Cement & Concrete Composites 46 (2014) 26–31

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Cement & Concrete Composites

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Durability and microstructure of CSA cement-based materials

from MSWI fly ash
Xiaolu Guo a,b,⇑, Huisheng Shi a,b, Wenpei Hu b, Kai Wu b
a
Key Laboratory of Advanced Civil Engineering Materials, Tongji University, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 201804, China
b
Institute of Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The decontamination and disposal of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash has great signif-
Received 28 December 2012 icance in the world. In this work, MSWI fly ash was successfully used as a raw material in sintering and
Received in revised form 17 October 2013 preparing calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) cement in the laboratory. Compressive strength, durability and
Accepted 30 October 2013
microstructure of the prepared CSA cement-based materials were studied. The results show that com-
Available online 8 November 2013
pressive strength of the CSA cement has a developing trend similar to that of the Control Cement I which
develops strength quickly at an early curing age, but after 7 d, strength increases more slowly. The pre-
Keywords:
pared CSA cement-based materials perform well with respect to resistance to drying shrinkage, carbon-
Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI)
fly ash
ation, and water permeation. The CSA cement mortar immersed in sulfate solution has a more compact
Calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) cement microstructure and has the potential to be used in engineering constructions which require high resis-
Compressive strength tance to sulfate corrosion. Parts of the chloride ion from the MSWI fly ash could be sintered within the
Durability cement clinker and subsequently stabilized in hydration products. The leaching values of heavy metals
Microstructure from these systems are all within the current threshold limits.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction as HW18 for containing different types of heavy metals, chlori-

At present, the growth rate of China’s municipal solid waste
has reached more than 10% and it is 1.6% higher than the world
average. China is one of many countries that are facing serious
problems regarding landfills and pollution associated with muni-
cipal solid wastes. The rapid growth of municipal solid waste has
become one of the problems that plague China’s future sustain-
able development. Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI)
technology has been developing quickly by virtue of its excellent
effectiveness in volume reduction, weight reduction, and toxicity
reduction, as well as energy and resource conservation [1]. How-
ever, at the same time, the MSWI technology produces a large
quantity of MSWI fly ash which is equivalent to 2–5% of the ori-
ginal waste. It is predicted that the daily output of MSWI fly ash
will be more than 1500 tons; the annual output is up to 0.45–
0.5 million tons in major Chinese cities in 2012. Just in the city
of Shanghai, the annual output of MSWI fly ash will increase to
70,000 tons over the next five years [2]. Even worse, MSWI fly
ash has been listed in the National Hazardous Waste Inventory
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Tongji University, 4800 Caoan Road, Shanghai 201804, China. Tel.: +86 21
69582144.
E-mail address: guoxiaolu@tongji.edu.cn (X. Guo).
nated organic compounds, sulfur compounds, dioxins, etc. There-
fore, it is very important to dispose of MSWI fly ash using proper
and safe methods.
The decontamination and disposal of MSWI fly ash has great
significance to the promotion and application of MSWI technol-
ogy in China [3]. At present, the disposal of MSWI fly ash mainly
focuses on landfill disposal after pretreatment, but few studies
focus on its utilization. The published reports [4–8] have shown
that MSWI fly ash has cementitious properties and its main
chemical components belong to the system of CaO–SiO2–SO3–
Al2O3. Therefore, it has been studied for its potential in resource
recycling and environmental protection, e.g. in cement pastes
and mortars [9]. In the current study [10–12], most of the raw
materials of calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) cement are natural
minerals, and industrial wastes such as blast furnace slag, and
red mud. There are few research studies focusing on production
and application of CSA cement from MSWI fly ash. Our previous
study [13–16] has successfully prepared and sintered the CSA ce-
ment from MSWI fly ash, partially replacing some of the cement
raw materials. Following up on this basis, the performance mea-
sures of compressive strength, durability, and microstructure of
the CSA cement-based materials were studied in this work.

0958-9465/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.10.015
 X. Guo et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 46 (2014) 26–31 27

2. Materials and experimental program Table 2

Chemical composition (by mass) of the chemical reagents/(wt.%).

