the −intercept, set = 0 and solve for : 3 = 6 or = 2
To find the -intercept, set = 0 and
solve for : 2 = 6 = 3
The Graph of y  ax 2  bx  c
2
An equation of the form y  ax  bx  c, (a  0) is called a quadratic equation
in . Depending on whether a is positive or negative, the graph has one of the two
forms shown below.

In both cases, the parabola is symmetric about a vertical line parallel to the −
. This line of symmetry cuts the parabola at a point called the vertex. The vertex
is the low point on the curve if a > 0 and the high point if a < 0. The quadratic
equation can be written as
2
 2 b   2 b  b   b2

y  a x  x   c  a x  x   
 c
 a   a  2 a   4a

2
 b  b2
 a x   c
 2a  4a
The x-coordinate of the vertex is given by =− .

Example 2: Sketch the graph of y  x2  2x  2

2
x  1, y  3, ( coordinate s of the vertex)
2 1
y - intercept  - 2
x - intercepts : x 2  2 x  2  0
Solution:
2  4  8 2  12
x   2 .7 ,  0 .7
2 2
The graph is shown below.
The graph of x  ay2  by  c
2
An equation of the form x  ay  by  c , ( a  0) is called a quadratic equation
in . The graph of such an equation is a parabola with its line of symmetry parallel to
the -axis and its vertex at the point with y-coordinate =−

Absolute Value Function

The absolute value of the real number , written | |, is defined as or – ,
depending on whether is positive or negative.
Thus,
 15  15, 7  7,  3.33  3.33, 4.44  4.44,  0.975  0.975
We note that | | = |− | and for ≠ 0, | | is positive. The graph of the absolute
value function is shown below.
Greatest and Least Integer Functions
The function whose value, at any number , is the greatest integer less than or
equal to is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is
denoted by ⌊ ⌋. It is read as floor of .

2.4  2, 1.9 1, 0  0, 1.2  2

2  2, 0.2  0,  0.3  1,  2  2
The graph of the greatest integer function is shown below.

The function whose value, at any number , is the smallest integer greater than or
equal to is called the least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It is
denoted by ⌈ ⌉. It is read as ceiling of .
Power Functions
Power functions in are of the form ( ) = .
If > 0, the graph of = is said to be of the parabolic type. The curve is a
parabola for = 2. If < 0, the graph of = is said to be of the hyperbolic
type. The curve is a hyperbola for = −1.
Example: Sketch the graphs of = / , = −
We compute the values of for selected values of . We plot these points and
draw a smooth curve through them.

Shifting a Graph
The equation of a graph changes when we shift the graph up or down or to the right
or left. To shift the graph of a function = ( ) straight up, we add a positive
constant to the right-hand side of the formula = ( ).
Example
Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x2 to get y = x2+1 shifts the graph
up 1.

To shift the graph of a function = ( ) straight down, we add a negative

constant to the right-hand side of the formula = ( ).
Example 3:
Adding −2 to the right-hand side of the formula = to get = − 2 shifts
the graph down 2 units.
To shift the graph of = ( ) to the left, we add a positive constant to .
Example 4:
Adding 3 to in = to get = ( + 3) shifts the graph 3 units to the left.

To shift the graph of = ( ) to the right, we add a negative constant to x.

Example 5:
Adding −2 to in = to get = ( − 2) shifts the graph 2 units to the
right.

The Shift Formulas are summarized as follows:

Vertical Shifts
y  k  f ( x ) Shifts the graph up k units if k  0
Shifts the graph down k units if k  0
Horizantal Shifts
y  f ( x  h) Shifts the graph right h units if h  0
Shifts the graph left h units if h  0
Example 6:
The graph of = ( − 2) − 2 is the graph of = shifted 2 units to the right
and 2 units down. The graph of = ( + 1) + 3 is the graph of =
shifted 1 unit to the left and 3 units up.