2.1. Materials Chemical reagents CaO Al2O3 SO3 LOI Total

The MSWI fly ash used in this work was obtained from the Suz-
hou Wastes Incineration Plant in China, which utilizes a Belgium
Seghers-Keppel furnace (with a capacity of 350 tons per day).
MSWI fly ash produced in this plant was a hybrid waste including
household waste, paper, plastic, and so on. The ash was collected in
the air pollution control system. The main composition of this ash
is shown in Table 1. The main compositions of chemical reagents of
calcium carbonate, aluminum oxide, etc. are given in Table 2. These
chemical reagents were used to adjust the cement modulus (see
Tables 3 and 4).
In order to compare the performances between the prepared
CSA cement and the purchased cements, a series of comparison
tests were designed and conducted. Two types of the purchased ce-
ments were Control Cement I (Marked as Cem I, a rapid hardening
CSA cement (the compressive strength could reach 30 MPa after
curing for 1 d) produced by the Shanghai Shuanghe Special Cement
Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China) and Control Cement II (Marked as Cem II,
a rapid hardening cement of Composite Portland Cement PC32.5R
produced by the Haibao Cement Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China), respec-
tively. The main chemical compositions of the Cem I and Cem II are
shown in Table 5.
2.2. Experimental program
2.2.1. Preparation of the CSA cement from the MSWI fly ash
Based on our previous studies [13–16], the optimum mix ratio
of raw materials and the proper cement modulus of the CSA ce-
ment from the MSWI fly ash were confirmed (Tables 3 and 4).
The raw mixtures were prepared as follows: 30 g of the raw mate-
rials in predetermined proportions were taken and then mixed
thoroughly. After a thorough homogenization, the raw mixtures
were pressed and molded into cylindrical samples of 30 mm in
diameter and 5 mm in height. The cylinders were dried in an oven
at 105 °C for 6 h and then fired in a Nabertherm furnace. An aver-
age heating rate of about 30 °C/min was employed and the furnace
was then kept at a proper firing temperature of 1200 °C for up to
120 min. The CSA cement clinkers so prepared were cooled at
ambient temperature and then ground to a fineness of about
400 m2/kg Blaine surface. The chemical composition and mineral
composition of the CSA clinker powder were tested by X-Ray Fluo-
rescence (XRF) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), respectively. The
chemical composition of the CSA clinker powder is given in Table 6.
XRD showed that the main minerals of this CSA cement are a cal-
cium sulphoaluminate phase (C 4 A3 S i.e. 3CaO  3A12O3  CaSO4)
and a belite phase (C2S i.e. 2CaO  SiO2).
Then, 5% calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum, DG) was ground
and sieved through a 0.08 mm mesh sieve until the residue is no
more than 10%. After that, it was mixed with the prepared CSA ce-
ment clinker powder. Thus, the CSA cement from the MSWI fly ash
was created in the laboratory (Marked as CSA95DG05).
Table 1
Chemical composition (by mass) of the MSWI fly ash/(wt.%).
CaCO3 55.59 0.00 0.00 43.99 99.98
CaSO4 39.61 0.00 56.53 3.85 99.99
Al2O3 0.00 94.39 0.00 5.61 100.00
Table 3
Mix ratios of raw materials for the CSA cement from the MSWI fly ash/(wt.%).
Raw materials of the CSA cement MSWI fly ash CaCO3 CaSO4 Al2O3
Percentage 31.14 29.71 14.23 24.92
2.2.2. Performances of the CSA cement-based materials from the MSWI
fly ash
Three batches of paste samples were made from the prepared
CSA cement, Control Cem I, and Control Cem II, respectively. The
ratio of water to cement (W/C) is 0.3 by mass and the sample size
is 10 mm  10 mm  10 mm. The compressive strength was tested
after curing in water at room temperature at each age. All the val-
ues are the averages of six separate sample tests. Data that devi-
ated from the mean by more than 10% were eliminated, but this
occurred only rarely.
According to the Chinese Standard for Test Methods of Long-Term
Performance and Durability of Ordinary Concrete (GB/T50082-2009),
mortar samples with a size of 40 mm  40 mm  160 mm were
molded to test drying shrinkage and carbonation. The mass ratio
of water/cement/sand is 0.5/1.0/3.0. For resistance to water perme-
ation, a conical frustum of mortar sample which was 70 mm (up)
and 80 mm (down) in diameter, and 30 mm in height was tested
after curing for 28 d. Each value is obtained using six conical
frustum of mortar samples, each tested by the water perme-
ation instrument. The six samples were tested under water pres-
sure of 0.2 MPa for 2 h, then under an increasing water pressure
at a rate of 0.1 MPa/h. The value of the resistance to water perme-
ation was the maximum water pressure under which one-third
of the six samples presented extruded water. According to the
Test Method for Determining the Capability of Resisting Sul-
fate Corrosion of Cement (GB/T 749-2008), cement mortar bars
(40 mm  40 mm  160 mm) were immersed in a 3 wt.% sulfate
solution, while the control samples were immersed in water. Flex-
ural strengths of both were measured and the resistance modulus
of flexural strength was calculated as follows:
K ¼ RSulfate solution =RWater  100% ð1Þ
where K is the resistance modulus of flexural strength, RSulfate solution
the flexural strength of the samples immersed in sulfate solution,
MPa, RWater the flexural strength of the samples immersed in water,
MPa.
Hydration products of the cement paste sample CSA95DG05
were examined using XRD and an Environmental Scanning Elec-
tron Microscopy (ESEM). Soluble chloride ion content from cement
paste CSA95DG05 at different hydration ages were tested using
precipitation titration. Leaching concentration of heavy metal ions
from cement paste CSA95DG05 cured for various setting ages were
conducted according to the Toxic Characteristic Leaching Proce-
dure (TCLP).

Composition CaO SiO2 Cl SO3 Al2O3 K2O Na2O Fe2O3 3. Results and discussion
Percentage 39.1 15.9 11.9 7.24 4.35 3.68 3.43 1.91
Composition MgO P2O5 TiO2 ZnO PbO BaO CuO MnO 3.1. Compressive strength
Percentage 1.64 1.08 0.61 0.54 0.23 0.14 0.13 0.10
Composition SrO NiO ZrO2 – – – – –
The compressive strengths of hardened cement pastes are
Percentage 0.04 0.02 0.01 – – – – –
shown in Fig. 1. Compared with Control Cem I and Cem II, the
28 X. Guo et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 46 (2014) 26–31

Table 4
Cement modulus of the CSA cement from the MSWI fly ash/(wt.%).

Cement modulusa Alkalinity modulus (Cm) Alumina–sulfur ratio (P) Alumina–silica ratio (N)
CSA Cement 1.050 2.500 3.000

Alkalinity modulus (Cm) = CaO/(1.87SiO2 + 0.73Al2O3 + 0.93Fe2O3) = 1.050.

Alumina–sulfur ratio (P) = Al2O3/SO3 = 2.500.
Alumina–silica ratio (N) = Al2O3/SiO2 = 3.000.
a
Cement modulus.

Table 5
Chemical compositions (by mass) of Control Cement I (Cem I) and Control Cement II (Cem II)/(wt.%).

Control cements CaO SiO2 Al2O3 SO3 MgO Fe2O3 K2O Na2O LOI Total
Cem I 42.0 11.6 32.0 8.96 1.27 3.86 – – 0.39 100.1
Cem II 49.5 25.5 9.33 1.88 4.78 2.49 0.54 0.24 2.21 96.47

Table 6
Chemical composition (by mass) of the prepared CSA cement clinker/(wt.%). CSA95DG05
0.05 Cem I
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Cl SO3 MgO Fe2O3 TiO2 Total
Cem II

Drying shrinkage rate /%

43.4 9.08 28.8 1.08 12.8 2.12 1.02 0.24 98.30
0.04

0.03
140

0.02
120
Compressive strength /MPa

0.01

100
0.00

80 0 7 14 21 28
CSA95DG05 Curing ages /d
Cem I
60 Cem II Fig. 2. Drying shrinkage rate at each curing age.