Graph of a Circle
A circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a given fixed point in the
plane is constant.
The fixed point is the center of the circle; the constant distance is the radius. The
circle of radius a centered at the origin has equation + = . If we shift the
circle to place its center at the point (ℎ, ), the equation of the circle is given by
( − ℎ) + ( − ) =
Example 7:
The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered at (3,4) is
( x  3) 2  ( y  4) 2  (2) 2
( x  3) 2  ( y  4) 2  4
Example 8:
Find the center and radius of the circle ( x  1)2  ( y  5)2  3
Solution
The center is the point (h, k)  (1,-5)
radius a  3
Example 9:
2 2
Find the center and radius of the circle x  y  4x  6y  3  0
Solution
We convert the equation to standard form by completing the squares in and .
2 2 2 2
 2  4   2   6    4    6 
 x  4x      y  6 y      3      
  2    2    2   2 
  
( x  2) 2  ( y  3) 2  3  4  9  16
center, (h, k )  (2,3); radius, a  4
2 2 2
The points that lie inside the circle (x  h)  ( y  k )  a are the points whose
distance less than units from (ℎ, ). They satisfy the inequality
( x  h)2  ( y  k )2  a2 . They make up the region we call the interior of the circle.
The circle’s exterior consists of the points that lie more than units from (h,k).
These points satisfy the inequality ( x  h)2  ( y  k)2  a 2

Example
Inequality Region
x 2  y2  1 Interior of the unit circle.
x 2  y2  1 Unit circle plus its interior.
x 2  y2  1 Exterior of the unit circle.
x 2  y2 1 Unit circle plus its exterior.
Graph of a Parabola
The graph of an equation (like = 3 or = −5 ) that has the form = is
a parabola whose axis (axis of symmetry) is the y-axis. The parabola’s vertex (point
where the parabola and axis cross) lies at the origin. The parabola opens upward if a
> 0 and downward if a < 0. The larger the value of |a|, the narrower the parabola.
If we interchange and in the formula = , we obtain the equation =

The graph of this equation is a parabola whose axis is the −axis and whose vertex
lies at the origin.

To shift the parabola = horizontally, we rewrite the equation as =

( − ℎ)
To shift it vertically as well, we change the equation to
− = ( − ℎ)
The combined shifts place the vertex at the point (ℎ, ) and the axis along the line
= ℎ.
When the right-hand side is multiplied, the rearranged equation takes the form
= + +
This tells us that the graph of every equation of the form = + + , ≠ 0, is
the graph of = shifted to some position. The curve = + + has the
same shape and orientation as the curve = .
Thus, the graph of the equation = + + , ≠ 0, is a parabola. The
parabola opens upward if a >0 and downward if a < 0. The axis is the line =−
The vertex of the parabola is the point where the axis and parabola intersect. Its -
coordinate is =− ; -coordinate is found by substituting =− in the
parabola’s equation.
Example 10:
Graph the equation =− − +4
Solution
1
a the graph opens down
2
b  1, c  4
b (  1)
The axis is the line x   1
2a 1
2 ( )
2
The x - coordinate of the vertex is - 1. The y - cordinate is
1 9
y   ( 1) 2  (  1)  4 
2 2
  9
The vertex is  - 1, 
 2
1 2
We find the x - intercepts :  x  x4  0
2
x2  2x  8  0
( x  2 )( x  4 )  0
x  2, x   4
The graph is sketched below.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Draw the graph of the function : → defined by ( ) = √
Solution:
Clearly, domain of the function is i.e., ∈ [0, ∞) and its range is also [0, ∞)
For some values of , we calculate the approximate values of the function .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
( )=√ 0 1 1.41 1.73 2 2.24 2.45 2.65 2.83 3
Graph:

P1: Sketch the graph of the function : → defined by ( ) = √ −

Solution: Clearly, domain of the function is given by
∈ , 9 − ≥ 0 ⇒ ≤ 9 i.e., (−∞, 9] and its range is [0, ∞).
For some selected values of , we get the following values for ( ).
−16 −7 0 5 8 9
√ − 5 4 3 2 1 0

Graph:

IP2: If any decimal value of can be written as = { } + ⌊ ⌋ here ⌊ ⌋ is floor value

of and { } is decimal value of and given { } + ⌊ ⌋ = . , ⌊ ⌋ + { } =
. and { } + ⌊ ⌋ = . , then find − + .
Solution :
We have , { } + ⌊ ⌋ = 84.45 … (1)
⌊ ⌋ + { } = 94.35 … (2)
{ } + ⌊ ⌋ = 105.65 … (3)
Step1:
∴ 84 = ⌊84.45⌋ = { } + ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ … (4)
94 = ⌊94.35⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ + { } = ⌊ ⌋ ... (5)
105 = ⌊105.65⌋ = { } + ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ … (6)
Step2:
From (1) and (4), we get { } = 0.45
From (2) and (5), we get { } = 0.35
From (3) and (6), we get { } = 0.65
Step3:
Since, = { } + ⌊ ⌋ = 0.65 + 94 = 94.65
Like the above, we calculate
= { } + ⌊ ⌋ = 0.45 + 105 = 105.45
And = { } + ⌊ ⌋ = 0.35 + 84 = 84.35
Step4:
∴ − + = 94.65 − 105.45 + 84.35 = 73.55
P2:
For all real numbers , = ⌊ ⌋ + { }, here ⌊ ⌋ is floor value of and { } is
decimal value of (similarly for ). Find , if + ⌊ ⌋ + { } = ;
 { }+ +⌊ ⌋ = . ;
⌊ ⌋+ { }+ = .
A. 114.35
B. 155.35
C. 155.85
D. 114.85
Answer: B
Solution:
Given: + ⌊ ⌋ + { } = 300 … (1)
{ } + + ⌊ ⌋ = 270.2 … (2)
⌊ ⌋ + { } + = 258.5 … . (3)
Since, for all real numbers of , = ⌊ ⌋ + { }
Adding (1) , (2) and (3), we get
( + ⌊ ⌋ + { }) + ({ } + + ⌊ ⌋) + (⌊ ⌋ + { } + )
= 300 + 270.2 + 258.5
⟹ +⌊ ⌋+ −⌊ ⌋+ −⌊ ⌋+ +⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+ −⌊ ⌋+ = 828.7
⟹ 2( + + ) = 828.7
⟹ + + = 414.35 … (4)
Subtracting each of (1) , (2) , (3) from (4), we get
{ } + ⌊ ⌋ = 114.35 … (5)
⌊ ⌋ + { } = 144.15 … (6)
{ } + ⌊ ⌋ = 155.85 … (7)
114 = ⌊114.35⌋ = { } + ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ … (8)
144 = ⌊144.15⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ + { } = ⌊ ⌋ … (9)
155 = ⌊155.85⌋ = { } + ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ … (10)
From (5) and (8), we get { } = 0.35
From (6) and (9), we get { } = 0.15
From (7) and (10), we get { } = 0.85
Therefore, = ⌊ ⌋ + { } = 155 + 0.35 = 155.35

IP3: Find the point (− , ) lie which side of the circle

− + − =
Solution:
Given circle is − + − = … (1)
Step1:
Centre of the circle (1) is , and =
Step2:
Substituting (−2,3) in the left side of the equation (1), we get −2 − +

3− = + = 49

= <

∴ − + − is less than at the point (−2,3)

Step3:
Therefore, the point (−2,3) lie inside the circle.
P3: On which side the point ,− lie of the circle
+ − + + =
A. Interior
B. Exterior
C. On the circle
D. None of the above
Answer: B
Solution:
Given circle : + − 2 + 12 + 12 = 0
⟹ ( − 2 + 1) + ( + 2.6. + 36 ) + 12 − 1 − 36 = 0
⟹ ( − 1) + ( + 6) = 25 … (1)
Given point : ,−

Substituting ,− in the left side of the equation (1), we get

−1 + − +6
= +
= > 25
∴ ( − 1) + ( + 6) > 25 at ,−

Therefore ,− lie outside the given circle.

IP4: Sketch the graph of the function ( ) = + .
Solution:
Given function: = ( ) = 2 + 1
The graph of the function, ( ) = 2 is a parabola whose axis is the – axis. The
parabola’s vertex lies at the origin (0,0) where the parabola and axis intersect each
other.
The graph of the function, = ( ) = 2 + 1 is also a parabola whose axis is the
– axis and the graph is shifted 1 unit to the right on the axis. Now, the parabola’s
vertex lies at the point (1,0) where the parabola and axis intersect each other.

Graph of ( ) = :

P4: Sketch the graph of the function, = − + +

Solution:
Given function: = −3 +3 +1
⟹ = ( − 3 + 3 − 1) + 2
⟹ = ( − 1) + 2
The graph of = ( − 1) + 2 is the graph of = shifted 1 unit to the right and
2 units up.
The graph of = :
The graph of =( + ) + :

Exercises:
1. Sketch the graph of y2  2 y  x  0
1
2. Sketch the graph of y 
x
1
3. Find intercepts of x  y 2  2 y and y 
x
4. Sketch the graph of y   x2  4 x  5
5. Sketch the graph of x  y2  4 y  5
 2 3 3 2 2
6. Sketch the graphs of y  x , y  x , y  x
7. Classify the given functions as even, odd, or neither.

a. f (x)  x2
b. f (x)  x3
2
c. f (x)  x  5x
d. Graph the above three functions
2
8. Find the -and -intercepts of the function f ( x)   x  x  2 and graph
the function.
9. Sketch the graph of the function defined piecewise by the formula
0 , x  1

f ( x)   1  x2 , 1  x  1
x , x 1


10. Sketch the graph of

a. y x 3
b. y  x3
c. y  x3  2
11. Sketch the graph of y  x2  4x  5
12. Sketch the graph of

a. f ( x)  x2  x  6
b. g( x)  x3  3x2  x  3
1.7. Exponential Equations
Learning objectives:

 To define the exponential equations.

 To solve the exponential equations using logarithms.
AND
 To practice the related problems.

For items involved in exponential growth, the time it takes for a quantity to double is
called the doubling time.
For example, if you invest Rs.5000 in an account that pays 5% annual interest,
compounded quarterly, you may want to know how long it will take for your money
to double in value. You can find this doubling time if you can solve the equation
10,000 = 5000(1.0125)
The method of converting both sides of the equation to an expression with the same
base may not work for this problem.

Logarithms are very important in solving equations in which the variable appears as
an exponent.
The above equation is an example of one such equation. Equations of this form are
called exponential equations.

An exponential equation is an equation where a variable appears in one or more

exponents.
If 5 = 12 then, so are their logarithms. Notice that both sides of the equation
cannot be written as a power of the same base. Now a method in which we take the
logarithm on both sides may work.
n
Example 1: Solve the equation. 5  20
Solution: Taking the logarithms on both sides of the equation, we have

log 5 n  log 20  n log 5  log 20

log 20 1 . 3010
 n   1 . 861
log 5 0 . 6990

Example 2: How long does it take for Rs 5000 to double if it is deposited in an

account that yields 5% interest compounded once a year?
Solution :
10,000 = 5000(1 + 0.05) ⟹ 2 = (1.05)
We solve by taking the logarithm of both sides.
log 2 = (1.05)
= log 1.05
log 1 . 05 we have
Dividing both sides by,
log 2
t  14.2
log 1.05
It takes a little over 14 years to double if it earns 5% interest per year, compounded
once a year.
The logarithms have a property, known as change-of-base property, which allows us
to change from one base to another.
If and are both positive numbers other than 1, and
If > 0 then
log b x
log a x 
log b a
The logarithm on the left side has a base , and both logarithms on the right side
have a base of . This allows us to change from base to any other base that is a
positive number other than 1.
We prove this property as follows.
We begin by writing the identity

a log a x  x
Taking the logarithm base on both sides, we have

log a x  log b a  log b x

Dividing both sides by log b a , we have the desired result.

The calculator provides for computing the logarithms with base 10 or . We can use
this property to find logarithms with other bases.
Example 3: Find log 8 24
Solution:
We change the given expression to an equivalent expression that contains only
base-10 logarithms.
 log 24
log 8 24 
log 8
1 . 3802
  1 . 5283
0 . 9031

PROBLEM SET
IP1: If = . , = . , = . ,
= . . Then find value of in the following equation
= .
Solution:
Step1:
The given equation is 21 = 2 .5
Step2:
By taking logarithms to the base 10 on both sides
⟹ 21 = 2 .5
⟹ (7 × 3) = 2 .5
⟹ 7 + 3 = 2 + 5
⟹ 7+ 3 = (2 + 1) 2+ 5
⟹ ( 7+ 3−2 2− 5) = 2
Step3:
Substituting the values of logarithms
⟹ (0.8450 + 0.4771 − 2(0.3010) − 0.6990) = 0.3010
⟹ (0.0211) = 0.3010
⟹ = 14.2654