40
of Cem II. However, comparing cement mortar Cem I with
CSA95DG05, Cem I has a better resistance to drying shrinkage. This
20 may be due to the fact that in CSA95DG05 prepared from MSWI,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 the presence of chloride, heavy metals, and other hazardous com-
Curing ages /d ponents in MSWI may have some effect on the shrinkage observed
in this study.
Fig. 1. Compressive strength at each curing age.

3.3. Resistance to carbonation

compressive strength of the CSA cement paste CSA95DG05 from
the MSWI fly ash was significantly higher than that of Cem II, while
being a bit lower than that of Cem I. The compressive strength of
the hardened CSA cement paste had a developing trend similar
to that of Control Cem I which developed strength quickly at an
early age, but more slowly after 7 d.
3.2. Drying shrinkage rate
With the increase of curing age, the drying shrinkage rate of all
three batches of mortar samples increased. At 28 d, the drying
shrinkage rate of Control Cem I and CSA95DG05 tended to be sta-
ble while that of Cem II kept increasing. The drying shrinkage rates
of hardened cement pastes, from smallest to largest was Cem I,
CSA95DG05, and Cem II (Fig. 2). This ranking is because both
CSA95DG05 and Cem I are CSA cements but Cem II is a Composite
Portland Cement. Generally, CSA cements show a reduced drying
shrinkage [17]. Thus, the resistance to drying shrinkage of hard-
ened cement paste CSA95DG05 and Cem I was better than that
It was observed that the initial carbonation depths of mortar
samples CSA95DG05 and Cem I were much lower than that of
Cem II. With the increase of time, the carbonation depths of sam-
ples CSA95DG05 and Cem I increased significantly, while the
growth rate of Cem II was a little bit smaller (Fig. 3). As seen in
other tests, the reason for this may be that both CSA95DG05 and
Cem I are CSA cements, but Cem II is Composite Portland Cement.
The alkalinity of CSA cements is generally lower than that of Com-
posite Portland Cement [18]. For Cem II, the hydration products,
such as Ca(OH)2, and C–S–H gel, generated during the hydration
process, could react with CO2 etc. acid substances, resulting in car-
bonation. However, the main mineral compositions of CSA cements
(i.e. CSA95DG05 and Control Cem I) are a calcium sulphoaluminate
phase (C 4 A3 Si.e. 3CaO  3A12O3  CaSO4) and a belite phase (C2S i.e.
2CaO  SiO2). Thus, the resistance to carbonation of CSA cement
mortars (i.e. CSA95DG05 and Control Cem I) is better than that of
Composite Portland Cement (i.e. Control Cem II).
Among the CSA cement mortars of CSA95DG05 and Cem I, Cem I
had a better carbonation resistance than that of CSA95DG05.
 X. Guo et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 46 (2014) 26–31
CSA95DG05
14 Cem I
Cem II
Carbonation depth / mm
12
10
8 tance to sulfate corrosion.
6
0 7 14
carbonation time / d
Fig. 3. Carbonation depth versus time.
During carbonation, the diffusion rate of CO2 depends on the den-
sity of the cement mortar itself [18]. Compared with CSA95DG05,
Control Cem I has about 20 wt.% cement admixtures of lime pow-
der and slag powder. On one side, during hydration progress, ex-
cept for the gypsum reacting with the calcium sulphoaluminate
phase to form AFt, the surplus gypsum has a role of sulfate activa-
tor for cement admixtures. On the other side, hydration of C2S and
lime powder in this system could generate Ca(OH)2 which has a
role of alkali activator. Under the dual role of these two motives,
A12O3 from slag powder reacts with Ca(OH)2 and CaSO4 rapidly
to form AFt. Meanwhile, surplus Ca(OH)2 reacts with SiO2 of slag
powder to form C–S–H. Thus, the density of the cement mortar is
increased and its resistance to carbonation is improved. Hydration
products (AFt and C–S–H, etc.) of cement admixtures fill in the
interspaces of the cement mortar. The higher compacted micro-
structure of the hardened cement pastes, the better their resistance
to carbonation.
3.4. Resistance to water permeation
Table 7 showed that all cement mortars of CSA95DG05, Cem I,
and Cem II had good water impermeability. Their impermeability
grades were all 14. The permeation height of samples CSA95DG05