P1 :
If = . , = . , = . then find the value of
in the following equation =
Solution:
Given that 3 =7
Taking Logarithms to the base 10 on both sides
⟹ log 3 = log 7
⟹ (1 + )log 3 = log 7
⟹ 2(1 + )log 3 = log 7
⟹ 2 log 3 = log 7 − 2 log 3
 ⟹ 2 log 3 = (log 7 − 2 log 3) … (1)
Now, by substituting the values of log 3 and log 7 in (1),
we get
⟹ 2(0.4771) = (0.8450 − 2(0.4771))
⟹ 0.9542 = (0.8450 − 0.9542)
⟹ 0.9542 = (−0.1092)
⟹ = −8.7381
IP2: Solve the equation for
= − .
Solution:
Step1:
The given equation is
= − .
Step2:
Using the property = , we can reduce the
equation as
= − ×
= −
Step3:
Solving the quadratic equation
− − + =
⟹ ( − )− ( − )=
⟹ ( − )( − ) =
⟹ = ,
P2: Solve the equation for
− = − .
A. 1,3
B. 2,3
C. 1,2
D. 2,2
Answer: C
Solution: The given equation is
8 − = −7
⟹ 3−5= −3
⟹ −3 +2 =0
⟹ ( − 2) − 1( − 2) = 0
⟹ ( − 1)( − 2) = 0
⟹ = 1,2
IP3: Find the value of .
Solution:
Step1: Given expression is .

Step2: We know that the property =

⟹ =

= ×

=
P3: Find the value of the .
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Answer: C
Solution: Given expression is .

⟹ =

= ×

=
=
IP4: Solve the equation for
[ ( ) ]
=√ .
Solution:
Step1: The Given equation is
[ ( ) ]
= √2
Step2: Taking logarithm with base on both sides
 [ ( ) ]
log = log √2
[log ] +log − = log √2
Step3: Let log = then =2
+ − = log 2
⟹ + − =
⟹ 3 +4 −5 −2 =0
= 1 Satisfies the equation
Therefore, ( − 1)is a factor of the equation
⟹ ( − 1)(3 + 7 + 2) = 0
⟹ ( − 1)( + 2)(3 + 1) = 0
⟹ = 1, −2, .
⟹ log = 1, log = −2, log =

⟹ = 2, = 2 , = 2
⟹ = 2, , .
√

P4: Solve the equation for

[( ) ]
=√ .
A. , √ ,
√
B. ,√ ,
√

C. ,√ ,
√
D. , ,
√ √
Answer: D

Solution:
The Given equation is
[( ) ]
= √2 (1)
Let log = ⟹ =2
Taking logarithm with base on both sides of (1)
[( ) ]
log = log √2
⟹ + − = log 2
⟹ + − =
⟹ + − =
⟹ + − =1
⟹ 4 +4 −5 = 3
⟹ 4 +4 −5 −3= 0
= 1 satisfies the equation
Therefore, ( − 1)is a factor of the equation
( − 1)(4 + 8 + 3) = 0
⟹ ( − 1)(2 + 3)(2 + 1) = 0
⟹ = 1, ,
⟹ log = 1, log = , log =

⟹ = 2, 2 ,2
⟹ = , , 2.
√ √

Exercises

1. Solve the equation for

3. 2 +2 = 64
2. If = , = , = then find the value of .
3. Solve the equation
3 .4 = 36.
4. Find the value of from the equation
= .
5. Solve 25 = 15.
6. If (2.3) = = 1000 then find the value of + .
.

7. If (3.4) = .
= 10000 then find the value of + .
8. If 8 . 64 . 512 =8 then find the value of .
9. Find the value of (3) + (4) + (5) .
10. Prove that ( ) . ( ) . ( ) = 1.
11. Find the value of ( ) (
. ) (
. )

12. Suppose you deposit Rs 500 in an account with an annual interest rate of
12% compounded monthly. How many years will it take for the account to
contain Rs 1000?
13. Solve the equation log + 4 = log 100.
14. If = = and = , Then prove that
log = log .

15. solve the equation for

4 −3 =3 −2
16. Suppose that the population in a small city is 32,000 in the beginning of 1994
and that the city council assumes that the population size t years later can
be estimated by the equation
= 32000 .
Approximately when will the city have a population of 50,000?