and Cem I were a litter bit lower than that of Cem II. The perme-
ation heights of the samples CSA95DG05 and Cem I were
15.4 mm and 16.8 mm, respectively. The permeation height of
the sample Cem II was 18.2 mm. This illustrates that the prepared
CSA95DG05 could also form a compact system that has a similar
water impermeability as Control Cem I and Cem II. Additionally,
Maneesh et al. [11] have found that water impermeability is asso-
ciated with pore volume (porosities), pore size distribution, pore
size, and pore interconnectivity.
3.5. Resistance to sulfate attack (corrosion)
As is well known, CSA cement has been shown to exhibit a high
resistance to sulfates. This also makes it particularly necessary to
Table 7
Water permeation depth of different cement mortars.
Sample Impermeability grade Permeation height (/103 m)
CSA95DG05 14 15.4
Cem I 14 16.8
Cem II 14 18.2
29
study the resistance to sulfate attack (corrosion) of our CSA cement
produced from the MSWI fly ash.
In Fig. 4, all three cement mortars have a good resistance to sul-
fate corrosion, i.e. all the resistance data were above 100% versus
corrosion time. With the growth of the immersion time, the resis-
tance modulus of sample CSA95DG05 and Control Cem I did not
decrease, but increased, while that of Cem II began to decrease. It
indicated that the CSA cement-based materials from the MSWI
fly ash perform well in resistance to sulfate corrosion, which could
be useful in engineering constructions that require a high resis-
In Fig. 5, hydration products and intensity of the characteristic
peak of AFt (peak intensity at d = 9.76 Å, d = 5.63 Å and
d = 3.88 Å) of sample CSA95DG05 immersed in water and in sulfate
solution (with the sample immersed in water for a period of 60 d)
21 28 were compared. The peak intensities of AFt of the sample im-
mersed in sulfate solution were higher than that immersed in
water, indicating that the sulfate solution could improve hydration
of the CSA cement and that the hardened CSA cement from the
MSWI fly ash performs well in resistance to sulfate corrosion.
The hydration products of CSA95DG05 that has been immersed
in sodium sulfate solution for different times are shown in Fig. 6.
With the growth of immersion time, the calcium sulphoaluminate
phase (C 4 A3 S i.e. 4CaO  3A12O3  CaSO4) was hydrated and con-
sumed, while the AFt peak intensity was increased gradually.
The CSA cement immersed in sulfate solution has a more com-
pact microstructure (Fig. 7). The hydration products of the CSA ce-
ment immersed in sodium sulfate solution showed that the main
product was quantities of a gelatinous substance which may be
an alumina gel produced by hydration.
3.6. Soluble chloride
During the hydration of the CSA cement, soluble chloride ion
content from cement paste sample CSA95DG05 was about 0.042–
0.065% (Fig. 8). The content of soluble chloride ion was decreased
sharply versus curing age. From 14 d to 28 d, the curve tends to
be stable. As a result, in the laboratory experiments, it indicated
that some chloride ion was sintered within the cement clinker
and subsequently stabilized in hydration products. With the deep-
ening of the hydration, some of the free chloride ions could also be
fixed in new hydration products.
3.7. Leaching concentration of heavy metals
Leaching concentration of heavy metal ions from the hardened
cement paste sample CSA95DG05 cured for various setting ages by
116
Resistance modulus of
flexural strength /%
CSA95DG05
112 Cem I
Cem II
108
104
30 45 60 75 90
Corrosion time /d
Fig. 4. Resistance modulus of flexural strength versus corrosion time.
30 X. Guo et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 46 (2014) 26–31

2
1

3 2 CSA95PG05-Water-60d
3 3 3 3
2

2 CSA95PG05-Na2SO4-60d

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

1 C2S 2 C4 A3 S 3 AF t
(a) XRD pattern

CSA95PG05-Water-60d
Intensity of characteristic peaks of AFt / cps

2T=9.06 CSA95PG05-Na2SO4-60d

2T=22.9

2T=15.76

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

(b) Intensity of characteristic peak of AFt Fig. 7. ESEM graphs of the CSA95DG05 immersed in water/sulfate solution for 60 d.

Fig. 5. XRD analyses of the CSA95DG05 immersed in water/sulfate solution for 60 d.

2 0.065
1 2
CSA95PG05
0.060
2 2
3 3 3 CSA95PG05-Na2SO4-30d
0.055
Cl /%
-

CSA95PG05-Na2SO4-60d
0.050

CSA95PG05-Na2SO4-90d 0.045

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0.040
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 C2S 2 C4 A3 S 3 AF t Curing ages /d

Fig. 6. XRD patterns of the CSA cement paste immersed in sulfate solution. Fig. 8. Soluble chloride ion content from the sample of CSA95DG05.
 X. Guo et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 46 (2014) 26–31 31

Table 8 (4) This study deals with performance characteristics and dura-
Leaching concentration of heavy metal ions from the sample of CSA95DG05 harden bility of the CSA cement-based materials, but does not pro-
paste/(mg L1).
vide sufficient details on their environmental impact,
Element Threshold limits CSA95DG05 cement paste which would definitively need to be assessed further before
Test Ia Test IIb 1d 3d 28 d 60 d 120 d considering any engineering application, as certainly a lot of
Zn – 100 0.340 0.296 0.046 Nc N
work would still be necessary in order to ensure that neither
Cu – 100 0.056 0.048 0.038 N N the process, nor the produced material present any hazards.
Cr 5 15 0.775 0.120 0.210 0.200 0.190
Ni – 5 0.117 0.070 0.033 N N
Pb 5 5 0.120 0.060 0.029 N N
Acknowledgements
Cd 1 1 0.034 0.010 N N N
Co – – 0.082 0.030 N N N
Mn – – 0.517 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 The authors acknowledge and appreciate support received from
a the Research Fund for the National High-tech R&D Program (863
Threshold limits in Test I: USEPA guideline in TCLP, maximum concentration of
contaminants for the toxicity characteristic. Program) (2006AA06Z363) of China, the National Natural Science
b
Threshold limits in Test II: National Standard in China GB 5085.3-2007, iden- Foundation of China (51172164 and 51208370), and the Funda-
tification standards for hazardous wastes-Identification for extraction toxicity. mental Research Funds for the Central Universities (0500219170).
c
N: not detected (<0.005 mg/L).

References

TCLP are provided in Table 8. With curing age increasing, leaching
concentration of different heavy metal ions first decreased, then
tended to stabilize. It is still worth mentioning that the leaching
values of the elements of interest, obtained from TCLP, are all with-
in the current threshold limits. Thus, the prepared CSA cement
from the MSWI fly ash should present no immediate threat to
the environment. Further research on leaching behavior and the
solidification/stabilization mechanisms of heavy metals in hy-
drated CSA-based materials will be necessary.
4. Conclusions
In this work, municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash
was successfully used as a raw material in sintering and preparing
calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) cement in the laboratory. Com-
pressive strength, drying shrinkage, carbonation rates, water per-
meation, sulfate corrosion and microstructure, and soluble
chloride ion content and leaching concentration of heavy metal
ions from the CSA cement-based materials were studied. The main
conclusions of our present work are as follows:
(1) The compressive strength of the CSA cement-based materi-
als from the MSWI fly ash had a developing trend similar
to that of the purchased CSA cement (i.e. Control Cement
I), which quickly developed strength at an early age, but
more slowly after 7 d.
(2) The CSA cement-based materials from the MSWI fly ash per-
formed well in resistance to drying shrinkage, carbonation,
and water permeation. The CSA cement immersed in sulfate
solution has a more compact microstructure. It has the
potential to be used in engineering constructions which
require high resistance to sulfate corrosion.
(3) Parts of the chloride ion from the MSWI fly ash could be sin-
tered within the cement clinker and subsequently stabilized
in hydration products. The leaching values of heavy metals
are all within the threshold limits.
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